1.
Postmodernism
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Postmodernism describes a broad movement that developed in the mid to late 20th century across philosophy, the arts, architecture and criticism which marked a departure from modernism. Accordingly, postmodern thought is characterized by tendencies to epistemological and moral relativism, pluralism, irreverence. The term postmodernism has been applied both to the era following modernity, and to a host of movements within that era that reacted against tendencies in modernism. Postmodernism includes skeptical critical interpretations of culture, literature, art, philosophy, history, linguistics, economics, architecture, fiction, feminist theory, and literary criticism. Postmodernism is often associated with schools of such as deconstruction and post-structuralism, as well as philosophers such as Jean-François Lyotard. The term postmodern was first used around the 1880s, John Watkins Chapman suggested a Postmodern style of painting as a way to depart from French Impressionism. In 1921 and 1925, postmodernism had been used to new forms of art. In 1942 H. R. Hays described it as a new literary form, however, as a general theory for a historical movement it was first used in 1939 by Arnold J. Toynbee, Our own Post-Modern Age has been inaugurated by the general war of 1914–1918. Peter Drucker suggested the transformation into a post modern world happened between 1937 and 1957, post-structuralism resulted similarly to postmodernism by following a time of structuralism. It is characterized by new ways of thinking through structuralism, contrary to the original form, postmodernist describes part of a movement, Postmodern places it in the period of time since the 1950s, making it a part of contemporary history. Martin Heidegger rejected the philosophical basis of the concepts of subjectivity and objectivity, instead of resisting the admission of this paradox in the search for understanding, Heidegger requires that we embrace it through an active process of elucidation he called the hermeneutic circle. He stressed the historicity and cultural construction of concepts while simultaneously advocating the necessity of an atemporal, in this latter premise, Heidegger shares an affinity with the late Romantic philosopher, Friedrich Nietzsche, another principal forerunner of post-structuralist and postmodernist thought. Instead, Foucault focused on the ways in which such constructs can foster cultural hegemony, violence and his writings have had a major influence on the larger body of postmodern academic literature. These metanarratives still remain in Western society but are now being undermined by rapid Informatization, Richard Rorty argues in Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature that contemporary analytic philosophy mistakenly imitates scientific methods. For Baudrillard, “simulation is no longer that of a territory and it is the generation by models of a real without origin or a reality, a hyperreal. In Analysis of the Journey, a journal birthed from postmodernism, Douglas Kellner insists that the assumptions and his terms defined in the depth of postmodernism are based on advancement, innovation, and adaptation. Extensively, Kellner analyzes the terms of theory in real-life experiences and examples. Kellner used science and technology studies as a part of his analysis
2.
Modernism
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Among the factors that shaped modernism were the development of modern industrial societies and the rapid growth of cities, followed then by reactions of horror to World War I. Modernism also rejected the certainty of Enlightenment thinking, and many modernists rejected religious belief, the poet Ezra Pounds 1934 injunction to Make it new. Was the touchstone of the approach towards what it saw as the now obsolete culture of the past. In this spirit, its innovations, like the novel, atonal and twelve-tone music, divisionist painting and abstract art. Modernism explicitly rejected the ideology of realism and makes use of the works of the past by the employment of reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision, others focus on modernism as an aesthetic introspection. While J. M. W. Art critic Clement Greenberg describes the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood as proto-Modernists, There the proto-Modernists were, of all people, the Pre-Raphaelites actually foreshadowed Manet, with whom Modernist painting most definitely begins. They acted on a dissatisfaction with painting as practiced in their time, rationalism has also had opponents in the philosophers Søren Kierkegaard and later Friedrich Nietzsche, both of whom had significant influence on existentialism. A major 19th-century engineering achievement was The Crystal Palace, the huge cast-iron, Glass and iron were used in a similar monumental style in the construction of major railway terminals in London, such as Paddington Station and Kings Cross Station. These technological advances led to the building of structures like the Brooklyn Bridge. The latter broke all previous limitations on how tall man-made objects could be and these engineering marvels radically altered the 19th-century urban environment and the daily lives of people. Arguments arose that the values of the artist and those of society were not merely different, but that Society was antithetical to Progress, the philosopher Schopenhauer called into question the previous optimism, and his ideas had an important influence on later thinkers, including Nietzsche. Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection undermined religious certainty and the idea of human uniqueness, in particular, the notion that human beings were driven by the same impulses as lower animals proved to be difficult to reconcile with the idea of an ennobling spirituality. Karl Marx argued that there were fundamental contradictions within the capitalist system, historians, and writers in different disciplines, have suggested various dates as starting points for modernism. Everdell also thinks modernism in painting began in 1885–86 with Seurats Divisionism, the poet Baudelaires Les Fleurs du mal, and Flauberts novel Madame Bovary were both published in 1857. In the arts and letters, two important approaches developed separately in France, the first was Impressionism, a school of painting that initially focused on work done, not in studios, but outdoors. Impressionist paintings demonstrated that human beings do not see objects, the school gathered adherents despite internal divisions among its leading practitioners, and became increasingly influential. A significant event of 1863 was the Salon des Refusés, created by Emperor Napoleon III to display all of the paintings rejected by the Paris Salon. While most were in standard styles, but by artists, the work of Manet attracted tremendous attention
3.
Posthumanism
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AI takeover, A more pessimistic alternative to transhumanism in which humans will not be enhanced, but rather eventually replaced by artificial intelligences. Some philosophers, including Nick Land, promote the view that humans should embrace, voluntary Human Extinction, which seeks a posthuman future that in this case is a future without humans. A second prioritizes practices, especially social practices, over individuals which, they say, there may be a third kind of posthumanism, propounded by the philosopher Herman Dooyeweerd. Dooyeweerd prioritized law and meaningfulness as that which enables humanity and all else to exist, behave, live, occur, meaning is the being of all that has been created, Dooyeweerd wrote, and the nature even of our selfhood. Both human and nonhuman alike function subject to a common law-side, ihab Hassan, theorist in the academic study of literature, once stated, Humanism may be coming to an end as humanism transforms itself into something one must helplessly call posthumanism. This view predates most currents of posthumanism which have developed over the late 20th century in somewhat diverse, for example, Hassan is a known scholar whose theoretical writings expressly address postmodernity in society. Katherine Hayles, Donna Haraway, Peter Sloterdijk, Stefan Lorenz Sorgner, Evan Thompson, Francisco Varela, Humberto Maturana, among the theorists are philosophers, such as Robert Pepperell, who have written about a posthuman condition, which is often substituted for the term posthumanism. Posthumanism differs from classical humanism by relegating humanity back to one of natural species. According to this claim, humans have no inherent rights to destroy nature or set themselves above it in ethical considerations a priori, Human knowledge is also reduced to a less controlling position, previously seen as the defining aspect of the world. The limitations and fallibility of human intelligence are confessed, even though it does not imply abandoning the tradition of humanism. In contrast to humanism, the discourse of posthumanism seeks to redefine the boundaries surrounding modern philosophical understanding of the human, posthumanism represents an evolution of thought beyond that of the contemporary social boundaries and is predicated on the seeking of truth within a postmodern context. In so doing, it rejects previous attempts to establish anthropological universals that are imbued with anthropocentric assumptions, the philosopher Michel Foucault placed posthumanism within a context that differentiated humanism from enlightenment thought. Katherine Hayles, writes about the struggle between different versions of the posthuman as it continually co-evolves alongside intelligent machines, such coevolution, according to some strands of the posthuman discourse, allows one to extend their subjective understandings of real experiences beyond the boundaries of embodied existence. According to Hayless view of posthuman, often referred to as posthumanism, visual perception. Even as one seeks to extend knowledge by deconstructing perceived boundaries, the use of technology in a contemporary society is thought to complicate this relationship. Because of this, according to Hayles, posthumanism is characterized by a loss of subjectivity based on bodily boundaries, while posthumanism is a broad and complex ideology, it has relevant implications today and for the future. James Hughes comments that there is confusion between the two terms. Some critics have argued that all forms of posthumanism have more in common than their respective proponents realize, Humanism has always been integrated into discourses of exploitation, colonialism, imperialism, neoimperialism, democracy, and of course, American democratization
4.
