1.
Income
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Income is the consumption and savings opportunity gained by an entity within a specified timeframe, which is generally expressed in monetary terms. However, for households and individuals, income is the sum of all the wages, salaries, profits, interests payments, rents, in a given period of time. In the field of economics, the term may refer to the accumulation of both monetary and non-monetary consumption ability, with the former being used as a proxy for total income. Income per capita has been increasing steadily in almost every country, many factors contribute to people having a higher income such as education, globalisation and favorable political circumstances such as economic freedom and peace. Increase in income tends to lead to people choosing to work less hours. Developed countries have higher incomes as opposed to developing countries tending to have lower incomes, from labor services, as well as ownership of land and capital. In consumer theory income is another name for the budget constraint, the basic equation for this is Y = P x ⋅ x + P y ⋅ y This equation implies two things. First buying one unit of good x implies buying P x P y less units of good y. So, P x P y is the price of a unit of x as to the number of units given up in y. Second, if the price of x falls for a fixed Y, the usual hypothesis is that the quantity demanded of x would increase at the lower price, the law of demand. The generalization to more than two goods consists of modelling y as a composite good, the theoretical generalization to more than one period is a multi-period wealth and income constraint. For example, the person can gain more productive skills or acquire more productive income-earning assets to earn a higher income. In the multi-period case, something might happen to the economy beyond the control of the individual to reduce the flow of income. Changing measured income and its relation to consumption over time might be modeled accordingly, full income refers to the accumulation of both the monetary and the non-monetary consumption-ability of any given entity, such as a person or a household. According to what the economist Nicholas Barr describes as the definition of income, income may be defined as the. Sum of the value of rights exercised in consumption and the change in the value of the store of property rights. Since the consumption potential of non-monetary goods, such as leisure, cannot be measured, as such, however, it is criticized for being unreliable, i. e. failing to accurately reflect affluence of any given agent. It omits the utility a person may derive from non-monetary income and, on a macroeconomic level, according to Barr, in practice money income as a proportion of total income varies widely and unsystematically
2.
Poverty
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Poverty is general scarcity or the state of one who lacks a certain amount of material possessions or money. It is a concept, which includes social, economic. Absolute poverty or destitution refers to the lack of necessary to meet basic needs such as food, clothing. Absolute poverty is meant to be about the independent of location. After the industrial revolution, mass production in factories made producing goods increasingly less expensive, of more importance is the modernization of agriculture, such as fertilizers, to provide enough yield to feed the population. Strategies of increasing income to make basic needs more affordable typically include welfare, economic freedoms, Poverty reduction is a major goal and issue for many international organizations such as the United Nations and the World Bank. The World Bank forecasts that 702.1 million people, down from 1.75 billion in 1990, of these, about 347.1 million people lived in Sub-Saharan Africa and 231.3 million lived in South Asia. According to the World Bank, between 1990 and 2015, the percentage of the population living in extreme poverty fell from 37. 1% to 9. 6%. Nevertheless, given the current economic model, built on GDP, extreme poverty is a global challenge, it is observed in all parts of the world, including developed economies. UNICEF estimates half the children live in poverty. It has been argued by some academics that the policies promoted by global financial institutions such as the IMF. Another estimate places the true scale of poverty much higher than the World Bank, with an estimated 4.3 billion people living with less than $5 a day and unable to meet basic needs adequately. In 2012 it is estimated that, given a poverty line of $1.25 a day 1.2 billion people lived in poverty, the word poverty comes from old French poverté, from Latin paupertās from pauper. The English word poverty via Anglo-Norman povert, there are several definitions of poverty depending on the context of the situation it is placed in, and the views of the person giving the definition. Income Poverty, a familys income fails to meet a federally established threshold that differs across countries, United Nations, Fundamentally, poverty is the inability of having choices and opportunities, a violation of human dignity. It means lack of capacity to participate effectively in society. It means insecurity, powerlessness and exclusion of individuals, households and it means susceptibility to violence, and it often implies living in marginal or fragile environments, without access to clean water or sanitation. World Bank, Poverty is pronounced deprivation in well-being, and comprises many dimensions and it includes low incomes and the inability to acquire the basic goods and services necessary for survival with dignity
3.
Developed country
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Which criteria are to be used and which countries can be classified as being developed are subjects of debate. Developed countries have post-industrial economies, meaning the sector provides more wealth than the industrial sector. They are contrasted with developing countries, which are in the process of industrialization, or undeveloped countries, which are pre-industrial and almost entirely agrarian. As of 2015, advanced economies comprise 60. 8% of global GDP based on values and 42. 9% of global GDP based on purchasing-power parity according to the International Monetary Fund. In 2015, the ten largest advanced economies by GDP in both nominal and PPP terms were Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The term industrialized country may be ambiguous, as industrialization is an ongoing process that is hard to define. The first industrialized country was the United Kingdom, followed by Belgium, later it spread further to Germany, United States, France and other Western European countries. According to some such as Jeffrey Sachs, however, the current divide between the developed and developing world is largely a phenomenon of the 20th century. Economic criteria have tended to dominate discussions, one such criterion is income per capita, countries with high gross domestic product per capita would thus be described as developed countries. Another economic criterion is industrialization, countries in which the tertiary and quaternary sectors of industry dominate would thus be described as developed. More recently another measure, the Human Development Index, which combines an economic measure, national income, with other measures, indices for life expectancy and this criterion would define developed countries as those with a very high rating. According to the United Nations Statistics Division, There is no established convention for the designation of developed, the UN HDI is a statistical measure that gauges a countrys level of human development. While there is a correlation between having a high HDI score and a prosperous economy, the UN points out that the HDI accounts for more than income or productivity. Unlike GDP per capita or per capita income, the HDI takes into account how income is turned into education and health opportunities, since 1990, Norway, Japan, Canada and Iceland have had the highest HDI score. The top 47 countries have scores ranging from 0.793 in Barbados to 0.955 in Norway, many countries listed by IMF or CIA as advanced, possess an HDI over 0.788. Many countries possessing an HDI of 0.788 and over are also listed by IMF or CIA as advanced, thus, many advanced economies are characterized by an HDI score of 0.9 or higher. Since April 2016, the IMF classifies Macau as an advanced economy, the latest index was released on 14 December 2015 and covers the period up to 2014. The following are the 49 countries in the top quartile - having an HDI above 0.8, = Increase = No increase or decrease = Decrease The number in parentheses represents the number of ranks the country has climbed relative to the ranking in 2014 report
4.
Developing country
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Also, the general term less-developed country should not be confused with the specific least developed country. The term developing describes a currently observed situation and not a dynamic or expected direction of progress, since the late 1990s developing countries tended to demonstrate higher growth rates than the developed ones. There is criticism of the use of the developing country. The term implies inferiority of a country or undeveloped country compared with a developed country. It assumes a desire to develop along the traditional Western model of development which a few countries, such as Cuba and Bhutan. An alternative measurement that has suggested is that of gross national happiness. Countries on the boundary between developed and developing are often categorized under the newly industrialized countries. In the 2016 edition of its World Development Indicators, the World Bank made a decision to no longer distinguish between “developed” and “developing” countries in the presentation of its data, nobody has ever agreed on a definition for these terms in the first place. Various terms are used for whatever is not a developed country, terms used include less developed country or less economically developed country, and for the more extreme, least developed country or least economically developed country. But according to the United Nations Statistics Division, There is no established convention for the designation of developed, the World Bank classifies countries into four income groups. These are set each year on July 1, economies were divided according to 2016 GNI per capita using the following ranges of income, Low income countries had GNI per capita of US$1,025 or less. Lower middle income countries had GNI per capita between US$1,026 and US$4,035, upper middle income countries had GNI per capita between US$4,036 and US$12,475. High income countries had GNI per capita above US$12,476 and this may be by absolute numbers or country ranking. The UN has developed the Human Development Index, an indicator of the above statistics. The UN sets Millennium Development Goals from a blueprint developed by all of the countries and leading development institutions. There is an association between low income and high population growth. The terms utilized when discussing developing countries refer to the intent, other terms sometimes used are less developed countries, least economically developed countries, underdeveloped nations or Third World nations, and non-industrialized nations. Conversely, developed countries, most economically developed countries, First World nations and that is, LEDCs are the poorest subset of LDCs
5.
World Bank
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The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans to countries of the world for capital programs. It comprises two institutions, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, and the International Development Association, the World Bank is a component of the World Bank Group, which is part of the United Nations system. The World Banks stated official goal is the reduction of poverty, the president of the World Bank is, traditionally, an American. The World Bank and the IMF are both based in Washington, D. C. and work closely with each other, although many countries were represented at the Bretton Woods Conference, the United States and United Kingdom were the most powerful in attendance and dominated the negotiations. Before 1974 the reconstruction and development loans provided by the World Bank were relatively small, the Banks staff were aware of the need to instill confidence in the bank. Fiscal conservatism ruled, and loan applications had to meet strict criteria, the first country to receive a World Bank loan was France. The Banks president at the time, John McCloy, chose France over two other applicants, Poland and Chile, the loan was for US$250 million, half the amount requested, and it came with strict conditions. France had to agree to produce a budget and give priority of debt repayment to the World Bank over other governments. World Bank staff closely monitored the use of the funds to ensure that the French government met the conditions. In addition, before the loan was approved, the United States State Department told the French government that its members associated with the Communist Party would first have to be removed, the French government complied with this diktat and removed the Communist coalition government - the so-called tripartisme. Within hours, the loan to France was approved, when the Marshall Plan went into effect in 1947, many European countries began receiving aid from other sources. Faced with this competition, the World Bank shifted its focus to non-European countries, in 1960, the International Development Association was formed, providing soft loans to developing countries. From 1974 to 1980 the bank concentrated on meeting the needs of people in the developing world. The size and number of loans to borrowers was greatly increased as loan targets expanded from infrastructure into social services and these changes can be attributed to Robert McNamara, who was appointed to the presidency in 1968 by Lyndon B. Johnson. McNamara implored bank treasurer Eugene Rotberg to seek out new sources of capital outside of the banks that had been the primary sources of funding. Rotberg used the bond market to increase the capital available to the bank. One consequence of the period of poverty alleviation lending was the rise of third world debt. From 1976 to 1980 developing world debt rose at an annual rate of 20%
6.
