1.
Colony
–
In politics and history, a colony is a territory under the immediate political control of a state, distinct from the home territory of the sovereign. For colonies in antiquity, city-states would often found their own colonies, some colonies were historically countries, while others were territories without definite statehood from their inception. The metropolitan state is the state that rules the colony, in Ancient Greece, the city that founded a colony was known as the metropolis. Mother country is a reference to the state from the point of view of citizens who live in its colony. There is a United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories, unlike a puppet state or satellite state, a colony has no independent international representation, and its top-level administration is under direct control of the metropolitan state. The term informal colony is used by historians to refer to a country under the de facto control of another state. The word colony comes from the Latin word colōnia and this in turn derives from the word colōnus, which means colonist but also implies a farmer. Cologne is an example of a settlement preserving this etymology, other, less obvious settlements that began as Roman colonia include cities from Belgrade to York. A tell-tale sign of a settlement once being a Roman Colony is a city centre with a grid pattern. The terminology is taken from architectural analogy, where a column pillar is beneath the head capital, so colonies are not independently self-controlled, but rather are controlled from a separate entity that serves the capital function. Roman colonies first appeared when the Romans conquered neighbouring Italic peoples and these were small farming settlements that appeared when the Romans had subdued an enemy in war. A colony could take many forms, as a trade outpost or a base in enemy territory. Its original definition as a settlement created by migrating from a central region to an outlying one became the modern definition. Kandahar formed as a Greek colony during the Hellenistic era by Alexander the great in 330 BC, alaska, a colony of Russia from the middle 18th century until sold to the United States in 1867. It became the 49th American state in 1959, angola, a colony of Portugal since the 16th century. Australia was formed as an independent country in 1901 from a federation of six distinct British colonies which were founded between 1788 and 1829, barbados, was a colony of Great Britain important in the Atlantic slave trade. It gained its independence in 1966, brazil, a colony of Portugal since the 16th century. Canada, colonized first by France as New France, then under British rule, congo, Democratic Republic of the, a colony of Belgium from 1908 to 1960
2.
Seal of Goa
–
The Emblem of Goa is the official emblem of the Government of Goa, a state of India. The seal depicts a Vriksha Deep, a type of diva lamp, the lamp represents enlightenment through knowledge and is surrounded by a stylized design of coconut leaves which represent the bountiful and beautiful aspects of Goa. A Sanskrit shloka appears above the lamp and can be translated as may everyone see goodness, the crest is formed by the National Emblem of India, the Lions of Sarnath, and the arms are supported by two open hands. Goa was a part of Portugal from 1510 until 1961 when it was annexed by India, emblems of Indian States National Emblem of India Article by the Government of Goa, Department of Information
3.
Hino da Carta
–
The Hymno da Carta, was officially proclaimed the national anthem of the Kingdom of Portugal in May 1834. Pedro IV, King Pedro IV of Portugal, Carta stands for the Constitutional Charter which Peter IV granted to Portugal. The anthem remained officially in place until 19 July 1911, one year after Portugal became a republic, a Portuguesa Hymno Patriótico Music Sheet Download the anthem Hino da Carta
4.
A Portuguesa
–
A Portuguesa, Portuguese pronunciation, is the national anthem of Portugal. It was composed by Alfredo Keil and written by Henrique Lopes de Mendonça during the resurgent nationalist movement ignited by the 1890 British Ultimatum to Portugal concerning its African colonies, despite a popular uproar, the Portuguese government was forced to accept the U. K. s demands. This contributed to the unpopularity of King Carlos I and the monarchy, inspired by the outrage felt by the Portuguese people, the lyricist, Henrique Lopes de Mendonça, accepted Keils request to create words to suit his melody. Such expressions are epitomized by La Marseillaise, the Portuguese fado, the march was quickly disseminated, several thousands of copies of the sheet music were freely distributed, together with fliers and posters. The songs popularity spread across national borders, and verses were translated into other languages. On several stages in Lisbon, A Portuguesa drew special attention, on 29 March 1890, the march was performed at the Great Patriotic Concert, held in the Teatro Nacional de São Carlos, as well as in every other theatre in the capital. Beyond its use in cultural displays, A Portuguesa was also exploited for commercial gain, several food products, like canned sardines and cookies, were named for this song. However, the song was perceived as a weapon. This political co-option of the original meaning forced both authors to disavow this vision and stress its purely non-partisan sentiments. On 31 January 1891, a rebellion broke out in the northern city of Porto. The rebellion was crushed, and the song was banned, however, it was never forgotten, and, on 5 October 1910, a new and stronger rebellion developed as A Portuguesa played in the background. A year later, the first session of the Constituent Assembly officially proclaimed it as the national anthem, in 1956, the emergence of melodic variants of the anthem forced the government to create a committee whose aim was to define an official version. On 16 July 1957, the current version was proposed, the anthems official version consists of the first stanza and the chorus from Mendonças poem only. The last line of the chorus, Contra os canhões marchar, marchar. is an alteration of the original, Contra os bretões marchar, marchar, a call to arms against the British Ultimatum. Within Portugal, the anthem is played at both civilian and military ceremonies where the country, flag, or head of state is honored. It is also played at receptions for foreign heads of state, following that of the visitor, Portugal, A Portuguesa – Audio, information, lyrics A Portuguesa — A fan site dedicated to the anthem. Comissão Nacional para as Comemorações do Centenário da República Fim de emissao has transmitted RTP1 Vocal
5.
Kochi
–
Kochi, also known as Cochin, is a major port city on the south-west coast of India by the Arabian Sea and the Laccadive Sea and is part of the district of Ernakulam in the state of Kerala. It is often called Ernakulam, which refers to the specific district, occupied by the Portuguese in 1503, Kochi was the first of the European colonies in colonial India. It remained the seat of Portuguese India until 1530, when Goa was chosen instead. The city was occupied by the Dutch and the British. Kochi ranks first in the number of international and domestic tourist arrivals in Kerala. Kochi has been ranked the sixth best tourist destination in India according to a survey conducted by the Nielsen Company on behalf of the Outlook Traveller magazine. Kochi is the home to Southern Naval Command of the Indian Navy, Kochi is also home for Keralas National Law School, The National University of Advanced Legal Studies. Ancient travellers and tradesmen referred to Kochi in their writings, variously alluding to it as Cocym, Cochym, Cochin, the Cochin Jewish community called Cochin as Kogin, which is seen in the seal of the synagogue which is still owned by the community. The origin of the name Kochi is thought to be from the Malayalam word kochu azhi, yet another theory is that Kochi is derived from the word Kaci, meaning harbour. The name Cochin implies co-chin, meaning like-China and it looked like China when the Chinese came to the region during the 14th century and installed Chinese nets. Accounts by Italian explorers Nicolo Conti, and Fra Paoline in the 17th century say that it was called Kochchi, after the arrival of the Portuguese, and later the British, the name Cochin stuck as the official appellation. The city reverted to a closer Anglicization of its original Malayalam name, Kochi and this change in name was challenged by the city municipal corporation but court has later dismissed the plea. Kochi was the centre of Indian spice trade for centuries, and was known to the Yavanas as well as Jews, Syrians, Arabs. Kochi rose to significance as a trading centre after the port Muziris around Kodungallur was destroyed by flooding of Periyar in 1341. The earliest documented references to Kochi occur in books written by Chinese voyager Ma Huan during his visit to Kochi in the 15th century as part of Admiral Zheng Hes treasure fleet. There are also references to Kochi in accounts written by Italian traveller Niccolò Da Conti, according to many historians, the precursor state to Kingdom of Kochi came into existence in early 12th century, after the fall of the Chera Kingdom. The reign of the Kingdom was hereditary, and the family ruled over the region was known as the Perumpadappu Swaroopam in the local vernacular. Portuguese navigator, Pedro Álvares Cabral founded the first European settlement in India at Kochi in 1500, from 1503 to 1663, Fort Kochi was ruled by Portugal
6.
Old Goa
–
Old Goa or Velha Goa is a historical city in North Goa district in the Indian state of Goa. The city was constructed by the Bijapur Sultanate in the 15th century, under the Portuguese, it is said to have once been a city of nearly 200,000 where from, before the plague, the Portuguese traded across continents. The remains of the city are a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Old Goa is approximately 10 kilometres east of the state capital Panaji. Postal letters were returned to the sender, as the name Old Goa was unknown then, according to then and long-time editor of the monthly, the village panchayat uses the name Sé-Old Goa, while the post office, Archaeological Survey of India use the name Velha Goa. The place is known as Saibachem Goem, Pornnem Goem, Adlem Goem or just Goem in Konkani, the name Velha Goa should not be confused with another former Goan capital Goa Velha, lying some villages away in the south. The names Vhoddlem Goem and Thorlem Goem refers to Goa Velha, the city was founded in the 15th century as a port on the banks of the Mandovi river by the rulers of the Bijapur Sultanate. The city was built to replace Govapuri, which lay a few kilometres to the south and had used as a port by the Kadamba. Old Goa was the capital after Bijapur of the rule of Adil Shahi Dynasty. It was surrounded by a moat and contained the shahs palace, the city was captured by the Portuguese, and was under Portuguese rule from 1510 as the administrative seat of Portuguese India. The viceroys residence was transferred in 1759 to the capital, Panjim. Few remnants, if any, of the period remain at Old Goa. During the mid-16th century, the Portuguese colony of Goa, especially Velha Goa, was the center of Christianisation in the East, the city was evangelized by all religious orders, since all of them had their headquarters there. The population was roughly 200,000 by 1543, malaria and cholera epidemics ravaged the city in the 17th century and it was largely abandoned, only having a remaining population of 1,500 in 1775. It was then that the viceroy moved to Panjim and it continued to be the de jure capital of Goa until 1843, when the capital was then shifted to Panjim. Velha Goa was incorporated into the Republic of India after its annexation in 1961 and it still retains its religious significance in modern day Goa notably in its relations with Roman Catholicism. The Archbishop of Goa and Daman holds title as the Patriarch of the East, unlike the patriarchs and the major archbishops of the Eastern Catholic Churches, the Patriarch of the East Indies only enjoys honorary title and is fully subject to the pope. He has a place within the Latin Church similar to the Patriarchs of Venice, history of Old Goa Old Goa
7.