Post-structuralism
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Existential phenomenology is a significant influence, Colin Davis has argued that post-structuralists might just as accurately be called post-phenomenologists. Post-structuralist philosophers like Derrida and Foucault did not form a self-conscious group, Structuralism rejected the phenomenological idea that knowledge could be centred on the human knower, and sought what they considered a more secure foundation for knowledge. In phenomenology, this foundation is experience itself, in structuralism, knowledge is founded on the structures that make possible, concepts. By contrast, post-structuralism argues that founding knowledge either on experience or systematic structures is impossible. This impossibility was not meant as a failure or loss, a major theory associated with Structuralism was binary opposition. This theory proposed that there are theoretical and conceptual opposites, often arranged in a hierarchy. Such binary pairs could include Enlightenment/Romantic, male/female, speech/writing, rational/emotional, signifier/signified, the only way to properly understand these meanings is to deconstruct the assumptions and knowledge systems that produce multiplicity, the illusion of singular meaning. It emphasized the logical and scientific nature of its results, post-structuralism offers a way of studying how knowledge is produced and critiques structuralist premises. It argues that history and culture condition the study of underlying structures. A post-structuralist approach argues that to understand an object, it is necessary to both the object itself and the systems of knowledge that produced the object. Post-structuralists generally assert that post-structuralism is historical, and they classify structuralism as descriptive and this terminology relates to Ferdinand de Saussures distinction between the views of historical and descriptive reading. From this basic distinction, post-structuralist studies often emphasize history to analyze descriptive concepts, by studying how cultural concepts have changed over time, post-structuralists seek to understand how those same concepts are understood by readers in the present. For example, Michel Foucaults Madness and Civilization is both a history and an inspection of cultural attitudes about madness, the uncertain distance between structuralism and post-structuralism is further blurred by the fact that scholars rarely label themselves as post-structuralists. Some scholars associated with structuralism, such as Roland Barthes and Foucault, some observers from outside the post-structuralist camp have questioned the rigor and legitimacy of the field. American philosopher John Searle argued in 1990 that The spread of poststructuralist literary theory is perhaps the best known example of a silly, similarly, physicist Alan Sokal in 1997 criticized the postmodernist/poststructuralist gibberish that is now hegemonic in some sectors of the American academy. Has elicited wrong film and literary theory on a grand scale, one can find dozens of books of literary theory bogged down in signifiers and signifieds, but only a handful that refer to Chomsky. Post-structuralism emerged in France during the 1960s as a movement critiquing structuralism, merquior a love–hate relationship with structuralism developed among many leading French thinkers in the 1960s. In a 1966 lecture Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences, Jacques Derrida presented a thesis on an apparent rupture in intellectual life, Derrida interpreted this event as a decentering of the former intellectual cosmos
5.
Post-processual archaeology
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Despite having a vague series of similarities, post-processualism consists of very diverse strands of thought coalesced into a loose cluster of traditions. Parallel developments soon followed in the United States, post-processualists also criticized previous archaeological work for overemphasizing materialist interpretations of the past and being ethically and politically irresponsible. In other parts of the world, post-processualism has made less of an impact on archaeological thought, the post-processualists approach to archaeology is diametrically opposed to that of the processualists. As the archaeologist Matthew Johnson noted, Postprocessualists suggest that we can never confront theory and data, instead, due to the fact that they believe archaeology to be inherently subjective, post-processualists argue that all archaeologists. Whether they overtly admit it or not, always impose their own views, in many cases, they hold that this bias is political in nature. As Johnson noted, Many postprocessualists claim that we should reject the whole opposition between material and ideal in the first place, using an example to explain this belief in materialist-idealist unity, the archaeologist Matthew Johnson looked at the idea of landscape among past societies. He argued that, On the one hand, a materialist view of landscape tends to stress how it may be seen in terms of a set of resources, for example for hunter-gatherers or early farming groups. This leads one to turn, for example, to optimal foraging theory, Postprocessualists like to argue that landscapes are always viewed in different ways by different peoples. They suggest that ancient peoples would have had different views of what was real in that landscape, on the other hand, an exclusively idealist view of landscape does not work either. Postprocessualists like to stress that such an understanding of landscape was not formed in the abstract—that the way people moved around, Many, although not all post-processualists have adhered to the theory of structuralism in understanding historical societies. He believed that the principle of oppositions was a universal characteristic inherent in the human brain, within the post-processual movement, Ian Hodder became the leading exponent of a structuralist approach. In a 1984 article, he looked at the similarities between the houses and the tombs of Neolithic Europe, and used a structuralist approach as a basis for his ideas on their symbolism, in turn, by bending the societal rules, these rules eventually change. Other post-processualists have instead taken the view of sociologist Karl Marx that class conflict was the force for social change. In this manner they share similarities with Marxist archaeologists, post-processualism places great emphasis on encouraging marginalised groups to interact with archaeology. According to archaeologist Sam Lucy, The agendas of feminist archaeology, although it would not be actually termed post-processual archaeology until 1985, an archaeological alternative to processual archaeology had begun to develop during the 1970s. Bruce Trigger, a Canadian archaeologist who produced a study of archaeological theory. The first of these was the Marxist-inspired social anthropology that had developed in France during the 1960s and this, Trigger noted, had its roots not in orthodox Marxism but in efforts to combine Marxism and structuralism by anthropologists such as Maurice Godelier, Emmanuel Terray, and Pierre-Phillipe Rey. The second main influence was postmodernism, which emphasized the nature of knowledge
6.
Postmodern architecture
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The movement was given a doctrine by the architect and architectural theorist Robert Venturi in his 1966 book Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture. The style flourished from the 1980s through the 1990s, particularly in the work of Venturi, Philip Johnson, Charles Moore, in the late 1990s it divided into a multitude of new tendencies, including high-tech architecture, neo-classicism and deconstructivism. The architect and architectural historian Robert Venturi led the attack in 1966 in his book, Complexity, … I welcome the problems and exploit the uncertainties. … I like elements which are rather than pure, compromising rather than clean. … I am for messy vitality over obvious unity, … I prefer both-and to either-or, black and white, and sometimes gray, to black or white. … An architecture of complexity and contradiction must embody the difficult unity of inclusion rather than the easy unity of exclusion, Venturis second book, Learning from Las Vegas, co-authored with his wife, Denise Scott Brown, and Steven Izenour, further developed his argument against modernism. He urged architects take into consideration and to celebrate the architecture in a place. He argued that ornamental and decorative elements accommodate existing needs for variety, Rossi insisted that cities be rebuilt in ways that preserved their historical fabric and local traditions. Similar ideas were and projects were put forward at the Venice Biennale in 1980, the call for a post-modern style was joined by Christian de Portzamparc in France and Ricardo Bofill in Spain, and in Japan by Arata Isozaki. Robert Venturi was both a prominent theorist of postmodernism and an architect who buildings illustrated his ideas, after studying at the American Academy in Rome, he worked in the offices of the modernists Eero Saarinen Louis Kahn until 1958, and then became a professor architecture at Yale University. One of his first buildings was the Guild House in Philadelphia and these two houses became symbols of the postmodern movement. He went on to design, in the 1960s and 1970s, Michael Graves designed two of the most prominent buildings in the postmodern style, the Portland Building and the Denver Public Library. The building has since added to the National Register of Historic Places. The most famous work of architect Charles Moore is the Piazza dItalia in New Orleans, drawing upon the Spanish Revival architecture of the city hall, Moore designed the Beverly Hills Civic Center in a mixture of Spanish Revival, Art Deco and Post-Modern styles. It includes courtyards, colonnades, promenades, and buildings, with open and semi-enclosed spaces, stairways and balconies. Philip Johnson began his career as a pure modernist, in 1935 he co-authored the famous catalog of the Museum of Modern Art exposition on the International Style, and studied with Walter Gropius and Marcel Breuer at Harvard. His Glass House in New Canaan, Connecticut, inspired b a similar house by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe became an icon of the modernist movement and he worked with Mies on another iconic modernist project, the Seagrams Building in New York City. However, his buildings in the 1970, such as IDS Center in Minneapolis and Pennzoil Place in Houston were massive, sober
7.