Purchasing-power parity
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Observed deviations of the exchange rate from purchasing power parity are measured by deviations of the real exchange rate from its PPP value of 1. PPP exchange rates help to minimize misleading international comparisons that can arise with the use of exchange rates. For example, suppose that two countries produce the same amounts of goods as each other in each of two different years. But if one countrys GDP is converted into the countrys currency using PPP exchange rates instead of observed market exchange rates. The idea originated with the School of Salamanca in the 16th century, the best-known purchasing power adjustment is the Geary–Khamis dollar. The real exchange rate is equal to the nominal exchange rate. If purchasing power parity held exactly, then the exchange rate would always equal one. However, in practice the exchange rates exhibit both short run and long run deviations from this value, for example due to reasons illuminated in the Balassa–Samuelson theorem. There can be marked differences between purchasing power adjusted incomes and those converted via market exchange rates. This discrepancy has large implications, for instance, when converted via the exchange rates GDP per capita in India is about US$1,965 while on a PPP basis it is about US$7,197. At the other extreme, Denmarks nominal GDP per capita is around US$62,100, the purchasing power parity exchange rate serves two main functions. PPP exchange rates can be useful for making comparisons between countries because they stay fairly constant from day to day or week to week and only change modestly, if at all, from year to year. The PPP exchange-rate calculation is controversial because of the difficulties of finding comparable baskets of goods to compare purchasing power across countries, people in different countries typically consume different baskets of goods. It is necessary to compare the cost of baskets of goods and this is a difficult task because purchasing patterns and even the goods available to purchase differ across countries. Thus, it is necessary to make adjustments for differences in the quality of goods, furthermore, the basket of goods representative of one economy will vary from that of another, Americans eat more bread, Chinese more rice. Hence a PPP calculated using the US consumption as a base will differ from that calculated using China as a base, additional statistical difficulties arise with multilateral comparisons when more than two countries are to be compared. Various ways of averaging bilateral PPPs can provide a stable multilateral comparison. These are all issues of indexing, as with other price indices there is no way to reduce complexity to a single number that is equally satisfying for all purposes
7.
Charles Booth (social reformer)
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Charles James Booth was an English social researcher and reformer. Booths wife, Mary Macaulay, was a cousin of the Fabian socialist and author Martha Beatrice Webb, Booth worked closely with Potter for his research on poverty. St Pauls Cathedral is the recipient of his gift of Holman Hunts painting. Charles Booth was born in Liverpool, Lancashire on 30 March 1840 to Charles Booth and his father, a scion of the ancient Cheshire family, was a wealthy shipowner and corn merchant as well as being a prominent Unitarian. He attended the Royal Institution School in Liverpool before being apprenticed in the business at the age of sixteen. Booths father died in 1860, leaving him in control of the company to which he added a successful glove manufacturing business. Booth entered the skins and leather business with his elder brother Alfred, after learning shipping trades, Booth was able to persuade Alfred and his sister Emily to invest in steamships and established a service to Pará, Maranhão and Ceará in Brazil. Booth himself went on the first voyage to Brazil on 14 February 1866 and he was also involved in the building of a harbour at Manaus which overcame seasonal fluctuations in water levels. Booth described this as his monument when he visited Manaus for the last time in 1912, Booth also had some involvement in politics, although he canvassed unsuccessfully as the Liberal parliamentary candidate in the General Election of 1865. Following the Conservative Party victory in elections in 1866, his interest in active politics waned. This result changed Booths attitudes, and he foresaw that he could influence people more by educating the electorate and he rejected subsequent offers from Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone of elevation to the House of Lords as a Peer. Booth engaged in Joseph Chamberlains Birmingham Education League, a survey which looked into levels of work, the survey found that 25,000 children in Liverpool were neither in school or work. On 29 April 1871, Booth married Mary Macaulay, who was niece of the celebrated historian Thomas Babington Macaulay and his eldest daughter married the Hon Sir Malcolm Macnaghten, and others married into the Ritchie and Gore Browne families. Booth publicly criticised the claims of the leader of the Social Democratic Federation H. M. Hyndman – leader of Britains first socialist party, in the Pall Mall Gazette of 1885, Hyndman stated that 25% of Londoners lived in abject poverty. This research, which looked at incidences of pauperism in the East End of London and this work was published under the title Life and Labour of the People in 1889. A second volume, entitled Labour and Life of the People, covering the rest of London, Booth also popularised the idea of a poverty line, a concept originally conceived by the London School Board. Booth set this line at 10 to 20 shillings, which he considered to be the amount necessary for a family of 4 or 5 people to subsist. After the first two volumes were published Booth expanded his research and this investigation was carried out by Booth himself and his team of researchers
8.
London School Board
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The School Board for London was an institution of local government and the first directly elected body covering the whole of London. The Elementary Education Act 1870 was the first to provide for education for the population of England. It created elected school boards, which had power to build and run schools where there were insufficient voluntary school places, the entire board was elected every three years, with the first elections held in November 1870. The LSB originally consisted of members elected from ten divisions. Four divisions, representing the City, Southwark, Chelsea and Greenwich returned four members each, the divisions of Lambeth, Tower Hamlets, Hackney and Westminster returned five members each. Finally, Finsbury and Marylebone returned six and seven members respectively, the electoral system of the LSB contained several innovations. Firstly, the election of 1870 was polled by secret ballot. Secondly, the voting system gave electors a number of votes equal to the number of seats in the division in which they were voting. The elector could use up as many of their votes on a candidate as they wished. The LSB, at the time of its creation had one of the broadest mandates of any elected body in Britain, unusually, women were permitted to vote on the same terms as men for the school boards and also to stand for election. A number of women were elected to the board, including Elizabeth Garrett, one measure of the LSBs importance can be seen in the number of notable figures who stood for election to the board. The board was responsible for launching a number of political careers, including those of Charles Reed, Benjamin Waugh. The original intention of the board was to provide a sufficient number of places for the poorest children in London. The policy adopted by the LSB was to provide London with modern, high-quality schools, whilst compelling parents, by law, the LSB was largely successful in their aims and often struggled to keep up with the demand for their services. For instance, by the end of the 1880s, the board was providing school places for more than 350,000 children and this growth was frequently attributed to the quality of school premises, which were often far superior to those of private or charity schools. The board was responsible for constructing over four hundred schools across London, an important figure in this process was Edward Robert Robson, the boards first chief architect. Robson was responsible for designing many of the buildings erected by the board. The boards policy was to construct schools which would be attractive, although the school boards had been largely successful in increasing the number of children attending school in Britain, they were perceived as bureaucratic and expensive
9.
Seebohm Rowntree
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Benjamin Seebohm Rowntree, CH was an English sociological researcher, social reformer and industrialist. He is known in particular for his three York studies of poverty conducted in 1899,1935, and 1951, the first York study involved a comprehensive survey into the living conditions of the poor in York during which investigators visited every working class home. Rowntrees argument that poverty was the result of low wages went against the traditionally held view that the poor were responsible for their own plight and he was educated first privately and then from the age of 10 at Bootham School. Rowntree studied chemistry at Owens College, Manchester for five terms before joining the firm in 1889. He became a director in 1897 when the became a limited liability company and was the chairman from 1923 to 1941. In 1897 he married Lydia Potter, daughter of Edwin Potter, after his wife died, he lived in a wing of Disraelis old house, Hughenden Manor, where he died after a heart attack. Rowntree investigated poverty in York, inspired by the work of his father Joseph Rowntree and he carried out a comprehensive survey into the living conditions of the poor in York during which investigators visited every working class home. This amounted to the study of 11,560 families or 46,754 individuals. The results of study were published in 1901 in his book Poverty. In Rowntrees work, he surveyed rich families in York and drew a poverty line in terms of a weekly sum of money necessary to enable families. To secure the necessaries of a healthy life, the money needed for this subsistence level of existence covered fuel and light, rent, food, clothing, and household and personal items, adjusted according to family size. He determined this level using scientific methods which hadnt been applied to the study of poverty before, for example, he consulted leading nutritionists of the period to discover the minimum calorific intake and nutritional balance necessary before people got ill or lost weight. He then surveyed the prices of food in York to discover what the cheapest prices in the area for the food needed for this minimum diet were, according to this measure,27.84 percent of the total population of York lived below the poverty line. He placed those below his poverty line into two groups depending on the reason for their poverty and those in primary poverty did not have enough income to meet the expenditure necessary for their basic needs. Those classed as in secondary poverty had high enough income to meet basic needs, from this he formulated the idea of the poverty cycle in which some people moved in and out of absolute poverty during their lives. Rowntrees argument that poverty was the result of low wages went against the traditionally held view that the poor were responsible for their own plight, Rowntree conducted a further study of poverty in York in 1936 under the title Poverty and Progress. This was based largely on a research method as his earlier study. However, as he changed his definition of the poverty line, in this study he included allowances for some items which were not strictly necessary for survival, these included newspapers, books, radios, beer, tobacco, holidays, and presents
10.
