1.
Portishead Town F.C.
–
Portishead Town Football Club, formerly Portishead A. F. C. are a football club based in Portishead, North Somerset, England founded in 1912. They are currently members of the Western League Division One and play at Bristol Road, the club is affiliated to the Somerset County FA. Originally known St. Peters Portishead until a change in 1948. They won the Premier Division title four times in five years between 1993–94 and 1997–98, after their fourth successive runner-up campaign in the 2004–05 season, Portishead successfully applied for promotion to the Western League. In Portisheads first season of Western League football they finished in the top half of the only to better their performance the following season. The club also runs several other teams, the reserve squad plays in the Somerset County League Division one, while the A, B, and Colts teams all play in the Weston super Mare and District League. At the start of the 2016/17 season the club integrated all boys, Portishead Town play their home games at Bristol Road, Portishead, Bristol, BS20 6QG
Portishead Town F.C.
–
Portishead Town
2.
Heraclitus
–
Heraclitus of Ephesus was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher, and a native of the city of Ephesus, then part of the Persian Empire. Little is known about his life and education, but he regarded himself as self-taught. Heraclitus was famous for his insistence on ever-present change as being the essence of the universe, as stated in the famous saying. This position was complemented by his commitment to a unity of opposites in the world, stating that the path up and down are one. Through these doctrines Heraclitus characterized all existing entities by pairs of contrary properties and this, along with his cryptic utterance that all entities come to be in accordance with this Logos has been the subject of numerous interpretations. Diogenes said that Heraclitus flourished in the 69th Olympiad, 504–501 BC, All the rest of the evidence — the people Heraclitus is said to have known, or the people who were familiar with his work — confirms the floruit. His dates of birth and death are based on a span of 60 years. Heraclitus was born to a family in Ephesus, in the Persian Empire, in what is now called present-day Efes. His father was named either Blosôn or Herakôn, how much power the king had is another question. Ephesus had been part of the Persian Empire since 547 and was ruled by a satrap, two extant letters between Heraclitus and Darius I, quoted by Diogenes, are undoubtedly later forgeries. With regard to education, Diogenes says that Heraclitus was wondrous from childhood, Diogenes relates that Sotion said he was a hearer of Xenophanes, which contradicts Heraclitus statement that he had taught himself by questioning himself. Burnet states in any case that, Xenophanes left Ionia before Herakleitos was born. Diogenes relates that as a boy Heraclitus had said he knew nothing and his statement that he heard no one but questioned himself, can be placed alongside his statement that the things that can be seen, heard and learned are what I prize the most. Diogenes relates that Heraclitus had an opinion of human affairs. He believed that Hesiod and Pythagoras lacked understanding though learned and that Homer, laws needed to be defended as though they were city walls. Timon is said to have called him a mob-reviler, Heraclitus hated the Athenians and his fellow Ephesians, wishing the latter wealth in punishment for their wicked ways. Says Diogenes, Finally, he became a hater of his kind, making his diet of grass and herbs. Heraclitus life as a philosopher was interrupted by dropsy, the physicians he consulted were unable to prescribe a cure
Heraclitus
–
Heraclitus by
Johannes Moreelse. The image depicts him as "the weeping philosopher" wringing his hands over the world, and as "the obscure" dressed in dark clothing—both traditional motifs
Heraclitus
–
Ephesus on the coast of
Asia Minor, birthplace of Heraclitus
Heraclitus
–
Heraclitus (with the face and in the style of
Michelangelo) sits apart from the other philosophers in
Raphael 's
School of Athens.
Heraclitus
–
Bust of Heraclitus, 'The Weeping Philosopher' by Johann Christoph Ludwig Lücke ca. 1757.
3.
Syllabub
–
Syllabub is an English sweet frothy drink which was popular from the 16th to 19th centuries, and a dessert based on it, which is still eaten. The drink was made of milk or cream, curdled by the addition of wine, cider, or other acid, the dessert is typically made of whipped cream, wine or sherry, sugar and lemon juice. Syllabub has been known in England at least since John Heywoods Thersytes of about 1537, You, muste walke to him and eate a solybubbe. A later variation of the dessert, known as an everlasting syllabub, adds a stabiliser such as eggwhite, cranachan, a similar dessert from Scotland Syllabub at Foods of England Syllabub recipe with wine
Syllabub
–
Syllabub
4.
Milk
–
Milk is a pale liquid produced by the mammary glands of mammals. It is the source of nutrition for infant mammals before they are able to digest other types of food. Early-lactation milk contains colostrum, which carries the mothers antibodies to its young and it contains many other nutrients including protein and lactose. As an agricultural product, milk is extracted from non-human mammals during or soon after pregnancy, Dairy farms produced about 730 million tonnes of milk in 2011, from 260 million dairy cows. India is the worlds largest producer of milk, and is the leading exporter of skimmed milk powder, the ever increasing rise in domestic demand for dairy products and a large demand-supply gap could lead to India being a net importer of dairy products in the future. The United States, India, China and Brazil are the worlds largest exporters of milk and milk products, China and Russia were the worlds largest importers of milk and milk products until 2016 when both countries became self-sufficient, contributing to a worldwide glut of milk. Throughout the world, there are more than six billion consumers of milk and milk products, over 750 million people live in dairy farming households. The term milk comes from Old English meoluc, milc, from Proto-Germanic *meluks milk, there are two distinct types of milk consumption, a natural source of nutrition for all infant mammals and a food product for humans of all ages that is derived from other animals. In almost all mammals, milk is fed to infants through breastfeeding, the early milk from mammals is called colostrum. Colostrum contains antibodies that provide protection to the baby as well as nutrients. The makeup of the colostrum and the period of secretion varies from species to species, for humans, the World Health Organization recommends exclusive breastfeeding for six months and breastfeeding in addition to other food for at least two years. In some cultures it is common to breastfeed children for three to five years, and the period may be longer, fresh goats milk is sometimes substituted for breast milk. This introduces the risk of the child developing electrolyte imbalances, metabolic acidosis, megaloblastic anemia, in many cultures of the world, especially the West, humans continue to consume milk beyond infancy, using the milk of other animals as a food product. Initially, the ability to digest milk was limited to children as adults did not produce lactase, Milk was therefore converted to curd, cheese and other products to reduce the levels of lactose. Thousands of years ago, a chance mutation spread in human populations in Europe that enabled the production of lactase in adulthood and this allowed milk to be used as a new source of nutrition which could sustain populations when other food sources failed. Milk is processed into a variety of products such as cream, butter, yogurt, kefir, ice cream. Modern industrial processes use milk to produce casein, whey protein, lactose, condensed milk, powdered milk, whole milk, butter and cream have high levels of saturated fat. The sugar lactose is found only in milk, forsythia flowers, the enzyme needed to digest lactose, lactase, reaches its highest levels in the small intestine after birth and then begins a slow decline unless milk is consumed regularly
Milk
–
A glass of
pasteurized cow's milk
Milk
–
A human baby feeding on its mother's milk
Milk
–
A
goat kid feeding on its mother's milk
Milk
–
Holstein cattle, the dominant breed in industrialized dairying today
5.
Ale
–
Ale is a type of beer brewed using a warm fermentation method, resulting in a sweet, full-bodied and fruity taste. Historically, the referred to a drink brewed without hops. As with most beers, ale typically has an agent to balance the sweetness of the malt. Ale was originally bittered with gruit, a mixture of herbs or spices boiled in the wort before fermentation, later, hops replaced gruit as the bittering agent. Small beer would have been consumed daily by almost everyone, including children, in the medieval world, the lower cost for proprietors combined with the lower taxes levied on small beer led to the selling of beer labeled strong beer that had actually been diluted with small beer. In medieval times, ale may have been safer to drink than most water, however, the alcohol, hops, and some ingredients in gruit used to preserve some ales may have contributed to their lower load of pathogens, when compared to water. However, ale was largely due to the hours of boiling required in production. Brewing ale in the Middle Ages was a local industry primarily pursued by women, brewsters, or alewives, would brew in the home for both domestic consumption and small scale commercial sale. Brewsters provided a supplemental income for families, however, only in select few cases. The word ale is related to the Old English alu or ealu and it is believed to stem from Proto-Indo-European root *alu-, through Proto-Germanic *aluth-. Ale is typically fermented at temperatures between 15 and 24 °C. Brown ales tend to be lightly hopped, and fairly mildly flavoured, often with a nutty taste. In the south of England they are brown, around 3-3. 5% alcohol and quite sweet, in the north they are red-brown,4. 5-5%. English brown ales first appeared in the early 1900s, with Manns Brown Ale and Newcastle Brown Ale as the best-known examples. The style became popular with homebrewers in North America in the early 1980s, Petes Wicked Ale is an example, similar to the English original, Pale ale was a term used for beers made from malt dried with coke. Coke had been first used for roasting malt in 1642, by 1784 advertisements were appearing in the Calcutta Gazette for light and excellent pale ale. By 1830 onward the expressions bitter and pale ale were synonymous, breweries would tend to designate beers as pale ale, though customers would commonly refer to the same beers as bitter. It is thought that customers used the term bitter to differentiate these pale ales from other less noticeably hopped beers such as porter and these beers would normally spoil during transportation. To avoid the spoilage, hops were added extra as a natural preservative and this beer was the first of a style of export ale that became known as India Pale Ale or IPA
Ale
–
The former
Anchor Brewhouse in Bermondsey, South London, bought by
John Courage in 1787.
