1.
Penny (United States coin)
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The United States one-cent coin often called penny, is a unit of currency equaling one-hundredth of a United States dollar. Its obverse has featured the profile of President Abraham Lincoln since 1909, from 1959 to 2008, the reverse featured the Lincoln Memorial. Four different reverse designs in 2009 honored Lincolns 200th birthday and a new, the coin is 0.75 inches in diameter and 0.0598 inches in thickness. Its weight has varied, depending upon the composition of metals used in its production, Mints official name for the coin is cent and the U. S. Treasurys official name is one cent piece. The colloquial term penny derives from the British coin of the same name, in American English, pennies is the plural form. Although the coins abolition has been proposed because it is now very little. As of 2015, based on the U. S. Mint Annual Report released for 2014, it costs the U. S. Mint 1.67 cents to one cent because of the cost of materials, production. This figure includes the Mints fixed components for distribution and fabrication, fixed costs and overhead would have to be absorbed by other circulating coins without the penny. The loss from producing the one cent coin in the United States for the year of 2013 was $55,000,000 and this was a slight decrease from 2012, the year before, which had a production loss of $58,000,000. In honor of Lincolns 200th anniversary, special 2009 cents were minted for collectors in the composition as the 1909 coins. In 1943, at the peak of World War II, zinc-coated steel cents were made for a time because of war demands for copper. A few copper cents from 1943 were produced from the 1942 planchets remaining in the bins, similarly, some 1944 steel cents have been confirmed. During the early 1970s, the price of copper rose to the point where the cent contained almost one cents worth of copper and this led the Mint to test alternative metals, including aluminum and bronze-clad steel. Aluminum was chosen, and over 1.5 million of these pennies were struck, One aluminum cent was donated to the Smithsonian Institution. The cents composition was changed in 1982 because the value of the copper in the coin started to rise above one cent, some 1982 pennies used the 97. 5% zinc composition, while others used the 95% copper composition. With the exception of 2009 bicentennial cents minted specifically for collectors, in Fiscal Year 2013, the average one-cent piece minted cost the U. S. Mint 1.83 cents, down from 2.41 cents apiece in FY2011. The bronze and copper cents can be distinguished from the newer zinc cents by dropping the coins on a solid surface, the predominantly copper coins produce a higher-pitched ringing sound, while the zinc coins make a lower-pitched clunk. The coin has gone through several designs over its time frame
2.
Copper
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Copper is a chemical element with symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of copper has a reddish-orange color. Copper is one of the few metals that occur in nature in directly usable metallic form as opposed to needing extraction from an ore and this led to very early human use, from c.8000 BC. Copper used in buildings, usually for roofing, oxidizes to form a green verdigris, Copper is sometimes used in decorative art, both in its elemental metal form and in compounds as pigments. Copper compounds are used as agents, fungicides, and wood preservatives. Copper is essential to all living organisms as a trace dietary mineral because it is a key constituent of the enzyme complex cytochrome c oxidase. In molluscs and crustaceans, copper is a constituent of the blood pigment hemocyanin, replaced by the hemoglobin in fish. In humans, copper is found mainly in the liver, muscle, the adult body contains between 1.4 and 2.1 mg of copper per kilogram of body weight. The filled d-shells in these elements contribute little to interatomic interactions, unlike metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in copper are lacking a covalent character and are relatively weak. This observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of copper, at the macroscopic scale, introduction of extended defects to the crystal lattice, such as grain boundaries, hinders flow of the material under applied stress, thereby increasing its hardness. For this reason, copper is supplied in a fine-grained polycrystalline form. The softness of copper partly explains its high conductivity and high thermal conductivity. The maximum permissible current density of copper in open air is approximately 3. 1×106 A/m2 of cross-sectional area, Copper is one of a few metallic elements with a natural color other than gray or silver. Pure copper is orange-red and acquires a reddish tarnish when exposed to air, as with other metals, if copper is put in contact with another metal, galvanic corrosion will occur. A green layer of verdigris can often be seen on old structures, such as the roofing of many older buildings. Copper tarnishes when exposed to sulfur compounds, with which it reacts to form various copper sulfides. There are 29 isotopes of copper, 63Cu and 65Cu are stable, with 63Cu comprising approximately 69% of naturally occurring copper, both have a spin of 3⁄2
3.
Salt (chemistry)
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In chemistry, a salt is an ionic compound that results from the neutralization reaction of an acid and a base. Salts are composed of related numbers of cations and anions so that the product is electrically neutral and these component ions can be inorganic, such as chloride, or organic, such as acetate, and can be monatomic, such as fluoride, or polyatomic, such as sulfate. There are several varieties of salts, salts that hydrolyze to produce hydroxide ions when dissolved in water are alkali salts, whilst those that hydrolyze to produce hydronium ions in water are acidic salts. Neutral salts are those salts that are neither acidic nor basic, zwitterions contain an anionic centre and a cationic centre in the same molecule, but are not considered to be salts. Examples of zwitterions include amino acids, many metabolites, peptides, usually, non-dissolved salts at standard conditions for temperature and pressure are solid, but there are exceptions. Molten salts and solutions containing dissolved salts are called electrolytes, as they are able to conduct electricity. As observed in the cytoplasm of cells, in blood, urine, plant saps and mineral waters, therefore, their salt content is given for the respective ions. Salts can appear to be clear and transparent, opaque, and even metallic, in many cases, the apparent opacity or transparency are only related to the difference in size of the individual monocrystals. Since light reflects from the boundaries, larger crystals tend to be transparent. The color of the salt is due to the electronic structure in the d-orbitals of transition elements or in the conjugated organic dye framework. Different salts can elicit all five basic tastes, e. g. salty, sweet, sour, bitter, and umami or savory. Salts of strong acids and strong bases are non-volatile and odorless and that slow, partial decomposition is usually accelerated by the presence of water, since hydrolysis is the other half of the reversible reaction equation of formation of weak salts. Many ionic compounds can be dissolved in water or other similar solvents, the exact combination of ions involved makes each compound have a unique solubility in any solvent. The solubility is dependent on how well each ion interacts with the solvent, for example, all salts of sodium, potassium and ammonium are soluble in water, as are all nitrates and many sulfates – barium sulfate, calcium sulfate and lead sulfate are examples of exceptions. However, ions that bind tightly to each other and form highly stable lattices are less soluble, for example, most carbonate salts are not soluble in water, such as lead carbonate and barium carbonate. Some soluble carbonate salts are, sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate, solid salts do not conduct electricity. Moreover, solutions of salts also conduct electricity, the name of a salt starts with the name of the cation followed by the name of the anion. Salts are often referred to only by the name of the cation or by the name of the anion. g
4.
Potassium
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Potassium is a chemical element with symbol K and atomic number 19. It was first isolated from potash, the ashes of plants, in the periodic table, potassium is one of the alkali metals. Potassium in nature only in ionic salts. It is found dissolved in sea water, and is part of many minerals, naturally occurring potassium is composed of three isotopes, of which 40K is radioactive. Traces of 40K are found in all potassium, and it is the most common radioisotope in the human body, Potassium is chemically very similar to sodium, the previous element in Group 1 of the periodic table. They have a similar energy, which allows for each atom to give up its sole outer electron. That they are different elements combine with the same anions to make similar salts was suspected in 1702. Most industrial applications of potassium exploit the high solubility in water of potassium compounds, heavy crop production rapidly depletes the soil of potassium, and this can be remedied with agricultural fertilizers containing potassium, accounting for 95% of global potassium chemical production. Potassium ions are necessary for the function of all living cells, fresh fruits and vegetables are good dietary sources of potassium. Potassium is the second least dense metal after lithium and it is a soft solid with a low melting point, and can be easily cut with a knife. Freshly cut potassium is silvery in appearance, but it begins to tarnish toward gray immediately on exposure to air, in a flame test, potassium and its compounds emit a lilac color with a peak emission wavelength of 766.5 nanometers. Neutral potassium atoms have 19 electrons, one more than the stable configuration of the noble gas argon. This process requires so little energy that potassium is readily oxidized by atmospheric oxygen, in contrast, the second ionization energy is very high, because removal of two electrons breaks the stable noble gas electronic configuration. Potassium therefore does not readily form compounds with the state of +2 or higher. Potassium is an active metal that reacts violently with oxygen in water. With oxygen it forms potassium peroxide, and with water potassium forms potassium hydroxide, the reaction of potassium with water is dangerous because of its violent exothermic character and the production of hydrogen gas. Hydrogen reacts again with atmospheric oxygen, producing water, which reacts with the remaining potassium and this reaction requires only traces of water, because of this, potassium and the liquid sodium-potassium — NaK — are potent desiccants that can be used to dry solvents prior to distillation. Because of the sensitivity of potassium to water and air, reactions with other elements are only in an inert atmosphere such as argon gas using air-free techniques
5.