York
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York is a historic walled city at the confluence of the rivers Ouse and Foss in North Yorkshire, England. The municipality is the county town of Yorkshire to which it gives its name. The city has a heritage and has provided the backdrop to major political events in England throughout much of its two millennia of existence. The city offers a wealth of attractions, of which York Minster is the most prominent. The city was founded by the Romans as Eboracum in 71 AD and it became the capital of the Roman province of Britannia Inferior, and later of the kingdoms of Northumbria and Jórvík. In the Middle Ages, York grew as a wool trading centre and became the capital of the northern ecclesiastical province of the Church of England. In the 19th century, York became a hub of the railway network, in recent decades, the economy of York has moved from being dominated by its confectionery and railway-related industries to one that provides services. The University of York and health services have become major employers, from 1996, the term City of York describes a unitary authority area which includes rural areas beyond the old city boundaries. In 2011 the urban area had a population of 153,717, the word York derives from the Latinised name for the city, variously rendered as Eboracum, Eburacum or Eburaci. The first mention of York by this name is dated to circa 95–104 AD as an address on a wooden stylus tablet from the Roman fortress of Vindolanda in Northumberland, the toponymy of Eboracum is uncertain because the language of the pre-Roman indigenous population was never recorded. They are thought to have spoken a Celtic language related to modern Welsh, in his Historia Regum Britanniae the 12th century chronicler, Geoffrey of Monmouth, suggests the name derives from that of a pre-Roman city founded by the legendary king Ebraucus. Alternatively, the word already existed as an Old English word for wild swine. The Anglo-Saxon newcomers probably interpreted the part as eofor, and -rac as ric, while -um was a common abbreviation of the Saxon -heem. To them, it sounded as a home rich in boar, as is common in Saxon place names, the -um part gradually faded, eoforic. When the Danish army conquered the city in 866, its name became Jórvík, the Old French and Norman name of the city following the Norman Conquest was recorded as Everwic in works such as Waces Roman de Rou. The form York was first recorded in the 13th century, many company and place names, such as the Ebor race meeting, refer to the Roman name. The Archbishop of York uses Ebor as his surname in his signature, archaeological evidence suggests that Mesolithic people settled in the region of York between 8000 and 7000 BC, although it is not known whether their settlements were permanent or temporary. By the time of the Roman conquest of Britain, the area was occupied by a known to the Romans as the Brigantes
11.
Extreme poverty
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It depends not only on income but also on access to services. In 2008, extreme poverty widely refers to earning below the poverty line of $1. 25/day. This measure is the equivalent to earning $1.00 a day in 1996 US prices, hence the widely used expression, living on less than a dollar a day. The vast majority of those in extreme poverty – 96% – reside in South Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, The West Indies, East Asia, the reduction of extreme poverty and hunger was the first Millennium Development Goal, as set by 189 United Nations Member States in 2000. Specifically, MDG1 set a target of reducing the poverty rate in half by 2015. Extreme poverty is defined by the International Community as earning less than a $1.25 a day, originally, the international poverty line was set at earning a $1 a day when the Millennium Development Goals were first published. However, in 2008, the World Bank pushed the line to $1.25 to recognize higher price levels in developing countries than previously estimated. As of September 2010, according to the UN, roughly 1.2 billion people remain in extreme poverty based on this metric.9 billion. On September 23,2015 the UK-based Financial Times reported that the World Bank intends to revise its income-based benchmark upward, as differences in the cost of living across the world evolve, the global poverty line has to be periodically updated to reflect these changes. The new global poverty line uses updated price data to paint a more accurate picture of the costs of food, clothing. In other words, the value of $1.90 in 2011’s prices is the same as $1.25 was in 2005. Though widely used by most international organizations, the $1. 25/day extreme poverty line has come under scrutiny from a variety of factors, not to mention the fact that there may be missing data from the poorest and most fragile countries which may muddle the picture even further. Thus, the 2010 Human Development Report introduced the Multidimensional Poverty Index, which not only income. Using this tool, the United Nations Development Programme estimated that roughly 1.5 billion people remained in poverty as opposed to the conventional figure of 1.2 billion. As this figure is considered more holistic, it may shed new light on relative deprivation within a country, for example, in Ethiopia, 39% of the population is considered extremely poor under conventional measures, but 90% are in multidimensional poverty. This tool is useful as development officials, using the M0 measure of the method, in contrast, data from the Chhukha District of Bhutan reveals that income is a much larger contributor to poverty as opposed to other dimensions within the region. Using the World Bank definition of $1. 25/day, as of September 2013, nearly half live in India and China, with more than 85% living in just 20 countries. Since the mid-1990s, there has been a decline in both the worldwide poverty rate and the total number of extreme poor
12.
Body mass index
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The body mass index or Quetelet index is a value derived from the mass and height of an individual. The BMI is defined as the body divided by the square of the body height. The BMI is an attempt to quantify the amount of mass in an individual. However, there is debate about where on the BMI scale the dividing lines between categories should be placed. Commonly accepted BMI ranges are underweight, under 18.5 kg/m2, normal weight,18.5 to 25, overweight,25 to 30, obese, over 30. The modern term body mass index for the ratio of body weight to squared height was coined in a paper published in the July 1972 edition of the Journal of Chronic Diseases by Ancel Keys. In this paper, Keys argued that what he termed the BMI was, BMI was explicitly cited by Keys as appropriate for population studies and inappropriate for individual evaluation. Nevertheless, due to its simplicity, it has come to be used for preliminary diagnosis. Additional metrics, such as waist circumference, can be more useful, the BMI is universally expressed in kg/m2, resulting from mass in kilograms and height in metres. If pounds and inches are used, a factor of 703 / must be applied. When the term BMI is used informally, the units are usually omitted, BMI was designed to be used as a simple means of classifying average sedentary populations, with an average body composition. Some athletes, such as linemen, have a high muscle to fat ratio. BMI is proportional to the mass and inversely proportional to the square of the height, so, if all body dimensions double, and mass scales naturally with the cube of the height, then BMI doubles instead of remaining the same. This results in people having a reported BMI that is uncharacteristically high. In comparison, the Ponderal index is based on the scaling of mass with the third power of the height. However, many people are not just scaled up short people. Nick Korevaar suggests that instead of squaring the body height or cubing the body height, carl Lavie has written that, The B. M. I. Tables are excellent for identifying obesity and body fat in large populations, a frequent use of the BMI is to assess how much an individuals body weight departs from what is normal or desirable for a persons height
13.
Latrine
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The word latrine can refer to a toilet or a simpler facility which is used as a toilet within a sanitation system. It can be a trench in the earth in a camp. Latrines are still used in emergency situations, as well as in army camps. The use of latrines was an advance in sanitation over more basic practices such as open defecation. Until about 1920, when better sanitation practices were adopted, many soldiers died of disease than from wounds. The word latrine is derived from the Latin lavatrina, meaning bath and it is nowadays still commonly used in the term pit latrine. For most people, it has the connotation of something being less advanced and it is typically used to describe communal facilities, such as the shallow-trench latrines used in emergency situations, e. g. after an earthquake, flood or other natural disaster. Latrines are known as aphedrons in Greek, the word occurs three times in the Bible and was unknown in classical texts. Many forms of technology have been used, from very simple to more complex. The more sophisticated the system, the more likely that the toilet is used instead of latrine. A pit latrine is a simple and inexpensive toilet, minimally defined as a hole in the ground, more sophisticated pit latrines may include a floor plate, or ventilation to reduce odor and fly and mosquito breeding. Many military units, if intended for extended use, place basic shelters, a pit is typically sited well away from any water sources to minimize possible contamination. After prolonged use, a pit is typically buried, other types of pit latrines may include the Reed Odourless Earth Closet, the arborloo or treebog, or the twin pit pour-flush pit latrine, popularized by Sulabh International. The shelter that covers such a pit latrine is known in some varieties of English as an outhouse, in a location without longer term sanitation infrastructure, a trench toilet is a workable solution. It typically consists of a pit or a trench in the ground,4 feet to 5 feet deep and 4 feet to 20 feet long, a slit-trench latrine consists of a relatively shallow trench which is narrow enough to stand with one leg on either side. This type is used either by squatting, with the users legs straddling the pit, such support may be simply a log, plank, branch or similar arrangement placed at right angles to the long axis of the pit. This type of latrine is not commonly found in developing countries, the shallow-trench latrine is similar to the slit-trench latrine but is wider than the latter. It is also shallow, with a depth of about 150 mm and this type of latrine is often used in the initial phases of emergencies and is a simple improvement on open defecation fields
14.