Panaji
–
Panaji /ˈpʌnədʒiː/ or Panjim is the capital of the Indian state of Goa and the headquarters of North Goa district. It lies on the banks of the Mandovi River estuary in the Ilhas de Goa sub-district, with a population of 114,759 in the metropolitan area, Panjim is Goas largest Urban agglomeration, ahead of Margão and Vasco da Gama. Panaji means land that never floods and it has terraced hills, concrete buildings with balconies and red-tiled roofs, churches, and a riverside promenade. There are avenues lined with gulmohar, acacia and other trees, the Baroque Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception Church is located overlooking the main square known as Praça da Igreja. Colourful villas, cobbled streets and interesting buildings help Panaji retain its Portuguese ambiance, Panaji has been selected as one of the hundred Indian cities to be developed as a smart city under PM Narendra Modis flagship Smart Cities Mission. Panaji is the first city in India to be built on a grid system. The citys present official name is Panjim, the Portuguese current name was Pangim, although officially named Nova Goa. The city is also called Panjim. It has been renamed Panjim since the 1960s after the Indian administration – in an effort to wipe our all Portuguese influence from the State, the city is called Ponnjé in Konkani. The justification of the modern word Panaji is derived from the words panjani and khali, which mean a boat, Panjim was annexed by India with the rest of Goa and the former Portuguese territories after the Indian invasion of Portuguese India in 1961. It became a state-capital on Goas elevation to statehood in 1987, between 1961 and 1987, it was the capital of the Union Territory of Goa, Daman and Diu. A new Legislative Assembly complex was inaugurated in March 2000, across the Mandovi River, Panjim is also the administrative headquarters of North Goa district. Panjim is located at 15°29′56″N 73°49′40″E and it has an average elevation of 7 metres. Panjim has various vāde or sub-divisions, including, São Tomé, Fontainhas, Mala, Portais, Altinho, Cortin, Praça da Igreja, Tar, Bāzār, Japão, some areas outlying it are, Cāmpāl, Santa Inez, Chinchollem, Batulem, and Pātto. Besides lying on the banks of the Mandovi River, Panjim is bounded by two creeks, locally called pői in the singular, namely Ourém creek and Santa Inêz creek, during the 2011 census of India, Panjim had a population of 114,405. Males constituted 52% of the population and females 48% and it had an average literacy rate of 90. 9%, male literacy was 94. 6% and female literacy 86. 9%. In Panjim,9. 6% of the population was under 7 years of age, Panjim features a tropical monsoon climate. The climate in Panjim is hot in summer and equable in winter, during summers the temperature reaches up to 32 °C and in winters it is usually between 31 °C and 23 °C
8.
Portuguese language
–
Portuguese is a Romance language and the sole official language of Portugal, Brazil, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Angola, and São Tomé and Príncipe. It also has co-official language status in East Timor, Equatorial Guinea, Portuguese is part of the Ibero-Romance group that evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia, and has kept some Celtic phonology. Portuguese is also termed the language of Camões, after Luís Vaz de Camões, one of the greatest literary figures in the Portuguese language and author of the Portuguese epic poem, the museum is the first of its kind in the world. In 2015 the museum was destroyed in a fire, but there are plans to reconstruct it, when the Romans arrived in the Iberian Peninsula in 216 BCE, they brought the Latin language with them, from which all Romance languages descend. Between 409 CE and 711 CE, as the Roman Empire collapsed in Western Europe, Portuguese evolved from the medieval language, known today by linguists as Galician-Portuguese, Old Portuguese or Old Galician, of the northwestern medieval Kingdom of Galicia. It is in Latin administrative documents of the 9th century that written Galician-Portuguese words and this phase is known as Proto-Portuguese, which lasted from the 9th century until the 12th-century independence of the County of Portugal from the Kingdom of León, by then reigning over Galicia. In the first part of the Galician-Portuguese period, the language was used for documents. For some time, it was the language of preference for poetry in Christian Hispania. Portugal became an independent kingdom in 1139, under King Afonso I of Portugal, in the second period of Old Portuguese, in the 15th and 16th centuries, with the Portuguese discoveries, the language was taken to many regions of Africa, Asia and the Americas. The language continued to be popular in parts of Asia until the 19th century, some Portuguese-speaking Christian communities in India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and Indonesia preserved their language even after they were isolated from Portugal. The end of the Old Portuguese period was marked by the publication of the Cancioneiro Geral by Garcia de Resende, Most literate Portuguese speakers were also literate in Latin, and thus they easily adopted Latin words into their writing—and eventually speech—in Portuguese. Portuguese is the language of the majority of people in Brazil and Portugal, perhaps 75% of the population of Angola speaks Portuguese natively, and 85% are fluent. Just over 40% of the population of Mozambique are native speakers of Portuguese, Portuguese is also spoken natively by 30% of the population in Guinea-Bissau, and a Portuguese-based creole is understood by all. No data is available for Cape Verde, but almost all the population is bilingual, there are also significant Portuguese speaking immigrant communities in many countries including Andorra, Bermuda, Canada, France, Japan, Jersey, Namibia, Paraguay, Macau, Switzerland, Venezuela. In some parts of former Portuguese India, namely Goa and Daman and Diu, in 2014, an estimated 1,500 students were learning Portuguese in Goa. Equatorial Guinea made an application for full membership to the CPLP in June 2010. In 2011, Portuguese became its official language and, in July 2014. Portuguese is a subject in The school curriculum in Uruguay
9.
Konkani language
–
Konkani is an Indo-Aryan language belonging to the Indo-European family of languages and is spoken along the South western coast of India. It is one of the 22 scheduled languages mentioned in the 8th schedule of the Indian Constitution, the first Konkani inscription is dated 1187 A. D. It is a minority language in Karnataka, Maharashtra and Kerala, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Konkani is a member of the southern Indo-Aryan language group. It retains elements of Old Indo-Aryan structures and shows similarities with both western and eastern Indo-Aryan languages and it is quite possible that Old Konkani was just referred to as Prakrit by its speakers. Among the inscriptions at the foot of the statue of Bahubali at Shravanabelagola in Karnataka are two lines reading thus, Sri Chamundaraje Karaviyale and Sri Ganga raje sutthale karaviyale. The first line was inscribed circa 981 AD and the line in 116-17 AD. The language of these lines is Konkani according to Dr. S. B, considering these arguments, these inscriptions at Sravanabelegola may be considered the earliest Konkani inscriptions in Devanagari script. Reference to the name Konkani is not found in prior to 13th century. The first reference of the name Konkani is in Abhanga 263 of the 13th century Marathi saint poet, Konkani has been known by a variety of names, Canarim, Concanim, Gomantaki, Bramana, and Goani. It is called Amchi Bhas by native speakers, and Govi or Goenchi Bhas by others, learned Marathi speakers tend to call it Gomantaki. Konkani was commonly referred to as Lingua Canarim by the Portuguese, the Portuguese later started referring to Konkani as Lingua Concanim. The name Canarim or Lingua Canarim, which is how the 16th century European Jesuit and it is possible that the term is derived from the Persian word for coast, kinara, if so, it would mean the language of the coast. The problem is that this term overlaps with Kanarese or Kannada, All the European authors, however, recognised two forms of the language in Goa, the plebeian, called Canarim, and the more regular, called Lingua Canarim Brámana or simply Brámana de Goa. The latter was the choice of the Europeans, and also of other castes, for writing, sermons. There are different views as to the origin of the word Konkan, the word Konkan comes from the Kukkana tribe, who were the original inhabitants of the land Konkani originated from. According to some Hindu legends, Parashurama shot his arrow into the sea, the new piece of land thus recovered came to be known as Konkan meaning piece of earth or corner of earth, kōṇa + kaṇa. This legend is mentioned in Sahyadrikhanda of the Skanda Purana, Konkan is synonymous with Konkani, but it is today divided into three states, Maharashtra, Goa, and Karnataka. Olivinho Gomes in his essay Medieval Konkani Literature also mentions the Mundari substratum, Goan Indologist Ramakrishna Shenvi Dhume identified many Austroloid Munda words in Konkani, like mund, mundkar, dhumak, goem-bab
10.
Kannada
–
The language has roughly 40 million native speakers who are called Kannadigas, and a total of 50.8 million speakers according to a 2001 census. It is one of the languages of India and the official. The Kannada language is written using the Kannada script, which evolved from the 5th-century Kadamba script, Kannada is attested epigraphically for about one and a half millennia, and literary Old Kannada flourished in the 6th-century Ganga dynasty and during the 9th-century Rashtrakuta Dynasty. Kannada has a literary history of over a thousand years. Based on the recommendations of the Committee of Linguistic Experts, appointed by the ministry of culture, in July 2011, a centre for the study of classical Kannada was established as part of the Central Institute of Indian Languages at Mysore to facilitate research related to the language. Kannada is a Southern Dravidian language, and according to Dravidian scholar Sanford B, steever, its history can be conventionally divided into three periods, Old Kannada from 450–1200 CE, Middle Kannada from 1200–1700, and Modern Kannada from 1700 to the present. Kannada is influenced to an extent by Sanskrit. Influences of other such as Prakrit and Pali can also be found in the Kannada language. Literary Prakrit seems to have prevailed in Karnataka since ancient times, the vernacular Prakrit-speaking people may have come into contact with Kannada speakers, thus influencing their language, even before Kannada was used for administrative or liturgical purposes. Kannada phonetics, morphology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax show significant influence from these languages, some examples of naturalised words of Prakrit origin in Kannada are, baṇṇa derived from vaṇṇa, hunnime from puṇṇivā. Examples of naturalized Sanskrit words in Kannada are, varṇa, arasu from rajan, paurṇimā, Kannada has numerous borrowed words such as dina, kopa, surya, mukha, nimiṣa and anna. Pre-old Kannada was the language of Banavasi in the early Common Era, the Ashoka rock edict found at Brahmagiri has been suggested to contain words in identifiable Kannada. According to Jain tradition, Brahmi, the daughter of Rishabhadeva, the first Tirthankara of Jainism, invented 18 alphabets, including Kannada, which points to the antiquity of the language. Supporting this tradition, an inscription of about the 9th century CE, containing specimens of different alphabets and it has been claimed that the Greek dramatists of the 5th–4th century BCE were familiar with the Kannada country and language. This would show a far more intimate contact of the Greeks with Kannada culture than with Indian culture elsewhere, the palm manuscripts contained texts written not only in Greek, Latin and Hebrew, but also in Sanskrit and Kannada. In the 150 CE Prakrit book Gaathaa Saptashati, written by Haala Raja, Kannada words like tIr, tuppa, on the Pallava Prakrit inscription of 250 CE of Hire Hadagalis Shivaskandavarman, the Kannada word kOTe transforms into koTTa. In the 350 CE Chandravalli Prakrit inscription, words of Kannada origin like punaaTa, in one more Prakrit inscription of 250 CE found in Malavalli, Kannada towns like vEgooraM, kundamuchchaMDi find a reference. Pliny the Elder was a naval and army commander in the early Roman Empire and he writes about pirates between Muziris and Nitrias
11.