Tonne
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The SI symbol for the tonne is t, adopted at the same time as the unit itself in 1879. Its use is also official, for the metric ton, within the United States, having been adopted by the US National Institute of Standards and it is a symbol, not an abbreviation, and should not be followed by a period. Informal and non-approved symbols or abbreviations include T, mT, MT, in French and all English-speaking countries that are predominantly metric, tonne is the correct spelling. Before metrication in the UK the unit used for most purposes was the Imperial ton of 2,240 pounds avoirdupois, equivalent to 1,016 kg, differing by just 1. 6% from the tonne. Ton and tonne are both derived from a Germanic word in use in the North Sea area since the Middle Ages to designate a large cask. A full tun, standing about a high, could easily weigh a tonne. An English tun of wine weighs roughly a tonne,954 kg if full of water, in the United States, the unit was originally referred to using the French words millier or tonneau, but these terms are now obsolete. The Imperial and US customary units comparable to the tonne are both spelled ton in English, though they differ in mass, one tonne is equivalent to, Metric/SI,1 megagram. Equal to 1000000 grams or 1000 kilograms, megagram, Mg, is the official SI unit. Mg is distinct from mg, milligram, pounds, Exactly 1000/0. 453 592 37 lb, or approximately 2204.622622 lb. US/Short tons, Exactly 1/0. 907 184 74 short tons, or approximately 1.102311311 ST. One short ton is exactly 0.90718474 t, imperial/Long tons, Exactly 1/1. 016 046 9088 long tons, or approximately 0.9842065276 LT. One long ton is exactly 1.0160469088 t, for multiples of the tonne, it is more usual to speak of thousands or millions of tonnes. Kilotonne, megatonne, and gigatonne are more used for the energy of nuclear explosions and other events. When used in context, there is little need to distinguish between metric and other tons, and the unit is spelt either as ton or tonne with the relevant prefix attached. *The equivalent units columns use the short scale large-number naming system used in most English-language countries. †Values in the equivalent short and long tons columns are rounded to five significant figures, ǂThough non-standard, the symbol kt is also sometimes used for knot, a unit of speed for sea-going vessels, and should not be confused with kilotonne. A metric ton unit can mean 10 kilograms within metal trading and it traditionally referred to a metric ton of ore containing 1% of metal. In the case of uranium, the acronym MTU is sometimes considered to be metric ton of uranium, in the petroleum industry the tonne of oil equivalent is a unit of energy, the amount of energy released by burning one tonne of crude oil, approximately 42 GJ
6.
Fertilizer
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A fertilizer or fertiliser is any material of natural or synthetic origin that is applied to soils or to plant tissues to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants. Fertilizers enhance the growth of plants and this goal is met in two ways, the traditional one being additives that provide nutrients. The second mode by which some fertilizers act is to enhance the effectiveness of the soil by modifying its water retention and aeration and this article, like many on fertilizers, emphasises the nutritional aspect. The nutrients required for plant life are classified according to the elements. Instead compounds containing these elements are the basis of fertilizers, the macronutrients are consumed in larger quantities and are present in plant tissue in quantities from 0. 15% to 6. 0% on a dry matter basis. Plants are made up of four elements, hydrogen, oxygen, carbon. Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are widely available as water and carbon dioxide, although nitrogen makes up most of the atmosphere, it is in a form that is unavailable to plants. Nitrogen is the most important fertilizer since nitrogen is present in proteins, DNA, to be nutritious to plants, nitrogen must be made available in a fixed form. Only some bacteria and their host plants can fix atmospheric nitrogen by converting it to ammonia, phosphate is required for the production of DNA and ATP, the main energy carrier in cells, as well as certain lipids. Micronutrients are consumed in quantities and are present in plant tissue on the order of parts-per-million, ranging from 0.15 to 400 ppm DM. These elements are present at the active sites of enzymes that carry out the plants metabolism. Because these elements enable catalysts their impact far exceeds their weight percentage, Fertilizers are classified in several ways. They are classified according to whether they provide a single nutrient, multinutrient fertilizers provide two or more nutrients, for example N and P. Fertilizers are also sometimes classified as inorganic versus organic. Inorganic fertilizers exclude carbon-containing materials except ureas, organic fertilizers are usually plant- or animal-derived matter. Inorganic are sometimes called synthetic fertilizers since various chemical treatments are required for their manufacture, the main nitrogen-based straight fertilizer is ammonia or its solutions. Ammonium nitrate is widely used. Urea is another source of nitrogen, having the advantage that it is solid and non-explosive, unlike ammonia and ammonium nitrate. A few percent of the fertilizer market has been met by calcium ammonium nitrate
7.
Electrolysis
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In chemistry and manufacturing, electrolysis is a technique that uses a direct electric current to drive an otherwise non-spontaneous chemical reaction. Electrolysis is commercially important as a stage in the separation of elements from naturally occurring sources such as using an electrolytic cell. The voltage that is needed for electrolysis to occur is called the decomposition potential, nevertheless, electrolysis, as a tool to study chemical reactions and obtain pure elements, precedes the coinage of the term and formal description by Faraday. 1785 – Martinus van Marums electrostatic generator was used to reduce tin, zinc,1800 – William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle, decomposed water into hydrogen and oxygen. 1808 – Potassium, sodium, barium, calcium and magnesium were discovered by Sir Humphry Davy using electrolysis,1821 – Lithium was discovered by the English chemist William Thomas Brande, who obtained it by electrolysis of lithium oxide. 1833 – Michael Faraday develops his two laws of electrolysis, and provides an explanation of his laws. 1875 – Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran discovered gallium using electrolysis,1886 – Fluorine was discovered by Henri Moissan using electrolysis. The main components required to achieve electrolysis are, An electrolyte, a substance, frequently an ion-conducting polymer that contains free ions, if the ions are not mobile, as in a solid salt then electrolysis cannot occur. A direct current electrical supply, provides the necessary to create or discharge the ions in the electrolyte. Electric current is carried by electrons in the external circuit, two electrodes, electrical conductors that provide the physical interface between the electrolyte and the electrical circuit that provides the energy. Electrodes of metal, graphite and semiconductor material are widely used, choice of suitable electrode depends on chemical reactivity between the electrode and electrolyte and manufacturing cost. The key process of electrolysis is the interchange of atoms and ions by the removal or addition of electrons from the external circuit, the desired products of electrolysis are often in a different physical state from the electrolyte and can be removed by some physical processes. For example, in the electrolysis of brine to produce hydrogen and chlorine and these gaseous products bubble from the electrolyte and are collected. Each electrode attracts ions that are of the opposite charge, positively charged ions move towards the electron-providing cathode. Negatively charged ions move towards the electron-extracting anode, in this process electrons are either absorbed or released. Neutral atoms gain or lose electrons and become charged ions that pass into the electrolyte. The formation of uncharged atoms from ions is called discharging, when an ion gains or loses enough electrons to become uncharged atoms, the newly formed atoms separate from the electrolyte. Positive metal ions like Cu++ deposit onto the cathode in a layer, the terms for this are electroplating, electrowinning, and electrorefining
8.
Potassium hydroxide
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Potassium hydroxide is an inorganic compound with the formula KOH, and is commonly called caustic potash. Along with sodium hydroxide, this solid is a prototypical strong base. It has many industrial and niche applications, most of which exploit its corrosive nature, an estimated 700,000 to 800,000 tonnes were produced in 2005. Approximately 100 times more NaOH than KOH is produced annually, KOH is noteworthy as the precursor to most soft and liquid soaps as well as numerous potassium-containing chemicals. Potassium hydroxide can be found in form by reacting sodium hydroxide with impure potassium. It is usually sold as translucent pellets, which will become tacky in air because KOH is hygroscopic, consequently, KOH typically contains varying amounts of water. Its dissolution in water is strongly exothermic, concentrated aqueous solutions are sometimes called potassium lyes. Even at high temperatures, solid KOH does not dehydrate readily, potassium hydroxide solutions with concentrations of approximately 0.5 to 2. 0% are irritating when coming into contact with the skin, while concentrations higher than 2% are corrosive. At higher temperatures, solid KOH crystallizes in the NaCl crystal structure, the OH group is either rapidly or randomly disordered so that the OH− group is effectively a spherical anion of radius 1.53 Å. At room temperature, the OH− groups are ordered and the environment about the K+ centers is distorted, with K+—OH− distances ranging from 2.69 to 3.15 Å, depending on the orientation of the OH group. KOH forms a series of crystalline hydrates, namely the monohydrate KOH·H 2O, the dihydrate KOH·2 H 2O, approximately 121 g of KOH will dissolve in 100 mL of water at room temperature compared with 100 g of NaOH in the same volume. Lower molecular weight alcohols such as methanol, ethanol, and propanols are also excellent solvents, because of its high affinity for water, KOH serves as a desiccant in the laboratory. It is often used to dry basic solvents, especially amines and pyridines, like NaOH, KOH exhibits high thermal stability. Because of its stability and relatively low melting point, it is often melt-cast as pellets or rods, forms that have low surface area. KOH is highly basic, forming strongly alkaline solutions in water and other polar solvents and these solutions are capable of deprotonating many acids, even weak ones. In analytical chemistry, titrations using solutions of KOH are used to assay acids, KOH, like NaOH, serves as a source of OH−, a highly nucleophilic anion that attacks polar bonds in both inorganic and organic materials. In perhaps its most well-known reaction, aqueous KOH saponifies esters, KOH + RCO2R → RCO2K + ROH When R is a long chain and this reaction is manifested by the greasy feel that KOH gives when touched — fats on the skin are rapidly converted to soap and glycerol. Molten KOH is used to displace halides and other leaving groups, the reaction is especially useful for aromatic reagents to give the corresponding phenols
9.