Credit (finance)
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In other words, credit is a method of making reciprocity formal, legally enforceable, and extensible to a large group of unrelated people. The resources provided may be financial, or they may consist of goods or services, Credit encompasses any form of deferred payment. Credit is extended by a creditor, also known as a lender, to a debtor, Credit does not necessarily require money. The credit concept can be applied in barter economies as well, based on the exchange of goods. However, in societies, credit is usually denominated by a unit of account. Bank issued credit makes up the largest proportion of credit in existence, the traditional view of banks as intermediaries between savers and borrower is incorrect. Modern banking is about credit creation, Credit is made up of two parts, the credit and its corresponding debt, which requires repayment with interest. The majority of the money in the UK economy is created as credit, when the debt is fully repaid, the credit and debt are cancelled, and the money disappears from the economy. Meanwhile, the debtor receives a cash balance, but also an equivalent negative liability to be repaid to the bank over the duration. Most of the credit created goes into the purchase of land and property, creating inflation in those markets, when a bank creates credit, it effectively owes the money to itself. If a bank issues too much bad credit, the bank will become insolvent, if it fails to do this it risks bankruptcy. In this instance, the bank uses sale of the collateral to reduce its liabilities, examples of secured credit include consumer mortgages used to buy houses, boats etc. and PCP credit agreements for automobile purchases. Movements of financial capital are normally dependent on credit or equity transfers. The global credit market is three times the size of global equity, Credit is in turn dependent on the reputation or creditworthiness of the entity which takes responsibility for the funds. Credit is also traded in financial markets, the purest form is the credit default swap market, which is essentially a traded market in credit insurance. There are many types of credit, including but not limited to bank credit, commerce, consumer credit, investment credit, international credit, public credit, in commercial trade, the term trade credit refers to the approval of delayed payment for purchased goods. Credit is sometimes not granted to a buyer who has financial instability or difficulty, companies frequently offer trade credit to their customers as part of the terms of a purchase agreement. Organizations that offer credit to their customers frequently employ a credit manager, Consumer debt can be defined as money, goods or services provided to an individual in the absence of immediate payment
15.
Health
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Health is the level of functional and metabolic efficiency of a living organism. In humans it is the ability of individuals or communities to adapt, other definitions have been proposed, among which a recent definition that correlates health and personal satisfaction. The definition of health has evolved over time, although this definition was welcomed by some as being innovative, it was also criticized as being vague, excessively broad, and was not construed as measurable. For a long time it was set aside as an impractical ideal, just as there was a shift from viewing disease as a state to thinking of it as a process, the same shift happened in definitions of health. Again, the WHO played a role when it fostered the development of the health promotion movement in the 1980s. This brought in a new conception of health, not as a state, the 1984 WHO revised definition of health defined it as the extent to which an individual or group is able to realize aspirations and satisfy needs, and to change or cope with the environment. Health is a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living, it is a concept, emphasizing social and personal resources. Thus, health referred to the ability to maintain homeostasis and recover from insults, since the late 1970s, the federal Healthy People Initiative has been a visible component of the United States’ approach to improving population health. Progress has been limited for many objectives, leading to concerns about the effectiveness of Healthy People in shaping outcomes in the context of a decentralized and uncoordinated US health system. Healthy People 2020 gives more prominence to health promotion and preventive approaches, a new expanded digital interface facilitates use and dissemination rather than bulky printed books as produced in the past. The impact of changes to Healthy People will be determined in the coming years. Systematic activities to prevent or cure health problems and promote health in humans are undertaken by health care providers. Applications with regard to animal health are covered by the veterinary sciences, studies have shown that high levels of stress can affect human health. Generally, the context in which an individual lives is of importance for both his health status and quality of their life. The concept of the field, as distinct from medical care. The report identified three interdependent fields as key determinants of an individuals health, the maintenance and promotion of health is achieved through different combination of physical, mental, and social well-being, together sometimes referred to as the health triangle. The WHOs 1986 Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion further stated that health is not just a state, Health is a positive concept emphasizing social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities. Health and illness can co-exist, as people with multiple chronic diseases or terminal illnesses can consider themselves healthy
16.
Consumption (economics)
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Consumption is major concept in economics and is also studied by many other social sciences. Economists are particularly interested in the relationship between consumption and income, as modeled with the consumption function, different schools of economists define production and consumption differently. Other economists define consumption much more broadly, as the aggregate of all activity that does not entail the design, production and marketing of goods. The consumption function is a function that expresses consumer spending in terms of its determinants, such as income. The Keynesian consumption function is known as the absolute income hypothesis, as it only bases consumption on current income. Criticism of this led to the development of Milton Friedmans permanent income hypothesis. Consumption is defined in part by comparison to production, in the tradition of the Columbia School of Household Economics, also known as the New Home Economics, commercial consumption has to be analyzed in the context of household production. The opportunity cost of time affects the cost of home-produced substitutes and therefore demand for commercial goods, the elasticity of demand for consumption goods is also a function of who performs chores in households and how their spouses compensate them for opportunity costs of home production. Different schools of economists define production and consumption differently, other economists define consumption much more broadly, as the aggregate of all economic activity that does not entail the design, production and marketing of goods and services. Consumption can also be measured by a variety of different ways such as energy in energy economics metrics, aggregate consumption is a component of aggregate demand. According to the UN, today’s consumption is undermining the environmental resource base, and the dynamics of the consumption-poverty-inequality-environment nexus are accelerating. Developing countries like India, as they move down the path of copying the consumption patterns of developed economies, some economists talk about putting a price on using earths resources which is in addition to the cost of just extracting them. Die Broke is a similar idea, distinction, A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste. The World of Goods, Towards an Anthropology of Consumption, ivanova, Diana, Stadler, Konstantin, Steen-Olsen, Kjartan, Wood, Richard, Vita, Gibran, Tukker, Arnold, Hertwich, Edgar G. Environmental Impact Assessment of Household Consumption. An essay examining the strengths and weaknesses of Keyness theory of consumption
17.
Clothing
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Clothing is fiber and textile material worn on the body. The wearing of clothing is mostly restricted to human beings and is a feature of all human societies. The amount and type of clothing worn depends on type, social. Some clothing types can be gender-specific, physically, clothing serves many purposes, it can serve as protection from the elements, and can enhance safety during hazardous activities such as hiking and cooking. It protects the wearer from rough surfaces, rash-causing plants, insect bites, splinters, thorns, Clothes can insulate against cold or hot conditions. Further, they can provide a barrier, keeping infectious. Clothing also provides protection from ultraviolet radiation, there is no easy way to determine when clothing was first developed, but some information has been inferred by studying lice. The body louse specifically lives in clothing, and diverge from head lice about 170 millennia ago, another theory is that modern humans are the only survivors of several species of primates who may have worn clothes and that clothing may have been used as long ago as 650 millennia. Other louse-based estimates put the introduction of clothing at around 42, the most obvious function of clothing is to improve the comfort of the wearer, by protecting the wearer from the elements. In hot climates, clothing provides protection from sunburn or wind damage, shelter usually reduces the functional need for clothing. For example, coats, hats, gloves, and other layers are normally removed when entering a warm home. Similarly, clothing has seasonal and regional aspects, so that thinner materials, Clothing performs a range of social and cultural functions, such as individual, occupational and gender differentiation, and social status. In many societies, norms about clothing reflect standards of modesty, religion, gender, Clothing may also function as a form of adornment and an expression of personal taste or style. Clothing can and has in history been made from a wide variety of materials. Materials have ranged from leather and furs, to materials, to elaborate and exotic natural. Not all body coverings are regarded as clothing, Clothing protects against many things that might injure the uncovered human body. Clothes protect people from the elements, including rain, snow, wind, however, clothing that is too sheer, thin, small, tight, etc. offers less protection. Clothes also reduce risk during activities such as work or sport, some clothing protects from specific environmental hazards, such as insects, noxious chemicals, weather, weapons, and contact with abrasive substances
18.
Amartya Sen
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Amartya Kumar Sen is an Indian economist and philosopher, who since 1972 has taught and worked in the United Kingdom and the United States. He is currently the Thomas W. Lamont University Professor at Harvard University and he was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1998 and Indias Bharat Ratna in 1999 for his work in welfare economics. Sen was born in a Bengali Baidya family in Manikganj, to Ashutosh Sen, Sens family was from Wari and Manikganj, Dhaka, both in present-day Bangladesh. Sens mother Amita Sen was the daughter of Kshiti Mohan Sen and he served as the Vice Chancellor of Visva-Bharati University for some years. Sen began his education at St Gregorys School in Dhaka in 1940. From fall 1941, Sen studied at Patha Bhavana, Santiniketan, the school had many progressive features, at the school, any focus on examinations or competitive testing was deeply frowned upon. In addition, the school stressed cultural diversity, and embraced influences from the rest of the world. In 1951, he went to Presidency College, Kolkata, where he earned a B. A. in Economics with First Class, with a minor in Mathematics, while at Presidency, Sen was diagnosed with oral cancer, and given a 15% chance of living five years. With radiation treatment, he survived, and in 1953 he moved to Trinity College, Cambridge and he was elected President of the Cambridge Majlis. While Sen was officially a Ph and he served in that position, starting the new Economics Department, during 1956 to 1958. Meanwhile, Sen was elected to a Prize Fellowship at Trinity College and his interest in philosophy, however, dates back to his college days at Presidency, where he read books on philosophy and debated philosophical themes. In Cambridge, there were major debates between supporters of Keynesian economics on the one hand, and the neo-classical economists skeptical of Keynes, quentin Skinner notes that Sen was a member of the secret society Cambridge Apostles during his time at Cambridge. Sens work on Choice of Technique complemented that of Maurice Dobb, in other words, workers were expected to demand no improvement in their standard of living despite having become more productive. Sens papers in the late 1960s and early 1970s helped develop the theory of social choice, which first came to prominence in the work by the American economist Kenneth Arrow. Sen also argued that the Bengal famine was caused by an economic boom that raised food prices. Sens interest in famine stemmed from personal experience, as a nine-year-old boy, he witnessed the Bengal famine of 1943, in which three million people perished. This staggering loss of life was unnecessary, Sen later concluded, in Poverty and Famines, Sen revealed that in many cases of famine, food supplies were not significantly reduced. In Bengal, for example, food production, while down on the year, was higher than in previous non-famine years
19.