Gujarati language
–
Gujarati /ɡʊdʒəˈrɑːti/ is an Indo-Aryan language native to the Indian state of Gujarat. It is part of the greater Indo-European language family, Gujarati is descended from Old Gujarati. In India, it is the language in the state of Gujarat, as well as an official language in the union territories of Daman and Diu and Dadra. Gujarati is the language of the Gujjars, who had ruled Rajputana, according to the Central Intelligence Agency,4. 5% of the Indian population speaks Gujarati, which amounts to 54.6 million speakers in India. There are about 65.5 million speakers of Gujarati worldwide, Gujarati was the first language of Mahatma Gandhi and Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Gujarati is a modern IA language evolved from Sanskrit, Central, in Gujarati/Rajasthani, Western Hindi, and Punjabi/Lahanda/Sindhi, on the basis of innovation of auxiliary verbs and postpositions in Gujarati/Rajasthani. Gujarati/Rajasthani into Gujarati and Rajasthani through development of such characteristics as auxiliary ch-, grammatically, a new plural marker of -o developed. In literature, the quarter of the 19th century saw a series of milestones for Gujarati. The printing was introduced in Gujarati in 1812, the first printed book published was the Gujarati translation of Dabestan-e Mazaheb prepared and printed by Parsi priest Fardunjee Marzban in 1815. 1822, first Gujarati newspaper, Mumbai Samachar, the oldest newspaper in India still in circulation, 1840s, personal diary composition, Nityanondh, Durgaram Mehta. 1845, first modern Gujarati poem, Bapani Piparu, Dalpatram 1851, first essay, Mandaḷī Maḷvāthi Thātā Lābh, Narmadashankar Dave 1866, first original novel, Karaṇ Ghelo, Nandshankar Mehta. 1866, first social novel, Sasu Vahu ni Ladai, Mahipatram Rupram Nilkanth 1866, first autobiography, Mārī Hakīkat,1900, first original short story, Shantidas, Ambalal Desai. Of the approximately 46 million speakers of Gujarati in 1997, roughly 45, however, Gujarati community leaders in Pakistan claim that there are 3 million Gujarati speakers in Karachi. There is an amount of Mauritian population and a large amount of Réunion Island people who are from Gujarati descent among which some of them still speak Gujarati. According to the 2011 census, Gujarati is the seventeenth most spoken language in the Greater Toronto Area, most, with British passports, settled in the UK. Gujarati is offered as a GCSE subject for students in the UK, a distribution of the geographical area can be found in Linguistic Survey of India by George A. Grierson. Gujarati is one of the recognized constitutional languages and fourteen regional languages of India. It is officially recognized in the state of Gujarat, India, in A simplified grammar of the Gujarati language by William Tisdall, two major dialects of Gujarati are mentioned, a standard Hindu dialect and a Parsi dialect
12.
Marathi language
–
Marathi is an Indian language spoken predominantly by the Marathi people of Maharashtra. It is the language and co-official language in the Maharashtra and Goa states of Western India, respectively. There were 73 million speakers in 2001, Marathi ranks 19th in the list of most spoken languages in the world, Marathi has the fourth largest number of native speakers in India, after Hindi, Bengali and Telugu in that order. Marathi has some of the oldest literature of all modern Indo-Aryan languages, the major dialects of Marathi are Standard Marathi and the Varhadi dialect. Malvani Konkani has been influenced by Marathi varieties. Marathi has several features that set it aside from most other Indian languages, Marathi distinguishes inclusive and exclusive forms of we and possesses a three-way gender system that features the neuter in addition to the masculine and the feminine. In its phonology it contrasts apico-alveolar with alveopalatal affricates and, in common with Gujarati, Marathi is primarily spoken in Maharashtra and parts of neighbouring states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Goa, union-territories of Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli. The cities of Baroda, Surat, and Ahmedabad, Belgaum, Karwar, Nipani, Indore, Gwalior, Adoni, Hyderabad, Marathi is also spoken by Maharashtrian emigrants worldwide, especially in the United States, United Kingdom, Israel, Mauritius, and Canada. Marathi is the language of Maharashtra and co-official language in the union territories of Daman and Diu and Dadra. In Goa, Konkani is the official language, however. Marathi is included among the languages which stand a part of the Eight Schedule of the Constitution of India, the contemporary grammatical rules described by Maharashtra Sahitya Parishad and endorsed by the Government of Maharashtra are supposed to take precedence in standard written Marathi. Traditions of Marathi Linguistics and the rules give special status to tatsamas. This special status expects the rules for tatsamas to be followed as in Sanskrit and this practice provides Marathi with a large treasure of Sanskrit words to cope with demands of new technical words whenever needed. Jawaharlal Nehru University has announced plans to establish a department for Marathi. Marathi Day is celebrated on 27 February, the birthday of poet Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar, Indian languages, including Marathi, that belong to the Indo-Aryan language family are derived from early forms of Prakrit. Marathi is one of languages that further descend from Maharashtri Prakrit. Marathi literature began and grew owing to the rise of the Seuna dynasty of Devgiri, further growth and usage of the language was because of two religious sects – the Mahanubhava and Varkari panthans – who adopted Marathi as the medium for preaching their doctrines of devotion. Marathi had attained a place in court life by the time of the Seuna kings
13.
Malayalam
–
Malayalam /mʌləˈjɑːləm/ is a language spoken in India, predominantly in the state of Kerala. It is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and was designated as a Classical Language in India in 2013 and it was developed to the current form mainly by the influence of the poet Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan in the 16th century. Malayalam has official status in the state of Kerala and in the union territories of Lakshadweep. It belongs to the Dravidian family of languages and is spoken by some 38 million people, according to one theory, Malayalam originated from Middle Tamil in the 7th century. However, the current understanding proposes the separation of Malayalam from Proto-Dravidian in the pre-historic era, Malayalam incorporated many elements from Sanskrit through the ages. Before Malayalam came into being, Old Tamil was used in literature and courts of a region called Tamilakam, including present day Kerala state, silappatikaramit was written by Chera prince Ilango Adigal from Chunkaparra, and is considered a classic in Sangam literature. Modern Malayalam still preserves many words from the ancient Tamil vocabulary of Sangam literature, the earliest script used to write Malayalam was the Vatteluttu alphabet, and later the Kolezhuttu, which derived from it. As Malayalam began to borrow words as well as the rules of grammar from Sanskrit. This developed into the modern Malayalam script, many medieval liturgical texts were written in an admixture of Sanskrit and early Malayalam, called Manipravalam. The oldest literary work in Malayalam, distinct from the Tamil tradition, is dated from between the 9th and 11th centuries, the first travelogue in any Indian language is the Malayalam Varthamanappusthakam, written by Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar in 1785. Due to its lineage deriving from both Tamil and Sanskrit, the Malayalam script has the largest number of letters among the Indian language orthographies, the Malayalam script includes letters capable of representing almost all the sounds of all Indo-Aryan and Dravidian languages. Malayalam serves as a language on the islands including the Mahl-dominated Minicoy Island. The word Malayalam originated from the Sanskrit resp, Malayalam words malai or mala, meaning hill, and elam, meaning region. Malayalam thus translates as hill region and used to refer to the land of the Chera dynasty, the language Malayalam is alternatively called Alealum, Malayalani, Malayali, Malean, Maliyad, and Mallealle. The word Malayalam originally meant only for the name of the region, Malayanma or Malayayma represented the language. With the emergence of modern Malayalam language, the name of the language started to be known by the name of the region, hence now, the word Malayanma is considered by some to represent the olden Malayalam language. The language got the name Malayalam during the mid 19th century, the origin of Malayalam, an independent offshoot of the proto-Dravidian language, has been and continues to be an engaging pursuit among comparative historical linguists. Together with Tamil, Toda, Kannada and Tulu, Malayalam belongs to the group of Dravidian languages
14.
Manuel I of Portugal
–
Manuel I, the Fortunate, King of Portugal and the Algarves, was the son of Infante Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu, by his wife, the Infanta Beatrice of Portugal. His name is associated with a period of Portuguese civilization that was distinguished by significant achievements both in political affairs and the arts. Manuels mother was the granddaughter of King John I of Portugal, whereas his father was the surviving son of King Edward of Portugal. In 1495, Manuel succeeded his first cousin, King John II of Portugal, Manuel grew up amidst conspiracies of the Portuguese upper nobility against King John II. He was aware of people being killed and exiled. His older brother Diogo, Duke of Viseu, was stabbed to death in 1484 by the king himself, as a result of this stroke of luck, he was nicknamed the Fortunate. Manuel would prove a worthy successor to his cousin John II for his support of Portuguese exploration of the Atlantic Ocean, during his reign, the following achievements were realized,1498 — The discovery of a maritime route to India by Vasco da Gama. 1500 — The discovery of Brazil by Pedro Álvares Cabral,1505 — The appointment of Francisco de Almeida as the first viceroy of India. 1503–1515 — The establishment of monopolies on maritime routes to the Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf by Afonso de Albuquerque. All these events made Portugal wealthy from trade as it formally established a vast overseas empire. Manuel used the wealth to build a number of royal buildings, commercial treaties and diplomatic alliances were forged with China and the Persian Empire. Pope Leo X received an embassy from Portugal during his reign designed to draw attention to Portugals newly acquired riches to all of Europe. In Manuels reign, royal absolutism was the method of government, the Portuguese Cortes met only three times during his reign, always in Lisbon, the kings seat. He reformed the courts of justice and the municipal charters with the crown, modernizing taxes, during his reign, the laws in force in the kingdom of Portugal were recodified with the publication of the Manueline Ordinations. Manuel also endeavoured to promote another crusade against the Turks and his relationship with the Portuguese Jews started out well. At the outset of his reign, he released all the Jews who had been made captive during the reign of John II, unfortunately for the Jews, he decided that he wanted to marry Infanta Isabella of Aragon, then heiress of the future united crown of Spain. Ferdinand and Isabella had expelled the Jews in 1492 and would never marry their daughter to the king of a country that still tolerated their presence, in the marriage contract, Manuel I agreed to persecute the Jews of Portugal. In December 1496, it was decreed that all Jews either convert to Christianity or leave the country without their children, however, those expelled could only leave the country in ships specified by the king
15.