Postmodern Christianity
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Postmodern Christianity refers to various forms of Christianity which have been influenced by postmodern philosophy. In addition to Christian theology, postmodern Christianity has its roots in post-Heideggerian continental philosophy, despite the name some people eschew the label postmodern Christianity because the meaning of the term postmodern is frequently debated, even between those who use the label. Therefore, some say it has almost no determinate meaning and, nevertheless, postmodern Christianity and its constituent schools of thought continue to be relevant. Liberal Christianity as an umbrella term covers diverse philosophically informed movements and moods within 19th-, despite its name, liberal Christianity has always been thoroughly protean. The word liberal in liberal Christianity does not necessarily refer to a leftist political agenda, generally speaking, Enlightenment-era liberalism saw humans as political creatures and held liberty of thought and expression among the highest human values. The development of liberal Christianity owes much to the works of the philosophers Immanuel Kant, overall, liberal Christianity is a product of a continuing philosophical dialogue. As a result, liberal Christians placed less emphasis on miraculous events associated with the life of Jesus than on his teachings, many 20th-century liberal Christians felt the influence of the philosophers Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger. Examples of important liberal Christian thinkers include Rudolf Bultmann and John A. T. Robinson, Christian existentialism is a form of Christianity that draws extensively from the writings of Søren Kierkegaard. Christian existentialism places an emphasis on the undecidability of faith, individual passion, although Kierkegaards writings werent initially embraced, they became widely known at the beginning of the 20th century. Later Christian existentialists synthesized Kierkegaardian themes with the works of such as Friedrich Nietzsche, Walter Benjamin. The movement was fueled heavily by the slew of notable post-Heideggerian philosophers that appeared on the European continent, groundbreaking works such as Carl Raschkes The End of Theology, Mark C. It is a style of theology that seeks to examine classic Christian writings and related Neoplatonic texts from a contemporary, the movement finds in writers such as Augustine of Hippo and Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite valuable sources of insight and meaning relevant to modern society and Christianity at large. John Milbank, Catherine Pickstock, Graham Ward, and James K. A. Smith are leading proponents of radical orthodoxy, the hermeneutics of religion is another form of continental philosophical theology. The system of hermeneutic interpretation developed by Paul Ricœur has heavily influenced the school of thought, a central theme in the hermeneutics of religion is that God exists outside the confines of the human imagination. Richard Kearney is a prominent advocate of the movement, weak theology is a manner of thinking about theology from a deconstructive point of view. The style of thought owes a debt to Jacques Derrida, especially in light of his idea of a weak force, weak theology is weak because it takes a non-dogmatic, perspectival approach to theology. Proponents of weak theology believe that dominant contemporary explications of theology are inherently ideological, totalizing, in response, weak theology expresses itself through acts of interpretation. According to Caputo, the distinctive reinterpretive act of weak theology has resulted in the notion of the weakness of God, in the body of thought, the paradigm of God as an overwhelming physical or metaphysical force is regarded as mistaken
8.
Postmodernist school (criminology)
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The postmodernist school in criminology applies postmodernism to the study of crime and criminals. Postmodernists shift attention from Marxist concerns of economic and social oppression to linguistic production, for example, the language of courts expresses and institutionalises the domination of the individual, whether accused or accuser, criminal or victim, by social institutions. A crime might be defined on the basis that the behaviour represents a danger to society, one killing may be murder, another justifiable homicide. Hess and Scheerer suggest that criminality is not so much an ontological phenomenon as a mental construct having an historical, society “constructs” its elements on the basis of ontological realities. Thus, in reality certain types of activity are harmful and damaging. But it is true that other forms of criminal behaviour do not harm others and are therefore criminalised without sufficient ontological grounds. It is more difficult for social systems, indeed, some argue that chaos theory may provide a more appropriate model for what is termed the social sciences. Both Marxism and socialism derived their philosophical foundation from the Enlightenment, the idea that the application of scientific principles to social life will uncover the laws of society, making human life predictable and social engineering practical and possible, is discounted. Postmodernists argue that claim for the universality of reason was ethnocentric in that it privileged one Western view of the world while discounting other views. And truth claims were part of a relationship of domination, a claim to power, given the history of colonialism and globalisation in both the physical and the intellectual world, this critique asserts righteous indignation and moral superiority. In postmodernism, truth and falsity are purely relative, each culture has its own standard for judging truth that is not inherently superior to any other. Postmodernist analysis is a method to uncover how the world is made to appear real, thereby questioning that it is real in truth or fact, no truth claim, and certainly not Enlightenment scientism, rests on any more secure foundation than any other. The main weakness of relativism is that it offers no basis for evaluation, henry and Milovanovic posit that all claims are to be considered valid, all social practices merely cultural variations, neither inherently inferior nor superior to any other. This may be potentially progressive because it challenges the absolutist assumptions of the superiority of, for example, Western economics, but it does not challenge the status quo. On the contrary, as Kiely argues, appeals for tolerance, simply ignores, or even becomes an apology for, all kinds of oppressive practices that violate any sense of human and social rights. The human subject is said to be one or a number of constructions which are transient. The discourse has the power to create a convincing truth claim about the reality of any subject that is historically conditioned, human agents are all investors in constructing their version of reality. Praxis is defined as social activity born of human agents consciousness of their world
9.
Postmodern literature
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Postmodern works are seen as a response against dogmatic following of Enlightenment thinking and Modernist approaches to literature. Postmodern literature, like postmodernism as a whole, tends to resist definition or classification as a movement, Postmodern works also tend to celebrate chance over craft, and further employ metafiction to undermine the texts authority or authenticity. In the 1910s, artists associated with Dadaism celebrated chance, parody, playfulness, tristan Tzara claimed in How to Make a Dadaist Poem that to create a Dadaist poem one had only to put random words in a hat and pull them out one by one. Another way Dadaism influenced postmodern literature was in the development of collage, artists associated with Surrealism, which developed from Dadaism, continued experimentations with chance and parody while celebrating the flow of the subconscious mind. André Breton, the founder of Surrealism, suggested that automatism and he used automatism to create his novel Nadja and used photographs to replace description as a parody of the overly-descriptive novelists he often criticized. Surrealist René Magrittes experiments with signification are used as examples by Jacques Derrida, Foucault also uses examples from Jorge Luis Borges, an important direct influence on many postmodernist fiction writers. He is occasionally listed as a postmodernist, although he started writing in the 1920s, the influence of his experiments with metafiction and magic realism was not fully realized in the Anglo-American world until the postmodern period. Ultimately, this is seen as the highest stratification of criticism among scholars, other early 20th-century novels such as Raymond Roussels Impressions dAfrique and Locus Solus, and Giorgio de Chiricos Hebdomeros have also been identified as important postmodern precursor. Both modern and postmodern literature represent a break from 19th century realism, in addition, both modern and postmodern literature explore fragmentariness in narrative- and character-construction. The Waste Land is often cited as a means of distinguishing modern and postmodern literature, the poem is fragmentary and employs pastiche like much postmodern literature, but the speaker in The Waste Land says, these fragments I have shored against my ruins. Postmodernists, however, often demonstrate that this chaos is insurmountable, the artist is impotent, gertrude Steins playful experiment with metafiction and genre in The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas has been interpreted as postmodern, as with all stylistic eras, no definite dates exist for the rise and fall of postmodernisms popularity. 1941, the year in which Irish novelist James Joyce and English novelist Virginia Woolf both died, is used as a rough boundary for postmodernisms start. Irish novelist Flann OBrien completed The Third Policeman in 1939 and it was rejected for publication and remained supposedly lost until published posthumously in 1967. A revised version called The Dalkey Archive was published before the original in 1964, notwithstanding its dilatory appearance, the literary theorist Keith Hopper regards The Third Policeman as one of the first of that genre they call the postmodern novel. The prefix post, however, does not necessarily imply a new era, rather, it could also indicate a reaction against modernism in the wake of the Second World War. It could also imply a reaction to significant post-war events, the beginning of the Cold War, the Civil Rights Movement, postcolonialism, some further argue that the beginning of postmodern literature could be marked by significant publications or literary events. For others the beginning is marked by moments in critical theory, Jacques Derridas Structure, Sign, though postmodernist literature does not include everything written in the postmodern period, several post-war developments in literature have significant similarities
10.
