1.
Condensed milk
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Condensed milk is cows milk from which water has been removed. It is most often found in the form of sweetened condensed milk, with sugar added, sweetened condensed milk is a very thick, sweet product which when canned can last for years without refrigeration if not opened. Condensed milk is used in dessert dishes in many countries. A related product is evaporated milk, which has undergone a more complex process, evaporated milk is known in some countries as unsweetened condensed milk. According to the writings of Marco Polo, in the 13th century the Tatars were able to condense milk, Marco Polo reported that ten pounds of milk paste was carried by each man, who would subsequently mix the product with water. However, this refers to the soft Tatar curd, which can be made into a drink by diluting it. Nicolas Appert condensed milk in France in 1820, and Gail Borden, Jr. in the United States in 1853, before this development, milk could only be kept fresh for a short while and was only available in the immediate vicinity of a cow. While returning from a trip to England in 1851, Borden was devastated by the deaths of several children, by 1858, Bordens milk, sold as Eagle Brand, had gained a reputation for purity, durability and economy. In 1864, Gail Bordens New York Condensed Milk Company constructed the New York Milk Condensery in Brewster and this was the largest and most advanced milk factory of its day and was Bordens first commercially successful plant. Over 200 dairy farmers supplied 20,000 gallons of milk daily to the Brewster plant as demand increased driven by the American Civil War, the U. S. government ordered huge amounts of condensed milk as a field ration for Union soldiers during the war. This was a field ration for the 19th century, a typical 10 oz can contained 1,300 calories,1 oz each of protein and fat. Soldiers returning home from the war soon spread the word, the first Canadian condensery was built at Truro, Nova Scotia, in 1871. Stuart opened the first Pacific Coast Condensed Milk Company plant in Kent, the condensed milk market developed into a bubble, with too many manufacturers chasing too little demand. By 1912, high stocks of condensed milk led to a drop in price, in 1911, Nestlé constructed the worlds largest condensed milk plant in Dennington, Victoria, Australia. Hunzikers book was republished in an edition in October 2007 by Cartwright Press. The First World War regenerated interest in, and the market for, condensed milk, primarily due to its storage, in the US the higher price for raw milk paid by condenseries created significant problems for the cheese industry. Raw milk is clarified and standardised, and is heated to 85–90 °C for several seconds. This heating process destroys some microorganisms, decreases fat separation and inhibits oxidation, some water is evaporated from the milk and sugar is added until a 9,11 ratio of sugar to milk is reached
2.
Dairy product
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Dairy products or milk products are a type of food produced from or containing the milk of mammals, primarily cattle, water buffaloes, goats, sheep, and camels. Dairy products include items such as yogurt, cheese. A facility that produces dairy products is known as a dairy, dairy products are consumed worldwide, with the exception of much of East and Southeast Asia and also some parts of central Africa. Additionally dairy products can contribute significant amounts of cholesterol and saturated fat to the diet which can increase the risk of heart disease, and cause other serious health problems. However, it has shown that there is no connection between dairy consumption and cardiovascular disease, even though dairy tends to be higher in saturated fats. There is no excess cardiovascular risk with dietary calcium intake but calcium supplements are associated with a risk of coronary artery calcification. Drinking milk or other dairy products does not cause mucus production and this widely held belief stems from some people mistaking the thin coat of residue left behind after consuming milk or ice cream for mucus. Rates of dairy consumption vary widely worldwide, high-consumption countries consume more than 150 kg per capita per year, Argentina, Armenia, Australia, Costa Rica, Europe, Israel, Kyrgyzstan, North America and Pakistan. Low-consumption countries consume under 30 kg per capita per year, Senegal, most of Central Africa, Some groups avoid dairy products for non-health related reasons, Religious – Some religions restrict or do not allow for the consumption of dairy products. For example, some scholars of Jainism advocate not consuming any dairy products because dairy is perceived to involve violence against cows. Strict Judaism requires that meat and dairy products not be served at the meal, served or cooked in the same utensils, or stored together. Ethical – Veganism is the avoidance of all products, including dairy products. The ethical reasons for avoiding dairy include how dairy is produced, how the animals are handled, fermented milk products List of dairy products List of dairy product companies in the United States List of foods Plant milk Britannica, Enclyclopaedia. Rankin, H. F. Imbucase, the Story of the B. C. I. C. of the Ministry of Food, Edinburgh, Edinburgh Press Questions and Answers on dairy products Guide for homemade kefir Template, Mbachilin Arsha Leo
3.