President of Portugal
–
The President of the Portuguese Republic is the executive head of state of Portugal. The powers, functions and duties of prior presidential offices, and their relation with the Prime Minister, the current President of Portugal is Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa, who took office on 9 March 2016. The Portuguese Third Republic is a semi-presidential system, unlike several other European presidents, the Portuguese President is quite powerful. The president holds the nations most senior office, and outranks all other politicians, the Presidents greatest power is his/her ability to choose the Prime Minister. Prior to the Carnation Revolution, the powers of the presidency varied widely, some presidents were virtual dictators, while others were little more than figureheads. The president can dissolve the Assembly of the Republic, which implies the need to call for new elections and after the implementation of these. The President appoints the Prime Minister, given the election results and he can, however, dismiss the Government when this is necessary to ensure the smooth functioning of democratic institutions. Even the government bodies of the regions may be dissolved by the President. The President declares a state of siege and emergency upon consultation with the Government, at the proposal of the Government and with the authorization of the Parliament, the President can declare war in the event of actual or imminent aggression and can also propose peace. The President promulgates or vetoes the promulgation of laws, decree-laws, regulatory decrees, in the area of his powers in international relations, the President of the Republic ratifies international treaties. The President decides on referendums put forth to him by Parliament, the president appoints ambassadors and special envoys, following proposal by the Government, and accredits the foreign diplomatic representatives. The President of the Republic, after consultation with the Government, pardons, the official residence of the Portuguese President is the Belém Palace. However, the round has only been needed once, during the 1986 presidential election. To date, all of the presidents since the Carnation Revolution have served for two consecutive terms, and presidents consistently rank as the most popular political figure in the country. The President of Portugal often makes official state visits to foreign countries. There are three living former Portuguese Presidents, List of Presidents of Portugal Politics of Portugal Official website
16.
Afonso, Duke of Porto
–
Infante D. Afonso, Duke of Porto was a Portuguese Infante of the House of Braganza, the son of King Dom Luis I of Portugal and his wife, Dona Maria Pia of Savoy. Dom Afonso had a military career, in fact, he was a general of some considerable competence in the Portuguese Army, where, previously, he had been the inspector-general of artillery. His exemplary military background allowed him to be chosen to command military forces at Goa, at the end of the nineteenth century and his performance in India motivated his nomination to be Constable of Portugal. He urged his nephew, the Prince Royal, Luís Filipe, Dom Afonso was a ladys man, known for his kindness, simplicity, and bon-vivant lifestyle. For instance, he liked to act as a fireman with the Ajuda Fire Corps near the Palace of Ajuda and he lived at the Palace of Ajuda with the Queen Mother, Maria Pia of Savoy, after King Luiss death. Dom Afonso was also a lover of automobile races, and he was responsible for the first motor races in Portugal and he lived with her at Turin, and, after her death, he moved to Rome, and, finally, to Naples. As of 1917, the Portuguese pretender, Manuel II, was living in England with his wife of four years, the Princess Augusta Victoria of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, in Portugal, morganatic marriage was not recognized. Any legitimate child of Afonso and Nevada could become the heir to the Portuguese throne. Nearly as disturbing was the prospect that both Manuel and Afonso would fail to produce an heir, Dom Afonso was the fourth husband of Nevada Stoody Hayes. They were unable to marry religiously in Italy, where the king of Italy, Victor Emmanuel III, like the Pope, chose not to recognize the validity of a previous trial marriage in Rome. She convinced Afonso to marry her again at a Madrid hotel, a religious marriage ceremony was performed in Madrid on 23 November 1917. The Prince had previously tried to get the approval for his marriage, but he found that his nephew. After his marriage, his pension was cut by Manuel II and he finally died alone, in Naples, on 21 February 1920. Only one Portuguese servant remained with him until the end, in his will, Dom Afonso left his entire estate to Nevada Stoody Hayes. After he and Manuel II had both died, his widow demanded that the Portuguese government recognize her rights to a part of the House of Braganzas patrimony. Her husband had named her his legal heir in his last will. As the marriage, and the will, was disputed in Lisbon. Eventually, however, she proved a substantial portion of her claim, insofar as titles are concerned, Afonso was, first and foremost, Infante of Portugal
17.
Imperialism
–
Imperialism is an action that involves a country extending its power by the acquisition of territories. It may also include the exploitation of these territories, an action that is linked to colonialism, colonialism is generally regarded as an expression of imperialism. However, both are examples of imperialism, the word imperialism originated from the Latin word imperium, which means supreme power. It first became common in Great Britain, during the 1870s and was used with a negative connotation, the term was and is mainly applied to Western political and economic dominance, especially in Asia and Africa, in the 19th and 20th centuries. Its precise meaning continues to be debated by scholars, some writers, such as Edward Said, use the term more broadly to describe any system of domination and subordination organised with an imperial center and a periphery. This definition encompasses both nominal empires and neocolonialism, the word empire comes from the Latin word imperium, for which the closest modern English equivalent would perhaps be sovereignty, or simply rule. The greatest distinction of an empire is through the amount of land that a nation has conquered and expanded, Political power grew from conquering land, however cultural and economic aspects flourished through sea and trade routes. A distinction about empires is that although political empires were built mostly by expansion overland, economic, some of the main aspects of trade that went overseas consisted of animals and plant products. European empires in Asia and Africa have come to be seen as the forms of imperialism. European expansion caused the world to be divided by how developed, the two main regions are the core and the periphery. The core consists of areas of income and profit, the periphery is on the opposing side of the spectrum consisting of areas of low income. These critical theories of Geo-politics have led to increased discussion of the meaning and this idea from Lenin stresses how important new political world order has become in our modern era. Geopolitics now focuses on states becoming major players in the market, some states today are viewed as empires due to their political. The term imperialism is often conflated with colonialism, however scholars have argued that each have their own distinct definition. Imperialism and colonialism have been used in order to describe ones superiority, domination, colonialism in modern usage also tends to imply a degree of geographic separation between the colony and the imperial power. Thus it can be said that imperialism includes some form of colonialism, colonialism is seen to be the architect deciding how to start dominating areas and then imperialism can be seen as creating the idea behind conquest cooperating with colonialism. Colonialism is when the imperial nation begins a conquest over an area, colonialisms core meaning is the exploitation of the valuable assets and supplies of the nation that was conquered and the conquering nation then gaining the benefits from the spoils of the war. The meaning of imperialism is to create an empire, by conquering the states lands
18.
Adil Shahi dynasty
–
Bijapur had been a province of the Bahmani Sultanate, before its political decline in the last quarter of the 15th century and eventual break-up in 1518. The Bijapur Sultanate was absorbed into the Mughal Empire on 12 September 1686, the founder of the dynasty, Yusuf Adil Shah, was appointed Bahmani governor of the province, before creating a de facto independent Bijapur state. Yusuf and his son, Ismail, generally used the title Adil Khan, Khan, meaning Chief in Mongolian and adopted in Persian, conferred a lower status than Shah, indicating royal rank. Only with the rule of Yusufs grandson, Ibrahim Adil Shah I, the Bijapur Sultanates borders changed considerably throughout its history. Its northern boundary remained relatively stable, straddling contemporary Southern Maharashtra, the Sultanate expanded southward, first with the conquest of the Raichur Doab following the defeat of the Vijayanagar Empire at the Battle of Talikota in 1565. Later campaigns, notably during the reign of Mohammed Adil Shah, extended Bijapurs formal borders, Bijapur was bounded on the West by the Portuguese state of Goa and on the East by the Sultanate of Golconda, ruled by the Qutb Shahi dynasty. The former Bahmani provincial capital of Bijapur remained the capital of the Sultanate throughout its existence, Bijapur was caught up in the instability and conflict resulting from the collapse of the Bahmani Empire. Bijapur eventually conquered the neighbouring Sultanate of Bidar in 1619, the Portuguese Empire exerted pressure on the major Adil Shahi port of Goa, until it was conquered during the reign of Ibrahim II. The Sultanate was thereafter relatively stable, although it was damaged by the revolt of Shivaji, Shivaji founded an independent Maratha Kingdom which went on to become the Maratha Empire, one of largest empires in India, just before the British conquered India. The greatest threat to Bijapurs security was, from the late 16th century, although it may be the case that the Mughals destroyed the Adilshahi it was Shivajis revolt which weakened the Adilshahi control. Various agreements and treaties imposed Mughal suzerainty on the Adil Shahs, by stages, the demands of their Mughal overlords sapped the Adil Shahs of their wealth until the Mughal conquest of Bijapur in 1686. The founder of the dynasty, Yusuf Adil Shah, may have been a Georgian slave who was purchased by Mahmud Gawan from Iran, yet, Salma Ahmed Farooqui, states, Yusuf was a son of the Ottoman Sultan Murad II. According to the historian Mir Rafi-uddin Ibrahim-i Shirazi, or Rafi, Yusufs full name was Sultan Yusuf Adil Shah Savah or Sawahi, the son of Mahmud Beg of Sawa in Iran. Rafis history of the Adil Shahi dynasty was written at the request of Ibrahim Adil Shah II, Rafi-uddin later became the governor of Bijapur for about 15 years. Yusufs bravery and personality raised him rapidly in Sultans favour, resulting in his appointment as the Governor of Bijapur and he built the Citadel or Arkilla and the Faroukh Mahal. Yusuf was a man of culture and he invited poets and artisans from Persia, Turkey and Rome to his court. Hes well known as a ruler who took advantage of the decline of the Bahmani power to himself as an independent sultan at Bijapur in 1498. He married Punji, the sister of a Maratha warrior, when Yusuf died in 1510, his son Ismail was still a boy
19.