Ale
–
Cask ale handpumps
6.
Curd
–
Curds are a dairy product obtained by coagulating milk in a process called curdling. The coagulation can be caused by adding rennet or any edible acidic substance such as lemon juice or vinegar, the increased acidity causes the milk proteins to tangle into solid masses, or curds. Milk that has left to sour will also naturally produce curds. The remaining liquid, which contains only whey proteins, is the whey, in cows milk,80 percent of the proteins are caseins. Curd products vary by region and include cottage cheese, curd cheese, farmer cheese, pot cheese, queso blanco, the word can also refer to a non-dairy substance of similar appearance or consistency, though in these cases a modifier or the word curdled is generally used. In England, curds produced from the use of rennet are referred to as junket, with true curds and whey only occurring from the natural separation of milk due to its environment. Cheese curds, drained of the whey and served without further processing or aging, are popular in some French-speaking regions of Canada, such as Quebec, parts of Ontario, and Atlantic Canada. In Quebec, eastern Ontario and the provinces such as New Brunswick, cheese curds are popularly served with french fries. In some parts of the Midwestern U. S. especially in Wisconsin, they are breaded and fried, or are eaten straight. In Turkey, curds are called keş and are commonly used as an aphrodisiac and for breakfast served on fried bread and are also eaten with macaroni in the provinces of Bolu. In Mexico, the chongos zamoranos is a dessert prepared with milk curdled with sugar, albanian gjiza is made by boiling whey for about 15 minutes and adding vinegar or lemon. The derivative is drained 3 to 4 times with a napkin or piece of cloth, gjiza can be served immediately or refrigerated for a couple of days. Lactobacillus is a genus of bacteria which can convert sugars into acid by means of fermentation. Milk contains a sugar called lactose, a made by the glycosidic bonding between glucose and galactose. These convert the lactose into lactic acid, which imparts the sour taste to curd, curds are mentioned in the Middle Irish parodic tale Aislinge Meic Con Glinne, the relevant portion of which reads, Stately, pleasantly it sat, A compact house and strong. Then I went in, The door of it was dry meat, The threshold was bare bread, smooth pillars of old cheese, And sappy bacon props Alternate ranged, Fine beams of mellow cream, White rafters - real curds, Kept up the house. Curds also appear in the nursery rhyme Little Miss Muffet, food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations A fresh look at fine cheese, audio tour of Canada’s best cheese curds
Curd
–
Lithuanian
curd cheese
Curd
–
Cheese curds
Curd
–
Old Dutch Cheese press
7.
OED
–
The Oxford English Dictionary is a descriptive dictionary of the English language, published by the Oxford University Press. The second edition came to 21,728 pages in 20 volumes, in 1895, the title The Oxford English Dictionary was first used unofficially on the covers of the series, and in 1928 the full dictionary was republished in ten bound volumes. In 1933, the title The Oxford English Dictionary fully replaced the name in all occurrences in its reprinting as twelve volumes with a one-volume supplement. More supplements came over the years until 1989, when the edition was published. Since 2000, an edition of the dictionary has been underway. The first electronic version of the dictionary was available in 1988. The online version has been available since 2000, and as of April 2014 was receiving two million hits per month. The third edition of the dictionary will probably appear in electronic form, Nigel Portwood, chief executive of Oxford University Press. As a historical dictionary, the Oxford English Dictionary explains words by showing their development rather than merely their present-day usages, therefore, it shows definitions in the order that the sense of the word began being used, including word meanings which are no longer used. The format of the OEDs entries has influenced numerous other historical lexicography projects and this influenced later volumes of this and other lexicographical works. As of 30 November 2005, the Oxford English Dictionary contained approximately 301,100 main entries, the dictionarys latest, complete print edition was printed in 20 volumes, comprising 291,500 entries in 21,730 pages. The longest entry in the OED2 was for the verb set, as entries began to be revised for the OED3 in sequence starting from M, the longest entry became make in 2000, then put in 2007, then run in 2011. Despite its impressive size, the OED is neither the worlds largest nor the earliest exhaustive dictionary of a language, the Dutch dictionary Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal is the worlds largest dictionary, has similar aims to the OED and took twice as long to complete. Another earlier large dictionary is the Grimm brothers dictionary of the German language, begun in 1838, the official dictionary of Spanish is the Diccionario de la lengua española, and its first edition was published in 1780. The Kangxi dictionary of Chinese was published in 1716, trench suggested that a new, truly comprehensive dictionary was needed. On 7 January 1858, the Society formally adopted the idea of a new dictionary. Volunteer readers would be assigned particular books, copying passages illustrating word usage onto quotation slips, later the same year, the Society agreed to the project in principle, with the title A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles. He withdrew and Herbert Coleridge became the first editor, on 12 May 1860, Coleridges dictionary plan was published and research was started
OED
–
Seven of the twenty volumes of the printed version of the second edition of the OED
OED
–
Frederick Furnivall, 1825–1910
OED
–
James Murray in the Scriptorium at Banbury Road
OED
–
The 78 Banbury Road,
Oxford, house, erstwhile residence of
James Murray, Editor of the Oxford English Dictionary
8.
Silver
–
Silver is a metallic element with symbol Ag and atomic number 47. The symbol Ag stems from Latin argentum, derived from the Greek ὰργὀς, a soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it exhibits the highest electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and reflectivity of any metal. The metal is found in the Earths crust in the pure, free form, as an alloy with gold and other metals. Most silver is produced as a byproduct of copper, gold, lead, Silver is more abundant than gold, but it is much less abundant as a native metal. Its purity is measured on a per mille basis, a 94%-pure alloy is described as 0.940 fine. As one of the seven metals of antiquity, silver has had a role in most human cultures. Silver has long valued as a precious metal. Silver metal is used in many premodern monetary systems in bullion coins, Silver is used in numerous applications other than currency, such as solar panels, water filtration, jewelry, ornaments, high-value tableware and utensils, and as an investment medium. Silver is used industrially in electrical contacts and conductors, in specialized mirrors, window coatings, Silver compounds are used in photographic film and X-rays. Dilute silver nitrate solutions and other compounds are used as disinfectants and microbiocides, added to bandages and wound-dressings, catheters. Silver is similar in its physical and chemical properties to its two neighbours in group 11 of the periodic table, copper and gold. This distinctive electron configuration, with an electron in the highest occupied s subshell over a filled d subshell. Silver is a soft, ductile and malleable transition metal. Silver crystallizes in a cubic lattice with bulk coordination number 12. Unlike metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in silver are lacking a covalent character and are relatively weak and this observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of silver. Silver has a brilliant white metallic luster that can take a polish. Protected silver has greater optical reflectivity than aluminium at all wavelengths longer than ~450 nm, at wavelengths shorter than 450 nm, silvers reflectivity is inferior to that of aluminium and drops to zero near 310 nm. The electrical conductivity of silver is the greatest of all metals, greater even than copper, during World War II in the US,13540 tons of silver were used in electromagnets for enriching uranium, mainly because of the wartime shortage of copper
Silver
–
Electrolytically refined silver
Silver
–
Silver 1000
oz t (~31 kg) bullion bar
Silver
–
Cessna 210 equipped with a silver iodide generator for
cloud seeding
Silver
–
A Canadian 50 cent piece from 1951, with King George the 6th on the obverse and Canada's (now former) coat of arms on the reverse. It is made of 80% silver and 20% copper.
9.