Food drying
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Food drying is a method of food preservation in which food is dried. Drying inhibits the growth of bacteria, yeasts, and mold through the removal of water, dehydration has been used widely for this purpose since ancient times, the earliest known practice is 12,000 B. C. by inhabitants of the modern Middle East and Asia regions. Water is traditionally removed through evaporation, although today electric food dehydrators or freeze-drying can be used to speed the drying process, many different foods can be prepared by dehydration. Meat has held a significant role. For centuries, much of the European diet depended on dried cod—known as salt cod, bacalhau and it formed the main protein source for the slaves on the West Indian plantations, and was a major economic force within the triangular trade. Dried shark meat, known as Hákarl, is a delicacy in Iceland, currently popular dried meats include prosciutto, bresaola, biltong and beef jerky. Dried fruits have been consumed historically due to their sugar content and sweet taste. Fruits are often observed differently when dried, the plum becomes a prune, the grape a raisin. Figs and dates are also transformed into new, different products that can either be eaten as they are, used in recipes, freeze-dried vegetables are often found in food for backpackers, hunters, and the military. Garlic and onion are often dried, edible mushrooms, as well as other fungi, are also sometimes dried for preservation purposes or to be used as seasonings. Home drying of vegetables, fruit and meat can be carried out with electrical dehydrators or by sun-drying or by wind, preservatives such as potassium metabisulfite, BHA, or BHT may be used, but are not required. However, dried products without these preservatives may require refrigeration or freezing to ensure safe storage for a long time, industrial food dehydration is often accomplished by freeze-drying. In this case food is flash frozen and put into a system which causes the water to sublimate directly from the solid to the gaseous phase. Industrial hot air dryers are simple and easy to design, construct, more so, it is very affordable and has been reported to retain most of the nutritional properties of food if dry using appropriate drying conditions. There are many different methods for drying, each with their own advantages for particular applications, these include, National Center for Home Food Preservation, drying section
4.
Refrigeration
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Refrigeration is a process of moving heat from one location to another in controlled conditions. The work of heat transport is driven by mechanical work. Refrigeration has many applications, including, but not limited to, household refrigerators, industrial freezers, cryogenics, heat pumps may use the heat output of the refrigeration process, and also may be designed to be reversible, but are otherwise similar to air conditioning units. Refrigeration has had a impact on industry, lifestyle, agriculture. The idea of preserving food dates back to at least the ancient Roman, however, mechanical refrigeration technology has rapidly evolved in the last century, from ice harvesting to temperature-controlled rail cars. Settlements were also developing in parts of the country, filled with new natural resources. These new settlement patterns sparked the building of cities which are able to thrive in areas that were otherwise thought to be inhospitable, such as Houston, Texas and Las Vegas. In most developed countries, cities are heavily dependent upon refrigeration in supermarkets, the increase in food sources has led to a larger concentration of agricultural sales coming from a smaller percentage of existing farms. Farms today have a larger output per person in comparison to the late 1800s. This has resulted in new food sources available to entire populations, the seasonal harvesting of snow and ice is an ancient practice estimated to have begun earlier than 1000 B. C. A Chinese collection of lyrics from this period known as the Shih king. However, little is known about the construction of these ice cellars or what the ice was used for. ”Historians have interpreted this to mean that the Jews used ice to cool beverages rather than to preserve food. Other ancient cultures such as the Greeks and the Romans dug large snow pits insulated with grass, chaff, like the Jews, the Greeks and Romans did not use ice and snow to preserve food, but primarily as a means to cool beverages. Slaves would moisten the outside of the jars and the resulting evaporation would cool the water, the ancient people of India used this same concept to produce ice. The Persians stored ice in a pit called a Yakhchal and may have been the first group of people to use storage to preserve food. In the Australian outback before a reliable electricity supply was available where the weather could be hot and dry and this consisted of a room with hessian curtains hanging from the ceiling soaked in water. The water would evaporate and thereby cool the hessian curtains and thereby the air circulating in the room and this would allow many perishables such as fruit, butter, and cured meats to be kept that would normally spoil in the heat. Before 1830, few Americans used ice to refrigerate foods due to a lack of ice-storehouses and iceboxes, as these two things became more widely available, individuals used axes and saws to harvest ice for their storehouses
5.
