1.
Apple Inc.
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Apple is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Cupertino, California that designs, develops, and sells consumer electronics, computer software, and online services. Apples consumer software includes the macOS and iOS operating systems, the media player, the Safari web browser. Its online services include the iTunes Store, the iOS App Store and Mac App Store, Apple Music, Apple was founded by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne in April 1976 to develop and sell personal computers. It was incorporated as Apple Computer, Inc. in January 1977, Apple joined the Dow Jones Industrial Average in March 2015. In November 2014, Apple became the first U. S. company to be valued at over US$700 billion in addition to being the largest publicly traded corporation in the world by market capitalization. The company employs 115,000 full-time employees as of July 2015 and it operates the online Apple Store and iTunes Store, the latter of which is the worlds largest music retailer. Consumers use more than one billion Apple products worldwide as of March 2016, Apples worldwide annual revenue totaled $233 billion for the fiscal year ending in September 2015. This revenue accounts for approximately 1. 25% of the total United States GDP.1 billion, the corporation receives significant criticism regarding the labor practices of its contractors and its environmental and business practices, including the origins of source materials. Apple was founded on April 1,1976, by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, the Apple I kits were computers single-handedly designed and hand-built by Wozniak and first shown to the public at the Homebrew Computer Club. The Apple I was sold as a motherboard, which was less than what is now considered a personal computer. The Apple I went on sale in July 1976 and was market-priced at $666.66, Apple was incorporated January 3,1977, without Wayne, who sold his share of the company back to Jobs and Wozniak for $800. Multimillionaire Mike Markkula provided essential business expertise and funding of $250,000 during the incorporation of Apple, during the first five years of operations revenues grew exponentially, doubling about every four months. Between September 1977 and September 1980 yearly sales grew from $775,000 to $118m, the Apple II, also invented by Wozniak, was introduced on April 16,1977, at the first West Coast Computer Faire. It differed from its rivals, the TRS-80 and Commodore PET, because of its character cell-based color graphics. While early Apple II models used ordinary cassette tapes as storage devices, they were superseded by the introduction of a 5 1/4 inch floppy disk drive and interface called the Disk II. The Apple II was chosen to be the platform for the first killer app of the business world, VisiCalc. VisiCalc created a market for the Apple II and gave home users an additional reason to buy an Apple II. Before VisiCalc, Apple had been a distant third place competitor to Commodore, by the end of the 1970s, Apple had a staff of computer designers and a production line
2.
Laptop
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Laptops are folded shut for transportation, and thus are suitable for mobile use. Although originally there was a distinction between laptops and notebooks, the former being bigger and heavier than the latter, as of 2014, there is often no longer any difference. Laptops are commonly used in a variety of settings, such as at work, in education, Internet surfing using sites such as YouTube and for personal multimedia, most 2016-era laptops also have integrated webcams and built-in microphones. Laptops can be powered either from a battery or by an external power supply from an AC adapter. Hardware specifications, such as the speed and memory capacity. Design elements, form factor, and construction can also vary significantly between models depending on intended use, as portable computers evolved into the modern laptop, they became widely used for a variety of purposes. The terms laptop and notebook are used interchangeably to describe a computer in English. Regardless of the etymology, by the late 1990s, the terms were interchangeable, as the personal computer became feasible in 1971, the idea of a portable personal computer soon followed. A personal, portable information manipulator was imagined by Alan Kay at Xerox PARC in 1968, the IBM Special Computer APL Machine Portable was demonstrated in 1973. This prototype was based on the IBM PALM processor, the IBM5100, the first commercially available portable computer, appeared in September 1975, and was based on the SCAMP prototype. As 8-bit CPU machines became widely accepted, the number of portables increased rapidly, the Osborne 1, released in 1981, used the Zilog Z80 and weighed 23.6 pounds. It had no battery, a 5 in CRT screen, in the same year the first laptop-sized portable computer, the Epson HX-20, was announced. The Epson had an LCD screen, a battery. Both Tandy/RadioShack and HP also produced portable computers of varying designs during this period, the first laptops using the flip form factor appeared in the early 1980s. The Dulmont Magnum was released in Australia in 1981–82, but was not marketed internationally until 1984–85, the US$8,150 GRiD Compass 1101, released in 1982, was used at NASA and by the military, among others. The Sharp PC-5000, Ampere and Gavilan SC released in 1983, the Gavilan SC was the first computer described as a laptop by its manufacturer, while the Ampere had a modern clamshell design. The Toshiba T1100 won acceptance not only among PC experts but the market as a way to have PC portability. From 1983 onward, several new techniques were developed and included in laptops, including the touchpad, the pointing stick
3.
Central processing unit
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The computer industry has used the term central processing unit at least since the early 1960s. The form, design and implementation of CPUs have changed over the course of their history, most modern CPUs are microprocessors, meaning they are contained on a single integrated circuit chip. An IC that contains a CPU may also contain memory, peripheral interfaces, some computers employ a multi-core processor, which is a single chip containing two or more CPUs called cores, in that context, one can speak of such single chips as sockets. Array processors or vector processors have multiple processors that operate in parallel, there also exists the concept of virtual CPUs which are an abstraction of dynamical aggregated computational resources. Early computers such as the ENIAC had to be rewired to perform different tasks. Since the term CPU is generally defined as a device for software execution, the idea of a stored-program computer was already present in the design of J. Presper Eckert and John William Mauchlys ENIAC, but was initially omitted so that it could be finished sooner. On June 30,1945, before ENIAC was made, mathematician John von Neumann distributed the paper entitled First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC and it was the outline of a stored-program computer that would eventually be completed in August 1949. EDVAC was designed to perform a number of instructions of various types. Significantly, the programs written for EDVAC were to be stored in high-speed computer memory rather than specified by the wiring of the computer. This overcame a severe limitation of ENIAC, which was the considerable time, with von Neumanns design, the program that EDVAC ran could be changed simply by changing the contents of the memory. Early CPUs were custom designs used as part of a larger, however, this method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of multi-purpose processors produced in large quantities. This standardization began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit. The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers, both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines. Modern microprocessors appear in electronic devices ranging from automobiles to cellphones, the so-called Harvard architecture of the Harvard Mark I, which was completed before EDVAC, also utilized a stored-program design using punched paper tape rather than electronic memory. Relays and vacuum tubes were used as switching elements, a useful computer requires thousands or tens of thousands of switching devices. The overall speed of a system is dependent on the speed of the switches, tube computers like EDVAC tended to average eight hours between failures, whereas relay computers like the Harvard Mark I failed very rarely. In the end, tube-based CPUs became dominant because the significant speed advantages afforded generally outweighed the reliability problems, most of these early synchronous CPUs ran at low clock rates compared to modern microelectronic designs. Clock signal frequencies ranging from 100 kHz to 4 MHz were very common at this time, the design complexity of CPUs increased as various technologies facilitated building smaller and more reliable electronic devices
4.