Potassium chloride
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Potassium chloride is a metal halide salt composed of potassium and chloride. It is odorless and has a white or colorless vitreous crystal appearance, the solid dissolves readily in water and its solutions have a salt-like taste. KCl is used as a fertilizer, in medicine, scientific applications, food processing and it occurs naturally as the mineral sylvite and in combination with sodium chloride as sylvinite. The version for injection is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, the majority of the potassium chloride produced is used for making fertilizer, since the growth of many plants is limited by their potassium intake. As a chemical feedstock, it is used for the manufacture of potassium hydroxide and it is also used in medicine, lethal injections, scientific applications, food processing, and as a sodium-free substitute for table salt for persons concerned about the health effects of sodium. Potassium is vital in the body, and potassium chloride by mouth is the common means to treat low blood potassium. It can be used as a substitute for food, but due to its weak, bitter, unsalty flavor. The addition of 1 ppm of thaumatin considerably reduces this bitterness, complaints of bitterness or a chemical or metallic taste are also reported with potassium chloride used in food. It is sometimes used in water as a fluid in petroleum and natural gas operations. KCl is useful as a radiation source for calibration of radiation monitoring equipment. One kilogram of KCl yields 16350 becquerels of radiation consisting of 89. 28% beta and 10. 72% gamma with 1.46083 MeV. Potassium chloride is used in some de-icing products that are designed to be safer for pets and plants and it is also used in various brands of bottled water, as well as in bulk quantities for fossil fuel drilling purposes. Potassium chloride was used as a fire extinguishing agent, used in portable. Known as Super-K dry chemical, it was more effective than sodium bicarbonate-based dry chemicals and was compatible with protein foam and this agent fell out of favor with the introduction of potassium bicarbonate dry chemical in the late 1960s, which was much less corrosive and more effective. It is rated for B and C fires, along with sodium chloride and lithium chloride, potassium chloride is used as a flux for the gas welding of aluminium. Potassium chloride is also a crystal with a wide transmission range from 210 nm to 20 µm. While cheap, KCl crystal is hygroscopic and this limits its application to protected environments or short-term uses such as prototyping. Exposed to free air, KCl optics will rot, whereas KCl components were formerly used for infrared optics, it has been entirely replaced by much tougher crystals such as zinc selenide
10.
Potassium carbonate
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Potassium carbonate is a white salt, soluble in water which forms a strongly alkaline solution. It can be made as the product of potassium hydroxides absorbent reaction with carbon dioxide and it is deliquescent, often appearing a damp or wet solid. Potassium carbonate is used in the production of soap and glass, Potassium carbonate is the primary component of potash and the more refined pearl ash or salts of tartar. Historically, pearl ash was created by baking potash in a kiln to remove impurities, the fine, white powder remaining was the pearl ash. The first patent issued by the US Patent Office was awarded to Samuel Hopkins in 1790 for a method of making potash. In late 18th century North America, before the development of baking powder, today, potassium carbonate is prepared commercially by the electrolysis of potassium chloride. The resulting potassium hydroxide is then carbonated using carbon dioxide to form potassium carbonate, 2KOH + CO2 → K2CO3 + H2O for soap, glass, and china production as a mild drying agent where other drying agents, such as calcium chloride and magnesium sulfate, may be incompatible. It is not suitable for acidic compounds, but can be useful for drying an organic phase if one has an amount of acidic impurity. It may also be used to dry some ketones, alcohols, in cuisine, where it has many traditional uses. It is an ingredient in the production of grass jelly, a food consumed in Chinese and Southeast Asian cuisines, as well as Chinese noodles and it is used to tenderize tripe. German gingerbread recipes often use potassium carbonate as a baking agent and it is however important that the right quantities are used to prevent harm, and cooks should not use it without guidance. In the production of powder to balance the pH of natural cocoa beans. As a fire suppressant in extinguishing deep-fat fryers and various other B class-related fires, in condensed aerosol fire suppression, although as the byproduct of potassium nitrate. As an ingredient in welding fluxes, and in the coating on arc-welding rods. as an aid to stability in neurons helping to maintain equilibrium. As an animal feed ingredient to satisfy the requirements of farmed animals such as broiler breeders. A Dictionary of Science, Oxford University Press, New York,2004 International Chemical Safety Card 1588
11.
Wood ash
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Wood ash is the residue powder left after the combustion of wood, such as burning wood in a home fireplace or an industrial power plant. It is used traditionally by gardeners as a source of potash. Many studies have been conducted regarding the composition of wood ash. Some quote calcium carbonate as the constituent, others find no carbonate at all. Some show as much as twelve percent iron oxide while others show none, a comprehensive set of analyses of wood ash composition from many tree species has been carried out by Emil Wolff, among others. Several factors have a impact on the composition, Fly ash, Some studies include the solids escaping via the flue during combustion. Temperature of combustion produces two direct effects, Dissociation, Conversion of carbonates, sulfides, etc. to oxides results in no carbon, sulfur, carbonates, Some metallic oxides even dissociate to their elemental state and/or vaporize completely at wood fire temperatures. Volatilization, In studies in which the fly ash is not measured, experimental process, If the ashes are exposed to the environment between combustion and the analysis, oxides may convert back to carbonates by reacting with carbon dioxide in the air. Type, age, and growing environment of the wood stock affect the composition of the wood, typically between 0.43 and 1.82 percent of the mass of burned wood results in ash. Also the conditions of the affect the composition and amount of the residue ash. Much wood ash contains calcium carbonate as its major component, representing 25 or even 45 percent, less than 10 percent is potash, and less than 1 percent phosphate, there are trace elements of iron, manganese, zinc, copper and some heavy metals. However, these numbers vary, as temperature is an important variable in determining wood ash composition. All of these are, primarily, in the form of oxides, wood ash can be used as an organic fertilizer used to enrich agricultural soil nutrition. In this role, wood ash serves a source of potassium and calcium carbonate, wood ash can also be used as an amendment for organic hydroponic solutions, generally replacing inorganic compounds containing calcium, potassium, magnesium and phosphorus. Because wood ash has a high content, it can be used as an odor control agent. Wood ash has a long history of being used in ceramic glazes, particularly in the Chinese, Japanese and Korean traditions. It acts as a flux, reducing the melting point of the glaze, potassium hydroxide can be made directly from wood ash and in this form, is known as caustic potash or lye. Because of this property, wood ash has also traditionally used to make wood-ash soap
12.
Leaching (chemistry)
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Leaching is the process of extracting substances from a solid by dissolving them in a liquid, either in nature or through an industrial process. In the chemical processing industry, leaching has a variety of applications, including separation of metal from ore using acid. Another term for this is lixiviation, or the extraction of a particle from its constituent parts. In a typical leaching operation, the mixture to be separated consists of particles, inert insoluble carrier A. The solvent, C, is added to the mixture to selectively dissolve B, the overflow from the stage is free of solids and consists of only solvent C and dissolved B. The underflow consists of slurry of liquid of similar composition in the liquid overflow, in an ideal leaching equilibrium stage, all the solute is dissolved by the solvent, none of the carrier is dissolved. The mass ratio of the solid to liquid in the underflow is dependent on the type of equipment used, the process itself is universal, as any material exposed to contact with water will leach components from its surface or its interior depending on the porosity of the material considered. One such reaction is, Ag2S + 4NaCN → 2Na + Na2S Many biological organic and inorganic substances occur in a mixture of different components in a solid. In order to separate the desired solute constituent or remove an undesirable solute component from the solid phase, the solid and liquid are in contact and the solute or solutes can diffuse from the solid into the solvent, resulting in separation of the components originally in the solid. This separation process is called liquid-solid leaching or simply leaching, because in leaching the solute is being extracted from the solid this is also called extraction. In leaching, when a component is removed from a solid with water. In the biological and food processing industries, many products are separated from their original structure by liquid-solid leaching. An important process for example is the leaching of sugar from sugar beets with hot water, in the production of vegetable oils, organic solvents such as hexane, acetone, and/or ether are used to extract oil from nuts, beans and seeds. In the pharmaceutical industry, many different pharmaceutical products are obtained by leaching plant roots, leaves, leaching is extensively used in metal processing industries. The useful metal may occur in mixtures with very large amounts of undesirable constituents, the use of acids is prevalent in the metal processing industry. Sulfates are normally used to remove metals from the solid phase and these processes result in harmful sulfate-rich environmental byproducts. Because acids solubilize metals, large-scale release of heavy-metal-rich acidic mine drainage can thereby occur, as mentioned above when leaching a solid with a liquid the desired solid goes to the liquid phase while undesired solid remains. The removal of the solid as the liquid dissolves into the particle leads to a diameter of unleached core that shrinks with time
13.
Potassium sulfate
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Potassium sulfate is a non-flammable white crystalline salt which is soluble in water. The chemical compound is used in fertilizers, providing both potassium and sulfur. Potassium sulfate has been known since early in the 14th century, and it was studied by Glauber, Boyle, in the 17th century, it was named arcanuni or sal duplicatum, as it was a combination of an acid salt with an alkaline salt. It was also known as vitriolic tartar and Glasers salt or sal polychrestum Glaseri after the pharmaceutical chemist Christopher Glaser who prepared it, the mineral form of potassium sulfate, arcanite, is relatively rare. Natural resources of potassium sulfate are minerals abundant in the Stassfurt salt and these are cocrystallizations of potassium sulfate and sulfates of magnesium calcium and sodium. Kieserite, MgSO4·H2O, can be combined with a solution of chloride to produce potassium sulfate. Approximately 1.5 million tons were produced in 1985, typically by the reaction of chloride with sulfuric acid. SO2 is produced through the burning of sulfur, orthorhombic β-K2SO4 is the common form, but it converts to α-K2SO4 above 583 °C. These structures are complex, although the sulfate adopts the typical tetrahedral geometry and it does not form a hydrate, unlike sodium sulfate. The salt crystallize as double six-sided pyramids, classified as rhombic and they are transparent, very hard and have a bitter, salty taste. The salt is soluble in water, but insoluble in solutions of potassium hydroxide, the dominant use of potassium sulfate is as a fertilizer. K2SO4 does not contain chloride, which can be harmful to some crops, potassium sulfate is preferred for these crops, which include tobacco and some fruits and vegetables. Crops that are sensitive may still require potassium sulfate for optimal growth if the soil accumulates chloride from irrigation water. The crude salt is used occasionally in the manufacture of glass. Potassium sulfate is used as a flash reducer in artillery propellant charges. It reduces muzzle flash, flareback and blast overpressure and it is sometimes used as an alternative blast media similar to soda in soda blasting as it is harder and similarly water-soluble. Potassium hydrogen sulfate, KHSO4, is produced by reacting K2SO4 with sulfuric acid. It forms rhombic pyramids, which melt at 197 °C and it dissolves in three parts of water at 0 °C
14.