Nutrition
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Nutrition is the science that interprets the interaction of nutrients and other substances in food in relation to maintenance, growth, reproduction, health and disease of an organism. It includes food intake, absorption, assimilation, biosynthesis, catabolism, the diet of an organism is what it eats, which is largely determined by the availability, the processing and palatability of foods. A healthy diet includes preparation of food and storage methods that preserve nutrients from oxidation, heat or leaching, and they also provide preventive and therapeutic programs at work places, schools and similar institutions. Government regulation especially in terms of licensing, is less universal for the CCN than that of RD or RDN. Another advanced Nutrition Professional is a Certified Nutrition Specialist or CNS and these Board Certified Nutritionists typically specialize in obesity and chronic disease. In order to become certified, potential CNS candidate must pass an examination. This exam covers specific domains within the health sphere including, Clinical Intervention, a poor diet can cause the wasting of kwashiorkor in acute cases, and the stunting of marasmus in chronic cases of malnutrition. The first recorded dietary advice, carved into a Babylonian stone tablet in about 2500 BC, scurvy, later found to be a vitamin C deficiency, was first described in 1500 BC in the Ebers Papyrus. According to Walter Gratzer, the study of nutrition probably began during the 6th century BC, in China, the concept of Qi developed, a spirit or wind similar to what Western Europeans later called pneuma. Food was classified into hot and cold in China, India, Malaya, humours developed perhaps first in China alongside qi. Ho the Physician concluded that diseases are caused by deficiencies of elements, the first recorded nutritional experiment with human subjects is found in the Bibles Book of Daniel. Daniel and his friends were captured by the king of Babylon during an invasion of Israel, selected as court servants, they were to share in the kings fine foods and wine. But they objected, preferring vegetables and water in accordance with their Jewish dietary restrictions, the kings chief steward reluctantly agreed to a trial. Daniel and his friends received their diet for ten days and were compared to the kings men. Appearing healthier, they were allowed to continue with their diet, around 475 BC, Anaxagoras stated that food is absorbed by the human body and, therefore, contains homeomerics, suggesting the existence of nutrients. Around 400 BC, Hippocrates, who recognized and was concerned with obesity, the works that are still attributed to him, Corpus Hippocraticum, called for moderation and emphasized exercise. Salt, pepper and other spices were prescribed for various ailments in various preparations for example mixed with vinegar, in the 2nd century BC, Cato the Elder believed that cabbage could cure digestive diseases, ulcers, warts, and intoxication. Living about the turn of the millennium, Aulus Celsus, an ancient Roman doctor, believed in strong and weak foods
6.
Marco Polo
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He learned the mercantile trade from his father and uncle, Niccolò and Maffeo, who travelled through Asia and met Kublai Khan. In 1269, they returned to Venice to meet Marco for the first time, the three of them embarked on an epic journey to Asia, returning after 24 years to find Venice at war with Genoa, Marco was imprisoned and dictated his stories to a cellmate. He was released in 1299, became a merchant, married. He died in 1324 and was buried in the church of San Lorenzo in Venice, Marco Polo was not the first European to reach China, but he was the first to leave a detailed chronicle of his experience. This book inspired Christopher Columbus and many other travellers, there is a substantial literature based on Polos writings, he also influenced European cartography, leading to the introduction of the Fra Mauro map. Marco Polo was born in 1254 in Venice Republic and his exact date and place of birth are archivally unknown. Some historians mentioned that he was born on September 15 but that date is not endorsed by mainstream scholarship, Marco Polos birthplace is generally considered Venice, but also varies between Constantinople, and the island of Korčula. There is dispute as to whether the Polo family is of Venetian origin, the first recorded Polo is Venetian Domenico Polo who was mentioned in 971 regarding the prohibition of trade with the Arabs. Later other Polos were also mentioned in the service of the realm, whether they were related with the family of Marco Polo is uncertain, but this could indicate that his ancestors travelled between Venice and Dalmatia. Some of the first indications of where his family originated and were resident come from Venetian documents and manuscripts. Some scholars argued that this account could go along with