PowerPC G4
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PowerPC G4 is a designation used by Apple Computer and Eyetech to describe a fourth generation of 32-bit PowerPC microprocessors. Apple has applied this name to various models from Freescale. Motorola and Freescales proper name of family of processors is PowerPC 74xx. Macintosh computers such as the PowerBook G4 and iBook G4 laptops, PowerPC G4 processors were also used in the eMac, first-generation Xserves, first-generation Mac Minis, and the iMac G4 before the introduction of the PowerPC970. Apple completely phased out the G4 series for desktop models after it selected the 64-bit IBM-produced PowerPC970 processor as the basis for its PowerPC G5 series, the last desktop model that used the G4 was the Mac Mini which now comes with an Intel processor. The last portable to use the G4 was the iBook G4 but was replaced by the Intel-based MacBook, the PowerBook G4 has been replaced by the Intel-based MacBook Pro. The PowerPC G4 processors are also popular in computer systems, such as the AmigaOne series of computers. The PowerPC7400 debuted in August 1999 and was the first processor to carry the G4 moniker, the chip operates at speeds ranging from 350 to 500 MHz and contains 10.5 million transistors, manufactured using Motorolas 0.20 μm HiPerMOS6 process. The die measures 83 mm² and features copper interconnects, Motorola had promised Apple to deliver parts with speed up to 500 MHz, but yields proved too low initially. This forced Apple to take back the advertised 500 MHz models of PowerMac G4, the Power Mac series was downgraded abruptly from 400,450, and 500 MHz processor speeds to 350,400, and 450 MHz while problems with the chip were ironed out. The incident generated a rift in the Apple-Motorola relationship, and reportedly caused Apple to ask IBM for assistance to get the production yields up on the Motorola 7400 series line, the 500 MHz model was reintroduced on February 16,2000. Much of the 7400 design was done by Motorola in close co-operation with Apple, ultimately, the G4 architecture design contained a 128-bit vector processing unit labelled AltiVec by Motorola while Apple marketing referred to it as the Velocity Engine. The PowerPC970 was the first IBM-manufactured CPU to implement VMX/AltiVec, the Xenon CPU in the Xbox 360 also features VMX, with added proprietary extensions made especially for Microsoft. POWER6, introduced in 2007, is IBMs first big iron CPU to also implement VMX, with the AltiVec unit, the 7400 microprocessor can do four-way single precision floating point math, or 16-way 8-bit, 8-way 16-bit or four-way 32-bit integer math in a single cycle. Furthermore, the processing unit is superscalar, and can do two vector operations at the same time. Compared to Intels x86 microprocessors at the time, this offered a substantial performance boost to applications designed to take advantage of the AltiVec unit. Additionally, the 7400 has enhanced support for symmetric multiprocessing thanks to a cache coherency protocol. The 603 series had a 32-bit FPU, which took two cycles to accomplish 64-bit floating point arithmetic
5.
PowerBook G3
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The PowerBook G3 is a line of laptop Macintosh computers produced by Apple Computer between 1997 and 2001. It was the first laptop to use the PowerPC G3 series of microprocessors and it was succeeded by the Titanium PowerBook G4 line in 2001, which used the PowerPC G4 series of microprocessors. The first Macintosh PowerBook G3, code-named Kanga, was introduced in November 1997, at the time of its introduction, the PowerBook G3 was advertised as the fastest notebook computer available. This model was based on the PowerBook 3400c, and was known as the PowerBook 3500. It used the case as the 3400c, and a very similar motherboard. The motherboard was upclocked from 40 MHz to 50 MHz, resulting in some incompatibility with older 3400 RAM modules, other changes to the motherboard included doubling the on-board RAM from 16 MB to 32 MB, and a faster version of the on-board Chips and Technologies graphics controller. The G3 made the Kanga more than twice as fast as a 3400c, and this first PowerBook G3 shipped with a 250 MHz G3 processor and a 12.1 TFT SVGA LCD. It is the only G3 system that is not officially compatible with Mac OS X, as a result, the Kanga has the dubious distinction of being Apples fastest depreciating PowerBook. Nevertheless, many chose to purchase a Kanga to continue using their interchangeable expansion bay modules, batteries. The second generation of PowerBook G3s, now called the PowerBook G3 Series, was introduced in March 1998, the machine was completely redesigned with a new case that was lighter and more rounded than the previous PowerBook G3, however, it was still an Old World ROM Macintosh. The new PowerBooks, code-named Wallstreet, came in three sizes, a 12 passive matrix LCD, a 13.3 TFT LCD. It also came in three CPU speeds,233 MHz,250 MHz, and 292 MHz, the 233 MHz model was sometimes nicknamed Mainstreet, as it lacked L2 cache, making it far slower than the other two in the lineup. The 250 MHz and 292 MHz models shipped with 1 MB of cache, because of this large cache, as well as the swifter system bus, the Wallstreets were known to suffer from some heat issues. Many of the problems of the Wallstreet PowerBook G3s were fixed in the next revision, the Wallstreet design was updated in August 1998. It featured a 14.1 display on all models, processor speeds were bumped on the faster two models, resulting in 233 MHz,266 MHz, and 300 MHz models. The case contained two docking bays, one on each side, the left-hand bay could accommodate a battery, a 3.5 floppy disk, a third-party Iomega Zip drive, or a third-party add-on hard drive. The right-hand bay was larger and could accommodate any of the above plus a 5-1/4 optical drive, a small internal nickel-cadmium battery allowed swapping of the main batteries while the computer slept. With a battery in each bay, battery life was doubled, DVDs could be displayed with the use of a hardware decoder built into a CardBus card
6.