Potassium nitrate
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Potassium nitrate is a chemical compound with the chemical formula KNO3. It is a salt of potassium ions K+ and nitrate ions NO3−. It occurs as a mineral niter and is a solid source of nitrogen. Potassium nitrate is one of several nitrogen-containing compounds collectively referred to as saltpeter or saltpetre, major uses of potassium nitrate are in fertilizers, tree stump removal, rocket propellants and fireworks. It is one of the constituents of gunpowder and has been used since the Middle Ages as a food preservative. Potassium nitrate, because of its early and global use and production, has many names, by the 15th century, Europeans referred to it as saltpeter and later as nitrate of potash, as the chemistry of the compound was more fully understood. The Arabs called it Chinese snow and it was called Chinese salt by the Iranians/Persians or salt from Chinese salt marshes. Potassium nitrate has a crystal structure at room temperature, which transforms to a trigonal system at 129 °C. Potassium nitrate is soluble in water, but its solubility increases with temperature. The aqueous solution is almost neutral, exhibiting pH6.2 at 14 °C for a 10% solution of commercial powder and it is not very hygroscopic, absorbing about 0. 03% water in 80% relative humidity over 50 days. It is insoluble in alcohol and is not poisonous, it can react explosively with reducing agents and this was used for the manufacture of gunpowder and explosive devices. The terminology used by al-Rammah indicated a Chinese origin for the gunpowder weapons about which he wrote, at least as far back as 1845, Chilean saltpeter deposits were exploited in Chile and California, USA. A major natural source of nitrate was the deposits crystallizing from cave walls. Extraction is accomplished by immersing the guano in water for a day, filtering, traditionally, guano was the source used in Laos for the manufacture of gunpowder for Bang Fai rockets. Perhaps the most exhaustive discussion of the production of material is the 1862 LeConte text. He was writing with the purpose of increasing production in the Confederate States to support their needs during the American Civil War. Since he was calling for the assistance of rural farming communities and he details the French Method, along with several variations, as well as a Swiss method. Many references have been made to a method using only straw and urine, LeConte describes a process using only urine and not dung, referring to it as the Swiss method
15.
Potassium chlorate
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Potassium chlorate is a compound containing potassium, chlorine and oxygen atoms, with the molecular formula KClO3. In its pure form, it is a crystalline substance. It is the most common chlorate in industrial use, on the industrial scale, potassium chlorate is produced by the Liebig process, passing chlorine into hot calcium hydroxide, subsequently adding potassium chloride. The low solubility of KClO3 in water causes the salt to conveniently isolate itself from the mixture by simply precipitating out of solution. It continues in that application, where not supplanted by potassium perchlorate, chlorate-based propellants are more efficient than traditional gunpowder and are less susceptible to damage by water. However, they can be unstable in the presence of sulfur or phosphorus and are much more expensive. Chlorate propellants must be used only in equipment designed for them, potassium chlorate, often in combination with silver fulminate, is used in trick noise-makers known as crackers, snappers, pop-its, or bang-snaps, a popular type of novelty firework. Another application of potassium chlorate is as the oxidizer in a composition such as that used in smoke grenades. Since 2005, a cartridge with potassium chlorate mixed with lactose, potassium chlorate is often used in high school and college laboratories to generate oxygen gas. It is a far cheaper source than a pressurized or cryogenic oxygen tank, potassium chlorate readily decomposes if heated while in contact with a catalyst, typically manganese dioxide. Thus, it may be placed in a test tube. If the test tube is equipped with a stopper and hose. Molten potassium chlorate is a powerful oxidizer and spontaneously reacts with many common materials such as sugar. Explosions have resulted from liquid chlorates spattering into the latex or PVC tubes of oxygen generators, impurities in potassium chlorate itself can also cause problems. When working with a new batch of potassium chlorate, it is advisable to take a small sample, contamination may cause this small quantity to explode, indicating that the chlorate should be discarded. Potassium chlorate is used in chemical oxygen generators, employed as oxygen-supply systems of e. g. aircraft, space stations, and submarines, a fire on the space station Mir was also traced to this substance. The decomposition of potassium chlorate was also used to provide the oxygen supply for limelights, potassium chlorate is used also as a pesticide. In Finland it was sold under trade name Fegabit, in schools, molten potassium chlorate is used in the dramatic screaming jelly babies demonstration
16.
Potassium permanganate
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Potassium permanganate is an inorganic chemical compound and medication. As a medication it is used for cleaning wounds and dermatitis and it has the chemical formula KMnO4 and is a salt consisting of K+ and MnO−4 ions. It is an oxidizing agent. It dissolves in water to give intensely pink or purple solutions, in 2000, worldwide production was estimated at 30,000 tonnes. In this compound, manganese is in the +7 oxidation state and it is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines, the most important medications needed in a basic health system. The wholesale cost in the world is about 0.01 USD per gram of powder. In the United Kingdom a 400 milligram tablet costs the NHS roughly £0.51, almost all applications of potassium permanganate exploit its oxidizing properties. As a strong oxidant that does not generate toxic byproducts, KMnO4 has many niche uses, as an oxidant, potassium permanganate can act as an antiseptic. For example, dilute solutions are used to treat sores, disinfectant for the hands and treatment for mild pompholyx, dermatitis. Potassium permanganate is used extensively in the treatment industry. It is used as a chemical to remove iron and hydrogen sulfide from well water via a Manganese Greensand Filter. Pot-Perm is also obtainable at pool supply stores and is used additionally to treat waste water, historically it was used to disinfect drinking water and can turn the water pink. It currently finds application in the control of nuisance organisms such as zebra mussels in fresh water collection, aside from its use in water treatment, the other major application of KMnO4 is as a reagent for the synthesis of organic compounds. Significant amounts are required for the synthesis of ascorbic acid, chloramphenicol, saccharin, isonicotinic acid, potassium permanganate can be used to quantitatively determine the total oxidisable organic material in an aqueous sample. The value determined is known as the permanganate value, in analytical chemistry, a standardized aqueous solution of KMnO4 is sometimes used as an oxidizing titrant for redox titrations. In a related way, it is used as a reagent to determine the Kappa number of wood pulp, for the standardization of KMnO4 solutions, reduction by oxalic acid is often used. Aqueous, acidic solutions of KMnO4 are used to collect gaseous mercury in flue gas during stationary source emissions testing, in histology, potassium permanganate was used as a bleaching agent. Ethylene absorbents extend storage time of bananas even at high temperatures and this effect can be exploited by packing bananas in polyethylene together with potassium permanganate
17.