Spoon
–
A spoon is a utensil consisting of a small shallow bowl, oval or round, at the end of a handle. A type of cutlery, especially as part of a place setting, Spoons are also used in food preparation to measure, mix, stir and toss ingredients. Present day spoons are made from metal, wood, porcelain or plastic, preserved examples of various forms of spoons used by the ancient Egyptians include those composed of ivory, flint, slate and wood, many of them carved with religious symbols. During the Neolithic Ozieri civilization in Sardinia, ceramic ladles and spoons were already in use, in Shang Dynasty China, spoons were made of bone. Early bronze spoons in China were designed with a sharp point, the spoons of the Greeks and Romans were chiefly made of bronze and silver and the handle usually takes the form of a spike or pointed stem. There are many examples in the British Museum from which the forms of the types can be ascertained. In the early Muslim world, spoons were used for eating soup, medieval spoons for domestic use were commonly made of cow horn or wood, but brass, pewter, and latten spoons appear to have been common in about the 15th century. The full descriptions and entries relating to silver spoons in the inventories of the royal and other point to their special value. The earliest English reference appears to be in a will of 1259, in the wardrobe accounts of Edward I for the year 1300 some gold and silver spoons marked with the fleur-de-lis, the Paris mark, are mentioned. One of the most interesting medieval spoons is the coronation spoon used in the anointing of the English sovereign. The earlier English spoon-handles terminate in an acorn, plain knob or a diamond, at the end of the 16th century, the baluster and seal ending becomes common, the bowl being fig-shaped. During The Restoration, the handle becomes broad and flat, the bowl is broad and oval and the termination is cut into the shape known as the hinds foot. In the first quarter of the 18th century, the bowl becomes narrow and elliptical, with a tongue or rats tail down the back, and the handle is turned up at the end. The modern form, with the tip of the bowl narrower than the base, in Southeast Asia, spoons are the primary utensil used for eating, forks are used to push foods such as rice onto the spoon as well as their western usage for piercing the food. Spoons are also used in cooking and serving. In baking, batter is usually enough to pour or drop from a spoon. Rolled dough dropped from a spoon to a sheet can be made into rock cakes and other cookies. A spoon is similarly useful in processing jelly, sugar and syrup, a test sample of jelly taken from a boiling mass may be allowed to slip from a spoon in a sheet, in a step called sheeting
Spoon
–
Spoon engraved in reindeer antler,
Magdalenian MHNT
Spoon
–
Spoons from
Pompeii displayed at
Naples National Archaeological Museum
Spoon
–
Coconut shell spoons hanging in a traditional spoon hanger at a
Sri Lankan home
Spoon
–
A wooden honey spoon
10.
Spain
–
By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
Spain
–
Lady of Elche
Spain
–
Flag
Spain
–
Altamira Cave paintings, in
Cantabria.
Spain
–
Celtic castro in
A Guarda,
Galicia.
11.
Ambassador
–
The word is also often used more liberally for persons who are known, without national appointment, to represent certain professions, activities and fields of endeavor such as sales. An ambassador is the government representative stationed in a foreign capital. The host country typically allows the control of specific territory called an embassy, whose territory, staff. Under the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, an ambassador has the highest diplomatic rank, countries may choose to maintain diplomatic relations at a lower level by appointing a chargé daffaires in place of an ambassador. The equivalent to an Ambassador exchanged among members of the Commonwealth of Nations are known as High Commissioners, the ambassadors of the Holy See are known as Papal or Apostolic Nuncios. The first known usage of the term is known to be in the 14th century, the foreign government to which an ambassador is assigned must first approve the person. In some cases, the government might reverse its approval by declaring the diplomat a persona non grata. This kind of declaration usually results in recalling the ambassador to his/her home nation, due to the advent of modern travel, todays world is a much smaller place in relative terms. As an officer of the service, an ambassador is expected to protect the citizens of his home country in the host country. Another result of the increase in travel is the growth of trade between nations. For most countries, the economy is now part of the global economy. This means increased opportunities to sell and trade with other nations, one of the cornerstones of foreign diplomatic missions is to work for peace. This task can grow into a fight against international terrorism, the trade, international bribery. Ambassadors help stop these acts, helping people across the globe and these activities are important and sensitive and are usually carried out in coordination with the Defense Ministry of the state and the head of the nation. The rise of the diplomatic system was a product of the Italian Renaissance. The use of ambassadors became a strategy in Italy during the 17th century. The political changes in Italy altered the role of ambassadors in diplomatic affairs, because many of the states in Italy were small in size, they were particularly vulnerable to larger states. The ambassador system was used to disperse information and to protect the vulnerable states
Ambassador
–
Hans Holbein the Younger:
The Ambassadors, 1533. The life-sized panel portrays
Jean de Dinteville and
Georges de Selve, the ambassadors of
Francis I of France.
Ambassador
–
Before taking office an Ambassador's credentials must be accepted, such as when South African Ambassador
Harry Schwarz handed his credentials to U.S. President
George H. W. Bush in 1991.
Ambassador
–
Maria-Pia Kothbauer, Princess of Liechtenstein and Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary to the Czech Republic, presenting her credentials to
Václav Klaus
12.
Mary I of England
–
Mary I was the Queen of England and Ireland from July 1553 until her death. Her executions of Protestants led to the posthumous sobriquet Bloody Mary and she was the only child of Henry VIII by his first wife Catherine of Aragon to survive to adulthood. Her younger half-brother Edward VI succeeded their father in 1547, when Edward became mortally ill in 1553, he attempted to remove Mary from the line of succession because of religious differences. On his death their first cousin once removed, Lady Jane Grey, was proclaimed queen, Mary assembled a force in East Anglia and deposed Jane, who was ultimately beheaded. Mary was—excluding the disputed reigns of Jane and the Empress Matilda—the first queen regnant of England, in 1554, Mary married Philip of Spain, becoming queen consort of Habsburg Spain on his accession in 1556. Mary is remembered for her restoration of Roman Catholicism after her half-brothers short-lived Protestant reign, during her five-year reign, she had over 280 religious dissenters burned at the stake in the Marian persecutions. After her death in 1558, her re-establishment of Roman Catholicism was reversed by her younger half-sister and successor Elizabeth I, daughter of Henry, Mary was born on 18 February 1516 at the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich, London. She was the child of King Henry VIII by his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. Her mother had many miscarriages, before Marys birth, four previous pregnancies had resulted in a stillborn daughter and she was baptised into the Catholic faith at the Church of the Observant Friars in Greenwich three days after her birth. Her godparents included her great-aunt the Countess of Devon, Lord Chancellor Thomas Wolsey, Henry VIIIs cousin once removed, Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury, stood sponsor for Marys confirmation, which was held immediately after the baptism. The following year, Mary became a godmother herself when she was named as one of the sponsors of her cousin Frances Brandon, in 1520, the Countess of Salisbury was appointed Marys governess. Sir John Hussey, later Lord Hussey, was her chamberlain from 1530, in July 1520, when scarcely four and a half years old, she entertained a visiting French delegation with a performance on the virginals. By the age of nine, Mary could read and write Latin and she studied French, Spanish, music, dance, and perhaps Greek. Henry VIII doted on his daughter and boasted to the Venetian ambassador Sebastian Giustiniani, also, as the miniature portrait of her shows, Mary had, like both her parents, a very fair complexion, pale blue eyes and red or reddish-golden hair. She was also ruddy cheeked, a trait she inherited from her father, despite his affection for Mary, Henry was deeply disappointed that his marriage had produced no sons. By the time Mary was nine years old, it was apparent that Henry and Catherine would have no more children, in 1525, Henry sent Mary to the border of Wales to preside, presumably in name only, over the Council of Wales and the Marches. She was given her own based at Ludlow Castle and many of the royal prerogatives normally reserved for the Prince of Wales. Vives and others called her the Princess of Wales, although she was never technically invested with the title and she appears to have spent three years in the Welsh Marches, making regular visits to her fathers court, before returning permanently to the home counties around London in mid-1528
Mary I of England
–
Portrait by
Antonis Mor, 1554
Mary I of England
–
Mary at the time of her engagement to Charles V. She is wearing a square brooch inscribed with "The Emperour".
Mary I of England
–
Mary in 1544
Mary I of England
–
Philip of Spain by
Titian
13.