PowerBook 2400c
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The PowerBook 2400c is a subnotebook in Apple Computers PowerBook range of Macintosh computers, weighing 4.4 pounds. In a return to the PowerBook 100 form factor, It was introduced in May 1997 as a replacement for the PowerBook Duo 2300c. The 2400c was discontinued in March 1998, with no immediate replacement — the model that followed it was the much larger PowerBook G3 Series. However, in Japan a 2400c with a 240 MHz CPU was offered shortly after the models discontinuation. The 2400c uses the same PowerPC 603e processor as the preceding Duo 2300c, however, the 2400 is unable to utilize the DuoDock like the 2300c was, making the lack of an internal removable drive much more noticeable. Like the PowerBook 100 and Duo series before it, it was sold with a floppy drive. Apple did not offer a CD-ROM drive for it which was standard for all other PowerBooks. The original 180 Mhz models PCMCIA slots officially accept only 2 Type II or 1 Type III PCMCIA-spec cards, the Japan 240 Mhz model offered Cardbus as standard. The 2400 is built around a 10, apples current offering in this category is the MacBook Air. Due to its processor being located on a daughter card. Companies such as Interware, Vimage, and Newer Technologies offered processor upgrades which would swap out the 603e for a G3 ranging from 240 MHz to 400 MHz
7.
MacBook Pro
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The MacBook Pro is a line of Macintosh portable computers introduced in January 2006 by Apple Inc. Replacing the PowerBook G4, the MacBook Pro was the model to be announced during the Apple–Intel transition. It is the model of the MacBook family and is currently available in 13-. A 17-inch version was available between April 2006 and June 2012, the first generation MacBook Pro appeared externally similar to the PowerBook G4, but used Intel Core processors instead of PowerPC G4 chips. The 15-inch model was introduced first, in January 2006, the 17-inch model followed in April, both received several updates and Core 2 Duo processors later that year. The products second iteration, known as the model, has a casing made from a single piece of aluminum. It debuted in October 2008 in 13- and 15-inch screen sizes, in January 2009, the 17-inch model was updated with the same unibody design. Subsequent updates brought upgraded Intel Core i5 and i7 processors and introduced Intels Thunderbolt technology, Apple released the third generation of MacBook Pro with a 15-inch screen during WWDC2012 and discontinued the 17-inch variant. The previous generation 13- and 15-inch unibody models continued to sell with updated processors, the third generation model was a quarter thinner than its predecessor and introduced the Retina Display with a much higher screen resolution. A 13-inch variant was released in October 2012, the fourth generation MacBook Pro was announced on October 27,2016. It replaced the function keys with an interactive, multi-touch Touch Bar, the 15-inch notebook started at $2,399, compared to $1,999 for the previous iteration. The original 15-inch MacBook Pro was announced on January 10,2006 by Steve Jobs at the Macworld Conference & Expo, the 17-inch model was unveiled on April 24,2006. The first design was largely a carryover from the PowerBook G4, the 15-inch MacBook Pro weighs the same as the 15-inch aluminum PowerBook G4, but is 0.1 inches deeper,0.4 inches wider, and 0.1 inches thinner. Other changes from the PowerBook include a built-in iSight webcam and the inclusion of MagSafe and these features were later brought over to the MacBook. The optical drive was reduced in size in order to fit into the slimmer MacBook Pro, hence it runs slower than the drive in the PowerBook G4. Both the original 15- and 17-inch model MacBook Pros come with ExpressCard/34 slots, all first generation 15-inch models have two USB2.0 ports and one FireWire 400 port, while the 17-inch models have three USB2.0 ports as well as one FireWire 400 port. S-Video capability can be attained through the use of a DVI to S-Video adapter, external displays with up to a 2,560 ×1,600 pixel resolution are supported through a dual-link DVI port. All models include a built-in Gigabit Ethernet port, Bluetooth 2.0, later models include support for the draft 2.0 specification of 802. 11n and Bluetooth 2.1
8.
PowerBook
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The PowerBook was a line of Macintosh laptop computers that was designed, manufactured and sold by Apple Computer, Inc. from 1991 to 2006. During its lifetime, the PowerBook went through major revisions and redesigns. In 1999, the line was supplemented by the consumer iBook range, the PowerBook and iBook lines were discontinued and replaced by the MacBook Pro and MacBook families respectively by 2006. In September 1989, Apple Inc. released the Macintosh Portable, however, its price, size, and weight made actual portability difficult. Because of this, the demand for a true portable Macintosh was not met, in October 1991 Apple released the first three PowerBooks, the low-end PowerBook 100, the more powerful PowerBook 140, and the high end PowerBook 170, the only one with an active matrix display. In the early days of Microsoft Windows, many notebooks came with a clip on trackball that fit on the edge of the keyboard molding, as usage of DOS gave way to the graphical user interface, the PowerBooks arrangement became the standard layout all future notebook computers would follow. The PowerBook 140 and 170 were the original PowerBook designs, while the PowerBook 100 was the result of Apple having sent the schematics of the Mac Portable to Sony, the PowerBook 100, however, did not sell well until Apple dropped the price substantially. The 100 series PowerBooks were intended to tie into the rest of the Apple desktop products utilizing the corporate Snow White design language incorporated into all product designs since 1986. In addition to adopting the darker colour scheme which co-ordinated with the official corporate look. The innovative look not only unified their entire line. These early series would be the last to utilize the aging Snow White look, the first series of PowerBooks were hugely successful, capturing 40% of all laptop sales. Despite this, the team left to work at Compaq. Apple was unable to ship a 68040-equipped PowerBook until the PowerBook 500 series in 1994, the original PowerBook 100,140, and 170 were replaced by the 145,160, and 180 in 1992. The 160 and 180 having video output allowing them to drive an external monitor, in addition, the PowerBook 180 had a superb-for-the-time active-matrix grayscale display, making it popular with the Mac press. In 1993, the PowerBook 165c was the first PowerBook with a color screen, in 1994, the last true member of the 100-series form factor introduced was the PowerBook 150, targeted at value-minded consumers and students. The PowerBook 190, released in 1995, bears no resemblance to the rest of the PowerBook 100 series, however, like the 190, the 150 also used the 5300 IDE-based logic-board architecture. From the 100s 68000 processor, to the 190s 68LC040 processor, in 1992 Apple released a hybrid portable/desktop computer, the PowerBook Duo, continuing to streamline the subnotebook features introduced with the PowerBook 100. 1994 saw the introduction of the Motorola 68LC040-based PowerBook 500 series and these models of PowerBooks were much sleeker and faster than the 100 series, which they replaced as the mid and high-end models
9.