Evaporite
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Evaporite is a name for a water-soluble mineral sediment that results from concentration and crystallization by evaporation from an aqueous solution. There are two types of deposits, marine, which can also be described as ocean deposits, and non-marine. Evaporites are considered sedimentary rocks and are formed by chemical sediments, although all water bodies on the surface and in aquifers contain dissolved salts, the water must evaporate into the atmosphere for the minerals to precipitate. For this to happen, the body must enter a restricted environment where water input into this environment remains below the net rate of evaporation. This is usually an arid environment with a basin fed by a limited input of water. When evaporation occurs, the water is enriched in salts. Marine evaporites tend to have thicker deposits and are usually the focus of extensive research. They also have a system of evaporation, when scientists evaporate ocean water in a laboratory, the minerals are deposited in a defined order that was first demonstrated by Usiglio in 1884. The first phase of the experiment begins when about 50% of the water depth remains. At this point, minor carbonates begin to form, the next phase in the sequence comes when the experiment is left with about 20% of its original level. At this point, the mineral gypsum begins to form, which is followed by halite at 10%. Kieserite may also be included, which often make up less than four percent of the overall content. However, there are approximately 80 different minerals that have been reported found in evaporite deposits, common minerals that are found in these deposits include blödite, borax, epsomite, gaylussite, glauberite, mirabilite, thenardite and trona. Non-marine deposits may also contain halite, gypsum, and anhydrite and this, however, does not make non-marine deposits any less important, these deposits often help to paint a picture into past Earth climates. Some particular deposits even show important tectonic and climatic changes and these deposits also may contain important minerals that help in todays economy. Thick non-marine deposits that tend to form where evaporation rates will exceed the inflow rate. The inflow also has to occur in a basin, or one with restricted outflow, so that the sediment has time to pool. Primary examples of this are called saline lake deposits, examples of modern non-marine depositional environments include the Great Salt Lake in Utah and the Dead Sea, which lies between Jordan and Israel
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Amine
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In organic chemistry, amines are compounds and functional groups that contain a basic nitrogen atom with a lone pair. Amines are formally derivatives of ammonia, wherein one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by a substituent such as an alkyl or aryl group, important amines include amino acids, biogenic amines, trimethylamine, and aniline, see Category, Amines for a list of amines. Inorganic derivatives of ammonia are also called amines, such as chloramine, see Category, compounds with a nitrogen atom attached to a carbonyl group, thus having the structure R–CO–NR′R″, are called amides and have different chemical properties from amines. An aliphatic amine has no aromatic ring attached directly to the nitrogen atom, aromatic amines have the nitrogen atom connected to an aromatic ring as in the various anilines. The aromatic ring decreases the alkalinity of the amine, depending on its substituents, the presence of an amine group strongly increases the reactivity of the aromatic ring, due to an electron-donating effect. Amines are organized into four subcategories, Primary amines — Primary amines arise when one of three atoms in ammonia is replaced by an alkyl or aromatic. Important primary alkyl amines include, methylamine, most amino acids, Secondary amines — Secondary amines have two organic substituents bound to the nitrogen together with one hydrogen. Important representatives include dimethylamine, while an example of an aromatic amine would be diphenylamine, tertiary amines — In tertiary amines, nitrogen has three organic substituents. Examples include trimethylamine, which has a fishy smell. Cyclic amines — Cyclic amines are either secondary or tertiary amines, examples of cyclic amines include the 3-membered ring aziridine and the six-membered ring piperidine. N-methylpiperidine and N-phenylpiperidine are examples of tertiary amines. It is also possible to have four organic substituents on the nitrogen and these species are not amines but are quaternary ammonium cations and have a charged nitrogen center. Quaternary ammonium salts exist with many kinds of anions, Amines are named in several ways. Typically, the compound is given the prefix amino- or the suffix, the prefix N- shows substitution on the nitrogen atom. An organic compound with multiple amino groups is called a diamine, triamine, tetraamine, systematic names for some common amines, Hydrogen bonding significantly influences the properties of primary and secondary amines. Thus the melting point and boiling point of amines is higher than those of the corresponding phosphines, for example, methyl and ethyl amines are gases under standard conditions, whereas the corresponding methyl and ethyl alcohols are liquids. Amines possess a characteristic smell, liquid amines have a distinctive fishy smell. The nitrogen atom features a lone pair that can bind H+ to form an ammonium ion R3NH+
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Plant nutrition
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Plant nutrition is the study of the chemical elements and compounds necessary for plant growth, plant metabolism and their external supply. In 1972, Emanuel Epstein defined two criteria for an element to be essential for plant growth, in its absence the plant is unable to complete a life cycle. Or that the element is part of essential plant constituent or metabolite. This is in accordance with Justus von Liebigs law of the minimum, the essential plant nutrients include carbon, oxygen and hydrogen which are absorbed from the air, whereas other nutrients including nitrogen are typically obtained from the soil. And cobalt The macronutrients are consumed in larger quantities for Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, micronutrients are present in plant tissue in quantities measured in parts per million, ranging from 0.1 to 200 ppm, or less than 0. 02% dry weight. Most soil conditions across the world can provide plants adapted to climate and soil with sufficient nutrition for a complete life cycle. However, if the soil is cropped it is necessary to artificially modify soil fertility through the addition of fertilizer to promote vigorous growth and this is done because, even with adequate water and light, nutrient deficiency can limit growth and crop yield. Plants take up essential elements from the soil through their roots, nutrient uptake in the soil is achieved by cation exchange, wherein root hairs pump hydrogen ions into the soil through proton pumps. These hydrogen ions displace cations attached to negatively charged particles so that the cations are available for uptake by the root. In the leaves, stomata open to take in carbon dioxide, the carbon dioxide molecules are used as the carbon source in photosynthesis. The root, especially the hair, is the essential organ for the uptake of nutrients. The structure and architecture of the root can alter the rate of nutrient uptake, nutrient ions are transported to the center of the root, the stele in order for the nutrients to reach the conducting tissues, xylem and phloem. The Casparian strip, a wall outside the stele but within the root, prevents passive flow of water and nutrients, helping to regulate the uptake of nutrients. Xylem moves water and inorganic molecules within the plant and phloem accounts for organic molecule transportation, water potential plays a key role in a plants nutrient uptake. Facilitated diffusion is the movement of solutes or ions following a concentration gradient. Nutrients can be moved within plants to where they are most needed, for example, a plant will try to supply more nutrients to its younger leaves than to its older ones. When nutrients are mobile within the plant, symptoms of any deficiency become apparent first on the older leaves, however, not all nutrients are equally mobile. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are mobile nutrients while the others have varying degrees of mobility, when a less-mobile nutrient is deficient, the younger leaves suffer because the nutrient does not move up to them but stays in the older leaves
20.
Saskatchewan
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Saskatchewan is a prairie and boreal province in west-central Canada, the only province without natural borders. It has an area of 651,900 square kilometres, nearly 10 percent of which is water, composed mostly of rivers, reservoirs. As of December 2013, Saskatchewans population was estimated at 1,114,170, residents primarily live in the southern prairie half of the province, while the northern boreal half is mostly forested and sparsely populated. Of the total population, roughly half live in the provinces largest city, Saskatoon, or the provincial capital, other notable cities include Prince Albert, Moose Jaw, Yorkton, Swift Current, North Battleford, and the border city Lloydminster. Saskatchewan is a province with large distances to moderating bodies of waters. As a result, its climate is continental, rendering severe winters throughout the province. Southern areas have very warm or hot summers, Midale and Yellow Grass near the U. S. border are tied for the highest ever recorded temperatures in Canada with 45 °C observed at both locations on July 5,1937. In winter, temperatures below −45 °C are possible even in the south during extreme cold snaps, Saskatchewan has been inhabited for thousands of years by various indigenous groups, and first explored by Europeans in 1690 and settled in 1774. It became a province in 1905, carved out from the vast North-West Territories, in the early 20th century the province became known as a stronghold for Canadian social democracy, North Americas first social-democratic government was elected in 1944. The provinces economy is based on agriculture, mining, and energy, Saskatchewans current premier is Brad Wall and its lieutenant-governor is Vaughn Solomon Schofield. In 1992, the federal and provincial governments signed a land claim agreement with First Nations in Saskatchewan. The First Nations received compensation and were permitted to buy land on the market for the tribes, they have acquired about 3,079 square kilometres. Some First Nations have used their settlement to invest in urban areas and its name derived from the Saskatchewan River. The river was known as kisiskāciwani-sīpiy in the Cree language, as Saskatchewans borders largely follow the geographic coordinates of longitude and latitude, the province is roughly a quadrilateral, or a shape with four sides. However the 49th parallel boundary and the 60th northern border appear curved on globes, additionally, the eastern boundary of the province is partially crooked rather than following a line of longitude, as correction lines were devised by surveyors prior to the homestead program. S. States of Montana and North Dakota, Saskatchewan has the distinction of being the only Canadian province for which no borders correspond to physical geographic features. Along with Alberta, Saskatchewan is one of only two land-locked provinces, the overwhelming majority of Saskatchewans population is located in the southern third of the province, south of the 53rd parallel. Saskatchewan contains two natural regions, the Canadian Shield in the north and the Interior Plains in the south
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United States patent law
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Under United States law, a patent is a right granted to the inventor of a process, machine, article of manufacture, or composition of matter, that is new, useful, and non-obvious. A patent is the right to others from using a new technology. United States patent law is authorized by the U. S. Constitution, article One, section 8, clause 8 states, The Congress shall have power. This limited-time term of patent is 20 years from the earliest patent application filing date, after the patent term expires, the new technology enters the public domain and is free for anyone to use. Patent law is found under Title 35 of the United States Code, the patentability of inventions is defined under Sections 100-105. To be patent eligible subject matter, an invention must meet two criteria, first, it must fall within one of the four statutory categories of acceptable subject matter, process, machine, manufacture, or composition of matter. Second, it must not be directed to subject matter encompassing a judicially recognized exception, laws of nature, physical phenomena, section 102 of the patent act defines the novelty requirement. The novelty requirement prohibits patenting a technology that is available to the public. Specifically,35 U. S. C.102 states, NOVELTY, for a technology to be anticipated under 35 U. S. C. 102, the prior art reference must teach every aspect of the claimed invention either explicitly or impliedly. “A claim is anticipated only if each and every element as set forth in the claim is found, either expressly or inherently described, to be patentable, a technology must not only be new but also non-obvious. A technology is obvious if a person of ordinary skill in the relevant field of technology, as of the date of the patent application. Put differently, an invention that would have been obvious to a person of ordinary skill at the time of the invention is not patentable. Specifically,35 U. S. C.103 states,35 U. S. C.103 Conditions for patentability, the non-obviousness requirement does not demand that the prior art be identical to the claimed invention. It is enough that the art can somehow be modified in order to teach the claimed technology. S. C. Patent applications can be filed at the United States Patent and Trademark Office, the application process is somewhat slow and generally expensive. Estimate $10,000 to $30,000 dollars in filing and legal fees, the rules for drafting and filing a patent application are set out in the Manual of Patent Examination Procedure. Since the American Inventors Protection Act, the United States Patent and this time limit can be extended under certain circumstances, for an additional fee
22.
George Washington
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George Washington was an American politician and soldier who served as the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797 and was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He served as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and he is popularly considered the driving force behind the nations establishment and came to be known as the father of the country, both during his lifetime and to this day. Washington was widely admired for his leadership qualities and was unanimously elected president by the Electoral College in the first two national elections. Washingtons incumbency established many precedents still in use today, such as the system, the inaugural address. His retirement from office two terms established a tradition that lasted until 1940 when Franklin Delano Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term. The 22nd Amendment now limits the president to two elected terms and he was born into the provincial gentry of Colonial Virginia to a family of wealthy planters who owned tobacco plantations and slaves, which he inherited. In his youth, he became an officer in the colonial militia during the first stages of the French. In 1775, the Second Continental Congress commissioned him as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolution, in that command, Washington forced the British out of Boston in 1776 but was defeated and nearly captured later that year when he lost New York City. After crossing the Delaware River in the middle of winter, he defeated the British in two battles, retook New Jersey, and restored momentum to the Patriot cause and his strategy enabled Continental forces to capture two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781. In battle, however, Washington was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies, after victory had been finalized in 1783, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief rather than seize power, proving his opposition to dictatorship and his commitment to American republicanism. Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which devised a new form of government for the United States. Following his election as president in 1789, he worked to unify rival factions in the fledgling nation and he supported Alexander Hamiltons programs to satisfy all debts, federal and state, established a permanent seat of government, implemented an effective tax system, and created a national bank. In avoiding war with Great Britain, he guaranteed a decade of peace and profitable trade by securing the Jay Treaty in 1795 and he remained non-partisan, never joining the Federalist Party, although he largely supported its policies. Washingtons Farewell Address was a primer on civic virtue, warning against partisanship, sectionalism. He retired from the presidency in 1797, returning to his home, upon his death, Washington was eulogized as first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen by Representative Henry Lee III of Virginia. He was revered in life and in death, scholarly and public polling consistently ranks him among the top three presidents in American history and he has been depicted and remembered in monuments, public works, currency, and other dedications to the present day. He was born on February 11,1731, according to the Julian calendar, the Gregorian calendar was adopted within the British Empire in 1752, and it renders a birth date of February 22,1732. Washington was of primarily English gentry descent, especially from Sulgrave and his great-grandfather John Washington emigrated to Virginia in 1656 and began accumulating land and slaves, as did his son Lawrence and his grandson, Georges father Augustine
23.