Philip II of Spain
–
Philip II of Spain, called the Prudent, was King of Spain, King of Portugal, King of Naples and Sicily, and jure uxoris King of England and Ireland. He was also Duke of Milan, from 1555, he was lord of the Seventeen Provinces of the Netherlands. Known in Spain as Felipe el Prudente, his empire included territories on every continent then known to Europeans, during his reign, Spain reached the height of its influence and power. This is sometimes called the Golden Age, the expression, the empire on which the sun never sets, was coined during Philips time to reflect the extent of his dominion. During Philips reign there were separate state bankruptcies in 1557,1560,1569,1575 and this was partly the cause of the declaration of independence which created the Dutch Republic in 1581. The Ambassador went on to say He dresses very tastefully, the culture and courtly life of Spain were an important influence in his early life. He was tutored by Juan Martínez Siliceo – the future Archbishop of Toledo, Philip displayed reasonable aptitude in arms and letters alike. Later he would study with more illustrious tutors, including the humanist Juan Cristóbal Calvete de Estrella, Philip, though he had good command over Latin, Spanish and Portuguese, never managed to equal his father, Charles V, as a polyglot. Despite being also a German archduke from the House of Habsburg, Philip felt himself to be culturally Spanish, he had been born in Spain and raised in the Castilian court, his native tongue was Spanish, and he preferred to live in Spain. This would ultimately impede his succession to the imperial throne, Philip was also close to his two sisters, María and Juana, and to his two pages, the Portuguese nobleman Rui Gomes da Silva and Luis de Requesens, the son of his governor Juan de Zúñiga. These men would serve Philip throughout their lives, as would Antonio Pérez, Philips martial training was undertaken by his governor, Juan de Zúñiga, a Castilian nobleman who served as the commendador mayor of Castile. The practical lessons in warfare were overseen by the Duke of Alba during the Italian Wars, Philip was present at the Siege of Perpignan in 1542, but did not see action as the Spanish army under Alba decisively defeated the besieging French forces under the Dauphin of France. On his way back to Castile, Philip received the oath of allegiance of the Aragonese Cortes at Monzón. The king-emperors interactions with his son during his stay in Spain convinced him of Philips precocity in statesmanship, Philip, who had previously been made the Duke of Milan in 1540, began governing the most extensive empire in the world at the young age of sixteen. Charles left Philip with experienced advisors—notably the secretary Francisco de los Cobos, Philip was also left with extensive written instructions which emphasised piety, patience, modesty, and distrust. These principles of Charles were gradually assimilated by his son, who would grow up to become grave, self-possessed, personally, Philip spoke softly, and had an icy self-mastery, in the words of one of his ministers, he had a smile that cut like a sword. After living in the Netherlands in the years of his reign. Although sometimes described as a monarch, Philip faced many constitutional constraints on his authority
Philip II of Spain
–
'The Baptism of Phillip II' in
Valladolid, Spain. Historical ceiling preserved in Palacio de Pimentel (
Valladolid).
Philip II of Spain
Philip II of Spain
–
Portrait of Philip II on 1/5 Philipsdaalder, struck 1566, Guelders, Low Countries.
Philip II of Spain
–
Titian 's portrait of Philip as prince, aged about twenty-four dressed in a magnificent, lavishly decorated set of armour. The whiteness of his skin corresponds to his white stockings and the greenish golden sheen on his armour. In this way, the prince's pale complexion appears more distinguished.
14.
Benvenuto Cellini
–
Benvenuto Cellini was an Italian goldsmith, sculptor, draftsman, soldier, musician, and artist who also wrote a famous autobiography and poetry. He was one of the most important artists of Mannerism, Benvenuto Cellini was born in Florence, in present-day Italy. His parents were Giovanni Cellini and Maria Lisabetta Granacci and they were married for eighteen years before the birth of their first child. Benvenuto was the child of the family. At the age of sixteen, Benvenuto had already attracted attention in Florence by taking part in an affray with youthful companions and he was banished for six months and lived in Siena, where he worked for a goldsmith named Fracastoro. From Siena he moved to Bologna, where he became an accomplished flute player. After a visit to Pisa and two periods of living in Florence, he moved to Rome, at the age of nineteen. His first works in Rome were a silver casket, silver candlesticks, and a vase for the bishop of Salamanca, which won him the approval of Pope Clement VII. Another celebrated work from Rome is the medallion of Leda and the Swan executed for the Gonfaloniere Gabbriello Cesarino. He also took up the flute again, and was appointed one of the court musicians. In the attack on Rome by Charles III, Duke of Bourbon, according to his own accounts, he himself shot and injured Philibert of Châlon, prince of Orange. His bravery led to a reconciliation with the Florentine magistrates, from Florence he went to the court of the duke of Mantua, and then back to Florence. On returning to Rome, he was employed in the working of jewellery and in the execution of dies for private medals, in 1529 his brother Cecchino killed a Corporal of the Roman Watch and in turn was wounded by an arquebusier, later dying of his wound. Soon afterward Benvenuto killed his brothers killer – an act of blood revenge, Cellini fled to Naples to shelter from the consequences of an affray with a notary, Ser Benedetto, whom he had wounded. Through the influence of cardinals, Cellini obtained a pardon. He found favor with the new pope, Paul III, notwithstanding a fresh homicide during the three days after the death of Pope Clement VII in September 1534. The fourth victim was a goldsmith, Pompeo of Milan. The plots of Pier Luigi Farnese led to Cellinis retreat from Rome to Florence and Venice, at the age of 37, upon returning from a visit to the French court, he was imprisoned on a charge of having embezzled the gems of the popes tiara during the war
Benvenuto Cellini
–
Bust of Benvenuto Cellini on the Ponte Vecchio, Florence
Benvenuto Cellini
–
Perseus with the Head of Medusa
Benvenuto Cellini
–
Statue of Cellini, Piazzale degli Uffizi, Florence
Benvenuto Cellini
–
Chateau de Fontainebleau
15.
Crystal
–
A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituents are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions. In addition, macroscopic single crystals are usually identifiable by their geometrical shape, the scientific study of crystals and crystal formation is known as crystallography. The process of crystal formation via mechanisms of crystal growth is called crystallization or solidification, the word crystal derives from the Ancient Greek word κρύσταλλος, meaning both ice and rock crystal, from κρύος, icy cold, frost. Examples of large crystals include snowflakes, diamonds, and table salt, most inorganic solids are not crystals but polycrystals, i. e. many microscopic crystals fused together into a single solid. Examples of polycrystals include most metals, rocks, ceramics, a third category of solids is amorphous solids, where the atoms have no periodic structure whatsoever. Examples of amorphous solids include glass, wax, and many plastics, Crystals are often used in pseudoscientific practices such as crystal therapy, and, along with gemstones, are sometimes associated with spellwork in Wiccan beliefs and related religious movements. The scientific definition of a crystal is based on the arrangement of atoms inside it. A crystal is a solid where the form a periodic arrangement. For example, when liquid water starts freezing, the change begins with small ice crystals that grow until they fuse. Most macroscopic inorganic solids are polycrystalline, including almost all metals, ceramics, ice, rocks, solids that are neither crystalline nor polycrystalline, such as glass, are called amorphous solids, also called glassy, vitreous, or noncrystalline. These have no periodic order, even microscopically, there are distinct differences between crystalline solids and amorphous solids, most notably, the process of forming a glass does not release the latent heat of fusion, but forming a crystal does. A crystal structure is characterized by its cell, a small imaginary box containing one or more atoms in a specific spatial arrangement. The unit cells are stacked in three-dimensional space to form the crystal, the symmetry of a crystal is constrained by the requirement that the unit cells stack perfectly with no gaps. There are 219 possible crystal symmetries, called space groups. These are grouped into 7 crystal systems, such as cubic crystal system or hexagonal crystal system, Crystals are commonly recognized by their shape, consisting of flat faces with sharp angles. Euhedral crystals are those with obvious, well-formed flat faces, anhedral crystals do not, usually because the crystal is one grain in a polycrystalline solid. The flat faces of a crystal are oriented in a specific way relative to the underlying atomic arrangement of the crystal. This occurs because some surface orientations are more stable than others, as a crystal grows, new atoms attach easily to the rougher and less stable parts of the surface, but less easily to the flat, stable surfaces
Crystal
–
A crystal of
amethyst quartz
Crystal
–
Macroscopic (~16cm) halite crystal. The right-angles between crystal faces are due to the cubic symmetry of the atoms' arrangement.
Crystal
–
Ice crystals.
Crystal
–
Fossil shell with
calcite crystals.
16.