Reduced instruction set computer
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A computer based on this strategy is a reduced instruction set computer, also called RISC. The opposing architecture is called complex instruction set computing, although a number of systems from the 1960s and 70s have been identified as being forerunners of RISC, the modern version of the design dates to the 1980s. In particular, two projects at Stanford University and University of California, Berkeley are most associated with the popularization of this concept. Stanfords design would go on to be commercialized as the successful MIPS architecture, while Berkeleys RISC gave its name to the entire concept, another success from this era were IBMs efforts that eventually led to the Power Architecture. RISC families include DEC Alpha, AMD Am29000, ARC, ARM, Atmel AVR, Blackfin, Intel i860 and i960, MIPS, Motorola 88000, PA-RISC, Power, RISC-V, SuperH, and SPARC. In the 21st century, the use of ARM architecture processors in smart phones and tablet computers such as the iPad, a number of systems, going back to the 1960s, have been credited as the first RISC architecture, partly based on their use of load/store approach. The term RISC was coined by David Patterson of the Berkeley RISC project, michael J. Flynn views the first RISC system as the IBM801 design which began in 1975 by John Cocke, and completed in 1980. The 801 was eventually produced in a form as the ROMP in 1981. As the name implies, this CPU was designed for tasks, and was also used in the IBM RT-PC in 1986. But the 801 inspired several research projects, including new ones at IBM that would lead to the IBM POWER instruction set architecture. The most public RISC designs, however, were the results of university research programs run with funding from the DARPA VLSI Program, the VLSI Program, practically unknown today, led to a huge number of advances in chip design, fabrication, and even computer graphics. The Berkeley RISC project started in 1980 under the direction of David Patterson, Berkeley RISC was based on gaining performance through the use of pipelining and an aggressive use of a technique known as register windowing. In a traditional CPU, one has a number of registers. In a CPU with register windows, there are a number of registers, e. g.128. The Berkeley RISC project delivered the RISC-I processor in 1982, consisting of only 44,420 transistors RISC-I had only 32 instructions, and yet completely outperformed any other single-chip design. They followed this up with the 40,760 transistor,39 instruction RISC-II in 1983, which ran over three times as fast as RISC-I. The MIPS architecture grew out of a course by John L. Hennessy at Stanford University in 1981, resulted in a functioning system in 1983. The MIPS approach emphasized an aggressive clock cycle and the use of the pipeline, the MIPS system was followed by the MIPS-X and in 1984 Hennessy and his colleagues formed MIPS Computer Systems
10.
IBM
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International Business Machines Corporation is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Armonk, New York, United States, with operations in over 170 countries. The company originated in 1911 as the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company and was renamed International Business Machines in 1924, IBM manufactures and markets computer hardware, middleware and software, and offers hosting and consulting services in areas ranging from mainframe computers to nanotechnology. IBM is also a research organization, holding the record for most patents generated by a business for 24 consecutive years. IBM has continually shifted its business mix by exiting commoditizing markets and focusing on higher-value, also in 2014, IBM announced that it would go fabless, continuing to design semiconductors, but offloading manufacturing to GlobalFoundries. Nicknamed Big Blue, IBM is one of 30 companies included in the Dow Jones Industrial Average and one of the worlds largest employers, with nearly 380,000 employees. Known as IBMers, IBM employees have been awarded five Nobel Prizes, six Turing Awards, ten National Medals of Technology, in the 1880s, technologies emerged that would ultimately form the core of what would become International Business Machines. On June 16,1911, their four companies were amalgamated in New York State by Charles Ranlett Flint forming a fifth company, the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company based in Endicott, New York. The five companies had 1,300 employees and offices and plants in Endicott and Binghamton, New York, Dayton, Ohio, Detroit, Michigan, Washington, D. C. and Toronto. They manufactured machinery for sale and lease, ranging from commercial scales and industrial time recorders, meat and cheese slicers, to tabulators and punched cards. Thomas J. Watson, Sr. fired from the National Cash Register Company by John Henry Patterson, called on Flint and, Watson joined CTR as General Manager then,11 months later, was made President when court cases relating to his time at NCR were resolved. Having learned Pattersons pioneering business practices, Watson proceeded to put the stamp of NCR onto CTRs companies and his favorite slogan, THINK, became a mantra for each companys employees. During Watsons first four years, revenues more than doubled to $9 million, Watson had never liked the clumsy hyphenated title of the CTR and in 1924 chose to replace it with the more expansive title International Business Machines. By 1933 most of the subsidiaries had been merged into one company, in 1937, IBMs tabulating equipment enabled organizations to process unprecedented amounts of data, its clients including the U. S. During the Second World War the company produced small arms for the American war effort, in 1949, Thomas Watson, Sr. created IBM World Trade Corporation, a subsidiary of IBM focused on foreign operations. In 1952, he stepped down after almost 40 years at the company helm, in 1957, the FORTRAN scientific programming language was developed. In 1961, IBM developed the SABRE reservation system for American Airlines, in 1963, IBM employees and computers helped NASA track the orbital flight of the Mercury astronauts. A year later it moved its headquarters from New York City to Armonk. The latter half of the 1960s saw IBM continue its support of space exploration, on April 7,1964, IBM announced the first computer system family, the IBM System/360
11.