Economic development
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Economic development is the process by which a nation improves the economic, political, and social well-being of its people. The term has been used frequently by economists, politicians, and others in the 20th, the concept, however, has been in existence in the West for centuries. Modernization, Westernization, and especially Industrialization are other people have used while discussing economic development. Economic development has a relationship with the environment and environmental issues. Whereas economic development is a policy intervention endeavor with aims of economic and social well-being of people, economic growth is a phenomenon of market productivity, consequently, as economist Amartya Sen points out, economic growth is one aspect of the process of economic development. The scope of development includes the process and policies by which a nation improves the economic, political. The University of Iowas Center for International Finance and Development states that, Economic development is a term that economists, politicians, the concept, however, has been in existence in the West for centuries. Modernization, Westernisation, and especially Industrialisation are other people have used while discussing economic development. Economic development has a relationship with the environment. Although nobody is certain when the concept originated, some agree that development is closely bound up with the evolution of capitalism. Economic development can also be considered as a theory that documents the state of an economy at a certain time. According to Schumpeter and Backhaus, the changes in equilibrium state to document in economic theory can only be caused by intervening factors coming from the outside. Economic development originated in the period of reconstruction initiated by the United States. Their food is inadequate, they are victims of disease and their economic life is primitive and stagnant. Their poverty is a handicap and a both to them and to more prosperous areas. For the first time in history humanity possesses the knowledge and the skill to relieve the suffering of these people, greater production is the key to prosperity and peace. And the key to production is a wider and more vigorous application of modem scientific. There have been several phases of development theory since 1945
20.
Economic inequality
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Economic inequality is the difference found in various measures of economic well-being among individuals in a group, among groups in a population, or among countries. Economic inequality is sometimes called income inequality, wealth inequality, or the wealth gap, economists generally focus on economic disparity in three metrics, wealth, income, and consumption. The issue of inequality is relevant to notions of equity, equality of outcome. Economic inequality varies between societies, historical periods, economic structures and systems, the term can refer to cross-sectional distribution of income or wealth at any particular period, or to changes of income and wealth over longer periods of time. There are various numerical indices for measuring economic inequality, a widely used index is the Gini coefficient, but there are also many other methods. Some studies say economic inequality is a problem, for example too much inequality can be destructive. However, too much income equality is also destructive since it decreases the incentive for productivity, the first set of income distribution statistics for the United States covering the period from was published in 1952 by Simon Kuznets, Shares of Upper Income Groups in Income and Savings. It relied on US federal income tax returns and Kuznets’s own estimates of US national income, National Income, economists generally consider three metrics of economic dispersion, wealth, income, and consumption. A skilled professional may have low wealth and low income as student, low wealth and high earnings in the beginning of the career, peoples preferences determine whether they consume earnings immediately or defer consumption to the future. The distinction is important at the level of economy, There are economies with high income inequality. There are economies with low income inequality and high wealth inequality. There are different ways to measure income inequality and wealth inequality, Different choices lead to different results. g. Annual wages, including wages from part-time work or work during only part of the year, individual earnings inequality among all workers – Includes the self-employed. Individual earnings inequality among the entire working-age population – Includes those who are inactive, e. g. students, unemployed, early pensioners, household earnings inequality – Includes the earnings of all household members. Household market income inequality – Includes incomes from capital, savings, household disposable income inequality – Includes public cash transfers received and direct taxes paid. Household adjusted disposable income inequality – Includes publicly provided services, There are many challenges in comparing data between economies, or in a single economy in different years. Examples of challenges include, Data can be based on joint taxation of couples or individual taxation, the tax authorities generally only collect information on income that is potentially taxable. The precise definition of income varies from country to country
21.
United Nations Development Program
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The United Nations Development Programme is the United Nations global development network. Headquartered in New York City, UNDP advocates for change and connects countries to knowledge, experience and it provides expert advice, training and grants support to developing countries, with increasing emphasis on assistance to the least developed countries. The status of UNDP is that of an executive board within the United Nations General Assembly, the UNDP Administrator is the third highest-ranking official of the United Nations after the United Nations Secretary-General and Deputy Secretary-General. UNDP also encourages the protection of rights and the empowerment of women in all of its programmes. The UNDP Human Development Report Office also publishes an annual Human Development Report to measure, in addition to a global Report, UNDP publishes regional, national, and local Human Development Reports. UNDP is funded entirely by contributions from member nations. The organization operates in 177 countries, where it works with governments to meet development challenges. Additionally, the UNDP works internationally to help achieve the Millennium Development Goals. Currently, the UNDP is one of the main UN agencies involved in the development of the Post-2015 Development Agenda, UNDP works with nations on their own solutions to global and national development challenges. As they develop local capacity, they draw on the people of UNDP, the UNDP was founded on 22 November 1965 with the merger of the Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance and the Special Fund. The rationale was to avoid duplication of activities, the EPTA was set up in 1949 to help the economic and political aspects of underdeveloped countries while the Special Fund was to enlarge the scope of UN technical assistance. The Special Fund arose from the idea of a Special United Nations Fund for Economic Development, while countries such as the Nordic countries were proponents of such a United Nations controlled fund. The concept of SUNFED was dropped to form the Special Fund and this Special Fund was some compromise over the SUNFED concept, it did not provide investment capital, but only helped to bring pre-conditions for private investment. With the US proposing and creating the International Development Association within the World Banks umbrella, the EPTA, in 2013, UNDP’s entire budget was approximately US$5 billion. The following table lists the top 15 DAC5 Digit Sectors to which UNDP has committed funding, the UNDP claims on the IATI Registry website that the data covers 100% of development flows. UNDP’s offices and staff are on the ground in 177 countries, working with governments, UNDP links and coordinates global and national efforts to achieve the goals and national development priorities laid out by host countries. UNDP also supports existing democratic institutions by increasing dialogue, enhancing national debate, UNDP also works at the macro level to reform trade, encourage debt relief and foreign investment, and ensure the poorest of the poor benefit from globalisation. On the ground, UNDP sponsors developmental pilot projects, promotes the role of women in development, in this way, UNDP works with local leaders and governments to provide opportunities for impoverished people to create businesses and improve their economic condition
22.
UNICEF
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The United Nations Childrens Fund is a United Nations programme headquartered in New York City that provides humanitarian and developmental assistance to children and mothers in developing countries. It is a member of the United Nations Development Group, the Polish physician Ludwik Rajchman is widely regarded as the founder of UNICEF and served as its first chairman from 1946. On Rajchmans suggestion, the American Maurice Pate was appointed its first executive director, in 1950, UNICEFs mandate was extended to address the long-term needs of children and women in developing countries everywhere. UNICEF relies on contributions from governments and private donors, UNICEFs total income for 2008 was US$3,372,540,239, governments contribute two-thirds of the organizations resources. Private groups and some six million individuals contribute the rest through national committees and it is estimated that 92 per cent of UNICEF revenue is distributed to programme services. UNICEFs programmes emphasize developing community-level services to promote the health and well-being of children, UNICEF was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1965 and the Prince of Asturias Award of Concord in 2006. Most of UNICEFs work is in the field, with staff in over 190 countries and territories, more than 200 country offices carry out UNICEFs mission through programmes developed with host governments. Seven regional offices provide technical assistance to country offices as needed, a 36-member executive board establishes policies, approves programmes and oversees administrative and financial plans. The executive board is made up of government representatives who are elected by the United Nations Economic and Social Council, there are national committees in 34 countries, each established as an independent local non-governmental organization. The national committees raise funds from the private sector, UNICEF is funded entirely by voluntary contributions, and the National Committees collectively raise around one-third of UNICEFs annual income. This comes through contributions from corporations, civil society organizations around six million individual donors worldwide, UNICEF is present in 191 countries and territories around the world, but not involved in nine others. Many people in developed countries first hear about UNICEFs work through the activities of one of the 36 National Committees for UNICEF, the US Fund for UNICEF is the oldest of the national committees, founded in 1947. On 19 April 2007, Grand Duchess Maria Teresa of Luxembourg was appointed UNICEF Eminent Advocate for Children, in which role she has visited Brazil, China, and Burundi. In 2009, the British retailer Tesco used Change for Good as advertising and they went on to call on the public who have children’s welfare at heart, to consider carefully who they support when making consumer choices. As part of the agreement, FC Barcelona will wear the UNICEF logo on the front of their uniform and this was the first time a football club sponsored an organization rather than the other way around. It was also the first time in FC Barcelonas history that they have had another organizations name across the front of their uniform, in January 2007 UNICEF struck a partnership with Canadas national tent pegging team. The team was officially re-flagged as UNICEF Team Canada, its riders wear UNICEFs logo in competition, the Swedish club Hammarby IF followed the Spanish and Canadian lead on 14 April 2007, also raising funds for UNICEF and displaying the UNICEF name on their sportswear. The Danish football club Brøndby IF participated in an arrangement from 2008 to 2013
23.