Gold
–
Gold is a chemical element with symbol Au and atomic number 79. In its purest form, it is a bright, slightly yellow, dense, soft, malleable. Chemically, gold is a metal and a group 11 element. It is one of the least reactive chemical elements and is solid under standard conditions, Gold often occurs in free elemental form, as nuggets or grains, in rocks, in veins, and in alluvial deposits. It occurs in a solid solution series with the element silver and also naturally alloyed with copper. Less commonly, it occurs in minerals as gold compounds, often with tellurium, golds atomic number of 79 makes it one of the higher numbered, naturally occurring elements. It is thought to have produced in supernova nucleosynthesis, from the collision of neutron stars. Because the Earth was molten when it was formed, almost all of the present in the early Earth probably sank into the planetary core. Gold is resistant to most acids, though it does dissolve in aqua regia, a mixture of acid and hydrochloric acid. Gold also dissolves in solutions of cyanide, which are used in mining and electroplating. Gold dissolves in mercury, forming amalgam alloys, but this is not a chemical reaction, as a precious metal, gold has been used for coinage, jewelry, and other arts throughout recorded history. A total of 186,700 tonnes of gold is in existence above ground, the world consumption of new gold produced is about 50% in jewelry, 40% in investments, and 10% in industry. Gold is also used in infrared shielding, colored-glass production, gold leafing, certain gold salts are still used as anti-inflammatories in medicine. As of 2014, the worlds largest gold producer by far was China with 450 tonnes, Gold is cognate with similar words in many Germanic languages, deriving via Proto-Germanic *gulþą from Proto-Indo-European *ǵʰelh₃-. The symbol Au is from the Latin, aurum, the Latin word for gold, the Proto-Indo-European ancestor of aurum was *h₂é-h₂us-o-, meaning glow. This word is derived from the root as *h₂éu̯sōs, the ancestor of the Latin word Aurora. This etymological relationship is presumably behind the frequent claim in scientific publications that aurum meant shining dawn, Gold is the most malleable of all metals, a single gram can be beaten into a sheet of 1 square meter, and an avoirdupois ounce into 300 square feet. Gold leaf can be thin enough to become semi-transparent
Gold
–
Gold, 79 Au
Gold
–
Moche gold necklace depicting feline heads.
Larco Museum Collection. Lima-Peru
Gold
–
Mirror for the future
James Webb Space Telescope coated in gold to reflect infrared light
Gold
–
The
world's largest gold bar has a mass of 250 kg.
Toi museum,
Japan.
17.
Gemstone
–
A gemstone is a piece of mineral crystal which, in cut and polished form, is used to make jewelry or other adornments. However, certain rocks or organic materials that are not minerals are used for jewelry and are therefore often considered to be gemstones as well. Most gemstones are hard, but some soft minerals are used in jewelry because of their luster or other properties that have aesthetic value. Rarity is another characteristic that lends value to a gemstone, apart from jewelry, from earliest antiquity engraved gems and hardstone carvings, such as cups, were major luxury art forms. A gem maker is called a lapidary or gemcutter, a worker is a diamantaire. The carvings of Carl Fabergé are significant works in this tradition, the traditional classification in the West, which goes back to the ancient Greeks, begins with a distinction between precious and semi-precious, similar distinctions are made in other cultures. In modern usage the precious stones are diamond, ruby, sapphire, other stones are classified by their color, translucency and hardness. Another unscientific term for semi-precious gemstones used in art history and archaeology is hardstone, in modern times gemstones are identified by gemologists, who describe gems and their characteristics using technical terminology specific to the field of gemology. The first characteristic a gemologist uses to identify a gemstone is its chemical composition, for example, diamonds are made of carbon and rubies of aluminium oxide. Next, many gems are crystals which are classified by their crystal system such as cubic or trigonal or monoclinic, another term used is habit, the form the gem is usually found in. For example, diamonds, which have a crystal system, are often found as octahedrons. Gemstones are classified into different groups, species, and varieties, for example, ruby is the red variety of the species corundum, while any other color of corundum is considered sapphire. Other examples are the Emerald, aquamarine, red beryl, goshenite, heliodor, and morganite, gems are characterized in terms of refractive index, dispersion, specific gravity, hardness, cleavage, fracture, and luster. They may exhibit pleochroism or double refraction and they may have luminescence and a distinctive absorption spectrum. Material or flaws within a stone may be present as inclusions, gemstones may also be classified in terms of their water. This is a grading of the gems luster, transparency. Very transparent gems are considered first water, while second or third water gems are those of a lesser transparency, there is no universally accepted grading system for gemstones. Diamonds are graded using a system developed by the Gemological Institute of America in the early 1950s, historically, all gemstones were graded using the naked eye
Gemstone
–
A selection of gemstone pebbles made by tumbling rough rock with abrasive grit, in a rotating drum. The biggest pebble here is 40 mm long (1.6 inches).
Gemstone
–
Group of precious and semiprecious stones —both uncut and faceted— including (clockwise from top left)
diamond, uncut synthetic
sapphire,
ruby, uncut
emerald, and
amethyst crystal cluster.
Gemstone
–
Spanish emerald and gold pendant at
Victoria and Albert Museum
Gemstone
–
Enamelled gold, amethyst and pearl pendant, about 1880, Pasquale Novissimo (1844–1914), V&A Museum number M.36-1928
18.
Vitreous enamel
–
Vitreous enamel, also called porcelain enamel, is a material made by fusing powdered glass to a substrate by firing, usually between 750 and 850 °C. The powder melts, flows, and then hardens to a smooth, durable vitreous coating on metal, so in technical terms fired enamelware is an integrated layered composite of glass and metal. Enamelling is an old and widely adopted technology, for most of its history mainly used in jewelry, enamelled and enamelling are the preferred spellings in British English, while enameled and enameling are preferred in American English. The term enamel is most often restricted to work on metal, enamelled glass is also called painted, and overglaze decoration to pottery is often called enamelling. The word enamel comes from the Old High German word smelzan via the Old French esmail, or from a Latin word smaltum, used as a noun, an enamel is usually a small decorative object coated with enamel. Since the 19th century the term also to industrial materials and many metal consumer objects, such as some cooking vessels, dishwashers, laundry machines, sinks. The ancient Egyptians applied enamels to stone objects, pottery, and sometimes jewellery, the ancient Greeks, Celts, Georgians, and Chinese also used enamel on metal objects. Enamel powder could be produced in two ways, either by powdering coloured glass, or by mixing colourless glass powder with pigments such as a metallic oxide, designs were either painted freehand or over the top of outline incisions, and the technique probably originated in metalworking. Once painted, enamelled glass vessels needed to be fired at a high enough to melt the applied powder. Ancient Persians used this method for colouring and ornamenting the surface of metals by fusing over it brilliant colours that are decorated in an intricate design and called it Meenakari. Gold has been used traditionally for Meenakari Jewellery as it holds the enamel better, lasts longer, initially, the work of Meenakari often went unnoticed as this art was traditionally used as a backing for the famous kundan or stone-studded jewellery. This also allowed the wearer to reverse the jewellery as also promised a special joy in the secret of the hidden design, the Byzantine enamel style was widely adopted by the barbarian peoples of Migration Period northern Europe. The Byzantines then began to use cloisonné more freely to create images, the champlevé technique was considerably easier and very widely practiced in the Romanesque period. In Gothic art the finest work is in basse-taille and ronde-bosse techniques, from either Byzantium or the Islamic world, the cloisonné technique reached China in the 13-14th centuries. The first written reference to cloisonné is in a book from 1388, cloisonné remained very popular in China until the 19th century and is still produced today. Starting from the century, the Japanese also produced large quantities of very high technical quality. A resurgence in enamel-based art took place near the end of the 20th century in the Soviet Union, led by artists like Alexei Maximov, in Australia, abstract artist Bernard Hesling brought the style into prominence with his variously sized steel plates. Enamel was first applied commercially to sheet iron and steel in Austria, industrialization increased as the purity of raw materials increased and costs decreased
Vitreous enamel
–
Cloisonné enamel plaque,
Byzantine Empire, ca. 1100
Vitreous enamel
–
Detail of painted enamel dish, Limoges, mid-16th century, attributed to
Jean de Court,
Waddesdon Bequest
Vitreous enamel
–
The murder of
Thomas Becket, detail from a reliquary in
champlevé enamel,
Limoges
Vitreous enamel
–
Chinese
cloisonné enamel wine pot, 18th century
19.