Motorola
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Motorola was an American multinational telecommunications company founded on September 25,1928, based in Schaumburg, Illinois. After having lost $4.3 billion from 2007 to 2009, Motorola Solutions is generally considered to be the direct successor to Motorola, as the reorganization was structured with Motorola Mobility being spun off. Motorola Mobility was acquired by Lenovo in 2014, Motorola designed and sold wireless network equipment such as cellular transmission base stations and signal amplifiers. Its business and government customers consisted mainly of wireless voice and broadband systems and these businesses are now part of Motorola Solutions. Google sold Motorola Home to the Arris Group in December 2012 for US$2.35 billion, Motorolas wireless telephone handset division was a pioneer in cellular telephones. Also known as the Personal Communication Sector prior to 2004, it pioneered the mobile phone with DynaTAC and it had staged a resurgence by the mid-2000s with the RAZR, but lost market share in the second half of that decade. Later it focused on smartphones using Googles open-source Android mobile operating system, the first phone to use the newest version of Googles open source OS, Android 2.0, was released on November 2,2009 as the Motorola Droid. The handset division was spun off into the independent Motorola Mobility. On May 22,2012, Google CEO Larry Page announced that Google had closed on its deal to acquire Motorola Mobility. On January 29,2014, Page announced that pending closure of the deal, on October 30,2014, Lenovo finalized its purchase of Motorola Mobility from Google. Galvin Manufacturing Corporation set up shop in a section of a rented building. The company had $565 in working capital and five employees, the first weeks payroll was $63. The companys first products were battery-eliminators, devices that enabled battery-powered radios to operate on household electricity, due to advances in radio technology, battery-eliminators soon became obsolete. Paul Galvin learned that some radio technicians were installing sets in cars and his team was successful, and Galvin was able to demonstrate a working model of the radio at the June 1930 Radio Manufacturers Association convention in Atlantic City, New Jersey. He brought home enough orders to keep the company in business. g, the company sold its first Motorola branded radio on June 23,1930, to H. C. Wall of Fort Wayne, Indiana, for $30, the Motorola brand name became so well-known that Galvin Manufacturing Corporation later changed its name to Motorola, Inc. Galvin Manufacturing Corporation began selling Motorola car-radio receivers to police departments, the companys first public safety customers included the Village of River Forest, Village of Bellwood Police Department, City of Evanston Police, Illinois State Highway Police, and Cook County Police. In the same year, the company built its research and development program with Dan Noble, a pioneer in FM radio and semiconductor technologies, the company produced the hand-held AM SCR-536 radio during World War II, which was vital to Allied communication
12.
Freescale Semiconductor
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The company employed 17,000 people worldwide. On December 7,2015, NXP Semiconductors completed its merger with Freescale for about $11.8 billion in cash, Freescale shareholders received $6.25 billion in cash and 0.3521 of an NXP share for each Freescale common share. Including the assumption of Freescales debt, the price is about $16.7 billion. In 1955, a Motorola transistor for car radios was the worlds first commercial high-power transistor and it was also Motorolas first mass-produced semiconductor device. In the 1960s, one of the U. S. space programs goals was to land a man on the moon, in 1968, NASA began manned Apollo flights that led to the first lunar landing in July 1969. The Apollo program was significant for hundreds of employees involved in designing, testing and producing its electronics. An up-data link in the Apollos command module received signals from Earth to relay to other on-board systems, a transponder received and transmitted voice and television signals and scientific data. Also that year, Motorolas technologies were used to introduce the first two-way mobile radio with a fully transistorized power supply, the companys first microprocessor was introduced in 1974, and was used in automotive, computing and video game applications. Freescales motion-sensing accelerometer powers the interactivity of the Guitar Hero video games, the number one provider of eReader processors worldwide was Freescale. In 2009, Freescale demonstrated the worlds lowest startup voltage single inductor DC/DC converter for use in solar, in addition, a recent ABI Research market study report states that Freescale owns 60% share of the radio frequency semiconductor device market. Also in 2011, Freescale announced the companys first magnetometer for location tracking in smart mobile devices, with the partnership of McLaren Electronic Systems, they helped the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series vehicles convert from carburetors to fuel injection starting in 2012. On March 8,2014, Freescale announced that 20 of its employees were passengers aboard Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 and that plane, carrying the Freescale employees, was lost, with only small part of it found over a year later. In March 2015, a agreement was announced through which Freescale Semiconductor would be acquired by NXP Semiconductors. The acquisition closed on December 7,2015, on February 26,2013, Freescale Semiconductor announced the creation of the worlds physically smallest ARM-powered chip. The Kinetis KL02 measures 1.9 by 2 millimeters and is a microcontroller unit, meaning the chip sports a processor, RAM, ROM, clock. The chip competes with the Atmel M0+ offerings, which are the leaders in the industry. One application that Freescale says the chips could be used for is swallowable computers, Freescale already works with a variety of health and wellness customers. Both the Fitbit and OmniPod insulin pump use Freescale chips, the new chip was on display at Embedded World in Nuernberg, Germany, from February 26–28,2013
13.
Semiconductor
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Semiconductors are crystalline or amorphous solids with distinct electrical characteristics. They are of high electrical resistance — higher than typical resistance materials and their resistance decreases as their temperature increases, which is behavior opposite to that of a metal. The behavior of charge carriers which include electrons, ions and electron holes at these junctions is the basis of diodes, transistors and all modern electronics. Semiconductor devices can display a range of properties such as passing current more easily in one direction than the other, showing variable resistance. The modern understanding of the properties of a semiconductor relies on quantum physics to explain the movement of carriers in a crystal lattice. Doping greatly increases the number of carriers within the crystal. When a doped semiconductor contains mostly free holes it is called p-type, the semiconductor materials used in electronic devices are doped under precise conditions to control the concentration and regions of p- and n-type dopants. A single semiconductor crystal can have many p- and n-type regions, although some pure elements and many compounds display semiconductor properties, silicon, germanium, and compounds of gallium are the most widely used in electronic devices. Elements near the so-called metalloid staircase, where the metalloids are located on the table, are usually used as semiconductors. Some of the properties of materials were observed throughout the mid 19th. The first practical application of semiconductors in electronics was the 1904 development of the Cats-whisker detector, developments in quantum physics in turn allowed the development of the transistor in 1947 and the integrated circuit in 1958. There are several developed techniques that allow semiconducting materials to behave like conducting materials and these modifications have two outcomes, n-type and p-type. These refer to the excess or shortage of electrons, respectively, an unbalanced number of electrons would cause a current to flow through the material. Heterojunctions Heterojunctions occur when two differently doped semiconducting materials are joined together, for example, a configuration could consist of p-doped and n-doped germanium. This results in an exchange of electrons and holes between the differently doped semiconducting materials, the n-doped germanium would have an excess of electrons, and the p-doped germanium would have an excess of holes. The transfer occurs until equilibrium is reached by a process called recombination, a product of this process is charged ions, which result in an electric field. Excited Electrons A difference in electric potential on a material would cause it to leave thermal equilibrium. This introduces electrons and holes to the system, which interact via a process called ambipolar diffusion, whenever thermal equilibrium is disturbed in a semiconducting material, the amount of holes and electrons changes
14.