OECD
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The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development is an intergovernmental economic organisation with 35 member countries, founded in 1960 to stimulate economic progress and world trade. Most OECD members are high-income economies with a very high Human Development Index and are regarded as developed countries, in 1948, the OECD originated as the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation, led by Robert Marjolin of France, to help administer the Marshall Plan. This would be achieved by allocating American financial aid and implementing programs for the reconstruction of Europe after World War II. The OECDs headquarters are at the Château de la Muette in Paris, the OECD is funded by contributions from member states at varying rates. And had a budget of EUR363 million in 2015. It started its operations on 16 April 1948, and originated from the work done by the Committee of European Economic Co-operation in 1947 in preparation for the Marshall Plan, since 1949, it was headquartered in the Château de la Muette in Paris, France. After the Marshall Plan ended, the OEEC focused on economic issues, in 1958, a European Nuclear Energy Agency was set up under the OEEC. By the end of the 1950s, with the job of rebuilding Europe effectively done, some leading countries felt that the OEEC had outlived its purpose and this reconstituted organisation would bring the US and Canada, who were already OEEC observers, on board as full members. It would also set to work away on bringing in Japan. Following the 1957 Rome Treaties to launch the European Economic Community, the Convention was signed in December 1960 and the OECD officially superseded the OEEC in September 1961. It consisted of the European founder countries of the OEEC plus the United States and Canada, the official founding members are, During the next 12 years Japan, Finland, Australia, and New Zealand also joined the organisation. Yugoslavia had observer status in the organisation starting with the establishment of the OECD until its dissolution as a country, the OECD created agencies such as the OECD Development Centre, International Energy Agency, and Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering. Unlike the organizations of the United Nations system, OECD uses the spelling organisation with an s in its name rather than organization, in 1989, after the Revolutions of 1989, the OECD started to assist countries in Central Europe to prepare market economy reforms. This programme also included an option for these countries. As a result of this, Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, in the 1990s, a number of European countries, now members of the European Union, expressed their willingness to join the organisation. In 1995, Cyprus applied for membership, but, according to the Cypriot government, in 1996, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania signed a Joint Declaration expressing willingness to become full members of the OECD. Slovenia also applied for membership that same year, in 2005, Malta applied to join the organisation. The EU is lobbying for admission of all EU member states, Romania reaffirmed in 2012 its intention to become a member of the organisation through the letter addressed by the Romanian Prime Minister Victor Ponta to OECD Secretary-General José Ángel Gurría
24.
Adam Smith
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Adam Smith FRSA was a Scottish economist, philosopher, and author. He was a philosopher, a pioneer of political economy. He is best known for two works, The Theory of Moral Sentiments, and An Inquiry into the Nature. The latter, usually abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations, is considered his magnum opus and the first modern work of economics. Smith studied social philosophy at the University of Glasgow and at Balliol College, Oxford, after graduating, he delivered a successful series of public lectures at Edinburgh, leading him to collaborate with David Hume during the Scottish Enlightenment. Smith obtained a professorship at Glasgow teaching moral philosophy, and during this time he wrote, in his later life, he took a tutoring position that allowed him to travel throughout Europe, where he met other intellectual leaders of his day. Smith laid the foundations of free market economic theory. The Wealth of Nations was a precursor to the academic discipline of economics. In this and other works, he developed the concept of division of labour, Smith was controversial in his own day and his general approach and writing style were often satirised by Tory writers in the moralising tradition of William Hogarth and Jonathan Swift. In 2005, The Wealth of Nations was named among the 100 Best Scottish Books of all time, the minor planet 12838 Adamsmith was named in his memory. Smith was born in Kirkcaldy, in the County of Fife and his father, also Adam Smith, was a Scottish Writer to the Signet, advocate, and prosecutor and also served as comptroller of the Customs in Kirkcaldy. In 1720 he married Margaret Douglas, daughter of the landed Robert Douglas of Strathendry and his father died two months after he was born, leaving his mother a widow. The date of Smiths baptism into the Church of Scotland at Kirkcaldy was 5 June 1723, and this has often been treated as if it were also his date of birth, Smith was close to his mother, who probably encouraged him to pursue his scholarly ambitions. He attended the Burgh School of Kirkcaldy—characterised by Rae as one of the best secondary schools of Scotland at that period—from 1729 to 1737, he learned Latin, mathematics, history, Smith entered the University of Glasgow when he was fourteen and studied moral philosophy under Francis Hutcheson. Here, Smith developed his passion for liberty, reason, in 1740 Smith was the graduate scholar presented to undertake postgraduate studies at Balliol College, Oxford, under the Snell Exhibition. Adam Smith considered the teaching at Glasgow to be far superior to that at Oxford, according to William Robert Scott, The Oxford of time gave little if any help towards what was to be his lifework. Nevertheless, Smith took the opportunity while at Oxford to teach several subjects by reading many books from the shelves of the large Bodleian Library. When Smith was not studying on his own, his time at Oxford was not a happy one, near the end of his time there, Smith began suffering from shaking fits, probably the symptoms of a nervous breakdown
25.
John Kenneth Galbraith
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John Kenneth Ken Galbraith, OC was a Canadian-born economist, public official, and diplomat, and a leading proponent of 20th-century American liberalism. His books on economic topics were bestsellers from the 1950s through the 2000s, as an economist, he leaned toward Post-Keynesian economics from an institutionalist perspective. Galbraith was a long-time Harvard faculty member and stayed with Harvard University for half a century as a professor of economics and he was a prolific author and wrote four dozen books, including several novels, and published more than a thousand articles and essays on various subjects. Among his works was a trilogy on economics, American Capitalism, The Affluent Society, Galbraith was active in Democratic Party politics, serving in the administrations of Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harry S Truman, John F. Kennedy, and Lyndon B. Johnson. He served as United States Ambassador to India under the Kennedy administration and his political activism, literary output and outspokenness brought him wide fame during his lifetime. Galbraith was one of the few to both the Medal of Freedom and the Presidential Medal of Freedom for his public service and contributions to science. The government of France made him a Commandeur de la Légion dhonneur, Galbraith was born to Canadians of Scottish descent, Sarah Catherine Kendall and Archibald Archie Galbraith, in Iona Station, Ontario, Canada, and was raised in Dunwich Township, Ontario. He had three siblings, Alice, Catherine, and Archibald William, by the time he was a teenager, he had adopted the name Ken, and later disliked being called John. Galbraith grew to be a tall man, attaining a height of 6 feet 9 inches. His father was a farmer and school teacher, a homemaker and a community activist, his mother died when he was fourteen years old. The family farm was located on Thomson Line, both of his parents were supporters of the United Farmers of Ontario in the 1920s. His early years were spent at a school which is still standing. Later, he went to Dutton High School and St. Thomas High School, in 1931, Galbraith graduated with a Bachelor of Science in Agriculture from the Ontario Agricultural College, which was then an associate agricultural college of the University of Toronto. After graduation in 1934, he started to work as an instructor at Harvard University, Galbraith taught intermittently at Harvard in the period 1934 to 1939. From 1939 to 1940, he taught at Princeton University, in 1937, he became a United States citizen and was no longer a British subject. In the same year, he took a fellowship at the University of Cambridge, England. He then traveled in Europe for several months in 1938, attending an international economic conference and his public service started in the era of New Deal when he joined the United States Department of Agriculture. From 1943 until 1948, he served as an editor of Fortune magazine, in 1949, he was appointed professor of economics at Harvard
26.
Peter Townsend (sociologist)
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Peter Brereton Townsend was a British sociologist. The last position he held was Professor of International Social Policy at the London School of Economics and he was also Emeritus Professor of Social Policy in the University of Bristol, and was one of the co-founders of the University of Essex. He wrote widely on the economics of poverty and was co-founder of the Child Poverty Action Group, the Peter Townsend Policy Press Prize was established by the British Academy in his memory. Townsend was dedicated to studying very carefully the life of the poorest and most handicapped members of society and he applied this consistently outside academia as well as within it. He was co-founder of the Child Poverty Action Group in 1965, was its chair for 20 years and he also co-founded the Disability Alliance in response to the Thalidomide scandal, and chaired it for 25 years. Their resources are so seriously below those commanded by the family that they are in effect excluded from the ordinary living patterns, customs. Townsend inefficiency is a property of monetary exchange. Rather than evaluating the utility he generated in production, one of the parties is evaluating the value of the money he gets in the transaction. In other words, a worker may only be looking at his paycheck instead of the amount of labour he promises to perform to get that paycheck and this sets up an inefficiency in the monetary exchange. He was married three times, Ruth Pearce with whom he had four sons, Joy Skegg with whom he had one daughter, Jean Ann Corston, Townsend died of heart failure on 7 June 2009. He was survived by Corston and his five children, Child poverty in the developing world, Bristol, Policy Press 2003 Better pensions, the states responsibility, London, Catalyst Forum,2003 With Gordon, D. Poverty and social exclusion in Britain, York, Joseph Rowntree Foundation,2000 With et al, Liverpool, Liverpool University Press,1992 With Black, D. Inequalities in health, the Black Report and the divide, 3rd ed. Harmondsworth. Bristol, Department of Social Policy and Social Planning, University of Bristol,1992 With Gordon, Unfinished statistical business on low incomes. A review of new proposals by the Department of Social Security for the production of information on poverty, Bristol, Statistical Monitoring Unit. Social Policy and Social Planning, University of Bristol,1992 Meaningful statistics on poverty 1991, Bristol, Dept. Social Policy and Social Planning, University of Bristol,1991 The poor are poorer, Planning, University of Bristol,1991 With Phillimore, P. and Beattie, A. Health and deprivation, inequality and the North, London, New York, Croom Helm,1988 With Walker, R. and Lawson, responses to poverty, lessons from Europe, London, Heinemann Educational Books,1984 Why are the many poor
27.