Hatfield House
–
Hatfield House is a country house set in a large park, the Great Park, on the eastern side of the town of Hatfield, Hertfordshire, England. It is an example of Jacobean architecture. The estate includes extensive grounds and surviving parts of an earlier palace, the house, currently the home of Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 7th Marquess of Salisbury, is open to the public. An earlier building on the site was the Royal Palace of Hatfield, only part of this still exists, a short distance from the present house. That palace was the home and favourite residence of Queen Elizabeth I. Built in 1497 by the Bishop of Ely, King Henry VIIs minister John Cardinal Morton, the palace was seized by Henry VIII with other church properties. The nearby parish church of St Etheldredas, in Old Hatfield once served the Bishops Palace as well as the village, Henry VIIIs children, King Edward VI and the future Queen Elizabeth I, spent their youth at Hatfield Palace. She successfully defended her conduct with wit and defiance, seymour was executed in 1549 for numerous other crimes against the crown. After her two months of imprisonment in the Tower of London by her sister Queen Mary, Elizabeth returned to Hatfield. The Queen Elizabeth Oak on the grounds of the estate is said to be the location where Elizabeth was told she was Queen following Marys death, in November 1558, Elizabeth held her first Council of State in the Great Hall. The library displays a 22 feet long illuminated parchment roll showing the pedigree of the Queen with ancestors back to Adam, the Marble Hall holds the Rainbow Portrait of Elizabeth. Cecil liked to build and so tore down three wings of the palace in 1608 and used the bricks to build the present structure. The richly carved wooden Grand Staircase and the stained glass window in the private chapel are among the houses original Jacobean features. Cecils descendant, Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury, was three times prime minister during the years of Queen Victorias reign. The city of Salisbury in the colony of Rhodesia was founded in his time and he is also known for often putting members of his family into the Government while Prime Minister. CRUs were created to help repatriated British prisoners of war to back to civilian life. On 12 July 1945, the King and Queen visited the CRU at Hatfield, the Gardens, covering 42 acres, date from the early 17th century, and were laid out by John Tradescant the elder. Tradescant visited Europe and brought back trees and plants that had never previously been grown in England, the gardens included orchards, fountains, scented plants, water parterres, terraces, herb gardens and a foot maze
Hatfield House
–
South facing view of Hatfield House
Hatfield House
–
Hatfield House Old Palace
Hatfield House
–
The
great hall in 1840
Hatfield House
–
Hatfield House Gardens
20.
Rock crystal vase
–
A rock crystal vase is a vase made of rock crystal, a type of hardstone carving. Such vases were rare, expensive, and decorated with gold and jewels, a rock crystal vase that probably originated in the seventh century was given to William IX of Aquitaine by a Muslim ally. When Eleanor of Aquitaine, William IXs granddaughter, married King Louis VII of France in 1137, the inscription on it says he, in turn, gave it to the Abbey of St. -Denis. It is now in the Louvre in Paris and is the artifact of Eleanors known to exist today. Another was a crystal and gold posset set the Spanish Ambassador gave Mary I of England and it was made by Benvenuto Cellini and the whole set is now on display at Hatfield House. The Eleanor Vase Images of Medieval Art and Architecture
Rock crystal vase
–
The
Eleanor of Aquitaine vase, at the
Louvre Museum.
21.
Fork
–
A fork, in cutlery or kitchenware, is a tool consisting of a handle with several narrow tines on one end. The usually metal utensil is used to food to the mouth or to hold ingredients in place while they are being cut by a knife. Food can be lifted either by spearing it on the tines or by holding it on top of the tines, the early history of the fork is obscure. As a kitchen and dining utensil it is believed to have originated in the Roman Empire. The personal table fork most likely originated in the Eastern Roman Empire and its use spread to what is now the Middle East during the first millennium AD and then spread into southern Europe during the second millennium. It did not become common in northern Europe until the 18th century and was not common in North America until the 19th century, the fork is a primarily Western utensil, whereas in east Asia chopsticks have been more prevalent. Today, forks are available throughout east Asia. The word fork comes from the Latin furca, meaning pitchfork, some of the earliest known uses of forks with food occurred in Ancient Egypt, where large forks were used as cooking utensils. Bone forks had been found in the site of the Bronze Age Qijia culture as well as later Chinese dynasties tombs. The Ancient Greeks used the fork as a serving utensil, the Greek name for fork is still used in some European languages, for instance in the Venetian, Greek, and Albanian languages. In the Roman Empire, bronze and silver forks were used, the use varied according to local customs, social class and the nature of food, but forks of the earlier periods were mostly used as cooking and serving utensils. The personal table fork was most likely invented in the Eastern Roman Empire, records show that by the 9th century a similar utensil known as a barjyn was in limited use in Persia within some elite circles. By the 10th century, the fork was in common use throughout the Middle East. By the 11th century, the fork had become increasingly prevalent in the Italian peninsula. At first, pasta was consumed using a wooden spike. In Italy, it became commonplace by the 14th century and was almost universally used by the merchant and upper classes by 1600. It was proper for a guest to arrive with his own fork and spoon enclosed in a box called a cadena, in Portugal, forks were first used at the time of Infanta Beatrice, Duchess of Viseu, King Manuel I of Portugals mother around 1450. However, forks were not commonly used in Southern Europe until the 16th century when they part of Italian etiquette
Fork
–
Assorted forks. From left to right: dessert fork, relish fork, salad fork, dinner fork, cold cuts fork, serving fork, carving fork.
Fork
–
Bronze forks made in Iran during the 8th or 9th century.
Fork
–
Two-pronged wooden forks
Fork
–
An ice cream fork from the early 20th century
22.
Lady Macbeth
–
Lady Macbeth is a character in Shakespeares Macbeth. She is the wife of the plays antagonist, Macbeth, a Scottish nobleman, after goading him into committing regicide, she becomes Queen of Scotland, but later suffers pangs of guilt for her part in the crime. She dies off-stage in the last act, an apparent suicide, according to some genealogists, Lady Macbeth and King Duncans wife were siblings or cousins, where Duncans wife had a stronger claim to the throne than Lady Macbeth. It was this that incited her jealousy and hatred of Duncan, the characters origins lie of the accounts of Kings Duff and Duncan in Holinsheds Chronicles, a history of Britain familiar to Shakespeare. Lady Macbeth is a presence in the play, most notably in the first two acts. Following the murder of King Duncan, however, her role in the plot diminishes and she becomes an uninvolved spectator to Macbeths plotting, and a nervous hostess at a banquet dominated by her husbands hallucinations. Her fifth act sleepwalking scene is a point in the play. Has become a familiar to many speakers of the English language. The report of her late in the fifth act provides the inspiration for Macbeths Tomorrow and tomorrow and tomorrow speech. Analysts see in the character of Lady Macbeth the conflict between femininity and masculinity, as they are impressed in cultural norms. Lady Macbeth suppresses her instincts toward compassion, motherhood, and fragility — associated with femininity — in favour of ambition, ruthlessness, and this conflict colours the entire drama, and sheds light on gender-based preconceptions from Shakespearean England to the present. In the account of King Duff, one of his captains, Donwald, Donwald then considers regicide at the setting on of his wife, who showed him the means whereby he might soonest accomplish it. Donwald abhors such an act, but perseveres at the nagging of his wife, after plying the Kings servants with food and drink and letting them fall asleep, the couple admit their confederates to the Kings room, where they then commit the regicide. The murder of Duff has its motivation in revenge, rather than ambition, not found in Holinshed are the invocation to the spirits that tend on mortal thoughts, the sleepwalking scene, and various details found in the drama concerning the death of Macbeth. Although Macbeths wife can be traced to a counterpart, Queen Gruoch of Scotland. Lady Macbeth makes her first appearance late in scene five of the first act, when King Duncan becomes her overnight guest, Lady Macbeth seizes the opportunity to effect his murder. The King retires after a night of feasting, Lady Macbeth drugs his attendants and lays daggers ready for the commission of the crime. Macbeth kills the sleeping King while Lady Macbeth waits nearby, when he brings the daggers from the Kings room, his Lady orders him to return them to the scene of the crime
Lady Macbeth
–
Lady Macbeth observes King Duncan (Lady Macbeth by George Cattermole, 1850)
Lady Macbeth
–
Ellen Terry as Lady Macbeth by
John Singer Sargent, 1889
Lady Macbeth
–
The Sleepwalking Lady Macbeth by
Johann Heinrich Füssli, late 18th century. (
Musée du Louvre)
Lady Macbeth
–
A print of Lady Macbeth from Mrs. Anna Jameson's 1832 analysis of Shakespeare's Heroines, Characteristics of Women.
23.