Postmodern philosophy
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Postmodern philosophy is a philosophical direction which is critical of certain foundational assumptions of Western philosophy and especially of the 18th-century Enlightenment. It emphasizes the importance of relationships, personalization and discourse in the construction of truth. Postmodernists deny that a reality exists, and deny that there are objective moral values. Postmodern philosophy has strong relations with the literature of critical theory. According to Brian Duignan of the Encyclopedia Britannica, many claims are a deliberate repudiation of certain 18th-century Enlightenment values. A postmodernist might believe that there is no objective reality. Two other characteristic anti-Enlightenment postmodern practices are a denial that human nature exists, postmodernists also believe there are no objective moral values. Postmodern writings often focus on deconstructing the role that power and ideology play in shaping discourse, postmodern philosophy shares ontological similarities with classical skeptical and relativistic belief systems, and shares political similarities with modern identity politics. Philosopher John Deely has argued for the claim that the label postmodern for thinkers such as Derrida et al. is premature. Insofar as the so-called postmoderns follow the modern trend of idealism. Writes Deely, The epoch of Greek and Latin philosophy was based on being in a precise sense. The much briefer epoch of modern philosophy based itself rather on the instruments of human knowing, as the 20th century ends, there is reason to believe that a new philosophical epoch is dawning along with the new century, promising to be the richest epoch yet for human understanding. While the idea of postmodernity had been around since the 1940s, however, several philosophical antecedents inform many of postmodern philosophys concerns. The most influential early postmodern philosophers were Jean Baudrillard, Jean-François Lyotard, michel Foucault is also often cited as an early postmodernist although he personally rejected that label. Following Nietzsche, Foucault argued that knowledge is produced through the operations of power and he further argued that in our postmodern condition, these metanarratives no longer work to legitimize truth-claims. Derrida, the father of deconstruction, practiced philosophy as a form of textual criticism and he criticized Western philosophy as privileging the concept of presence and logos, as opposed to absence and markings or writings. In America, the most famous pragmatist and self-proclaimed postmodernist was Richard Rorty, donald Davidson is not usually considered a postmodernist, although he and Rorty have both acknowledged that there are few differences between their philosophies. John Deely Quid sit Postmodernismus. in Roman Ciapalo Postmodernism and Christian philosophy, 68-96, Washington, in Zalta, Edward N. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
11.
Postpositivism
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In philosophy and models of scientific inquiry, postpositivism is a metatheoretical stance that critiques and amends positivism. However, like positivists, postpositivists pursue objectivity by recognizing the effects of biases. Postpositivists believe that knowledge is based not on unchallengeable, rock-solid foundations. However, postpositivism is not a form of relativism, and generally retains the idea of objective truth, postpositivists believe that a reality exists, like positivists do, though they hold that it can be known only imperfectly and probabilistically. One of the first thinkers to criticize logical positivism was Sir Karl Popper and he advanced falsification in lieu of the logical positivist idea of verifiability. Postpositivism is an amendment to positivism that recognizes these and other critiques against logical positivism and it is not a rejection of the scientific method, but rather a reformation of positivism to meet these critiques. It reintroduces the basic assumptions of positivism, ontological realism, the possibility and desirability of objective truth, the work of philosophers Nancy Cartwright and Ian Hacking are representative of these ideas. Postpositivism of this type is common in the sciences for both practical and conceptual reasons. There is a controversy as to whether the work which best represents the origins of Postpositivism is that of Thomas Kuhn or that of Karl Popper. Whereas the work of those following Kuhn has led to a sociology of scientific knowledge, fin De Siecle Social Theory, Relativism, Reductionism and The Problem of Reason, London, Verso. Lanham & Boulder, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, john H. Zammito, A Nice Derangement of Epistemes. Post-positivism in the study of Science from Quine to Latour, Chicago & London, The University of Chicago Press. Conjectures and Refutations, The Growth of Scientific Knowledge, London, moore, R. Towards the Sociology of Truth, London, Continuum
12.
Installation art
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Installation art is an artistic genre of three-dimensional works that often are site-specific and designed to transform the perception of a space. Generally, the term is applied to spaces, whereas exterior interventions are often called public art, land art or intervention art, however. Installation art can be temporary or permanent. Installation artworks have been constructed in exhibition spaces such as museums and galleries, as well as public, many installations are site-specific in that they are designed to exist only in the space for which they were created, appealing to qualities evident in a three-dimensional immersive medium. Artistic collectives such as the Exhibition Lab at New Yorks American Museum of Natural History created environments to showcase the natural world in as realistic a medium as possible, likewise, Walt Disney Imagineering employed a similar philosophy when designing the multiple immersive spaces for Disneyland in 1955. Since its acceptance as a discipline, a number of institutions focusing on Installation art were created. These included the Mattress Factory, Pittsburgh, the Museum of Installation in London, the intention of the artist is paramount in much later installation art whose roots lie in the conceptual art of the 1960s. This again is a departure from traditional sculpture which places its focus on form, early non-Western installation art includes events staged by the Gutai group in Japan starting in 1954, which influenced American installation pioneers like Allan Kaprow. Wolf Vostell shows his installation 6 TV Dé-coll/age in 1963 at the Smolin Gallery in New York, Installation as nomenclature for a specific form of art came into use fairly recently, its first use as documented by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1969. It was coined in this context, in reference to a form of art that had existed since prehistory but was not regarded as a discrete category until the mid-twentieth century. Allan Kaprow used the term Environment in 1958 to describe his transformed indoor spaces, out of the sensory stuff of ordinary life. In Art and Objecthood, Michael Fried derisively labels art that acknowledges the viewer as theatrical, here installation art bestows an unprecedented importance on the observers inclusion in that which he observes. Ultimately, the things a viewer can be assured of when experiencing the work are his own thoughts and preconceptions. All else may be molded by the artists hands, the central importance of the subjective point of view when experiencing installation art, points toward a disregard for traditional Platonic image theory. In effect, the entire installation adopts the character of the simulacrum or flawed statue, Installation art operates fully within the realm of sensory perception, in a sense installing the viewer into an artificial system with an appeal to his subjective perception as its ultimate goal. Interactive installation is a sub-category of installation art, an interactive installation frequently involves the audience acting on the work of art or the piece responding to users activity. With the improvement of technology over the years, artists are able to explore outside of the boundaries that were never able to be explored by artists in the past. The media used are more experimental and bold, they are also usually cross media and may involve sensors, by using virtual reality as a medium, immersive virtual reality art is probably the most deeply interactive form of art
13.