Annexation of Goa
–
Depending on the view, this action is referred as the Liberation of Goa or the Invasion of Goa. The armed action was code named Operation Vijay by the Indian Armed Forces. The operation involved air, sea and land strikes for over 36 hours, the engagement lasted two days and twenty-two Indians and thirty Portuguese were killed in the fighting. The brief conflict drew a mixture of praise and condemnation. In India, the action was seen as a liberation of historically Indian territory, while Portugal viewed it as an aggression against national soil, Goa, Daman and Diu covered an area of around 1,540 square miles and held a population of 637,591. The Goan diaspora was estimated at 175,000, religious distribution was 61% Hindu,36. 7% Christian,2. 2% Muslim. Economy was primarily based on agriculture, although the 1940s and 1950s saw a boom in iron ore. Cunha released a booklet called Four hundred years of Foreign Rule, the Goa Congress was also made affiliate to the Indian National Congress and Cunha was selected its first President. Cunha and other leaders were also with him, ram Manohar Lohia advocated the use of non-violent Gandhian techniques to oppose the government. There were intermittent mass demonstrations from June to November, in addition to non-violent protests, armed groups such as the Azad Gomantak Dal and the United Front of Goans conducted violent attacks aimed at weakening Portuguese rule in Goa. The Indian government supported the establishment of armed groups like the Azad Gomantak Dal, giving them full financial, logistic, the armed groups acted from bases situated in Indian territory and under cover of Indian police forces. Commenting on the resistance, Portuguese army officer, Capt. I know what Im talking about, because I also fought in Angola, in 1961 alone, until December, around 80 policemen died. The major part of the terrorists of Azad Gomantak Dal were not Goans, many had fought in the British Army, under General Montgomery, against the Germans. On 27 February 1950, the Government of India asked the Portuguese government to open negotiations about the future of Portuguese colonies in India. When the Portuguese Government refused to respond to subsequent aide-mémoires in this regard, by 1954, the Republic of India instituted visa restrictions on travel from Goa to India which paralysed transport between Goa and other exclaves like Daman, Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli. Meanwhile, the Indian Union of Dockers had, in 1954, between 22 July and 2 August 1954, armed activists attacked and forced the surrender of Portuguese forces stationed in Dadra and Nagar Haveli. The news of the massacre built public opinion in India against the presence of the Portuguese in Goa, on 1 September 1955, India shut its consul office in Goa
20.
Portuguese Indian rupia
–
The rupia was the currency of Portuguese India until 1958. Before 1871, the rupia was subdivided into 750 bazarucos,600 réis,20 pardaus or 10 tangas, after 1871,960 réis or 16 tangas equalled 1 rupia. The rupia was equal in value to the Indian rupee and this meant the tanga was equal in value to the Indian anna. In 1958, the currency was replaced by the escudo at the rate of 1 rupia =6 escudos, Goa, Damão and Diu issued their own coinages until the middle of the 19th century. Damão issued copper 3,15,30 and 60 réis coins until 1854 when the mint closed, Diu issued lead and tin 5 and 10 bazarucos together with tin 20 bazarucos, copper 30 and 60 réis and silver 150 and 300 réis and 1 rupia. The Diu mint closed in 1859, Goa issued the most diverse coinage of the three mints. The Goa mint was closed by the British in 1869, following the closure of the last local mint, coins were imported from Portugal beginning in 1871. This new coinage coincided with the reform of the subdivisions of the rupia, copper coins were introduced in denominations of 3,5,10 and 15 réis, 1⁄2 and 1 tanga. In 1881, copper 1⁄8 tanga and silver 1⁄8, 1⁄4, bronze replaced copper in 1901, whilst cupro-nickel 2 and 4 tangas were introduced in 1934, followed by 1⁄2 and 1 rupia in 1947 and 1952, respectively. The first paper money issued specifically for Portuguese India was issued by the Junta da Fazenda Pública in 1882 in denominations of 10 and 20 rupias. These were followed in 1883 by notes issued by the General Government for 5,10,20,50,100 and 500 rupias. In 1906, the Banco Nacional Ultramarino took over the issuance of paper money, in 1917, notes were added for 4 and 8 tangas,1 and 2 1⁄2 rupias. These were the issue of tanga denominated notes, whilst the 2 1⁄2 rupia notes were issued until 1924. 100 and 500 rupias notes were reintroduced in 1924
21.
Bahmani Sultanate
–
The Bahmani Sultanate was a Muslim state of the Deccan in South India and one of the major medieval Indian kingdoms. Bahmanid Sultanate was the first independent Muslim kingdom in South India, the empire was established by Turkic general Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah after revolting against the Delhi Sultanate of Muhammad bin Tughlaq. Nazir Uddin Ismail Shah who had revolted against the Delhi Sultanate stepped down on day in favour of Bahman Shah. His revolt was successful, and he established an independent state on the Deccan within the Delhi Sultanates southern provinces, the Bahmani capital was Ahsanabad between 1347 and 1425 when it was moved to Muhammadabad. The Bahmani contested the control of the Deccan with the Vijayanagara Empire to the south, the sultanate reached the peak of its power during the vizierate of Mahmud Gawan. The south Indian Emperor Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagara Empire defeated the last remnant of Bahmani Sultanate power after which the Bahmani Sultanate collapsed. After 1518 the sultanate broke up into five states, Nizamshahi of Ahmednagar, Qutb Shahi of Golconda, Baridshahi of Bidar, Imadshahi of Berar and they are collectively known as the Deccan Sultanates. Later rulers of the dynasty believed that they descended from Bahman, the Bahamani Sultans were patrons of the Persian language, culture and literature, and some members of the dynasty became well-versed in that language and composed its literature in that language. The craftspersons of Bidar were so famed for their work on copper and silver that it came to be known as Bidri
22.
Gujarat Sultanate
–
The Gujarat Sultanate was a kingdom established in the early 15th century in Gujarat. Zafar Khans father Sadharan, was a Tanka Rajput convert to Islam, Zafar Khan defeated Farhat-ul-Mulk near Anhilwada Patan and made the city his capital. He declared himself independent in 1407, the next sultan, his grandson Ahmad Shah I founded the new capital Ahmedabad in 1411 on the banks of Sabarmati River, which he styled as Shahr-i-Muazzam. The prosperity of the sultanate reached its zenith during the rule of Mahmud Shah I Begada, in 1509, the Portuguese wrested Diu from Gujarat sultanate following the Battle of Diu. Mughal emperor Humayun attacked Gujarat in 1535, the end of the sultanate came in 1573, when Akbar annexed Gujarat in his empire. The last ruler Muzaffar Shah III was taken prisoner to Agra, in 1583, he escaped from the prison and with the help of the nobles succeeded to regain the throne for a short period before being defeated by Akbars general Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana. During the rule of Muhammad bin Tughluq, his cousin Firuz Shah Tughlaq was once on an expedition in area what is now Kheda district of Gujarat. He lost his way and lost and he was welcome to partake in hospitality by village headmen, two brothers of Tanka Rajput family, Sadhu and Sadharan. After drinking, he revealed his identity as a cousin and successor of the king, the brothers offered his beautiful sister in marriage and he accepted. They accompanied Firuz Shah Tughluq to Delhi along with his sister, Sadhu assumed new name, Samsher Khan while Sadharan assumed Wajih-ul-Mulk. They were disciple of saint Hazrat-Makhdum-Sayyid-i-Jahaniyan-Jahangshi aka Saiyyd Jalaluddin Bukhari, Delhi Sultan Firuz Shah Tughluq appointed Malik Mufarrah, also known as Farhat-ul-Mulk and Rasti Khan governor of Gujarat in 1377. In 1387, Sikandar Khan was sent to him. In 1391, Sultan Nasir-ud-Din Muhammad bin Tughluq appointed Zafar Khan, in 1392, he defeated Farhat-ul-Mulk in the battle of Kamboi, near Anhilwada Patan and occupied the city of Anhilwada Patan. In 1403, Zafar Khans son Tatar Khan urged his father to march on Delhi, as a result, in 1408, Tatar imprisoned him in Ashawal and declared himself sultan under the title of Muhammad Shah. He marched towards Delhi, but on the way he was poisoned by his uncle, after the death of Muhammad Shah, Muzaffar was released from the prison and he took over the control over administration. In 1407, he declared himself as Sultan Muzaffar Shah, took the insignia of royalty, after his death in 1411, he was succeeded by his grandson, the son of Tatar Khan, Ahmad Shah. Soon after his accession, Ahmad Shah was faced with a rebellion of his uncles, the rebellion was led by his eldest uncle Firuz Khan, who declared himself king. Ultimately Firuz and his brothers surrendered to him, during this rebellion Sultan Hoshang Shah of Malwa invaded Gujarat
23.
Goa, Daman and Diu
–
Goa, Daman, and Diu was a union territory of India from 19 December 1961 to 30 May 1987. The union territory comprised the state of Goa and the two small coastal enclaves of Daman and Diu on the coast of Gujarat. The territory, along with Dadra and Nagar Haveli, comprised Portuguese India, the territory was incorporated into India after the Annexation of Portuguese India in 1961. Administratively the territory was divided into three districts, Goa, Daman, and Diu, with the capital at Panjim, in 1987 Goa was granted statehood, and Daman and Diu was made a separate union territory
24.