Glass
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Glass is a non-crystalline amorphous solid that is often transparent and has widespread practical, technological, and decorative usage in, for example, window panes, tableware, and optoelectronics. The most familiar, and historically the oldest, types of glass are silicate glasses based on the chemical compound silica, the primary constituent of sand. The term glass, in usage, is often used to refer only to this type of material. Many applications of silicate glasses derive from their optical transparency, giving rise to their use as window panes. Glass can be coloured by adding metallic salts, and can also be painted and printed with vitreous enamels and these qualities have led to the extensive use of glass in the manufacture of art objects and in particular, stained glass windows. Although brittle, silicate glass is extremely durable, and many examples of glass fragments exist from early glass-making cultures, because glass can be formed or moulded into any shape, it has been traditionally used for vessels, bowls, vases, bottles, jars and drinking glasses. In its most solid forms it has also used for paperweights, marbles. Some objects historically were so commonly made of glass that they are simply called by the name of the material, such as drinking glasses. Porcelains and many polymer thermoplastics familiar from everyday use are glasses and these sorts of glasses can be made of quite different kinds of materials than silica, metallic alloys, ionic melts, aqueous solutions, molecular liquids, and polymers. For many applications, like glass bottles or eyewear, polymer glasses are a lighter alternative than traditional glass, silica is a common fundamental constituent of glass. In nature, vitrification of quartz occurs when lightning strikes sand, forming hollow, fused quartz is a glass made from chemically-pure SiO2. It has excellent resistance to shock, being able to survive immersion in water while red hot. However, its high melting-temperature and viscosity make it difficult to work with, normally, other substances are added to simplify processing. One is sodium carbonate, which lowers the transition temperature. The soda makes the glass water-soluble, which is undesirable, so lime, some magnesium oxide. The resulting glass contains about 70 to 74% silica by weight and is called a soda-lime glass, soda-lime glasses account for about 90% of manufactured glass. Most common glass contains other ingredients to change its properties, lead glass or flint glass is more brilliant because the increased refractive index causes noticeably more specular reflection and increased optical dispersion. Adding barium also increases the refractive index, iron can be incorporated into glass to absorb infrared energy, for example in heat absorbing filters for movie projectors, while cerium oxide can be used for glass that absorbs UV wavelengths
24.
Soap
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In chemistry, a soap is a salt of a fatty acid. Household uses for soaps include washing, bathing, and other types of housekeeping, in industry they are also used in textile spinning and are important components of some lubricants. Metal soaps are also included in modern artists oil paints formulations as a rheology modifier, soaps for cleaning are obtained by treating vegetable or animal oils and fats with a strong base, such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide in an aqueous solution. Fats and oils are composed of triglycerides, three molecules of fatty acids attach to a molecule of glycerol. The alkaline solution, which is often called lye, induces saponification, the glycerin, a useful byproduct, can remain in the soap product as a softening agent, or be isolated for other uses. Soaps are key components of most lubricating greases, which are usually emulsions of calcium soap or lithium soap, many other metallic soaps are also useful, including those of aluminium, sodium, and mixtures of them. Such soaps are also used as thickeners to increase the viscosity of oils, in ancient times, lubricating greases were made by the addition of lime to olive oil. When used for cleaning, soap allows insoluble particles to become soluble in water, for example, oil/fat is insoluble in water, but when a couple of drops of dish soap are added to the mixture, the oil/fat solubilizes into the water. Anything that is soluble will be washed away with the water, the type of alkali metal used determines the kind of soap product. Sodium soaps, prepared from sodium hydroxide, are firm, whereas potassium soaps, historically, potassium hydroxide was extracted from the ashes of bracken or other plants. Lithium soaps also tend to be hard—these are used exclusively in greases, soaps are derivatives of fatty acids. Traditionally they have made from triglycerides. Triglyceride is the name for the triesters of fatty acids. Tallow, i. e. rendered beef fat, is the most available triglyceride from animals and its saponified product is called sodium tallowate. Typical vegetable oils used in soap making are palm oil, coconut oil, olive oil, each species offers quite different fatty acid content and hence, results in soaps of distinct feel. The seed oils give softer but milder soaps, Soap made from pure olive oil is sometimes called Castile soap or Marseille soap, and is reputed for being extra mild. The term Castile is also applied to soaps from a mixture of oils. The earliest recorded evidence of the production of soap-like materials dates back to around 2800 BC in ancient Babylon, a formula for soap consisting of water, alkali, and cassia oil was written on a Babylonian clay tablet around 2200 BC
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Ethiopia
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Ethiopia, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea to the north and northeast, Djibouti and Somalia to the east, Sudan and South Sudan to the west, and Kenya to the south. With nearly 100 million inhabitants, Ethiopia is the most populous landlocked country in the world and it occupies a total area of 1,100,000 square kilometres, and its capital and largest city is Addis Ababa. Some of the oldest evidence for modern humans has been found in Ethiopia. It is widely considered as the region from modern humans first set out for the Middle East. According to linguists, the first Afroasiatic-speaking populations settled in the Horn region during the ensuing Neolithic era, tracing its roots to the 2nd millennium BC, Ethiopia was a monarchy for most of its history. During the first centuries AD, the Kingdom of Aksum maintained a unified civilization in the region, subsequently, many African nations adopted the colors of Ethiopias flag following their independence. It was the first independent African member of the 20th-century League of Nations, Ethiopias ancient Geez script, also known as Ethiopic, is one of the oldest alphabets still in use in the world. The Ethiopian calendar, which is seven years and three months behind the Gregorian calendar, co-exists alongside the Borana calendar. A slight majority of the population adheres to Christianity, while around a third follows Islam, the country is the site of the Migration to Abyssinia and the oldest Muslim settlement in Africa at Negash. A substantial population of Ethiopian Jews, known as Bete Israel, resided in Ethiopia until the 1980s, Ethiopia is a multilingual nation with around 80 ethnolinguistic groups, the four largest of which are the Oromiffa, Amhara, Somali, and Tigrayans. Most people in the country speak Afroasiatic languages of the Cushitic or Semitic branches, additionally, Omotic languages are spoken by ethnic minority groups inhabiting the southern regions. Nilo-Saharan languages are spoken by the nations Nilotic ethnic minorities. Ethiopia is the place of origin for the coffee bean which originated from the place called Kefa and it is a land of natural contrasts, with its vast fertile West, jungles, and numerous rivers, and the worlds hottest settlement of Dallol in its north. The Ethiopian Highlands are Africas largest continuous mountain ranges, and Sof Omar Caves contain Africas largest cave, Ethiopia has the most UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Africa. Ethiopia is one of the members of the UN, the Group of 24, the Non-Aligned Movement, G-77. In the 1970s and 1980s, Ethiopia suffered from civil wars, the country has begun to recover recently however, and now has the largest economy in East Africa and Central Africa. According to Global Fire Power, Ethiopia has the 42nd most powerful military in the world, the origin of the word Ethiopia is uncertain
26.
Tigray Region
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Tigray Region is the northernmost of the nine regions of Ethiopia. Tigray is the homeland of the Tigray, Irob and Kunama people, Tigray is also known as Region 1 according to the federal constitution. Tigray is bordered by Eritrea to the north, Sudan to the west, the Afar Region to the east, and the Amhara Region to the south and southwest. Besides Mekele, major cities include Hawzen, Abiy Addi, Alamata, Mekoni, Adigrat, Adwa, Axum, Humera, Korem, Maychew, Qwiha, Shire, Wukro, there is also the historically significant town of Yeha. For the history of the Tigray area prior to 1991, see Tigray Province, at the same time, a growing urban middle class of traders, businessmen and government officials emerged which was both suspicious and distant from the victorious EPRDF. In 1998, war erupted between Eritrea and Ethiopia over a portion of territory that had been administered at part of Tigray, with an estimated area of 41,409.95 square kilometers, this region has an estimated density of 100 people per square kilometer. In the previous census, conducted in 1994, the Regions population was 3,136,267, of whom 1,542,165 were men and 1,594,102 women, urban inhabitants numbered 621,210 or 14% of the population. According to the CSA, as of 2004,53. 99% of the population had access to safe drinking water. At 96. 55% of the population, the region is predominantly inhabited by the Tigrinya speaking Tigray people. The Tigrinya language is classified as belonging to the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic family of languages, most other residents hail from other Afro-Asiatic speaking communities, including the Amhara, Irob, Afar, Agaw and Oromo. There are also a minority of Nilo-Saharan-speaking Kunama Nilotes, the working language is Tigrinya, although most urban people are also able to speak Amharic, which was taught in schools. A distinctive feature of Tigray are its rock-hewn churches, similar in design to those of Lalibela in the Amhara Region, these churches are found in four or five clusters – Gheralta, Teka-Tesfay, Atsbi and Tembien – with Wukro sometimes included. Some of the churches are considered earlier than those of Lalibela, mostly monolithic, with designs partly inspired by classical architecture, they are often located at the top of cliffs or steep hills, for security. For example, Tigrays ancient Debre Damo monastery is only by climbing a rope 25 meters up a sheer cliff. Looting has become an issue in the Tigray Region, as archaeological sites have become sources for construction materials. The area is famous for a single rock sculptured 23 meter long obelisk in Axum as well as for other fallen obelisks, the Axum treasure site of ancient Tigrayan history is a major landmark. Yeha is another important local landmark that is little-known outside the region
27.