the note from Il Milione that his father and uncle, Niccolò and Maffeo Polo, the non-Venetian i. e. Sanuto also mentioned a captain from Korčula, Antonio di Polo. Moule cited two early 17th century Venetian manuscripts questi ueneno de dalmatia, Polo questi uene de Dalmatia, scholars etymologically argued that his family name derives from Latin Paulus, the name of a certain bird species, or like Albert tSerstevens considered - from Eastern origin. However, the habitat of the shorebird is non-existent on Korčula, the surname Polo seems related with other widespread Dalmatian surnames. The lack of evidence makes the Korčula theory as a specific birthplace strongly disputed, in 1168, his great-uncle, Marco Polo, borrowed money and commanded a ship in Constantinople. His grandfather, Andrea Polo of the parish of San Felice, had three sons, Maffeo, yet another Marco, and the travellers father Niccolò and this genealogy, described by Ramusio, is not universally accepted as there is no additional evidence to support it. His father, Niccolò Polo, a merchant, traded with the Near East, becoming wealthy, Niccolò and his brother Maffeo set off on a trading voyage before Marcos birth. In 1260, Niccolò and Maffeo, while residing in Constantinople, then the capital of the Latin Empire, foresaw a political change, they liquidated their assets into jewels and moved away. According to The Travels of Marco Polo, they passed through much of Asia, and met with Kublai Khan and their decision to leave Constantinople proved timely
7.
Mongols
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The Mongols are an East-Central Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia and Chinas Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. They also live as minorities in other regions of China, as well as in Russia, Mongolian people belonging to the Buryat and Kalmyk subgroups live predominantly in the Russian federal subjects of Buryatia and Kalmykia. The Mongols are bound together by a heritage and ethnic identity. Their indigenous dialects are known as the Mongolian language. The ancestors of the modern-day Mongols are referred to as Proto-Mongols, broadly defined, the term includes the Mongols proper, Buryats, Oirats, the Kalmyk people and the Southern Mongols. The latter comprises the Abaga Mongols, Abaganar, Aohans, Baarins, Gorlos Mongols, Jalaids, Jaruud, Khishigten, Khuuchid, Muumyangan, the designation Mongol briefly appeared in 8th century records of Tang China to describe a tribe of Shiwei. It resurfaced in the late 11th century during the Khitan-ruled Liao dynasty, after the fall of the Liao in 1125, the Khamag Mongols became a leading tribe on the Mongolian Plateau. However, their wars with the Jurchen-ruled Jin dynasty and the Tatar confederation had weakened them, in the thirteenth century, the word Mongol grew into an umbrella term for a large group of Mongolic-speaking tribes united under the rule of Genghis Khan. In various times Mongolic peoples have been equated with the Scythians, the Magog, based on Chinese historical texts the ancestry of the Mongolic peoples can be traced back to the Donghu, a nomadic confederation occupying eastern Mongolia and Manchuria. The identity of the Xiongnu is still debated today, although some scholars maintain that they were proto-Mongols, they were more likely a multi-ethnic group of Mongolic and Turkic tribes. It has been suggested that the language of the Huns was related to the Hünnü, the Donghu are mentioned by Sima Qian as already existing in Inner Mongolia north of Yan in 699–632 BCE along with the Shanrong. Mentions in the Yi Zhou Shu and the Classic of Mountains, the Xianbei chieftain was appointed joint guardian of the ritual torch along with Xiong Yi. These early Xianbei came from the nearby Zhukaigou culture in the Ordos Desert, where maternal DNA corresponds to the Mongol Daur people, the Zhukaigou Xianbei had trade relations with the Shang. In the late 2nd century, the Han dynasty scholar Fu Qian wrote in his commentary Jixie that Shanrong, againm in Inner Mongolia another closely connected core Mongolic Xianbei region was the Upper Xiajiadian culture where the Donghu confederation was centered. After the Donghu were defeated by Xiongnu king Modu Chanyu, the Xianbei, tadun Khan of the Wuhuan was the ancestor of the proto-Mongolic Kumo Xi. The Wuhuan are of the direct Donghu royal line and the New Book of Tang says that in 209 BCE, the Xianbei, however, were of the lateral Donghu line and had a somewhat separate identity, although they shared the same language with the Wuhuan. In 49 CE the Xianbei ruler Bianhe raided and defeated the Xiongnu, killing 2000, the Xianbei reached their peak under Tanshihuai Khan who expanded the vast, but short lived, Xianbei state. Three prominent groups split from the Xianbei state as recorded by the Chinese histories, the Rouran, the Khitan people, besides these three Xianbei groups, there were others such as the Murong, Duan and Tuoba
8.