Dadra and Nagar Haveli
–
Dadra and Nagar Haveli is a union territory in Western India. It is composed of two separate entities, Nagar Haveli, wedged between Maharashtra and Gujarat, and,1 km to the northwest, the smaller enclave of Dadra. The area of Dadra and Nagar Haveli is spread over 491 square kilometres, though landlocked between Gujarat to the north and Maharashtra to the south, it is close to the Western coast of India, and the Arabian Sea can be reached via Vapi in Gujarat. The Union Territory comprises two geographical units. The larger part - Nagar Haveli - spans a roughly c-shaped area upriver from the city of Daman on the coast, at the centre of which, the smaller enclave of Dadra is a short distance to the northwest. Dadra and Nagar Haveli is in the middle of the watershed of the Daman Ganga River. The towns of Dadra and Silvassa lie on the bank of the river. The Western Ghats range rises to the east, and the foothills of the range occupy the portion of the district. Dadra and Nagar Haveli ranks 4th in area among the Union Territories and it is surrounded by Valsad District of Gujarat on the West, North, and East, and by Thane District of Maharashtra on the South and South-East. Maghval is a small village belonging to Gujarat that is located within Nagar Haveli. The nearest railway station is Vapi in Gujarat on the Mumbai-Delhi route, bombay is approximately 180 km from Silvassa. Surat city is about 140 km away, the stretch of the main southern area is hilly terrain especially towards the northeast and east where it is surrounded by ranges of Sahyadri mountains. The central alluvial region of the land is almost plain and the soil is fertile, the river Damanganga rises in the Ghat 64 km from the western coast and discharges itself in the Arabian Sea at the port of Daman after crossing Dadra and Nagar Haveli. Its three tributaries viz. Varna, Pipri and Sakartond join Daman Ganga within the territory, about 43% of the land is under forest cover. However, the reserved forest cohis territory constitutes about 40% of the geographical area. The protected forests constitute 2. 45% of the land area. According to satellite data taken in 2008, DNH has roughly about 114 square kilometres of dense forest and 94 square kilometres open forest. As per Forest Survey of India, DNH has two major forest types, tropical moist deciduous forest and tropical dry deciduous forest, the major produce is khairwood/khair and general timber
25.
Maratha Empire
–
The Maratha Empire or the Maratha Confederacy was an Indian power that existed from 1674 to 1818 and ruled over much of the Indian sub-continent. The Marathas are credited to an extent for ending the Mughal rule in India. The Marathas are Hindu warrior group from the western Deccan Plateau that rose to prominence by establishing a Hindavi Swarajya, known for their mobility, the Marathas were able to consolidate their territory during the Mughal–Maratha Wars and later controlled a large part of India. Chhattrapati Shahu, grandson of Shivaji, was released by Mughals after the death of Emperor Aurangzeb, following a brief struggle with his aunt Tarabai, Shahu became ruler and appointed Balaji Vishwanath and later, his descendants, as the peshwas or prime ministers of the empire. Balaji and his descendants played a key role in expansion of Maratha rule, the empire at its peak stretched from Tamil Nadu in the south to Peshawar in the north, and Bengal and Andaman Islands in the east. In 1761, the Maratha Army lost the Third Battle of Panipat to Ahmad Shah Abdali of the Afghan Durrani Empire which halted their imperial expansion into Afghanistan, ten years after Panipat, the young Peshwa Madhavrao Is Maratha Resurrection reinstated Maratha authority over North India. In a bid to manage the large empire, Madhavrao I gave semi-autonomy to the strongest of the knights. They became known as the Gaekwads of Baroda, the Holkars of Indore and Malwa, the Scindias of Gwalior and Ujjain, the Bhonsales of the Nagpur and the Puars of Dhar and Dewas. In 1775, the East India Company intervened in a Peshwa family succession struggle in Pune, the Marathas remained the preeminent power in India until their defeat in the Second and Third Anglo-Maratha Wars which left the East India Company in control of most of India. A large portion of the Maratha empire was coastline, which had secured by the potent Maratha Navy under commanders such as Kanhoji Angre. He was very successful at keeping foreign naval ships, particularly of the Portuguese and British, securing the coastal areas and building land-based fortifications were crucial aspects of the Marathas defensive strategy and regional military history. The Maratha Empire is also referred to as the Maratha Confederacy, the historian Barbara Ramusack says that the former is a designation preferred by Indian nationalists, while the latter was that used by British historians. Maratha power was fragmented among several discrete fragments, although at present, the word Maratha refers to a particular caste of warriors and peasants, in the past the word has been used to describe Marathi people, including Marathas themselves. Shivaji was a Maratha aristocrat of the Bhosle clan who is considered to be the founder of the Maratha empire. Shivaji led a resistance to free the Maratha people from the Sultanate of Bijapur and he created an independent Maratha kingdom with Raigad as its capital and successfully fought against the Mughals to defend his kingdom. He was crowned as Chhatrapati of the new Maratha kingdom in 1674, the state Shivaji founded was a Maratha kingdom comprising about 4. 1% of the subcontinent, but spread over large tracts. At the time of his death is was dotted with about 300 forts, about 40,000 cavalry,50,000 foot soldiers and naval establishments all over the west coast. Over time, the kingdom would increase in size and heterogeneity, Shivaji had two sons, Sambhaji and Rajaram
26.
India
–
India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
27.
Goa
–
Goa /ˈɡoʊ. ə/ is a state in India within the coastal region known as the Konkan in western India. It is bounded by Maharashtra to the north and Karnataka to the east and it is Indias smallest state by area and the fourth smallest by population. Goa is Indias richest state, with a GDP per capita two and a half times that of the country, Panaji is the states capital, while Vasco da Gama is its largest city. The historic city of Margao still exhibits the influence of the Portuguese. Goa is a former Portuguese province, the Portuguese overseas territory of Portuguese India existed for about 450 years until it was annexed by India in 1961. Goa is visited by large numbers of international and domestic tourists each year for its beaches, places of worship and it has rich flora and fauna, owing to its location on the Western Ghats range, a biodiversity hotspot. In ancient literature, Goa was known by names, such as Gomanchala, Gopakapattana, Gopakapattam, Gopakapuri, Govapuri, Govem. In the 3rd century BC, Goa was known as Aparantha and is mentioned by the Greek geographer Ptolemy, in the 13th century, the Greeks referred to Goa as Nelkinda. Other historical names for Goa are Sindapur, Sandabur, and Mahassapatam, Goas history goes back 20, 000–30,000 years. The rock art engravings exhibit the earliest traces of life in India. Upper Paleolithic or Mesolithic rock art engravings have been found on the bank of the river Kushavati at Usgalimal. Petroglyphs, cones, stone-axe, and choppers dating to 10,000 years ago have been found in places in Goa, such as Kazur, Mauxim. Evidence of Palaeolithic life is seen at Dabolim, Adkon, Shigao, Fatorpa, Arli, Maulinguinim, Diwar, Sanguem, Pilerne, difficulty in carbon dating the laterite rock compounds poses a problem for determining the exact time period. Early Goan society underwent radical change when Indo-Aryan and Dravidian migrants amalgamated with the aboriginal locals, in the 3rd century BC, Goa was part of the Maurya Empire, ruled by the Buddhist emperor, Ashoka of Magadha. Buddhist monks laid the foundation of Buddhism in Goa, between the 2nd century BC and the 6th century AD, Goa was ruled by the Bhojas of Goa. The rule later passed to the Chalukyas of Badami, who controlled it between 578 and 753, and later the Rashtrakutas of Malkhed from 753 to 963, from 765 to 1015, the Southern Silharas of Konkan ruled Goa as the feudatories of the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas. Over the next few centuries, Goa was successively ruled by the Kadambas as the feudatories of the Chalukyas of Kalyani, in 1312, Goa came under the governance of the Delhi Sultanate. The kingdoms grip on the region was weak, and by 1370 it was forced to surrender it to Harihara I of the Vijayanagara empire, the Vijayanagara monarchs held on to the territory until 1469, when it was appropriated by the Bahmani sultans of Gulbarga
28.
Daman and Diu
–
Daman and Diu /dəˈmɑːn/ & /ˈdiːuː/ is a coastal union territory in India, which was part of the Portuguese colony of Goa until 1961. For over 450 years, the enclaves of Daman and Diu on the Arabian Sea coast were part of Portuguese India, along with Goa and Dadra. Goa, Daman and Diu were incorporated into the Republic of India on December 19,1961, Portugal did not recognise the Indian annexation of these territories until 1974. The territory of Goa, Daman and Diu was administered as a union territory until 1987. Each enclave constitutes one of the territorys two districts. Daman and Diu are approximately 650 kilometres away from each other by road, according to the 2011 census, the lowest female to male ratio in India was recorded in Daman and Diu. The Daman district, with a female to male ratio of.533, is among the lowest of all the districts in India, Gujarati is the mother tongue of most the territory’s population, as they belong to the Gujarati-speaking Damaniya sub-caste. Along with Gujarati, Konkani, Hindi and English are all official languages, Hindi and English are official languages because they are official languages of India’s central government. Konkani is a language since Daman and Diu were once part of a combined union territory along with Goa. Marathi, spoken in the state of Maharashtra, is also widely understood. The use of Portuguese, which was the official language during the colonial period, is in decline. It is also used as a language by some of the territory’s Catholics. Standard Portuguese exists in a post-creole continuum while Daman and Diu Portuguese is spoken by about 10, the Catholics are pastorally served by the Metropolitan Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Goa and Daman, which has its see in Goa and is the primatial see of all India. Previously, this post was held by Shri B. S. Bhalla and he was assisted by a number of other officers in carrying out his duty. Currently, this post is held by Praful khoda patel, Diu District, an area of 40 km². The main settlement is the town of Diu, Daman District, an area of 28 sq mi or 72 km². The main settlement is the city of Daman, the states domestic product for Daman and Diu in 2005 was estimated at 156 million US dollars at current prices. There is also Daman College which has most of the educational facilities, Daman and Diu are connected by roads, and are 12 km from Vapi,125 km from Surat, and 150 km from Mumbai
29.