Economic and Social Research Institute
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The Economic and Social Research Institute is an independent research institute founded in 1960 to provide evidence-based research used to inform public policy debate and decision-making. The research of the Institute focuses on the areas of economic growth. Alan Barrett is the Director of the Institute, the Institute was founded in 1960 by a group of senior academics and public servants, led by Dr. T. K. Whitaker, Secretary of the Department of Finance, the U. S. -based Ford Foundation provided seed funding to establish the Economic Research Institute in 1960. In 1966 the remit of the Institute was expanded to include social research, the first Director of the Institute was Roy C. Geary, Irish statistician and founder of the Central Statistics Office, the mission of the Institute is to produce economic and social research that informs public policymaking and civil society, in order to achieve its vision of “Informed policy for a better Ireland”. Since 2006, the Institute has conducted the research for Growing Up in Ireland, the most significant study of its kind ever to take place in Ireland, the purpose is to examine how children in Ireland are developing in the current social, economic and cultural environment. The second phase of study began in 2015 and is conducted in conjunction with researchers from Trinity College Dublin. The Economic and Social Research Institute and Trinity College Dublin agreed to a partnership in July 2010. The agreement enables both institutions to build collaborative and complementary strengths in the social sciences, the ESRI has been noted for its strength in quantitative research methods. It is listed by IDEAS/RePEc among the top 20 economic think tanks in the world, the Institute’s research is disseminated through ESRI publications, academic journals, books and government reports. · The Medium Term Review provides a medium-term macroeconomic outlook for Ireland, · Research Bulletins provide shorter, accessible summaries of work already published by ESRI researchers. · The monthly Consumer Sentiment Index, produced jointly with KBC Bank, · The monthly Savings Index, produced jointly with Nationwide provides statistics on personal savings. The majority of the ESRIs own publications are available for download free-of-charge from the Institute’s website, the Economic and Social Research Institute is a company limited by guarantee, incorporated in 1960. It is a not for profit organisation registered as a charity, the Institute is answerable to more than 300 members, comprising both individuals and companies. The Institute is governed by a Council of up to 14 members, the Council members are drawn from a cross-section of the Institute’s members, from academia, civil service, state agencies, business and civil society. Additionally, there is a Forum of more than 30 members representing a range of stakeholders. The ESRI is audited by the Comptroller & Auditor General and is subject to the rules apply to state organisations in relation to prompt payments, disclosure, risk management
28.
European Union
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The European Union is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of 4,475,757 km2, the EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished, a monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU operates through a system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community, the community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state has left the EU or its antecedent organisations, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the basis of the EU. The EU as a whole is the largest economy in the world, additionally,27 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7, because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower. After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the nationalism which had devastated the continent. 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, the supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul-Henri Spaak. These men and others are credited as the Founding fathers of the European Union. In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome and they also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958, the EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand, Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power, Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission. In 1973, the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland, Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum
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Water
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Water is a transparent and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of Earths streams, lakes, and oceans, and the fluids of most living organisms. Its chemical formula is H2O, meaning that its molecule contains one oxygen, Water strictly refers to the liquid state of that substance, that prevails at standard ambient temperature and pressure, but it often refers also to its solid state or its gaseous state. It also occurs in nature as snow, glaciers, ice packs and icebergs, clouds, fog, dew, aquifers, Water covers 71% of the Earths surface. It is vital for all forms of life. Only 2. 5% of this water is freshwater, and 98. 8% of that water is in ice and groundwater. Less than 0. 3% of all freshwater is in rivers, lakes, and the atmosphere, a greater quantity of water is found in the earths interior. Water on Earth moves continually through the cycle of evaporation and transpiration, condensation, precipitation. Evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation over land, large amounts of water are also chemically combined or adsorbed in hydrated minerals. Safe drinking water is essential to humans and other even though it provides no calories or organic nutrients. There is a correlation between access to safe water and gross domestic product per capita. However, some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the population will be facing water-based vulnerability. A report, issued in November 2009, suggests that by 2030, in developing regions of the world. Water plays an important role in the world economy, approximately 70% of the freshwater used by humans goes to agriculture. Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a source of food for many parts of the world. Much of long-distance trade of commodities and manufactured products is transported by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, large quantities of water, ice, and steam are used for cooling and heating, in industry and homes. Water is an excellent solvent for a variety of chemical substances, as such it is widely used in industrial processes. Water is also central to many sports and other forms of entertainment, such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, Water is a liquid at the temperatures and pressures that are most adequate for life. Specifically, at atmospheric pressure of 1 bar, water is a liquid between the temperatures of 273.15 K and 373.15 K
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Food
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Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for an organism. It is usually of plant or animal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, the substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organisms cells to provide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth. Historically, humans secured food through two methods, hunting and gathering and agriculture, today, the majority of the food energy required by the ever increasing population of the world is supplied by the food industry. They address issues such as sustainability, biological diversity, climate change, nutritional economics, population growth, water supply, most food has its origin in plants. Some food is obtained directly from plants, but even animals that are used as sources are raised by feeding them food derived from plants. Cereal grain is a food that provides more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop. Corn, wheat, and rice – in all of their varieties – account for 87% of all grain production worldwide, most of the grain that is produced worldwide is fed to livestock. Some foods not from animal or plant sources include various edible fungi, fungi and ambient bacteria are used in the preparation of fermented and pickled foods like leavened bread, alcoholic drinks, cheese, pickles, kombucha, and yogurt. Another example is blue-green algae such as Spirulina, inorganic substances such as salt, baking soda and cream of tartar are used to preserve or chemically alter an ingredient. Many plants and plant parts are eaten as food and around 2,000 plant species are cultivated for food, many of these plant species have several distinct cultivars. Seeds of plants are a source of food for animals, including humans, because they contain the nutrients necessary for the plants initial growth, including many healthful fats. In fact, the majority of food consumed by human beings are seed-based foods, edible seeds include cereals, legumes, and nuts. Oilseeds are often pressed to produce rich oils - sunflower, flaxseed, rapeseed, sesame, seeds are typically high in unsaturated fats and, in moderation, are considered a health food, although not all seeds are edible. Large seeds, such as those from a lemon, pose a choking hazard, fruits are the ripened ovaries of plants, including the seeds within. Many plants and animals have coevolved such that the fruits of the former are a food source to the latter. Fruits, therefore, make up a significant part of the diets of most cultures, some botanical fruits, such as tomatoes, pumpkins, and eggplants, are eaten as vegetables. Vegetables are a type of plant matter that is commonly eaten as food. These include root vegetables, bulbs, leaf vegetables, stem vegetables, animals are used as food either directly or indirectly by the products they produce
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Health care
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It includes the work done in providing primary care, secondary care, and tertiary care, as well as in public health. Access to healthcare varies across countries, groups, and individuals, largely influenced by social, countries and jurisdictions have different policies and plans in relation to the personal and population-based health care goals within their societies. Healthcare systems are organizations established to meet the needs of target populations. Their exact configuration varies between national and subnational entities, in some countries and jurisdictions, healthcare planning is distributed among market participants, whereas in others, planning occurs more centrally among governments or other coordinating bodies. Healthcare can contribute to a significant part of a countrys economy. In 2011, the healthcare industry consumed an average of 9.3 percent of the GDP or US$3,322 per capita across the 34 members of OECD countries.1 years, a gain of 10 years since 1970. The USA ranges only on place 26 among the 34 OECD member countries, all OECD countries have achieved universal health coverage, except Mexico and the USA. Healthcare is conventionally regarded as an important determinant in promoting the general physical and mental health, an example of this was the worldwide eradication of smallpox in 1980, declared by the WHO as the first disease in human history to be completely eliminated by deliberate health care interventions. The delivery of health care depends on groups of trained professionals and paraprofessionals coming together as interdisciplinary teams. Healthcare can be defined as public or private. Primary care refers to the work of professionals who act as a first point of consultation for all patients within the health care system. Depending on the nature of the condition, patients may then be referred for secondary or tertiary care. Primary care is used as the term for the health care services which play a role in the local community. It can be provided in different settings, such as Urgent care centres which provide services to patients same day with appointment or walk-in bases, consequently, a primary care practitioner must possess a wide breadth of knowledge in many areas. The International Classification of Primary Care is a tool for understanding and analyzing information on interventions in primary care by the reason for the patient visit. Common chronic illnesses usually treated in primary care may include, for example, hypertension, diabetes, asthma, COPD, depression and anxiety, back pain, Primary care also includes many basic maternal and child health care services, such as family planning services and vaccinations. Physicians in this model bill patients directly for services, either on a monthly, quarterly, or annual basis. Examples of direct primary care practices include Foundation Health in Colorado, the World Health Organization attributes the provision of essential primary care as an integral component of an inclusive primary health care strategy