Conceptual art
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Conceptual art, sometimes simply called conceptualism, is art in which the concept or idea involved in the work take precedence over traditional aesthetic and material concerns. Some works of art, sometimes called installations, may be constructed by anyone simply by following a set of written instructions. The notion that art should examine its own nature was already a potent aspect of the art critic Clement Greenbergs vision of Modern art during the 1950s. One of the first and most important things they questioned was the assumption that the role of the artist was to create special kinds of material objects. Thus, in describing or defining a work of art as conceptual it is important not to confuse what is referred to as conceptual with an artists intention. The French artist Marcel Duchamp paved the way for the conceptualists, providing them examples of prototypically conceptual works — the readymades. The artistic tradition does not see an object as art because it is not made by an artist or with any intention of being art. This concept, also called Art esthapériste, derived from the infinitesimals of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz - quantities which could not actually exist except conceptually, the current incarnation of the Isouian movement, Excoördism, self-defines as the art of the infinitely large and the infinitely small. In 1961 the term art, coined by the artist Henry Flynt in his article bearing the term as its title. By the mid-1970s they had produced publications, indices, performances, texts, in 1970 Conceptual Art and Conceptual Aspects, the first dedicated conceptual-art exhibition, took place at the New York Cultural Center. Conceptual art emerged as a movement during the 1960s - in part as a reaction against formalism as then articulated by the influential New York art critic Clement Greenberg. According to Greenberg Modern art followed a process of progressive reduction and those elements that ran counter to this nature were to be reduced. The task of painting, for example, was to define precisely what kind of object a painting truly is, later artists continued to share a preference for art to be self-critical, as well as a distaste for illusion. Lawrence Weiner said, Once you know about a work of mine you own it, theres no way I can climb inside somebodys head and remove it. It is sometimes reduced to a set of written instructions describing a work, Language was a central concern for the first wave of conceptual artists of the 1960s and early 1970s. This linguistic turn reinforced and legitimized the direction the artists took. Osborne also notes that the early conceptualists were the first generation of artists to complete degree-based university training in art, osborne later made the observation that contemporary art is post-conceptual in a public lecture delivered at the Fondazione Antonio Ratti, Villa Sucota in Como on July 9,2010. It is a claim made at the level of the ontology of the work of art
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Multimedia
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Multimedia is content that uses a combination of different content forms such as text, audio, images, animations, video and interactive content. Multimedia contrasts with media that use only rudimentary computer displays such as text-only or traditional forms of printed or hand-produced material, Multimedia devices are electronic media devices used to store and experience multimedia content. Multimedia is distinguished from mixed media in art, for example. The term rich media is synonymous with interactive multimedia, the term multimedia was coined by singer and artist Bob Goldstein to promote the July 1966 opening of his LightWorks at LOursin show at Southampton, Long Island. Goldstein was perhaps aware of an American artist named Dick Higgins, two years later, in 1968, the term multimedia was re-appropriated to describe the work of a political consultant, David Sawyer, the husband of Iris Sawyer—one of Goldsteins producers at LOursin. In the intervening forty years, the word has taken on different meanings, in the late 1970s, the term referred to presentations consisting of multi-projector slide shows timed to an audio track. However, by the 1990s multimedia took on its current meaning, in the 1993 first edition of Multimedia, Making It Work, Tay Vaughan declared Multimedia is any combination of text, graphic art, sound, animation, and video that is delivered by computer. When you allow the user – the viewer of the project – to control what, when you provide a structure of linked elements through which the user can navigate, interactive multimedia becomes hypermedia. The German language society Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache recognized the words significance, the institute summed up its rationale by stating has become a central word in the wonderful new media world. In common usage, multimedia refers to an electronically delivered combination of media including video, still images, audio, much of the content on the web today falls within this definition as understood by millions. That era saw also a boost in the production of educational multimedia CD-ROMs, the term video, if not used exclusively to describe motion photography, is ambiguous in multimedia terminology. Video is often used to describe the format, delivery format. Multiple forms of content are often not considered modern forms of presentation such as audio or video. Likewise, single forms of content with single methods of information processing are often called multimedia. Performing arts may also be considered multimedia considering that performers and props are multiple forms of content and media. Multimedia presentations may be viewed by person on stage, projected, transmitted, a broadcast may be a live or recorded multimedia presentation. Broadcasts and recordings can be analog or digital electronic media technology. Digital online multimedia may be downloaded or streamed, streaming multimedia may be live or on-demand
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Bricolage
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In the arts, bricolage is the construction or creation of a work from a diverse range of things that happen to be available, or a work created by such a process. The term bricolage has also used in many other fields, including philosophy, critical theory, education, computer software. Bricolage is a French loanword that means the process of improvisation in a human endeavor, the word is derived from the French verb bricoler, with the English term DIY being the closest equivalent of the contemporary French usage. In both languages, bricolage also denotes any works or products of DIY endeavors, many of the musical instruments created by American composer Harry Partch utilize unusual items, such as automotive hubcaps and pyrex carboys. Stylistic bricolage is the inclusion of musical devices with new uses. Shuker writes, Punk best emphasized such stylistic bricolage, many punk musicians, for instance, are not musically trained, because they believe training can discourage creativity in preference for accuracy. Also, careful observation and listening is not necessary, it is common in music to welcome errors. Like other bricolage fields, bricolage music still values trusting ones ideas, in art, bricolage is a technique where works are constructed from various materials available or on hand, and is seen as a characteristic of many postmodern works. These materials may be mass-produced or junk, see also, Merz, polystylism, collage, assemblage. Bricolage can also be applied to forms of improvisation, where the main strategy is to use the environment. The environment is the stage and the materials are often pantomimed, the use of the stage and the imaginary materials are all made up on the spot, so the materials which are at hand are actually things that the players know from past experiences. Bricolage is also applied in interior design, through blending styles, many designers use bricolage to come up with innovative and unique ideas. Bricolage is considered the effect produced by the close proximity of buildings from different periods. This, in contrast to someone like Mies Van der Rohe, in literature, bricolage is affected by intertextuality, the shaping of a texts meanings by reference to other texts. In cultural studies bricolage is used to mean the processes by which people acquire objects from across social divisions to create new cultural identities, in particular, it is a feature of subcultures such as the punk movement. Here, objects that possess one meaning in the dominant culture are acquired and given a new, for example, the safety pin became a form of decoration in punk culture. The term, introduced by Jeffrey Sanchez-Burks, Matthew J. Karlesky and Fiona Lee of the University of Michigan, the first, “social bricolage, ” was introduced by cultural anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss in 1962. Lévi-Strauss was interested in how societies create novel solutions by using resources that already exist in the social consciousness
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Collage
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Collage is a technique of an art production, primarily used in the visual arts, where the artwork is made from an assemblage of different forms, thus creating a new whole. The origins of collage can be traced back hundreds of years, the term collage was coined by both Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso in the beginning of the 20th century when collage became a distinctive part of modern art. Techniques of collage were first used at the time of the invention of paper in China, around 200 BC. The use of collage, however, wasnt used by many people until the 10th century in Japan, when began to apply glued paper, using texts on surfaces. The technique of collage appeared in medieval Europe during the 13th century, gold leaf panels started to be applied in Gothic cathedrals around the 15th and 16th centuries. Gemstones and other metals were applied to religious images, icons. An 18th-century example of art can be found in the work of Mary Delany. In the 19th century, collage methods also were used among hobbyists for memorabilia, the exhibition later traveled to The Metropolitan Museum of Art and The Art Gallery of Ontario. For example, the Tate Gallerys online art glossary states that collage was first used as a technique in the twentieth century. The glued-on patches which Braque and Picasso added to their canvases offered a new perspective on painting when the patches collided with the plane of the painting. Collage in the modernist sense began with Cubist painters Georges Braque, according to some sources, Picasso was the first to use the collage technique in oil paintings. According to the Guggenheim Museums online article about collage, Braque took up the concept of collage itself before Picasso, applying it to charcoal drawings. Picasso adopted collage immediately after, It was Braque who purchased a roll of simulated oak-grain wallpaper and began cutting out pieces of the paper, Picasso immediately began to make his own experiments in the new medium. In 1912 for his Still Life with Chair Caning, Picasso pasted a patch of oilcloth with a design onto the canvas of the piece. Surrealist artists have made use of collage. Cubomania is a made by cutting an image into squares which are then reassembled automatically or at random. Collages produced using a similar, or perhaps identical, method are called etrécissements by Marcel Mariën from a method first explored by Mariën, surrealist games such as parallel collage use collective techniques of collage making. Many of these artists used techniques in their work