Titanium
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Titanium is a chemical element with symbol Ti and atomic number 22. It is a transition metal with a silver color, low density. Titanium is resistant to corrosion in sea water, aqua regia, titanium was discovered in Cornwall, Great Britain, by William Gregor in 1791, and it is named by Martin Heinrich Klaproth for the Titans of Greek mythology. The metal is extracted from its principal mineral ores by the Kroll, the most common compound, titanium dioxide, is a popular photocatalyst and is used in the manufacture of white pigments. Other compounds include titanium tetrachloride, a component of smoke screens and catalysts, and titanium trichloride, the two most useful properties of the metal are corrosion resistance and strength-to-density ratio, the highest of any metallic element. In its unalloyed condition, titanium is as strong as some steels, there are two allotropic forms and five naturally occurring isotopes of this element, 46Ti through 50Ti, with 48Ti being the most abundant. Although they have the number of valence electrons and are in the same group in the periodic table. As a metal, titanium is recognized for its high strength-to-weight ratio and it is a strong metal with low density that is quite ductile, lustrous, and metallic-white in color. The relatively high melting point makes it useful as a refractory metal and it is paramagnetic and has fairly low electrical and thermal conductivity. Commercial grades of titanium have ultimate tensile strength of about 434 MPa, equal to that of common, low-grade steel alloys, titanium is 60% denser than aluminium, but more than twice as strong as the most commonly used 6061-T6 aluminium alloy. Certain titanium alloys achieve tensile strengths of over 1400 MPa, however, titanium loses strength when heated above 430 °C. Titanium is not as hard as some grades of heat-treated steel, it is non-magnetic, machining requires precautions, because the material might gall unless sharp tools and proper cooling methods are used. Like steel structures, those made from titanium have a limit that guarantees longevity in some applications. The metal is an allotrope of an hexagonal α form that changes into a body-centered cubic β form at 882 °C. The specific heat of the α form increases dramatically as it is heated to this transition temperature but then falls, similar to zirconium and hafnium, an additional omega phase exists, which is thermodynamically stable at high pressures, but metastable at ambient pressures. This phase is usually hexagonal or trigonal and can be considered to be due to a soft longitudinal acoustic phonon of the β phase causing collapse of planes of atoms, like aluminium and magnesium, titanium metal and its alloys oxidize immediately upon exposure to air. Titanium readily reacts with oxygen at 1,200 °C in air and it is, however, slow to react with water and air at ambient temperatures because it forms a passive oxide coating that protects the bulk metal from further oxidation. When it first forms, this layer is only 1–2 nm thick but continues to grow slowly
15.
Aluminium
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Aluminium or aluminum is a chemical element in the boron group with symbol Al and atomic number 13. It is a silvery-white, soft, nonmagnetic, ductile metal, Aluminium metal is so chemically reactive that native specimens are rare and limited to extreme reducing environments. Instead, it is combined in over 270 different minerals. The chief ore of aluminium is bauxite, Aluminium is remarkable for the metals low density and its ability to resist corrosion through the phenomenon of passivation. Aluminium and its alloys are vital to the industry and important in transportation and structures, such as building facades. The oxides and sulfates are the most useful compounds of aluminium, despite its prevalence in the environment, no known form of life uses aluminium salts metabolically, but aluminium is well tolerated by plants and animals. Because of these salts abundance, the potential for a role for them is of continuing interest. Aluminium is a soft, durable, lightweight, ductile. It is nonmagnetic and does not easily ignite, a fresh film of aluminium serves as a good reflector of visible light and an excellent reflector of medium and far infrared radiation. The yield strength of aluminium is 7–11 MPa, while aluminium alloys have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa. Aluminium has about one-third the density and stiffness of steel and it is easily machined, cast, drawn and extruded. Aluminium atoms are arranged in a cubic structure. Aluminium has an energy of approximately 200 mJ/m2. Aluminium is a thermal and electrical conductor, having 59% the conductivity of copper. Aluminium is capable of superconductivity, with a critical temperature of 1.2 kelvin. Aluminium is the most common material for the fabrication of superconducting qubits, the strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion resistant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper. This corrosion resistance is reduced by aqueous salts, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals. In highly acidic solutions, aluminium reacts with water to form hydrogen, primarily because it is corroded by dissolved chlorides, such as common sodium chloride, household plumbing is never made from aluminium
16.
IEEE 1394
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IEEE1394 is an interface standard for a serial bus for high-speed communications and isochronous real-time data transfer. It was developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s by Apple, the 1394 interface is also known by the brand i. LINK, and Lynx. The copper cable it uses in its most common implementation can be up to 4.5 metres long, power is also carried over this cable allowing devices with moderate power requirements to operate without a separate power supply. FireWire is also available in wireless, Cat 5, fiber optic, the 1394 interface is comparable to USB though USB requires a master controller and has greater market share. IEEE1394 replaced parallel SCSI in many applications, because of lower implementation costs, FireWire is Apples name for the IEEE1394 High Speed Serial Bus. IEEE1394 is a bus architecture for high-speed data transfer. FireWire is a bus, meaning that information is transferred one bit at a time. Parallel buses utilize a number of different physical connections, and as such are more costly and typically heavier. IEEE1394 fully supports both isochronous and asynchronous applications, Apple intended FireWire to be a serial replacement for the parallel SCSI bus while providing connectivity for digital audio and video equipment. Apples development began in the late 1980s, later presented to the IEEE, in 2007, IEEE1394 was a composite of four documents, the original IEEE Std. 1394-1995, the IEEE Std. 1394a-2000 amendment, the IEEE Std, 1394b-2002 amendment, and the IEEE Std. 1394c-2006 amendment. On June 12,2008, all these amendments as well as errata and some technical updates were incorporated into a superseding standard, Apple first included FireWire in some of its 1999 Macintosh models, and most Apple Macintosh computers manufactured in the years 2000 through 2011 included FireWire ports. However, in February 2011 Apple introduced the first commercially available computer with Thunderbolt, Apple released its last computers featuring FireWire late 2012. By 2014 Thunderbolt had become a feature across Apples entire line of computers effectively becoming the spiritual successor to FireWire in the Apple ecosystem. This style was added into the 1394a amendment. This port is sometimes labeled S100 or S400 to indicate speed in Mbit/s, the system was commonly used to connect data storage devices and DV cameras, but was also popular in industrial systems for machine vision and professional audio systems. Many users preferred it over the more common USB2.0 for its then greater effective speed, benchmarks show that the sustained data transfer rates are higher for FireWire than for USB2.0, but lower than USB3.0. Results are marked on Apple Mac OS X but more varied on Microsoft Windows, implementation of IEEE1394 is said to require use of 261 issued international patents held by 10 corporations
17.