Kublai Khan
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Kublai Khan, born Kublai and also known by the temple name Shizu, was the fifth Khagan of the Mongol Empire, reigning from 1260 to 1294. He also founded the Yuan dynasty in China as a conquest dynasty in 1271, Kublai was the fourth son of Tolui and a grandson of Genghis Khan. He succeeded his older brother Möngke as Khagan in 1260, but had to defeat his younger brother Ariq Böke in the Toluid Civil War lasting until 1264 and this episode marked the beginning of disunity in the empire. Kublais real power was limited to China and Mongolia, though as Khagan he still had influence in the Ilkhanate and, to a lesser degree. In 1271, Kublai established the Yuan dynasty, which ruled over present-day Mongolia, China, Korea, and some adjacent areas, by 1279, the Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty was completed and Kublai became the first non-native emperor to conquer all of China. Kublai Khan was the son of Tolui, and his second son with Sorghaghtani Beki. As his grandfather Genghis Khan advised, Sorghaghtani chose a Buddhist Tangut woman as her sons nurse, on his way home after the Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia, Genghis Khan performed a ceremony on his grandsons Möngke and Kublai after their first hunt in 1224 near the Ili River. Kublai was nine years old and with his eldest brother killed a rabbit and his grandfather smeared fat from killed animals onto Kublais middle finger in accordance with a Mongol tradition. After the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty, in 1236, Ögedei gave Hebei to the family of Tolui, Kublai received an estate of his own, which included 10,000 households. Because he was inexperienced, Kublai allowed local officials free rein, corruption amongst his officials and aggressive taxation caused large numbers of Chinese peasants to flee, which led to a decline in tax revenues. Kublai quickly came to his appanage in Hebei and ordered reforms, Sorghaghtani sent new officials to help him and tax laws were revised. Thanks to those efforts, many of the people who fled returned, the most prominent, and arguably most influential, component of Kublai Khans early life was his study and strong attraction to contemporary Chinese culture. Kublai invited Haiyun, the leading Buddhist monk in North China, when he met Haiyun in Karakorum in 1242, Kublai asked him about the philosophy of Buddhism. Haiyun named Kublais son, who was born in 1243, Zhenjin, Haiyun also introduced Kublai to the formerly Daoist and now Buddhist monk, Liu Bingzhong. Liu was a painter, calligrapher, poet, and mathematician, Kublai soon added the Shanxi scholar Zhao Bi to his entourage. Kublai employed people of other nationalities as well, for he was keen to balance local and imperial interests, Mongol, in 1251, Kublais eldest brother Möngke became Khan of the Mongol Empire, and Khwarizmian Mahmud Yalavach and Kublai were sent to China. Kublai received the viceroyalty over North China and moved his ordo to central Inner Mongolia, during his years as viceroy, Kublai managed his territory well, boosted the agricultural output of Henan, and increased social welfare spendings after receiving Xian. These acts received great acclaim from the Chinese warlords and were essential to the building of the Yuan Dynasty, Möngke dismissed Mahmud Yalavach, which met with resistance from Chinese Confucian-trained officials
9.