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Abstract art
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Abstract art uses a visual language of shape, form, color and line to create a composition which may exist with a degree of independence from visual references in the world. Western art had been, from the Renaissance up to the middle of the 19th century, underpinned by the logic of perspective, the arts of cultures other than the European had become accessible and showed alternative ways of describing visual experience to the artist. By the end of the 19th century many artists felt a need to create a new kind of art which would encompass the fundamental changes taking place in technology, science and philosophy. The sources from which individual artists drew their theoretical arguments were diverse, Abstract art, non-figurative art, non-objective art, and nonrepresentational art are loosely related terms. They are similar, but perhaps not of identical meaning, Abstraction indicates a departure from reality in depiction of imagery in art. This departure from accurate representation can be slight, partial, or complete, even art that aims for verisimilitude of the highest degree can be said to be abstract, at least theoretically, since perfect representation is likely to be exceedingly elusive. Artwork which takes liberties, altering for instance color and form in ways that are conspicuous, total abstraction bears no trace of any reference to anything recognizable. In geometric abstraction, for instance, one is unlikely to find references to naturalistic entities, Figurative art and total abstraction are almost mutually exclusive. But figurative and representational art often contains partial abstraction, both geometric abstraction and lyrical abstraction are often totally abstract. It is at level of visual meaning that abstract art communicates. One can enjoy the beauty of Chinese calligraphy or Islamic calligraphy without being able to read it, in Chinese painting, abstraction can be traced to the Tang dynasty painter Wang Mo, who is credited to have invented the splashed-ink painting style. While none of his paintings remain, this style is seen in some Song Dynasty Paintings. A late Song painter named Yu Jian, adept to Tiantai buddhism and his paintings show heavily misty mountains in which the shapes of the objects are barely visible and extremely simplified. This type of painting was continued by Sesshu Toyo in his later years, another instance of abstraction in Chinese painting is seen in Zhu Deruns Cosmic Circle. The painting is a reflection of the Daoist metaphysics in which chaos, in Tokugawa Japan some zen monk-painters created Enso, a circle who represents the absolute enlightenment. Usually made in one spontaneous brush stroke, it became the paradigm of the minimalist aesthetic that guided part of the zen painting, three art movements which contributed to the development of abstract art were Romanticism, Impressionism and Expressionism. Artistic independence for artists was advanced during the 19th century, patronage from the church diminished and private patronage from the public became more capable of providing a livelihood for artists. Expressionist painters explored the use of paint surface, drawing distortions and exaggerations
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Appropriation art
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Appropriation in art is the use of pre-existing objects or images with little or no transformation applied to them. The use of appropriation has played a significant role in the history of the arts, in the visual arts, to appropriate means to properly adopt, borrow, recycle or sample aspects of human-made visual culture. Notable in this respect are the Readymades of Marcel Duchamp, inherent in our understanding of appropriation is the concept that the new work recontextualizes whatever it borrows to create the new work. In most cases the original thing remains accessible as the original, Appropriation has been defined as the taking over, into a work of art, of a real object or even an existing work of art. The Tate Gallery traces the practise back to Cubism and Dadaism and it returned to prominence in the 1980s with the Neo-Geo artists. In the early twentieth century Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque appropriated objects from a non-art context into their work, in 1912, Picasso pasted a piece of oil cloth onto the canvas. Subsequent compositions, such as Guitar, Newspaper, Glass and Bottle in which Picasso used newspaper clippings to create forms, the two artists incorporated aspects of the real world into their canvases, opening up discussion of signification and artistic representation. In 1917, Duchamp formally submitted a readymade into the Society of Independent Artists exhibition under the pseudonym, entitled Fountain, it consisted of a porcelain urinal that was propped atop a pedestal and signed R. Mutt 1917. The work posed a challenge to traditional perceptions of fine art, ownership, originality and plagiarism. Duchamp publicly defended Fountain, claiming whether Mr. Mutt with his own hands made the fountain or not has no importance. He took an ordinary article of life, placed it so that its useful significance disappeared under the new title, the Dada movement continued with the appropriation of everyday objects. Dada works featured deliberate irrationality and the rejection of the standards of art. Kurt Schwitters, who produced art at the time as the Dadaists. He constructed these from found objects, and they took the form of large constructions that later generations would call installations, the Surrealists, coming after the Dada movement, also incorporated the use of found objects such as Méret Oppenheims Object. These objects took on new meaning when combined with other unlikely, in 1938 Joseph Cornell produced what might be considered the first work of film appropriation in his randomly cut and reconstructed film Rose Hobart. In the 1950s Robert Rauschenberg used what he dubbed combines, literally combining readymade objects such as tires or beds, painting, silk-screens, collage, similarly, Jasper Johns, working at the same time as Rauschenberg, incorporated found objects into his work. The Fluxus art movement also utilised appropriation, its members blended different artistic disciplines including visual art, music, throughout the 1960s and 1970s they staged action events and produced sculptural works featuring unconventional materials. Along with artists such as Claes Oldenburg and Andy Warhol appropriated images from commercial art, often called pop artists, they saw mass popular culture as the main vernacular culture, shared by all irrespective of education
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Performance art
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Performance art is a performance presented to an audience within a fine art context, traditionally interdisciplinary. Performance may be scripted or unscripted, random or carefully orchestrated. The performance can be live or via media, the performer can be present or absent and it can be any situation that involves four basic elements, time, space, the performers body, or presence in a medium, and a relationship between performer and audience. Performance art can happen anywhere, in any type of venue or setting, the actions of an individual or a group at a particular place and in a particular time constitute the work. Performance art is a contested concept, any single definition of it implies the recognition of rival uses. As concepts like democracy or art, it implies productive disagreement with itself, the meaning of the term in the narrower sense is related to postmodernist traditions in Western culture. The ideal had been an ephemeral and authentic experience for performer, the widely discussed difference, how concepts of visual arts and concepts of performing arts are utilized, can determine the meanings of a performance art presentation. It therefore can include action or spoken word as a communication between the artist and audience, or even ignore expectations of an audience, rather than following a script written beforehand, some kinds of performance art nevertheless can be close to performing arts. Performance artists often challenge the audience to think in new and unconventional ways, break conventions of traditional arts, and break down conventional ideas about what art is. Some artists, e. g. the Viennese Actionists and neo-Dadaists, prefer to use the terms live art, action art, actions, as genres of performance art appear body art, fluxus-performance, happening, action poetry, and intermedia. Performance art activity is not confined to European or American art traditions, notable practitioners can be found in Asia, Performance artists and theorists point to different traditions and histories, ranging from tribal to sporting and ritual or religious events. There are also accounts of Renaissance artists such as itinerant poets putting on performances that could be said to be ancestors of performance art. Western cultural theorists often trace performance art activity back to the beginning of the 20th century, to the Russian constructivists, Futurists, Dada provided a significant progenitor with the unconventional performances of poetry, often at the Cabaret Voltaire, by the likes of Richard Huelsenbeck and Tristan Tzara. Russian Futurist artists could be identified as precursors of performance, such as David Burliuk, abstract expressionism and Action painting preceded the Fluxus movement, Happenings and the emergence of Performance Art. Performance art was anticipated, if not explicitly formulated, by Japans Gutai group of the 1950s, in the late 1960s Earth artists as diverse as Robert Smithson, Dennis Oppenheim, Michael Heizer and Carl Andre created environmental pieces that predict the performance art of the 1970s. Works of conceptual artists in the early 1980s, like Sol LeWitt, who converted mural-style drawing into an act of performance by others, were influenced by Yves Klein and the Earth artists as well. In the 1960s a variety of new works, concepts and the number of artists led to new kinds of performance art. Kaprow had coined the term Happening describing a new artform, at the beginning of the 1960s, a Happening allows the artist to experiment with body motion, recorded sounds, written and spoken texts, and even smells
20.