Mac OS X Leopard
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Mac OS X Leopard is the sixth major release of Mac OS X, Apples desktop and server operating system for Macintosh computers. Leopard was released on October 26,2007 as the successor of Tiger and it retailed for $129 for the desktop version and $499 for Server. Leopard was superseded by Snow Leopard, Leopard is the final version of Mac OS X to support the PowerPC architecture as Snow Leopard functions solely on Intel based Macs. Apple missed Leopards release time frame as originally announced by Apples CEO Steve Jobs, when first discussed in June 2005, Jobs had stated that Apple intended to release Leopard at the end of 2006 or early 2007. A year later, this was amended to Spring 2007, however on April 12,2007, Apple advertised that Mac OS X Leopard has 300+ new features, including, A new and improved Automator, with easy starting points to easily start a workflow. It also can create or edit workflows with new interface improvements. Now it can use a new action called Watch Me Do that lets you record a user action and it can create more useful Automator workflows with actions for RSS feeds, iSight camera video snapshots, PDF manipulation, and much more. Back to My Mac, a feature for MobileMe users that allows users to access files on their home computer while away from home via the internet. Boot Camp, a software assistant allowing for the installation of other operating systems, such as Windows XP or Windows Vista, on a separate partition on Intel-based Macs. Dashboard enhancements, including Web Clip, a feature allows users to turn a part of any Web page displayed in Safari into a live Dashboard widget. New Desktop, comprises a redesigned 3-D dock with a new grouping feature called Stacks, R. L. Prior, on the ThinkMac blog, criticized the shelf-like Dock along with a number of other changes to the user interface. Dictionary can now search Wikipedia, and a dictionary of Apple terminology as well, a redesigned Finder, with features similar to those seen in iTunes 7, including Cover Flow and a Source list-like sidebar. Front Row has been reworked to resemble the interface of the original Apple TV. ICal calendar sharing and group scheduling as well as syncing event invitations from Mail, the icon also reflects the current date even when the application is not running. In previous versions of Mac OS X, the icon would show July 17 in the icon any time the application was not running, iChat also implements screen sharing, a feature previously available with Apple Remote Desktop. Mail enhancements including the additions of RSS feeds, Stationery, Notes, to-dos use a system-wide service that is available to all applications. Parental controls now include the ability to place restrictions on use of the Internet, photo Booth enhancements, including video recording with real-time filters and blue/green-screen technology. Podcast Capture, an application allowing users to record and distribute podcasts and it requires access to a computer running Mac OS X Server with Podcast Producer
18.
Apple's transition to Intel processors
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Apples Intel transition was the process of changing the central processing unit of Macintosh computers from PowerPC processors to Intel x86 processors. The transition marked the Macintosh platforms second migration to a new CPU architecture, the first was the switch from the Motorola 68000 series architecture to the PowerPC architecture. Apples initial press release indicated the transition would begin by June 2006, and finish by the end of 2007, the Xserve servers were available in December 2006. Apple released Mac OS X v10.6 Snow Leopard on August 28,2009 as Intel-only, february 28,2006, Jobs announces that the Mac mini now also comes with an Intel Core chip, in either the Solo or Duo varieties. April 5,2006, Apple announced the release of Boot Camp, april 24,2006, Apple announces the 17 MacBook Pro, replacing the 17 PowerBook. April 27,2006, Intel announces that processors with the Core microarchitecture would be released sooner than previously thought. May 16,2006, Apple announces the 13 MacBook, replacing both the line and the 12 PowerBook. June 26,2006, Intel announces the Xeon 5100 series server/workstation CPU, july 5,2006, Apple announces a special educational configuration of the iMac, replacing the old G4 eMac. August 28,2009, Apple ships Mac OS X10.6 Snow Leopard, march 1,2011, The beta version of the then-upcoming Mac OS X Lion drops Rosetta and will not be able to run PowerPC based software. July 20,2011, The release of Mac OS X10.7 Lion formally ends Apples support of PowerPC-based software, August 7,2011, PowerPC hardware reaches vintage status having been discontinued five years earlier, ending most of Apples service and parts support for PowerPC hardware. June 11,2012, Apple releases iTunes 10.6.3, August 7,2013, PowerPC hardware reaches obsolete status having been discontinued seven years prior, ending all of Apples service and parts support for PowerPC hardware. The names of some of Apples desktop and laptop product lines changed between the PowerPC version and the corresponding Intel version, most notably, the word Power was dropped from all product lines. This was in reference to the fact that the previous PowerPC G5 processors were not energy efficient, and therefore used far too much power to be used in any portable Macs. The first known attempt to move to Intel platforms was the Star Trek project from spring 1992 to 1993, the ported System 7.1 ran on top of this environment. While the project was successful with running pre-beta versions it was stopped in 1993 after management, the core system was later released as part of Novell DOS7. Apple later transitioned the Macintosh from the earlier classic Mac OS to Mac OS X and it is not publicly known whether Apple maintains current builds for any other architectures although the related iOS runs on the iPhones ARM architecture. In particular, he cited the performance per watt projections in the roadmap provided by Intel and this is an especially important consideration in laptop design, which affects the hours of use per battery charge. In June 2003, Jobs had introduced Macs based on the PowerPC G5 processor and promised that within a year, two years later,3 GHz G5s were still not available, and rumors continued that IBMs low yields on the POWER4-derived chip were to blame
19.