Sri Lanka
–
Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an island country in South Asia near south-east India. Sri Lanka has maritime borders with India to the northwest and the Maldives to the southwest, Sri Lankas documented history spans 3,000 years, with evidence of pre-historic human settlements dating back to at least 125,000 years. Its geographic location and deep harbours made it of strategic importance from the time of the ancient Silk Road through to World War II. Sri Lanka was known from the beginning of British colonial rule until 1972 as Ceylon, Sri Lankas recent history has been marred by a thirty-year civil war which decisively ended when the Sri Lankan military defeated the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam in 2009. A diverse and multicultural country, Sri Lanka is home to many religions, ethnic groups, in addition to the majority Sinhalese, it is home to large groups of Sri Lankan and Indian Tamils, Moors, Burghers, Malays, Kaffirs and the aboriginal Vedda. Sri Lanka has a rich Buddhist heritage, and the first known Buddhist writings of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka is a republic and a unitary state governed by a semi-presidential system. The legislative capital, Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte, is a suburb of the capital and largest city. Along with the Maldives, Sri Lanka is one of the two countries in South Asia that are rated among high human development on the Human Development Index. In antiquity, Sri Lanka was known to travellers by a variety of names, according to the Mahavamsa, the legendary Prince Vijaya named the land Tambapanni, because his followers hands were reddened by the red soil of the area. In Hindu mythology, such as the Mahabharata, the island was referred to as Lankā, in Tamil, the island is referred to as Eelam. Ancient Greek geographers called it Taprobanā or Taprobanē from the word Tambapanni, as a British crown colony, the island was known as Ceylon, it achieved independence as the Dominion of Ceylon in 1948. The country is known in Sinhalese as Śrī Laṃkā and in Tamil as Ilaṅkai, in 1972, its formal name was changed to Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka. Later in 1978 it was changed to the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, as the name Ceylon still appears in the names of a number of organisations, the Sri Lankan government announced in 2011 a plan to rename all those over which it has authority. The pre-history of Sri Lanka goes back 125,000 years, the era spans the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and early Iron Ages. Among the Paleolithic human settlements discovered in Sri Lanka, Pahiyangala and it is said that Kubera was overthrown by his demon stepbrother Ravana, the powerful emperor who built a mythical flying machine named Dandu Monara. The modern city of Wariyapola is described as Ravanas airport, early inhabitants of Sri Lanka were probably ancestors of the Vedda people, an indigenous people numbering approximately 2,500 living in modern-day Sri Lanka. According to the Mahāvamsa, a written in Pāḷi, the original inhabitants of Sri Lanka are the Yakshas and Nagas. Ancient cemeteries that were used before 600BC and other signs of advanced civilization has also discovered in Sri Lanka
30.
South Asian Stone Age
–
The South Asian Stone Age covers the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic periods in South Asia. Evidence for the most ancient anatomically modern Homo sapiens in South Asia has been found in the sites of Batadombalena and Belilena in Sri Lanka. In Mehrgarh, in what is today western Pakistan, the Neolithic began c.7000 BCE and lasted until 3300 BCE and the first beginnings of the Bronze Age. In South India, the Mesolithic lasted until 3000 BCE, the Iron Age began roughly simultaneously in North and South India, around 1200 to 1000 BCE. Homo erectus lived on the Pothohar Plateau, in upper Punjab, soanian sites are found in the Sivalik region across what are now India, Pakistan and Nepal. Biface handaxes and cleaver traditions may have originated in the middle Pleistocene, the beginning of the use of Acheulian and chopping tools of the lower Paleolithic may also be dated to approximately the middle Pleistocene. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA dates the immigration of Homo sapiens to South Asia to 75,000 to 50,000 years ago, an analysis of Y chromosome haplogroups found one man in a village west of Madurai to be a direct descendant of these migrators. These populations spread further to Southeast Asia, reaching Australia by 40,000 years ago, cave sites in Sri Lanka have yielded the earliest non-mitochondrial record of modern Homo sapiens in South Asia. They were dated to 34,000 years ago, for finds from the Belan in southern Uttar Pradesh, radiocarbon data have indicated an age of 18-17kya. At the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka humans lived throughout the Upper Paleolithic, chert, jasper and quartzite were often used by humans during this period. The aceramic Neolithic lasts c.7000 -5500 BCE, the ceramic Neolithic lasts up to 3300 BCE, blending into the Early Harappan period. One of the earliest Neolithic sites in India is Lahuradewa in the Middle Ganges region and Jhusi near the confluence of Ganges and Yamuna rivers, in South India the Neolithic began by 3000 BCE and lasted until around 1400 BCE. South Indian Neolithic is characterized by Ashmounds since 2500 BCE in the Andhra-Karnataka region that later into Tamil Nadu. Comparative excavations carried out in Adichanallur in the Thirunelveli District and in Northern India have provided evidence of a migration of the Megalithic culture. Archaeologists have made plans to return to Adhichanallur as a source of new knowledge in the future
31.
Soanian
–
The Soanian is an archaeological culture of the Lower Paleolithic in Pakistan. Contemporary to the Acheulean, it is named after the Soan Valley in Pakistan, Soanian sites are found along the Sivalik region in present-day India, Nepal and Pakistan. The term Soan Culture was first used by Hellmut De Terra in 1936, further archaeological research was conducted by Stephen Lycett in order to determine the morphometric assessment of the Soanian techno-complex. The result of this experiment concluded that the Soanian techno-complex contains a Mode 3 Levallois technique core component, on Adiyala and Khasala, about 16 km from Rawalpindi terrace on the bend of the river, hundreds of edged pebble tools were discovered. At Chauntra in Himachal Pradesh, hand axes and cleavers were found, tools up to two million years old have been recovered. In the Soan River Gorge, many fossil bearing rocks are exposed on the surface,14 million year old fossils of gazelle, rhinoceros, crocodile, giraffe and rodents have been found there. Some of these fossils are on display at the Pakistan Museum of Natural History in Islamabad, madrasian Culture Synoptic table of the principal old world prehistoric cultures V. A. Ranov, D. Dorj, Lu Zün-E. History of civilizations of Central Asia, early man, as depicted by leading authorities at the International symposium, the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, March 1937. Ayer Publishing, Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, the Middle Pleistocene Pebble Tool Site of Durkadi in Central India. The Emergence of the Handaxe Tradition in Asia, with Special Reference to India, in V. N. Misra, Peter S. Bellwood. Recent advances in Indo-Pacific prehistory, proceedings of the symposium held at Poona. A Decade of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Archaeology in India, 1951-1960
32.
Mehrgarh
–
Mehrgarh, sometimes anglicized as Mehergarh or Mehrgar, is a Neolithic site located near the Bolan Pass on the Kacchi Plain of Balochistan, Pakistan, to the west of the Indus River valley. The earliest settlement at Mehrgarh, in the northeast corner of the 495-acre site, was a farming village which was inhabited from circa 6500 BCE. It is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming and herding in South Asia, archaeological material has been found in six mounds, and about 32,000 artifacts have been collected. Mehrgarh is now seen as a precursor to the Indus Valley Civilization, displaying the whole sequence from earliest settlement, jean-Francois Jarrige argues for an independent origin of Mehrgarh. But given the originality of Mehrgarh, Jarrige concludes that Mehrgarh has a local background. Gallego Romero notes that Indians who are lactose-tolerant show a genetic pattern regarding this tolerance which is characteristic of the common European mutation. According to Romero, this suggests that the most common lactose tolerance mutation made a migration out of the Middle East less than 10,000 years ago. They further note that he earliest evidence of cattle herding in south Asia comes from the Indus River Valley site of Mehrgarh and is dated to 7,000 YBP, Archaeologists divide the occupation at the site into eight periods. The Mehrgarh Period I was Neolithic and aceramic, without the use of pottery, the earliest farming in the area was developed by semi-nomadic people using plants such as wheat and barley and animals such as sheep, goats and cattle. The settlement was established with simple mud buildings and most of them had four internal subdivisions, ornaments of sea shell, limestone, turquoise, lapis lazuli and sandstone have been found, along with simple figurines of women and animals. Sea shells from far sea shore and lapis lazuli found as far away as present-day Badakshan, Afghanistan shows good contact with those areas, a single ground stone axe was discovered in a burial, and several more were obtained from the surface. These ground stone axes are the earliest to come from a context in the South Asia. Periods I, II and III are contemporaneous with another site called Kili Gul Mohammed, in April 2006, it was announced in the scientific journal Nature that the oldest evidence for the drilling of human teeth in vivo was found in Mehrgarh. According to the authors, their discoveries point to a tradition of proto-dentistry in the farming cultures of that region. Here we describe eleven drilled molar crowns from nine adults discovered in a Neolithic graveyard in Pakistan that dates from 7,500 to 9,000 years ago and these findings provide evidence for a long tradition of a type of proto-dentistry in an early farming culture. The Mehrgarh Period II and Merhgarh Period III were ceramic Neolithic, using pottery, Period II is at site MR4 and Period III is at MR2. Much evidence of manufacturing activity has been found and more advanced techniques were used, glazed faience beads were produced and terracotta figurines became more detailed. Figurines of females were decorated with paint and had diverse hairstyles, two flexed burials were found in Period II with a red ochre cover on the body
33.
Edakkal Caves
–
Edakkal Caves are two natural caves at a remote location at Edakkal,25 km from Kalpetta in the Wayanad district of Kerala in Indias Western Ghats. They lie 1,200 m above sea level on Ambukutty Mala, inside the caves are pictorial writings believed to date to at least 6,000 BCE, from the Neolithic man, indicating the presence of a prehistoric civilization or settlement in this region. The Stone Age carvings of Edakkal are rare and are the known examples from south India. These are not technically caves, but rather a cleft, rift or rock shelter approximately 96 ft by 22 ft, on one side of the cleft is a rock weighing several tons that covers the cleft to form the roof of the cave. The carvings are of human and animal figures, tools used by humans and of symbols yet to be deciphered, the petroglyphs inside the cave are of at least three types. The oldest may date back to over 8,000 years, evidences suggest that the Edakkal caves were inhabited several times at different points in history. The caves were discovered by Fred Fawcett, an official of the erstwhile Malabar state in 1890 who immediately recognised their anthropological and historical importance. He wrote an article about them, attracting the attention of scholars, the caves contain drawings that range over periods from the Neolithic as early as 5,000 BC to 1,000 BCE. The youngest group of paintings have been in the news for a connection to the Indus Valley Civilization. Historian Raghava Varier of the Kerala State Archaeology Department identified a depiction as “a man with jar cup” that is the most distinct motif of the Indus valley civilization, the finding, made in September 2009, indicates that the Harappan civilization was active in the region. The “a man with jar cup” symbol from Edakkal seems to be similar to the Indus motif than those already known from Tamil Nadu. Mr. Varier said “The discovery of the symbols are akin to that of the Harappan civilization having predominantly Dravidian culture and testimony to the fact that cultural diffusion could take place. It is wrong to presume that the Indus culture disappeared into thin air. ”Iravatham Mahadevan, petroglyph Rock art Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka Edakkal Caves Website On a history trail cave-biology. org Cave biology in India
34.