Fine arts
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Historically, the five main fine arts were painting, sculpture, architecture, music and poetry, with performing arts including theatre and dance. Today, the fine arts commonly include additional forms, such as film, photography, video production/editing, design, sequential art, conceptual art, and printmaking. However, in some institutes of learning or in museums, fine art, in that sense, there are conceptual differences between the fine arts and the applied arts. The word fine does not so much denote the quality of the artwork in question and this definition originally excluded the applied or decorative arts, and the products of what were regarded as crafts. According to some writers the concept of a category of fine art is an invention of the early modern period in the West. Larry Shiner in his The Invention of Art, A Cultural History locates the invention in the 18th century, There was a traditional “system of the arts” in the West before the eighteenth century. ”Similar ideas have been expressed by Paul Oskar Kristeller, Pierre Bourdieu, and Terry Eagleton, though the point of invention is often placed earlier, in the Italian Renaissance. The separation of arts and crafts that often exists in Europe, in Japanese aesthetics the activities of everyday life are depicted by integrating not only art with craft but man-made with nature. Traditional Chinese art distinguished within Chinese painting between the mostly landscape painting of scholar gentlemen and the artisans of the schools of court painting. A high status was given to many things that would be seen as craft objects in the West, in particular ceramics, jade carving, weaving. Drawing is a form of expression and is one of the major forms of the visual arts. Common instruments include graphite pencils, pen and ink, inked brushes, wax color pencils, crayons, charcoals, chalk, pastels, markers, stylus, There are a number of subcategories of drawing, including cartooning. Mosaics are images formed with pieces of stone or glass. They can be decorative or functional, an artist who designs and makes mosaics is called a mosaic artist or a mosaicist. Printmaking is the process of making artworks by printing, normally on paper, except in the case of monotyping, the process is capable of producing multiples of the same piece, which is called a print. Each print is considered an original, as opposed to a copy, the reasoning behind this is that the print is not a reproduction of another work of art in a different medium — for instance, a painting — but rather an image designed from inception as a print. An individual print is also referred to as an impression, prints are created from a single original surface, known technically as a matrix. But there are other kinds, discussed below. Multiple nearly identical prints can be called an edition, in modern times each print is often signed and numbered forming a limited edition
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High culture
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The term high culture comprehends the cultural products of aesthetic value, which a society collectively esteem as art. The Preface defines culture as “the disinterested endeavour after man’s perfection” pursued, obtained, moreover, the philosophy of aesthetics proposed in high culture is a force for moral and political good. Critically, the term “high culture” is contrasted with the terms “popular culture”, in Notes Towards the Definition of Culture, T. S. Eliot said that high culture and popular culture are necessary and complementary parts of the culture of a society. In the U. S. Harold Bloom and F. R. Leavis pursued the definition of high culture, history The high culture of the West originated in the Classical-world traditions of intellect and aesthetics in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. In the Classical Greco-Roman tradition, the mode of language was published and preserved in works of elevated style. Certain forms of language used by authors in valorized epochs were held up in antiquity and this ideal associated with humanism, was communicated in Renaissance Italy through institutions such as the Renaissance court schools. Renaissance humanism soon spread through Europe becoming much of the basis of upper class education for centuries, of comparable importance are those works of art and music considered to be of the highest excellence and broadest influence. Together these texts and art works constitute the artefacts representative of the culture of the Western world. Cultural traditions In the Western and some East Asian traditions, art that demonstrates the imagination of the artist is accorded the status of high art, much of high culture consists of the appreciation of what is sometimes called High Art. This term is broader than Arnolds definition and besides literature includes music, visual arts. The decorative arts would not generally be considered High Art, such an environment enables artists, as near as possible, to realize their creative potential with as few as possible practical and technical constraints. Art music is a term used to refer to musical traditions implying advanced structural and theoretical considerations. In this regard, art music frequently occurs as a term to popular music. Art film is the result of filmmaking which is typically a serious, film critics and film studies scholars typically define an art film using a. According to the film scholar David Bordwell, art cinema itself is a film genre, there was a drive, beginning in the 19th century, to open museums and concert halls to give the general public access to high culture. University liberal arts courses still play an important role in the promotion of the concept of high culture, organisations such as the Arts Council of Great Britain, and in most European countries, whole ministries administer these programmes. This includes the subsidy of new works by composers, writers, there are also many private philanthropic sources of funding, which are especially important in the US, where the federally funded Corporation for Public Broadcasting also funds broadcasting. These may be seen as part of the concept of official culture
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Contemporary art
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Contemporary art is the art of today, produced by artists who are living in the twenty-first century. Contemporary art provides an opportunity to reflect on contemporary society and the relevant to ourselves. Contemporary artists work in a globally influenced, culturally diverse, and their art is a dynamic combination of materials, methods, concepts, and subjects that challenge traditional boundaries and defy easy definition. In vernacular English, modern and contemporary are synonyms, resulting in some conflation of the modern art. Some define contemporary art as art produced within our lifetime, recognizing that lifetimes, however, there is a recognition that this generic definition is subject to specialized limitations. The classification of art as a special type of art, rather than a general adjectival phrase. In London, the Contemporary Art Society was founded in 1910 by the critic Roger Fry and others, as a private society for buying works of art to place in public museums. A number of other institutions using the term were founded in the 1930s, such as in 1938 the Contemporary Art Society of Adelaide, Australia, particular points that have been seen as marking a change in art styles include the end of World War II and the 1960s. There has perhaps been a lack of natural break points since the 1960s, and definitions of what contemporary art in the 2010s vary. Art from the past 20 years is likely to be included, and definitions often include art going back to about 1970, the art of the late 20th and early 21st century. Many use the formulation Modern and Contemporary Art, which avoids this problem, smaller commercial galleries, magazines and other sources may use stricter definitions, perhaps restricting the contemporary to work from 2000 onwards. One of the many people have in approaching contemporary artwork is its diversity - diversity of material, form, subject matter. It is distinguished by the lack of a uniform organizing principle, ideology, or -ism that we so often see in other. Broadly speaking, we see Modernism as looking at modernist principals - the focus of the work is self-referential, likewise, Impressionism looks at our perception of a moment through light and color as opposed to attempts at stark realism. Contemporary art, on the hand, does not have one. Its view, instead, is refracted, prismatic, and multi-faceted, reflecting the diversity of the world today, in all of its complexities, contemporary art reflects life as we know it. It can be, therefore, contradictory, confusing, and open-ended, there are, however, a number of common themes that have appeared in contemporary works. Post-modern, post-structuralist, feminist, and Marxist theory have played important roles in the development of theories of art
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Late modernity