Broad-leaved tree
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A broad-leaved, broad-leaf, or broadleaf tree is any tree which has flat leaves and produces seeds inside of fruits. It is one of two types of trees, the other type is a conifer, a tree with needle-like or scale-like leaves. Broad-leaved trees are known as hardwoods. Most deciduous trees are broad-leaved, but some are coniferous, like Larches
28.
Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
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North America
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North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers, about 16. 5% of the land area. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7. 5% of the worlds population, North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended with the migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants, European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French, the Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a map, in which he placed the word America on the continent of South America. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, for Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespuccis name, but in its feminine form America, following the examples of Europa, Asia and Africa. Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the continent, In 1538. Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty, a minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of Amairick. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language, the term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands
30.
Samuel Hopkins (inventor)
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Hopkins had petitioned for a patent on an improvement in the making of Pot ash and Pearl ash by a new Apparatus and Process. The statute did not create a Patent Office, instead a committee of the Secretary of State, Secretary of War and the Attorney General were authorized to make a decision on the merit of a properly documented petition. The patent was signed by President George Washington, Attorney General Edmund Randolph, the other U. S. patents issued that year were for a new candle-making process and Oliver Evanss flour-milling machinery. Samuel Hopkins, the child of Quaker parents, was born just north of Baltimore. At about the age of 16, he was apprenticed to Robert Parrish, in the spring of 1765, Hopkins married Parrishs sister-in-law, Hannah Wilson, and together they raised six children in Philadelphia. The 1790 U. S. Census listed Hopkinss occupation as Pott Ash Maker, the city directories of the period listed him as a pot-ash maker and a pot-ash manufacturer. Around 1800, for reasons, he and his wife moved briefly to Rahway, New Jersey, to live with their daughter Sarah. They returned to Philadelphia sometime before Hopkinss death in 1818
31.
Calcination
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Authorities differ on the meaning of calcination. The IUPAC defines it as heating to temperatures in air or oxygen. A calciner is a cylinder that rotates inside a heated furnace. The product of calcination is usually referred to in general as calcine, calcination is carried out in furnaces or reactors of various designs including shaft furnaces, rotary kilns, multiple hearth furnaces, and fluidized bed reactors. Calcination reactions usually take place at or above the decomposition temperature or the transition temperature. This temperature is defined as the temperature at which the standard Gibbs free energy for a particular calcination reaction is equal to zero. For example, in limestone calcination, a process, the chemical reaction is CaCO3 → CaO + CO2 The standard Gibbs free energy of reaction is approximated as ΔG°r =177,100 −158 T. The standard free energy of reaction is 0 in this case when the temperature, T, is equal to 1121 K, see also calcination equilibrium of calcium carbonate In some cases, calcination of a metal results in oxidation of the metal. Jean Rey noted that lead and tin when calcinated gained weight, in alchemy, calcination was believed to be one of the 12 vital processes required for the transformation of a substance. Alchemists distinguished two kinds of calcination, actual and potential, actual calcination is that brought about by actual fire, from wood, coals, or other fuel, raised to a certain temperature
32.
Reverberatory furnace
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A reverberatory furnace is a metallurgical or process furnace that isolates the material being processed from contact with the fuel, but not from contact with combustion gases. The term reverberation is used here in a sense of rebounding or reflecting. Chemistry determines the relationship between the fuel and the material, among other variables. There are, however, a great many designs. The applications of these fall into two general categories, metallurgical melting furnaces, and lower temperature processing furnaces typically used for metallic ores. Historically these furnaces have used solid fuel, and bituminous coal has proven to be the best choice, the brightly visible flames give more radiant heat transfer than anthracite coal or charcoal. Contact with the products of combustion, which may add undesirable elements to the material, is used to advantage in some processes. Control of the balance can alter the exhaust gas chemistry toward either an oxidizing or a reducing mixture. For example, cast iron can be puddled in an atmosphere to convert it to the lower-carbon mild steel or bar iron. The Siemens-Martin oven in open hearth steelmaking is also a reverbetratory furnace, Reverberatory furnaces were formerly also used for melting brass, bronze, and pig iron for foundry work. They were also, for the first 75 years of the 20th century, the first reverberatory furnaces were perhaps in the medieval period, and were used for melting bronze for casting bells. They were first applied to smelting metals in the late 17th century, Sir Clement Clerke and his son Talbot built cupolas or reverberatory furnaces in the Avon Gorge below Bristol in about 1678. In 1687, while obstructed from smelting lead, they moved on to copper, in the following decades, reverberatory furnaces were widely adopted for smelting these metals and also tin. They had the advantage over older methods that the fuel was mineral coal, in the 1690s, they applied the reverberatory furnace to melting pig iron for foundry purposes. The puddling furnace, introduced by Henry Cort in the 1780s to replace the older finery process, was also a variety of reverberatory furnace, today, reverberatory furnaces are widely used to melt secondary aluminium scrap for eventual use by die-casting industries. The simplest reverberatory is nothing more than a box lined with alumina refractory brick with a flue at one end. Conventional oil or gas burners are placed usually on side of the furnace to heat the brick. P. W. King, Sir Clement Clerke and the Adoption of coal in metallurgy, Transactions of the Newcomen Society 73, media related to Reverberatory furnaces at Wikimedia Commons
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Potash pit
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Potash pits were kiln sites which were dug and lined with drystone walling for the production of potash prior to the Industrial Revolution. The often circular pits were built often into earthen banks and were lined with drystone walling. A tunnel fireplace was required to draw in the air for the conversion of the birch, bracken, etc. into ashes. The pits are a feature found in sheep farming districts with extensive woodlands such as the Lake District in England, one example is located in the Lickle Valley, Broughton in Furness. As a landscape feature, the remains of pits are superficially similar in appearance. Saw pits were constructed in areas of woodland also, however they were rectangular in shape and are distinguished from the aforementioned. Notes Sources Hawksley, L. Jenks, D. et al, the Magic & Mystery of the Lake District
34.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
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Lime (material)
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Lime is a calcium-containing inorganic material in which carbonates, oxides, and hydroxides predominate. In the strict sense of the term, lime is calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide and it is also the name of the natural mineral CaO which occurs as a product of coal seam fires and in altered limestone xenoliths in volcanic ejecta. The word lime originates with its earliest use as building mortar and has the sense of sticking or adhering and these materials are still used in large quantities as building and engineering materials, as chemical feedstocks, and for sugar refining, among other uses. Lime industries and the use of many of the resulting products date from prehistoric times in both the Old World and the New World, Lime is used extensively for wastewater treatment with ferrous sulfate. The rocks and minerals from which these materials are derived, typically limestone or chalk, are composed primarily of calcium carbonate and they may be cut, crushed or pulverized and chemically altered. Lime kilns are the used for lime burning and slaking. When the term is encountered in a context, it usually refers to agricultural lime. Otherwise it most commonly means slaked lime, as the dangerous form is usually described more specifically as quicklime or burnt lime. In the lime industry, limestone is a term for rocks that contain 80% or more of calcium or magnesium carbonates, including marble, chalk, oolite. Further classification is by composition as high calcium, argillaceous, silicious, conglomerate, magnesian, dolomite, uncommon sources of lime include coral, sea shells, calcite, and ankerite. Limestone is extracted from quarries or mines, dry slaking is when quicklime is slaked with just enough water to hydrate the quicklime, but remain as a powder and is referred to as hydrated lime. In wet slaking, enough water, but not too much, is added to hydrate the quicklime to a referred to as lime putty. Because lime has a property with bricks and stones, it is often used as binding material in masonry works. It is also used in whitewashing as wall coat to adhere the whitewash onto the wall, the process by which limestone is converted to quicklime by heating, then to slaked lime by hydration, and naturally reverts to calcium carbonate by carbonation is called the lime cycle. The conditions and compounds present during each step of the cycle have a strong influence of the end product, thus the complex. An example is when slaked lime is mixed into a slurry with sand. When the masonry has been laid, the lime in the mortar slowly begins to react with carbon dioxide to form calcium carbonate according to the reaction. The carbon dioxide that takes part in reaction is principally available in the air or dissolved in rainwater so pure lime mortar will not recarbonate under water or inside a thick masonry wall
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Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
37.