William Shakespeare
–
William Shakespeare was an English poet, playwright, and actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the worlds pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called Englands national poet, and the Bard of Avon and his extant works, including collaborations, consist of approximately 38 plays,154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright, Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children, Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Sometime between 1585 and 1592, he began a career in London as an actor, writer. He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613, at age 49, Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613. His early plays were primarily comedies and histories, which are regarded as some of the best work ever produced in these genres. He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, including Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, in his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies, also known as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights. Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and it was prefaced with a poem by Ben Jonson, in which Shakespeare is hailed, presciently, as not of an age, but for all time. In the 20th and 21st centuries, his works have been adapted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship. His plays remain highly popular and are studied, performed. William Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, an alderman and a successful glover originally from Snitterfield, and Mary Arden and he was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and baptised there on 26 April 1564. His actual date of birth unknown, but is traditionally observed on 23 April. This date, which can be traced back to an 18th-century scholars mistake, has proved appealing to biographers because Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616 and he was the third child of eight and the eldest surviving son. At the age of 18, Shakespeare married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway, the consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582. The next day, two of Hathaways neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage, twins, son Hamnet and daughter Judith, followed almost two years later and were baptised 2 February 1585. Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August 1596, after the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592. The exception is the appearance of his name in the bill of a law case before the Queens Bench court at Westminster dated Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589
William Shakespeare
–
The
Chandos portrait, artist and authenticity unconfirmed.
National Portrait Gallery, London.
William Shakespeare
–
John Shakespeare's house, believed to be
Shakespeare's birthplace, in
Stratford-upon-Avon.
William Shakespeare
–
Shakespeare's coat of arms, as it appears on the rough draft of the application to grant a coat-of-arms to John Shakespeare. It features a spear as a
pun on the family name.
William Shakespeare
–
Shakespeare's funerary monument in Stratford-upon-Avon.
24.
Macbeth
–
Macbeth is a tragedy by William Shakespeare, it is thought to have been first performed in 1606. It dramatises the damaging physical and psychological effects of political ambition on those who seek power for its own sake. Of all the plays that Shakespeare wrote during the reign of James I and it was first published in the Folio of 1623, possibly from a prompt book, and is his shortest tragedy. A brave Scottish general named Macbeth receives a prophecy from a trio of witches that one day he will become King of Scotland, consumed by ambition and spurred to action by his wife, Macbeth murders King Duncan and takes the Scottish throne for himself. He is then wracked with guilt and paranoia, forced to commit more and more murders to protect himself from enmity and suspicion, he soon becomes a tyrannical ruler. The bloodbath and consequent civil war swiftly take Macbeth and Lady Macbeth into the realms of madness, the events of the tragedy are usually associated with the execution of Henry Garnet for complicity in the Gunpowder Plot of 1605. In the backstage world of theatre, some believe that the play is cursed, over the course of many centuries, the play has attracted some of the most renowned actors to the roles of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth. It has been adapted to film, television, opera, novels, comics, the play opens amidst thunder and lightning, and the Three Witches decide that their next meeting shall be with Macbeth. Macbeth, the Kings kinsman, is praised for his bravery, in the following scene, Macbeth and Banquo discuss the weather and their victory. As they wander onto a heath, the Three Witches enter, though Banquo challenges them first, they address Macbeth, hailing him as Thane of Glamis, Thane of Cawdor, and that he shall be King hereafter. Macbeth appears to be stunned to silence, when Banquo asks of his own fortunes, the witches respond paradoxically, saying that he will be less than Macbeth, yet happier, less successful, yet more. He will father a line of kings though he himself will not be one, while the two men wonder at these pronouncements, the witches vanish, and another thane, Ross, arrives and informs Macbeth of his newly bestowed title, Thane of Cawdor. The first prophecy is fulfilled, and Macbeth, previously skeptical. King Duncan welcomes and praises Macbeth and Banquo, and declares that he spend the night at Macbeths castle at Inverness. Macbeth sends a message ahead to his wife, Lady Macbeth, Lady Macbeth suffers none of her husbands uncertainty and wishes him to murder Duncan in order to obtain kingship. When Macbeth arrives at Inverness, she overrides all of her husbands objections by challenging his manhood and he and Lady Macbeth plan to get Duncans two chamberlains drunk so that they will black out, the next morning they will blame the chamberlains for the murder. They will be defenseless as they remember nothing. While Duncan is asleep, Macbeth stabs him, despite his doubts and he is so shaken that Lady Macbeth has to take charge
Macbeth
–
Macbeth and Banquo encounter the witches for the first time
Macbeth
–
A poster for a
c. 1884 American production of Macbeth, starring Thomas W. Keene. Depicted, anticlockwise from top-left, are: Macbeth and Banquo meet the
witches; just after the murder of
Duncan; Banquo's ghost; Macbeth duels Macduff; and Macbeth.
Macbeth
–
Théodore Chassériau (1819–1856), Macbeth seeing the Ghost of Banquo, 1854
Macbeth
–
Macbeth consulting the Vision of the Armed Head by
Johann Heinrich Füssli
25.
Kidnapped (novel)
–
Kidnapped is an historical fiction adventure novel by Scottish author Robert Louis Stevenson, written as a boys novel and first published in the magazine Young Folks from May to July 1886. The novel has attracted the praise and admiration of writers as diverse as Henry James, Jorge Luis Borges, a sequel, Catriona, was published in 1893. Kidnapped is set around 18th-century Scottish events, notably the Appin Murder, many of the characters were real people, including one of the principals, Alan Breck Stewart. The political situation of the time is portrayed from multiple viewpoints, the central character and narrator is 17-year-old David Balfour. His parents have died, and he is out to make his way in the world. He is given a letter by the minister of Essendean, Mr. Campbell, to be delivered to the House of Shaws in Cramond, where Davids uncle, Ebenezer Balfour, lives. On his journey, David asks many people where the House of Shaws is, David arrives at the ominous House of Shaws and is confronted by his paranoid Uncle Ebenezer, who is armed with a blunderbuss. His uncle is also miserly, living on parritch and small ale, David is allowed to stay and soon discovers evidence that his father may have been older than his uncle, thus making David the rightful heir to the estate. Ebenezer asks David to get a chest from the top of a tower in the house, David is forced to scale the stairs in the dark and realizes that not only is the tower unfinished in some places, but the steps simply end abruptly and fall into an abyss. David concludes that his uncle intended for him to have an accident so as not to have to give over his nephews inheritance, David confronts his uncle, who promises to tell David the whole story of his father the next morning. A ships cabin boy, Ransome, arrives the next day, Ebenezer takes David to a pier on the Firth of Forth, where Hoseason awaits, and David makes the mistake of leaving his uncle alone with the captain while he visits the shore with Ransome. Hoseason later offers to them on board the brig briefly. David is then immediately struck senseless, David awakens, bound hand and foot, in the hold of the ship. He becomes weak and sick, and one of the Covenants officers, Mr. Riach, Mr. Shuan, a mate on the ship, finally takes his routine abuse of Ransome too far and murders the unfortunate youth. David is repulsed at the behaviour and learns that the captain plans to sell him into slavery in the Carolinas. David becomes the slain cabin boys replacement, and the ship encounters contrary winds which drive her back toward Scotland, fog-bound near the Hebrides, they strike a small boat. All of the boats crew are killed except one man, Alan Breck Stewart. David later overhears the plotting to kill Alan and take all his money
Kidnapped (novel)
–
First American edition, New York: Scribner's Sons, 1886
Kidnapped (novel)
–
Sketch of the cruise of the Brig Covenant and the probable course of David Balfour's Wanderings
Kidnapped (novel)
–
Alexander Stoddart's Kidnapped statue at
Corstorphine, Edinburgh, depicting Alan Breck Stewart and David Balfour at their final parting on
Corstorphine Hill (unveiled 2004). Note that this statue misrepresents the characters' heights: Balfour is supposed to be a foot taller than Breck.
Kidnapped (novel)
–
Kidnapped cover, by William Brassey Hole (1846–1917), London edition, Cassell and Company, 1886
26.