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Modernity now tends to be self-referring, instead of being defined largely in opposition to traditionalism, as with classical modernity. Anthony Giddens does not dispute that important changes have occurred since high modernity, rather, the modernity of contemporary society is a developed, radicalized, late modernity—but still modernity, not postmodernity. In such a perspective, postmodernism appears only as a version of modernity. The subject is constructed in late modernity against the backdrop of a world of competing and contrasting identities. The framing matrix of the late modern personality is the way the fluid social relations of late modernity impinge on the individual, producing a reflexive. Zygmunt Bauman, who introduced the idea of modernity, wrote that its characteristics are about the individual, namely increasing feelings of uncertainty. It is a kind of continuation of modernity, where a person can shift from one social position to another in a fluid manner. Bauman stressed the new burden of responsibility that fluid modernism placed on the patterns would be replaced by self-chosen ones. Entry into the society was open to anyone with their own stance. Ulrich Beck, Anthony Giddens and Scott Lash, reflexive Modernization, Politics, Tradition and Aesthetics in the Modern Social Order
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Modern art
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Modern art includes artistic work produced during the period extending roughly from the 1860s to the 1970s, and denotes the style and philosophy of the art produced during that era. The term is associated with art in which the traditions of the past have been thrown aside in a spirit of experimentation. Modern artists experimented with new ways of seeing and with ideas about the nature of materials. A tendency away from the narrative, which was characteristic for the traditional arts, more recent artistic production is often called contemporary art or postmodern art. Matisses two versions of The Dance signified a key point in his career and in the development of modern painting, analytic cubism was jointly developed by Picasso and Georges Braque, exemplified by Violin and Candlestick, Paris, from about 1908 through 1912. Synthetic cubism is characterized by the introduction of different textures, surfaces, collage elements, papier collé, the notion of modern art is closely related to modernism. Although modern sculpture and architecture are reckoned to have emerged at the end of the 19th century, the beginnings of modern painting can be located earlier. The date perhaps most commonly identified as marking the birth of art is 1863. Earlier dates have also proposed, among them 1855 and 1784. In the words of art historian H, harvard Arnason, Each of these dates has significance for the development of modern art, but none categorically marks a completely new beginning. A gradual metamorphosis took place in the course of a hundred years, the strands of thought that eventually led to modern art can be traced back to the Enlightenment, and even to the 17th century. The important modern art critic Clement Greenberg, for instance, called Immanuel Kant the first real Modernist but also drew a distinction, The Enlightenment criticized from the outside. The French Revolution of 1789 uprooted assumptions and institutions that had for centuries been accepted with little question and this gave rise to what art historian Ernst Gombrich called a self-consciousness that made people select the style of their building as one selects the pattern of a wallpaper. The pioneers of art were Romantics, Realists and Impressionists. By the late 19th century, additional movements which were to be influential in art had begun to emerge. The advocates of realism stood against the idealism of the academic art that enjoyed public. The most successful painters of the day worked either through commissions or through public exhibitions of their own work. There were official, government-sponsored painters unions, while governments regularly held exhibitions of new fine
25.
Clement Greenberg
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In particular, he is best remembered for his promotion of the abstract expressionist movement and was among the first published critics to praise the work of painter Jackson Pollock. Clement Greenberg was born in the borough of the Bronx, NYC and his parents were middle-class Jewish immigrants, and he was the eldest of their three sons. Since childhood, Greenberg sketched compulsively, until becoming a young adult, Greenberg attended Erasmus Hall High School, the Marquand School for Boys, then Syracuse University, graduating with an A. B. in 1930, cum laude, Phi Beta Kappa. After college, already as fluent in Yiddish as English since childhood, Greenberg taught himself Italian and German in addition to French and Latin. During the next few years, Greenberg travelled the U. S. working for his fathers dry-goods business, Greenberg married in 1934, had a son the next year, and was divorced the year after that. It was then that Greenberg began to seriously, and soon after began getting published in a handful of small magazines. Greenberg writes, Kitsch, using for raw material the debased and academicized simulacra of genuine culture and it is the source of its profits. Kitsch is mechanical and operates by formulas, Kitsch is vicarious experience and faked sensations. Kitsch changes according to style, but remains always the same, Kitsch is the epitome of all that is spurious in the life of our times. Kitsch pretends to demand nothing of its customers except their money – not even their time, for Greenberg, avant garde art was too innocent to be effectively used as propaganda or bent to a cause, while kitsch was ideal for stirring up false sentiment. Greenberg wrote several essays that defined his views on art history in the 20th century. In 1940, Greenberg joined Partisan Review as an editor and he became art critic for the Nation in 1942. He was associate editor of Commentary from 1945 until 1957, in December 1950, he joined the government funded American Committee for Cultural Freedom. Greenberg believed Modernism provided a commentary on experience. It was constantly changing to adapt to kitsch pseudo-culture, which was itself always developing, in the years after World War II, Greenberg pushed the position that the best avant-garde artists were emerging in America rather than Europe. Particularly, he championed Jackson Pollock as the greatest painter of his generation, Greenberg helped to articulate a concept of medium specificity. In Greenbergs view, after World War II the United States had become the guardian of advanced art and he was particularly impressed by the potential of painters William Ronald and Jack Bush, and later developed a close friendship with Bush. Greenberg expressed mixed feelings about pop art, on the one hand he expressed that pop art partook of a trend toward openness and clarity as against the turgidities of second generation Abstract Expressionism
26.
Fredric Jameson
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Fredric Jameson is an American literary critic and Marxist political theorist. He is best known for his analysis of cultural trends. He once described postmodernism as the spatialization of culture under the pressure of organized capitalism, Jamesons best-known books include Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism, The Political Unconscious, and Marxism and Form. Jameson is currently Knut Schmidt-Nielsen Professor of Comparative Literature and Romance Studies, in 2012, the Modern Language Association gave Jameson its sixth Award for Lifetime Scholarly Achievement. Jameson was born in Cleveland, Ohio and he returned to America the following year to pursue a doctoral degree at Yale University, where he studied under Erich Auerbach. Auerbach would prove to be an influence on Jamesons thought. This was already apparent in the doctoral dissertation, published in 1961 as Sartre. Auerbachs concerns were rooted in the German philological tradition, his works on the history of style analyzed literary form within social history, Jameson would follow in these steps, examining the articulation of poetry, history, philology, and philosophy in the works of Jean-Paul Sartre. Jamesons work focused on the relation between the style of Sartres writings and the political and ethical positions of his existentialist philosophy, the occasional Marxian aspects of Sartres work were glossed over in this book, Jameson would return to them in the following decade. Jamesons dissertation, though it drew on a tradition of European cultural analysis. It nevertheless earned Jameson a position at Harvard University, where he taught during the first half of the 1960s and his interest in Sartre led Jameson to intense study of Marxist literary theory. This position represented a break with more orthodox Marxism-Leninism, which held a view of historical materialism. In some ways Jameson has been concerned, along with other Marxist cultural critics such as Terry Eagleton, to articulate Marxisms relevance in respect to current philosophical and literary trends. In 1969, Jameson co-founded the Marxist Literary Group with a number of his students at the University of California. History came to play a central role in Jamesons interpretation of both the reading and writing of literary texts. The Political Unconscious takes as its not the literary text itself. It emerges as a manifesto for new activity concerning literary narrative, the books argument emphasized history as the ultimate horizon of literary and cultural analysis. It borrowed notions from the structuralist tradition and from Raymond Williamss work in cultural studies, Jamesons readings exploited both the explicit formal and thematic choices of the writer and the unconscious framework guiding these
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