Chalcolithic
–
The Copper Age was originally defined as a transition between the Neolithic and the Bronze Age. The archaeological site of Belovode on the Rudnik mountain in Serbia contains the worlds oldest securely dated evidence of copper smelting from 5000 BCE, the multiple names result from multiple recognitions of the period. Originally, the term Bronze Age meant that either copper or bronze was being used as the hard substance for the manufacture of tools. In 1881, John Evans, recognizing that the use of copper often preceded the use of bronze and he did not include the transitional period in the tripartite system of Early, Middle and Late Bronze Age but placed it at the beginning outside of it. He did not, however, present it as a fourth age, in 1884, Gaetano Chierici, perhaps following the lead of Evans, renamed it in Italian as the Eneo-litica, or Bronze-stone transition. The phrase was never intended to mean that the period was the one in which both bronze and stone were used. The Copper Age features the use of copper, excluding bronze, moreover, litica simply names the Stone Age as the point from which the transition began and is not another -lithic age. Subsequently, British scholars used either Evanss Copper Age or the term Eneolithic, around 1900, many writers began to substitute Chalcolithic for Eneolithic, to avoid the false segmentation. It was then that the misunderstanding began among those who did not know Italian, the -lithic was seen as a new -lithic age, a part of the Stone Age in which copper was used, which may appear paradoxical. Today Copper Age, Eneolithic and Chalcolithic are used synonymously to mean Evanss original definition of Copper Age, there was an independent invention of copper and bronze smelting first by Andean civilizations in South America extended later by sea commerce to the Mesoamerican civilization in West Mexico. The literature of European archaeology, in general, avoids the use of Chalcolithic, the Copper Age in the Middle East and the Caucasus began in the late 5th millennium BCE and lasted for about a millennium before it gave rise to the Early Bronze Age. The transition from the European Copper Age to Bronze Age Europe occurs about the same time, an archaeological site in Serbia contains the oldest securely dated evidence of coppermaking from 7,500 years ago. In Serbia, an axe was found at Prokuplje, which indicates that humans were using metals in Europe by 7,500 years ago. Knowledge of the use of copper was far more widespread than the metal itself, the European Battle Axe culture used stone axes modeled on copper axes, even with imitation mold marks carved in the stone. Ötzi the Iceman, who was found in the Ötztal Alps in 1991, examples of Chalcolithic cultures in Europe include Vila Nova de São Pedro and Los Millares on the Iberian Peninsula. Pottery of the Beaker people has found at both sites, dating to several centuries after copper-working began there. The Beaker culture appears to have copper and bronze technologies in Europe. The term Chalcolithic is not generally used by British prehistorians, who disagree whether it applies in the British context, in Bhirrana, the earliest Indus civilization site, copper bangles and arrowheads were found
35.
Indus Valley Civilisation
–
The Indus Valley Civilisation was a Bronze Age civilisation mainly in the northwestern regions of South Asia, extending from what today is northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India. Along with ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia it was one of three early civilisations of the Old World, and of the three, the most widespread, at its peak, the Indus Civilisation may have had a population of over five million. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley developed new techniques in handicraft, the Indus cities are noted for their urban planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, and clusters of large non-residential buildings. The discovery of Harappa, and soon afterwards, Mohenjo-Daro, was the culmination of work beginning in 1861 with the founding of the Archaeological Survey of India in the British Raj, excavation of Harappan sites has been ongoing since 1920, with important breakthroughs occurring as recently as 1999. This Harappan civilisation is called the Mature Harappan culture to distinguish it from the cultures immediately preceding and following it. The early Harappan cultures were preceded by local Neolithic agricultural villages, as of 1999, over 1,056 cities and settlements had been found, of which 96 have been excavated, mainly in the general region of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra Rivers and their tributaries. Among the settlements were the urban centres of Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, Ganeriwala in Cholistan. The Harappan language is not directly attested and its affiliation is uncertain since the Indus script is still undeciphered, a relationship with the Dravidian or Elamo-Dravidian language family is favoured by a section of scholars. Recently, Indus sites have been discovered in Pakistans northwestern Frontier Province as well, other IVC colonies can be found in Afghanistan while smaller isolated colonies can be found as far away as Turkmenistan and in Maharashtra. The largest number of colonies are in the Punjab, Sindh, Rajasthan, Haryana, Indus Valley sites have been found most often on rivers, but also on the ancient seacoast, for example, Balakot, and on islands, for example, Dholavira. There is evidence of dry river beds overlapping with the Hakra channel in Pakistan, many Indus Valley sites have been discovered along the Ghaggar-Hakra beds. Among them are, Rupar, Rakhigarhi, Sothi, Kalibangan, Harappan Civilisation remains the correct one, according to the common archaeological usage of naming a civilisation after its first findspot. John wrote, I was much exercised in my mind how we were to get ballast for the line of the railway and they were told of an ancient ruined city near the lines, called Brahminabad. Visiting the city, he found it full of hard well-burnt bricks, and, convinced there was a grand quarry for the ballast I wanted. These bricks now provided ballast along 93 miles of the track running from Karachi to Lahore. In 1872–75, Alexander Cunningham published the first Harappan seal and it was half a century later, in 1912, that more Harappan seals were discovered by J. J. H. MacKay, and Marshall. By 1931, much of Mohenjo-Daro had been excavated, but excavations continued, such as that led by Sir Mortimer Wheeler, director of the Archaeological Survey of India in 1944. Among other archaeologists who worked on IVC sites before the independence in 1947 were Ahmad Hasan Dani, Brij Basi Lal, Nani Gopal Majumdar, and Sir Marc Aurel Stein
36.
Cemetery H culture
–
The Cemetery H culture was a Bronze Age culture in the Punjab, north-western India, from about 1900 BCE until about 1300 BCE. It has been related to both the phase of the Harappan civilisation, and the Indo-Aryan migrations. The Cemetery H culture was located in and around the Punjab region in present-day India and it was named after a cemetery found in area H at Harappa. Remains of the culture have been dated from about 1900 BCE until about 1300 BCE, according to Kennedy and Mallory & Adams, the Cemetery H culture also shows clear biological affinities with the earlier population of Harappa. Some traits of the Cemetery H culture have been associated with the Swat culture, according to Parpola, the Cemetery H culture represents a first wave of Indo-Aryan migration from as early as 1900 BCE, which was followed by a migration to the Punjab c. Together with the Gandhara grave culture and the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture, the distinguishing features of this culture include, The use of cremation of human remains. The bones were stored in painted pottery burial urns and this is completely different from the Indus civilization where bodies were buried in wooden coffins. The urn burials and the skeletons were nearly contemporaneous. Reddish pottery, painted in black with antelopes, peacocks etc. sun or star motifs, expansion of settlements into the east. Apparent breakdown of the trade of the Indus civilization, with materials such as marine shells no longer used. Continued use of mud brick for building, cremation in India is first attested in the Cemetery H culture, a practice previously described in the Vedas. The Rigveda contains a reference to the practice, in RV10.15.14. Indus Valley Tradition Painted Grey Ware Copper Hoard Culture http, //www. harappa. com harappa. com http, //pubweb. cc. u-tokai. ac. jp/indus/english/3_1_01. html journal
37.
Vedic period
–
The Vedic period was the period in Indian history during which the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, were composed. During the early part of the Vedic period, the Indo-Aryans settled into northern India, scholars consider Vedic civilisation to have been a composite of the Indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures. The end of the Vedic period witnessed the rise of large, around the beginning of the Common Era, the Vedic tradition formed one of the main constituents of the so-called Hindu synthesis. The commonly proposed period of earlier Vedic age is dated back to 2nd millennium BCE, after the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation, which ended c.1900 BCE, groups of Indo-Aryan peoples migrated into north-western India and started to inhabit the northern Indus Valley. The knowledge about the Aryans comes mostly from the Rigveda-samhita, which was composed between c and they brought with them their distinctive religious traditions and practices. The Vedic beliefs and practices of the era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion. According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the zone between the Zeravshan River and Iran. It was a mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements. At least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god Indra, Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the Rig Veda. He was associated more than any other deity with Soma, a stimulant drug probably borrowed from the BMAC religion and his rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers. These migrations may have been accompanied with violent clashes with the people who inhabited this region. The Rig Veda contains accounts of conflicts between the Aryas and the Dasas and Dasyus, the Rig Veda describes Dasas and Dasyus as people who do not perform sacrifices or obey the commandments of gods. Their speech is described as mridhra which could variously mean soft, uncouth, hostile, other adjectives which describe their physical appearance are subject to many interpretations. Internecine military conflicts between the tribes of Vedic Aryans are also described in the Rig Veda. Most notable of such conflicts was the Battle of Ten Kings, which took place on the banks of the river Parushni. The battle was fought between the tribe Bharatas, led by their chief Sudas, against a confederation of ten tribes— Puru, Yadu, Turvasha, Anu, Druhyu, Alina, Bhalanas, Paktha, Siva, Vishanin. Bharatas lived around the regions of the river Saraswati, while Purus, their western neighbours. The other tribes dwelt north-west of the Bharatas in the region of Punjab, division of the waters of Ravi could have been a reason for the war
Goa, Daman and Diu, and Dadra and Nagar Haveli
Sri Lanka.svg)
.svg)