Robert Louis Stevenson
–
Robert Louis Balfour Stevenson was a Scottish novelist, poet, essayist, and travel writer. His most famous works are Treasure Island, Kidnapped, Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde, a literary celebrity during his lifetime, Stevenson now ranks as the 26th most translated author in the world. M. Barrie, and G. K. Chesterton, who said of him that he seemed to pick the word up on the point of his pen. Stevenson was born at 8 Howard Place, Edinburgh, Scotland, on 13 November 1850, to Thomas Stevenson, a lighthouse engineer. He was christened Robert Lewis Balfour Stevenson, at about age 18, Stevenson was to change the spelling of Lewis to Louis, and in 1873, he dropped Balfour. Lighthouse design was the profession, Thomass father was the famous Robert Stevenson. Indeed, even Thomass maternal grandfather, Thomas Smith, had been in the same profession, however, Roberts mothers family were not of the same profession. Margarets natal family, the Balfours, were gentry, tracing their lineage back to a certain Alexander Balfour who had held the lands of Inchyra in Fife in the fifteenth century. Margarets father, Lewis Balfour, was a minister of the Church of Scotland at nearby Colinton, and her siblings included the physician George William Balfour, Stevenson spent the greater part of his boyhood holidays in his maternal grandfathers house. Now I often wonder, wrote Stevenson, what I inherited from this old minister, I must suppose, indeed, that he was fond of preaching sermons, and so am I, though I never heard it maintained that either of us loved to hear them. Lewis Balfour and his daughter both had weak chests, so they often needed to stay in warmer climates for their health, Stevenson inherited a tendency to coughs and fevers, exacerbated when the family moved to a damp, chilly house at 1 Inverleith Terrace in 1851. The family moved again to the sunnier 17 Heriot Row when Stevenson was six years old, illness would be a recurrent feature of his adult life and left him extraordinarily thin. Contemporary views were that he had tuberculosis, but more recent views are that it was bronchiectasis or even sarcoidosis, Stevensons parents were both devout and serious Presbyterians, but the household was not strict in its adherence to Calvinist principles. His nurse, Alison Cunningham, was fervently religious. Her Calvinism and folk beliefs were a source of nightmares for the child. But she also cared for him tenderly in illness, reading to him from Bunyan, Stevenson recalled this time of sickness in The Land of Counterpane in A Childs Garden of Verses, dedicating the book to his nurse. In any case, his frequent illnesses often kept him away from his first school and he was a late reader, first learning at age seven or eight, but even before this he dictated stories to his mother and nurse. He compulsively wrote stories throughout his childhood and his father was proud of this interest, he had also written stories in his spare time until his own father found them and told him to give up such nonsense and mind your business
Robert Louis Stevenson
–
Robert Louis Stevenson
Robert Louis Stevenson
–
Daguerreotype portrait of Robert Louis Stevenson as a young child
Robert Louis Stevenson
–
Stevenson's childhood home in Heriot Row
Robert Louis Stevenson
–
Robert Louis Stevenson at the age of seven
27.
Kay Harker
–
Kay Harker is a fictional character, the young hero of the books The Midnight Folk and The Box of Delights by John Masefield, and the BBC series based on The Box of Delights. The series ran in 1984, where the character was played by actor Devin Stanfield, Kay is of an unspecified age, and the book follows his adventures one Christmas Holiday alongside his contemporaries who are staying for the holidays. Kay Harker plays a key role in The Box of Delights, despite a complete lack of aid from the local police, Kay manages to discover the location of Abner Brown, who seeks to capture the famed Box of Delights. The abduction of Cole Hawlings, owner of the box, marks a point in the story, as Kay and friends go in search of his abductor with the assistance of Herne the Hunter. Kay eventually manages to thwart the plans of Abner Brown by rescuing Cole Hawlings from Browns subterranean dungeon, the story concludes with great festivities on Christmas Eve as the abducted make their way back home in time for the Christmas Service. The story concludes with Kays re-awakening on the home for the start of the Christmas holidays. In the book and the BBC series, these play the most important role in the rescue of Cole Hawlings. Peter is also important in the evasive maneuvres taken to escape Abner and his henchmen, as casts off the miniature boat used by the children in their escape. Maria is a young girl, and states in Episode 1 that her idea of fun would be a gunfight with bandits. Sisters Jemima and Susan Jones play a role in the series. BBCs Box of Delights Website The Box of Delights at the Internet Movie Database
Kay Harker
–
Kay with Cole Hawlings on the UK DVD 'Box of Delights' cover
28.
John Masefield
–
John Edward Masefield, OM English poet and writer, was Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom from 1930. Among his best known works are the childrens novels The Midnight Folk and The Box of Delights, Masefield was born in Ledbury in Herefordshire, to Caroline and George Masefield, a solicitor. His mother died giving birth to his sister when Masefield was only six and his father died soon after following a mental breakdown. He spent several years aboard this ship and found that he could spend much of his reading and writing. It was aboard the Conway that Masefields love for story-telling grew, while on the ship, he listened to the stories told about sea lore. He continued to read, and felt that he was to become a writer, in 1894, Masefield boarded the Gilcruix, destined for Chile – this first voyage bringing him the experience of sea sickness. On reaching Chile, Masefield suffered from sunstroke and was hospitalised and he eventually returned home to England as a passenger aboard a steam ship. In 1895, Masefield returned to sea on a windjammer destined for New York City, however, the urge to become a writer and the hopelessness of life as a sailor overtook him, and in New York, he deserted ship. He lived as a vagrant for several months, drifting between odd jobs, eventually finding work as an assistant to a bar keeper, before returning to New York City. Sometime around Christmas 1895, Masefield read the December edition of Truth, a New York periodical, which contained the poem The Piper of Arll by Duncan Campbell Scott. Ten years later, Masefield wrote to Scott to tell him what reading that poem had meant to him, I had never cared much for poetry, but your poem impressed me deeply. Since then poetry has been the one deep influence in my life, and to my love of poetry I owe all my friends, and the position I now hold. For the next two years, Masefield was employed by the huge Alexander Smith carpet factory in Yonkers, New York and he purchased up to 20 books a week, and devoured both modern and classical literature. His interests at this time were diverse and his reading included works by George du Maurier, Dumas, Thomas Browne, Hazlitt, Dickens, Kipling, Chaucer also became very important to him during this time, as well as poetry by Keats and Shelley. He eventually returned home to England in 1897 as a passenger aboard a steam ship, when Masefield was 23, he met his future wife, Constance de la Cherois Crommelin, who was 35 and of Huguenot descent. Educated in classics and English Literature, and a mathematics teacher, in 1902 he was in charge of the fine art section of the Arts and Industrial Exhibition in Wolverhampton. By the time he was 24, Masefields poems were being published in periodicals and his first collected works, Salt-Water Ballads was published, Masefield then wrote the novels, Captain Margaret and Multitude and Solitude. As a result, he became known to the public and was praised by the critics, in 1912
John Masefield
–
John Masefield in 1916
John Masefield
29.
The Box of Delights
–
The Box of Delights is a childrens fantasy novel by John Masefield. It is a sequel to The Midnight Folk, and was first published in 1935, Kay Harker is returning from boarding school when he finds himself mixed up in a battle to possess a magical box. It allows the owner to shrink in size, to fly swiftly, to go into the past, the current owner of the box is an old Punch and Judy man called Cole Hawlings whom Kay meets at the railway station. They develop an instant rapport, which leads Cole to confide that he is being chased by a magician called Abner Brown and his gang, for safety, Cole entrusts the box to Kay. The schoolboy then goes on to have adventures as he protects the box from those who wish to use it for bad deeds. There have been several adaptations of The Box of Delights. This six-part adaptation, with a script by Robert Holland and John Keir Cross, was produced three times by the BBC as part of its Childrens Hour, in 1943,1948 and 1955 and it was then remade with a new cast in 1977. Abner Brown, Donald Sinden Cole Hawlins, Lionel Jeffries The BBC TV adaptation of the The Box of Delights was broadcast in six parts between 21 November and 24 December in 1984. It featured notable British actors of the time, such as Patrick Troughton, Robert Stephens, Patricia Quinn, John Horsley and James Grout, an innovative mixture of live action and animation, using Quantel Paintbox and chroma key effects, was used to portray the adventure. The music included an arrangement of The First Nowell from the Carol Symphony by Victor Hely-Hutchinson. The Royal Television Society award was won for Technique, for Robin Lobb, the episodes, When the Wolves Were Running Where Shall the Nighted Showman Go. During December 1986 the series was repeated on BBC1 as three 50-minute episodes, for this transmission the episodes were titled When the Wolves Were Running The Spider in the Web Fire and Flood The television version was shown by PBS in the US for three years in the late 1980s. BBC Worldwide released the serial on DVD in 2004, John Masefield adapted an opera libretto from his book, also incorporating elements of The Midnight Folk, which was eventually set to music in the late 1980s by the British composer Robert Steadman. Victor Hely-Hutchinson Flynn, Simon, A Magic Curiously Suited to Radio, the BBC and The Box of Delights. The Journal of the John Masefield Society, No, the Box of Delights at BBC Programmes The Box of Delights at the Internet Movie Database Box Of Delights DVD Sea Fever, Cargoes and other examples of Masefields poetry
The Box of Delights
–
First edition cover
The Box of Delights
–
The Box of Delights