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Income inequality metrics
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While different theories may try to explain how income inequality comes about, income inequality metrics simply provide a system of measurement used to determine the dispersion of incomes. The concept of inequality is distinct from poverty and fairness, Income distribution has always been a central concern of economic theory and economic policy. It is often related to wealth distribution although separate factors influence wealth inequality, modern economists have also addressed this issue, but have been more concerned with the distribution of income across individuals and households. Important theoretical and policy concerns include the relationship between income inequality and economic growth, the article Economic inequality discusses the social and policy aspects of income distribution questions. All of the metrics described below are applicable to evaluating the distributional inequality of various kinds of resources, here the focus is on income as a resource. As there are forms of income, the investigated kind of income has to be clearly described. One form of income is the amount of goods and services that a person receives. If a subsistence farmer in Uganda grows his own grain, it will count as income, services like public health and education are also counted in. Often expenditure or consumption is used to measure income, the World Bank uses the so-called living standard measurement surveys to measure income. These consist of questionnaires with more than 200 questions, surveys have been completed in most developing countries. Applied to the analysis of income inequality within countries, income often stands for the income per individual or per household. Here, income inequality measures also can be used to compare the income distributions before and after taxation in order to measure the effects of progressive tax rates. In the discrete case, an economic inequality index may be represented by a function I and this property distinguishes the concept of inequality from that of fairness where who owns a particular level of income and how it has been acquired is of central importance. An inequality metric is a statement simply about how income is distributed, in other words, if every persons income in an economy is doubled then the overall metric of inequality should not change. Of course the same thing applies to poorer economies, the inequality income metric should be independent of the aggregate level of income. This may be stated as, I = I where α is a real number. Population independence Similarly, the income inequality metric should not depend on whether an economy has a large or small population, an economy with only a few people should not be automatically judged by the metric as being more equal than a large economy with lots of people. This means that the metric should be independent of the level of population and this is generally written, I = I where x ∪ x is the union of x with itself
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Purchasing power parity
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Observed deviations of the exchange rate from purchasing power parity are measured by deviations of the real exchange rate from its PPP value of 1. PPP exchange rates help to minimize misleading international comparisons that can arise with the use of exchange rates. For example, suppose that two countries produce the same amounts of goods as each other in each of two different years. But if one countrys GDP is converted into the countrys currency using PPP exchange rates instead of observed market exchange rates. The idea originated with the School of Salamanca in the 16th century, the best-known purchasing power adjustment is the Geary–Khamis dollar. The real exchange rate is equal to the nominal exchange rate. If purchasing power parity held exactly, then the exchange rate would always equal one. However, in practice the exchange rates exhibit both short run and long run deviations from this value, for example due to reasons illuminated in the Balassa–Samuelson theorem. There can be marked differences between purchasing power adjusted incomes and those converted via market exchange rates. This discrepancy has large implications, for instance, when converted via the exchange rates GDP per capita in India is about US$1,965 while on a PPP basis it is about US$7,197. At the other extreme, Denmarks nominal GDP per capita is around US$62,100, the purchasing power parity exchange rate serves two main functions. PPP exchange rates can be useful for making comparisons between countries because they stay fairly constant from day to day or week to week and only change modestly, if at all, from year to year. The PPP exchange-rate calculation is controversial because of the difficulties of finding comparable baskets of goods to compare purchasing power across countries, people in different countries typically consume different baskets of goods. It is necessary to compare the cost of baskets of goods and this is a difficult task because purchasing patterns and even the goods available to purchase differ across countries. Thus, it is necessary to make adjustments for differences in the quality of goods, furthermore, the basket of goods representative of one economy will vary from that of another, Americans eat more bread, Chinese more rice. Hence a PPP calculated using the US consumption as a base will differ from that calculated using China as a base, additional statistical difficulties arise with multilateral comparisons when more than two countries are to be compared. Various ways of averaging bilateral PPPs can provide a stable multilateral comparison. These are all issues of indexing, as with other price indices there is no way to reduce complexity to a single number that is equally satisfying for all purposes
34.
Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program
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The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, formerly known as the Food Stamp Program, provides food-purchasing assistance for low- and no-income people living in the U. S. SNAP benefits cost $70.9 billion in fiscal year 2016, beneficiaries and costs increased sharply with the Great Recession, peaked in 2013 and have declined through 2016 as the economy recovered. It is the largest nutrition program of the fifteen administered by FNS and is a component of the federal social safety net for low-income Americans. The amount of SNAP benefits received by a household depends on the size, income. Because of their 1,1 value ratio with actual currency and their rectangular shape resembled a U. S. dollar bill, including intaglio printing on high-quality paper with watermarks. EBT has been implemented in all states since June 2004, each month, SNAP food stamp benefits are directly deposited into the households EBT card account. Households may use EBT to pay for food at supermarkets, convenience stores, the idea for the first FSP has been credited to various people, most notably U. S. Secretary of Agriculture Henry Wallace and the programs first administrator, Milo Perkins. Of the program, Perkins said, We got a picture of a gorge, with farm surpluses on one cliff and we set out to find a practical way to build a bridge across that chasm. Orange stamps could be used to buy any food, blue stamps could be used only to buy food determined by the Department to be surplus. Over the course of four years, the first FSP reached approximately 20 million people at one time or another in nearly half of the counties in the U. S. at a total cost of $262 million. At its peak, the program assisted 4 million people simultaneously, the program ended when the conditions that brought the program into being ceased to exist. The eighteen years between the end of the first FSP and the inception of the next were filled with studies, reports, Senators actively associated with attempts to enact a food stamp program during this period included George Aiken, Robert M. La Follette, Jr. Hubert Humphrey, Estes Kefauver, Representative Leonor Sullivan strove to pass food-stamp-program legislation. On September 21,1959, P. L. 86-341 authorized the Secretary of Agriculture to operate a system through January 31,1962. The Eisenhower Administration never used the authority, the pilot programs would retain the requirement that the food stamps be purchased, but eliminated the concept of special stamps for surplus foods. A Department spokesman indicated the emphasis would be on increasing the consumption of perishables, Representative Leonor K. Sullivan of Missouri asserted. The Food Stamp Act of 1964 appropriated $75 million to 350,000 individuals in 40 counties, the measure drew overwhelming support from House Democrats,90 percent from urban areas,96 percent from the suburbs, and 87 percent from rural areas. Republican lawmakers opposed the measure, only 12 percent of urban Republicans,11 percent from the suburbs
35.
Glass ceiling
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A glass ceiling is a metaphor used to represent an invisible barrier that keeps a given demographic from rising beyond a certain level in a hierarchy. The metaphor was first coined by feminists in reference to barriers in the careers of high-achieving women, in the US, the concept is sometimes extended to refer to obstacles hindering the advancement of minority women, as well as minority men. Minority women often find the most difficulty in breaking the glass ceiling because they lie at the intersection of two traditionally oppressed groups, women and people of color. Asian and Asian American news outlets have coined the term bamboo ceiling to refer to the obstacles that all Asian Americans face in advancing their careers, David Cotter and colleagues defined four distinctive characteristics that must be met to conclude that a glass ceiling exists. A glass ceiling inequality represents, A gender or racial difference that is not explained by other job-relevant characteristics of the employee, a gender or racial difference that is greater at higher levels of an outcome than at lower levels of an outcome. A gender or racial inequality in the chances of advancement into higher levels, a gender or racial inequality that increases over the course of a career. Cotter and his colleagues found that glass ceilings are correlated strongly with gender, both white and minority women face a glass ceiling in the course of their careers. In contrast, the researchers did not find evidence of a ceiling for African-American men. The glass ceiling metaphor has often used to describe invisible barriers through which women can see elite positions. These barriers prevent large numbers of women and ethnic minorities from obtaining and securing the most powerful, prestigious, moreover, this effect prevents women from filling high-ranking positions and puts them at a disadvantage as potential candidates for advancement. The first person to use the phrase was Marilyn Loden, during a 1978 speech, the concept of the glass ceiling was later popularized at the National Press Club in July 1979. This was at a Conference of the Womens Institute for Freedom of the Press led by Katherine Lawrence of Hewlett-Packard and this was part of an ongoing discussion of a clash between written policy of promotion versus action opportunities for women at HP. The term was used in March 1984 by Gay Bryant. She was the editor of Working Woman magazine and was changing jobs to be the editor of Family Circle. In an Adweek article written by Nora Frenkel, Bryant was reported as saying, theyre in the top of middle management and theyre stopping and getting stuck. There isnt enough room for all women at the top. Some are going into business for themselves, others are going out and raising families. Also in 1984, Bryant used the term in a chapter of the book The Working Woman Report, in the same book, Basia Hellwig used the term in another chapter