Freeze-drying
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Freeze-drying works by freezing the material and then reducing the surrounding pressure to allow the frozen water in the material to sublimate directly from the solid phase to the gas phase. The process of freeze-drying was invented in 1906 by Arsène dArsonval, in 1911 Downey Harris and Shackle developed the freeze-drying method of preserving live rabies virus which eventually led to development of the first antirabies vaccine. Modern freeze-drying was developed during World War II, the freeze-drying process was developed as a commercial technique that enabled serum to be rendered chemically stable and viable without having to be refrigerated. Shortly thereafter, the process was applied to penicillin and bone. Since that time, freeze-drying has been used as a preservation or processing technique for a variety of products. There are four stages in the drying process, pretreatment, freezing, primary drying. Pretreatment includes any method of treating the product prior to freezing and this may include concentrating the product, formulation revision, decreasing a high-vapor-pressure solvent, or increasing the surface area. In many instances the decision to pretreat a product is based on knowledge of freeze-drying and its requirements. On a larger scale, freezing is usually done using a freeze-drying machine, in this step, it is important to cool the material below its triple point, the lowest temperature at which the solid and liquid phases of the material can coexist. This ensures that sublimation rather than melting will occur in the following steps, larger crystals are easier to freeze-dry. To produce larger crystals, the product should be frozen slowly or can be cycled up and this cycling process is called annealing. In this case, the freezing is done rapidly, in order to lower the material to below its eutectic point quickly, usually, the freezing temperatures are between −50 °C and −80 °C. The freezing phase is the most critical in the whole freeze-drying process, amorphous materials do not have a eutectic point, but they do have a critical point, below which the product must be maintained to prevent melt-back or collapse during primary and secondary drying. During the primary drying phase, the pressure is lowered, the amount of heat necessary can be calculated using the sublimating molecules latent heat of sublimation. In this initial drying phase, about 95% of the water in the material is sublimated and this phase may be slow, because, if too much heat is added, the materials structure could be altered. In this phase, pressure is controlled through the application of partial vacuum, the vacuum speeds up the sublimation, making it useful as a deliberate drying process. Furthermore, a cold condenser chamber and/or condenser plates provide a surface for the vapour to re-solidify on. This condenser plays no role in keeping the material frozen, rather, it prevents water vapor from reaching the vacuum pump, condenser temperatures are typically below −50 °C
10.
Infant formula
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Infant formula is a manufactured food designed and marketed for feeding to babies and infants under 12 months of age, usually prepared for bottle-feeding or cup-feeding from powder or liquid. Although E. sakazakii can cause illness in all age groups, between 1958 and 2006, there have been several dozen reported cases of E. sakazakii infection worldwide. The WHO believes that such infections are under-reported, the use and marketing of infant formula has come under scrutiny. Despite the recommendation that babies be exclusively breastfed for the first 6 months, some studies have shown that use of formula can vary according to the parents socio-economic status, ethnicity or other characteristics. For example, according to a research conducted in Vancouver, Canada,82, the use of hydrolysed cow milk baby formula versus standard milk baby formula does not appear to change the risk of allergies or autoimmune diseases. In some cases, breastfeeding is medically contraindicated and these include, Mothers health, The mother is infected with HIV or has active tuberculosis. She is extremely ill or has had certain kinds of breast surgery, Breastfeeding by an HIV-infected mother poses a 5–20% chance of transmitting HIV to the baby. However, if a mother has HIV, she is likely to transmit it to her child during the pregnancy or birth than during breastfeeding. A2012 study conducted by researchers from the University of North Carolina School of Medicine showed reduced HIV-1 transmission in humanized mice, cytomegalovirus infection poses potentially dangerous consequences for pre-term babies. Baby is unable to breastfeed, The child has a defect or inborn error of metabolism such as galactosemia that makes breastfeeding difficult or impossible. Risks can often be mitigated with improved diet and education of mothers and caregivers, including availability of macro and micronutrients. For example, in Canada, marketed infant formulas are fortified with vitamin D, personal preferences, beliefs, and experiences, The mother may dislike breast-feeding or think it is inconvenient. In addition, breastfeeding can be difficult for victims of rape or sexual abuse, for example, many families bottle feed to increase the fathers role in parenting his child. Absence of the mother, The child is adopted, orphaned, abandoned, the mother is separated from her child by being in prison or a mental hospital. The mother has left the child in the care of another person for a period of time. Food allergies, The mother eats foods that may provoke a reaction in the infant. Financial pressures, Maternity leave is unpaid, insufficient, or lacking, the mothers employment interferes with breastfeeding. However, formula is expensive and breastfeeding is effectively free, social pressures, Family members, such as mothers husband or boyfriend, or friends or other members of society may encourage the use of infant formula
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