Patience Lake
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Patience Lake is a lake in central Saskatchewan, Canada east of Saskatoon. The lake is located in the municipality of Blucher No.343. The lake serves as a groundwater discharge region for higher elevations to the east and west, the potash mine was originally established as an underground mine, but due to flooding in 1988 it was converted to a solution mine
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Hardwood
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Hardwood is wood from dicot angiosperm trees. The term may also be used for the trees from which the wood is derived, in temperate and boreal latitudes they are mostly deciduous, but in tropics and subtropics mostly evergreen. Hardwood should not be confused with the heartwood, which can be from hardwood or softwood. Hardwoods are produced by trees that reproduce by flowers, and have broad leaves. Hardwood from deciduous species, such as oak, normally shows annual growth rings, hardwoods have a more complex structure than softwoods and are often much slower growing as a result. The dominant feature separating hardwoods from softwoods is the presence of pores, the vessels may show considerable variation in size, shape of perforation plates, and structure of cell wall, such as spiral thickenings. As the name suggests, the wood from trees is generally harder than that of softwoods. Solid hardwood joinery tends to be compared to softwood. In the past, tropical hardwoods were easily available, but the supply of some species, such as Burma teak, cheaper hardwood doors, for instance, now consist of a thin veneer bonded to a core of softwood, plywood or medium-density fibreboard. Hardwoods may be used in a variety of objects, but are most frequently seen in furniture or musical instruments because of their density which adds to durability, appearance, different species of hardwood lend themselves to different end uses or construction processes. This is due to the variety of characteristics apparent in different timbers, including density, grain, pore size, growth and fibre pattern, flexibility and ability to be steam bent. For example, the grain of elm wood makes it suitable for the making of chair seats where the driving in of legs. There is a correlation between density and calories/volume, list of woods Hardwood flooring Softwood Janka hardness test Brinell scale Schweingruber, F. H. Anatomie europäischer Hölzer—Anatomy of European woods. Eidgenössische Forschungsanstalt für Wald, Schnee und Landscaft, Birmensdorf, finnish Museum of Natural History, University of Helsinki. The Anatomy of Wood, Its Diversity and variability
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Bushel
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A bushel is an imperial and US customary unit of weight or mass based upon an earlier measure of dry capacity. The old bushel was equal to 4 pecks or 8 gallons and was used mostly for agricultural products such as wheat, at present, the volume is usually only nominal, with bushels referring to standard quantities of mass instead. Two pecks make a kenning, and four pecks make a bushel, the name bushel is also used to translate similar units in other measurement systems. The name is an anglicization of the Old French boissiel and buissiel and it may further derive from Old French boise, thus meaning little butt. The bushel is a value between the pound and ton or tun that was introduced to England following the Norman Conquest. Norman statutes made the London bushel part of the measure of English wine, ale. In either case, the bushel was reckoned to contain 64 pounds of 12 ounces of 20 pence of 32 grains and these measures were based on the relatively light tower pound and were rarely used in Scotland, Ireland, or Wales during the Middle Ages. When the Tower system was abolished in the 16th century, the bushel was redefined as 56 avoirdupois pounds. The imperial bushel established by the Weights and Measures Act of 1824 described the bushel as the volume of 80 avoirdupois pounds of distilled water in air at 62 °F or 8 imperial gallons and this is the bushel in some use in the United Kingdom. Thus there is no distinction between liquid and dry measure in the imperial system, the Winchester bushel was the volume of a cylinder 18.5 in in diameter and 8 in high, which gives an irrational number of cubic inches. The modern American or US bushel is a variant of this, rounded to exactly 2150.42 cubic inches and it is also somewhat in use in Canada. Bushels are now most often used as units of mass or weight rather than of volume, the bushels in which grains are bought and sold on commodity markets or at local grain elevators, and for reports of grain production, are all units of weight. This is done by assigning a weight to each commodity that is to be measured in bushels. These bushels depend on the commodities being measured and the moisture content. Some of the common ones are, Oats, USA,32 lb Canada,34 lb Barley,48 lb Malted barley,34 lb Shelled maize at 15. 5% moisture by weight,56 lb Wheat at 13. Government policy in the United States is to phase out units such as the bushel, the German bushel was the Scheffel. The Polish bushel was used as measure of dry capacity and it was divided into 4 quarters and in the early 19th century had a value of 128 litres in Warsaw and 501.116 litres in Kraków. The Spanish bushel was used as a measure of dry capacity and it was roughly equal to 55.5 litres in Castille
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New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
41.
Moab, Utah
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Moab is a city on the southern edge of Grand County in eastern Utah in the western United States. The population was 5,046 at the 2010 census, and it is the county seat and largest city in Grand County. Moab attracts a number of tourists every year, mostly visitors to the nearby Arches. The town is a base for mountain bikers who ride the extensive network of trails including the Slickrock Trail. The Biblical name Moab refers to an area of land located on the side of the Jordan River. Some historians believe the city in Utah came to use this name because of William Pierce, the first postmaster, believing that the biblical Moab, however, others believe the name has Paiute origins, referring to the word moapa, meaning mosquito. Some of the early residents attempted to change the citys name, because in the Christian Bible. One petition in 1890 had 59 signatures and requested a change to Vina. Another effort attempted to change the name to Uvadalia, during the period between 1829 and the early 1850s, the area around what is now Moab served as the Colorado River crossing along the Old Spanish Trail. Latter-day Saint settlers attempted to establish a fort at the river crossing called the Elk Mountain Mission in April 1855 to trade with travellers attempting to cross the river. Forty men were called on this mission, there were repeated Indian attacks, including one on September 23,1855, in which James Hunt, companion to Peter Stubbs, was shot and killed by a Native American. After this last attack, the fort was abandoned, a new round of settlers established a permanent settlement in 1878. Moab was incorporated as a town on December 20,1902, in 1883 the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad main line was constructed across eastern Utah. The rail line did not pass through Moab, instead passing through the towns of Thompson Springs, later, other places to cross the Colorado were constructed, such as Lees Ferry, Navajo Bridge and Boulder Dam. These changes shifted the routes away from Moab. Moab farmers and merchants had to adapt from trading with passing travelers to shipping their goods to distant markets, soon Moabs origins as one of the few natural crossings of the Colorado River were forgotten. Nevertheless, the U. S. military deemed the bridge over the Colorado River at Moab important enough to place it under guard as late as World War II. On January 11,1943, the sixteen men who had initiated the protests were transferred to Moab from the town jails where they were booked after the riot
42.
Inland sea (geology)
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An inland sea is a shallow sea that covers central areas of continents during periods of high sea level that result in marine transgressions. In modern times, continents stand high, eustatic sea levels are low, modern examples might also include the recently reflooded Persian Gulf, and the South China Sea that presently covers the Sunda Shelf. At various times in the geologic past, inland seas have been greater in extent, a vast inland sea, the Western Interior Seaway, extended from the Gulf of Mexico deep into present-day Canada during the Cretaceous. At the same time, much of the low plains of modern-day northern France and northern Germany were inundated by an inland sea, where the chalk was deposited that gave the Cretaceous Period its name. The Amazon, originally emptying into the Pacific, as South America rifted from Africa, a great inland sea developed, at times draining north through what is now Venezuela before finding its present eastward outlet into the South Atlantic. Gradually this inland sea became a vast freshwater lake and wetlands where sediment flattened its profiles and the marine inhabitants adapted to life in freshwater. Over 20 species of stingray, most closely related to those found in the Pacific Ocean, can be today in the freshwaters of the Amazon. In 2005 fossilized remains of a giant crocodilian, estimated to have been 46 ft in length, were discovered in the northern rainforest of Amazonian Peru. In Australia the promise of a sea is often said to have been one of the prime motives of inland exploration during the 1820s and 1830s. Also in Australia, the Eromanga Sea existed during the Cretaceous Period and it covered large swaths of the eastern half of the continent. The Baltic Sea is an inland sea, arguably the largest body of brackish water in the world. It occupies a basin formed by glacial erosion, hudson Bay, including James Bay at its southern end, reach within the North American continent from Baffin Island in the north to Quebec and Ontario in the south. Endorheic basin Mediterranean sea Marginal sea Geology Project - Inland Sea Movement Through Time
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Salt
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Salt is present in vast quantities in seawater, where it is the main mineral constituent. The open ocean has about 35 grams of solids per litre, Salt is essential for life in general, and saltiness is one of the basic human tastes. The tissues of animals contain larger quantities of salt than do plant tissues, Salt is one of the oldest and most ubiquitous food seasonings, and salting is an important method of food preservation. Salt was also prized by the ancient Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, the Byzantines, the Hittites, Egyptians, and the Indians. Salt became an important article of trade and was transported by boat across the Mediterranean Sea, along specially built salt roads, the scarcity and universal need for salt has led nations to go to war over it and use it to raise tax revenues. Salt is used in ceremonies and has other cultural significance. Salt is processed from salt mines, or by the evaporation of seawater or mineral-rich spring water in shallow pools. Its major industrial products are caustic soda and chlorine, and is used in industrial processes including the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride, plastics, paper pulp. Of the annual production of around two hundred million tonnes of salt, only about 6% is used for human consumption. Other uses include water conditioning processes, de-icing highways, and agricultural use, edible salt is sold in forms such as sea salt and table salt which usually contains an anti-caking agent and may be iodised to prevent iodine deficiency. As well as its use in cooking and at the table, sodium is an essential nutrient for human health via its role as an electrolyte and osmotic solute. Excessive salt consumption can increase the risk of diseases, such as hypertension, in children. Such health effects of salt have long been studied, accordingly, numerous world health associations and experts in developed countries recommend reducing consumption of popular salty foods. The World Health Organization recommends that adults should consume less than 2,000 mg of sodium, humans have always tended to build communities either around sources of salt, or where they can trade for it. All through history the availability of salt has been pivotal to civilization, the word salary comes from the Latin word for salt because the Roman Legions were sometimes paid in salt. The Natron Valley was a key region that supported the Egyptian Empire to its north, because it supplied it with a kind of salt that came to be called by its name, natron. Even before this, what is now thought to have been the first city in Europe is Solnitsata, in Bulgaria, even the name Solnisata means salt works. A very ancient salt-works operation has been discovered at the Poiana Slatinei archaeological site next to a spring in Lunca, Neamț County
This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Geological Survey document: "Potash" (PDF).
This article incorporates 