Steve Jobs
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Steven Paul Steve Jobs was an American entrepreneur, businessman, inventor, and industrial designer. He was the co-founder, chairman, and chief officer of Apple Inc. CEO and majority shareholder of Pixar, a member of The Walt Disney Companys board of directors following its acquisition of Pixar, and founder, chairman, Jobs and Apple co-founder Steve Wozniak are widely recognized as pioneers of the microcomputer revolution of the 1970s and 1980s. Jobs was born in San Francisco and adopted at birth, he was raised in the San Francisco Bay Area during the 1960s, Jobs briefly attended Reed College in 1972 before dropping out. He then decided to travel through India in 1974 seeking enlightenment, Jobss declassified FBI report stated that an acquaintance knew that Jobs had used the illegal drugs marijuana and LSD while he was in college. Jobs once told a reporter that taking LSD was one of the two or three most important things he did in his life, Jobs and Wozniak co-founded Apple in 1976 to sell Wozniaks Apple I personal computer. The visionaries gained fame and wealth a year later for the Apple II, in 1979, after a tour of PARC, Jobs saw the commercial potential of the Xerox Alto, which was mouse-driven and had a graphical user interface. This led to development of the unsuccessful Apple Lisa in 1983, following a long power struggle, Jobs was forced out of Apple in 1985. In addition, Jobs helped to initiate the development of the effects industry when he funded the spinout of the computer graphics division of George Lucass Lucasfilm in 1986. The new company, Pixar, would produce the first fully computer-animated film. In 1997, Apple merged with NeXT, within a few months of the merger, Jobs became CEO of his former company, reviving Apple at the verge of bankruptcy. Mac OS was also revamped into OS X, based on NeXTs NeXTSTEP platform, Jobs was diagnosed with a pancreatic neuroendocrine tumor in 2003 and died on October 5,2011 of respiratory arrest related to the tumor. Steve Jobss biological father, Abdulfattah John Jandali, was born into a Muslim household and grew up in Homs, Jandali is the son of a self-made millionaire who did not go to college and a mother who was a traditional housewife. While an undergraduate at the American University of Beirut, he was a student activist, although Jandali initially wanted to study law, he eventually decided to study economics and political science. He pursued a PhD in the subject at the University of Wisconsin, where he met Joanne Carole Schieble, a Catholic of Swiss and German descent. As a doctoral candidate, Jandali was an assistant for a course Schieble was taking. Mona Simpson, notes that her grandparents were not happy that their daughter was dating Jandali. But there are a lot of Arabs in Michigan and Wisconsin, Walter Isaacson, Steve Jobss official biographer, additionally states that Schiebles father threatened to cut Joanne off completely if she continued the relationship
20.
Macworld/iWorld
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Produced by Boston-based IDG World Expo, Macworld/iWorld is a trade show with conference tracks dedicated to the Apple Macintosh platform. It is held annually in the United States during January, originally Macworld Expo and then Macworld Conference & Exposition, the gathering dates back to 1985. Macworld is the most widely read Macintosh magazine in North America and a trademark of Mac Publishing, IDG World Expo is also a subsidiary. The conference tracks are taught by leaders in their fields and require large admission fees and they last for a few more days than the Expo, which runs generally three or four days. Attendees can visit the exhibits, set up by hardware manufacturers, on December 18,2008, Apple announced that the 2009 Macworld Conference & Expo would be the last in which the company participates. The first Macworld Expo occurred in 1985 in San Francisco, the conference itself was created by Peggy Kilburn, who helped to increase the size and profit of the event during her tenure. Among the speakers recruited by Kilburn were David Pogue, Steve Case, Bob LeVitus, as well as representatives from BMUG, LaserBoard, the San Francisco event has always been held at the Moscone Center. The Expo was also held in Brooks Hall near the San Francisco Civic Center from 1985 until 1993, until 2005, the U. S. shows were held semiannually, with a January show in San Francisco and an additional summer show held in the Eastern US. The later event was initially in Boston at the Bayside Expo & Executive Conference Center, later expanding with a dual presence at the World Trade Center Boston. From 1998 to 2003 it took place in New York Citys Jacob K. Javits Convention Center, the 2004 and 2005 summer shows, retitled Macworld Conference & Expo took place in Boston, although without Apples participation. Other companies followed Apples lead, canceling or reducing the size of their own exhibits, on 16 September 2005, IDG announced that no further summertime shows would be held in NYC or in Boston. The show has taken place in other cities, A Tokyo show, produced by IDG World Expo Japan, was held at Makuhari Messe. Macworld Expo Summit, a version of the show targeted at U. S. government customers, was held at the Washington Convention Center in Washington, D. C. as late as 1994. In 2004, Macworld UK, part of the IDG UK division of IDG, since 1997, the show has been known for its keynote presentations by Apple CEO Steve Jobs. In Boston, Steve Jobs gave a report on Apple Inc. Steve was the Chairman and CEO of Pixar, Steve addressed some of the comments that had been made about Apple, Apple has become irrelevant, Apple cant execute anything, and Apples culture is anarchy, you cant manage it. Apples sales were $11.1 billion in 1995, $9.5 billion in 1996, Steve stated the falling sales were the fundamental problem. The beginning steps that Apple was going to take were, Board of Directors, Focus on Relevance, Invest in Core Assets, Meaningful Partnerships, Apple was the dominant market leader for creative professionals
21.
Keynote
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A keynote in public speaking is a talk that establishes a main underlying theme. In corporate or commercial settings, greater importance is attached to the delivery of a speech or keynote address. The keynote establishes the framework for the programme of events or convention agenda. It will also flag up a larger idea – a literary story, some of the more famous keynote speeches in the United States are those made at the party conventions during Democratic and Republican presidential campaigns. Keynote speakers at events have often gained nationwide fame, for example, Barack Obama at the 2004 Democratic National Convention. In the commercial arena, Steve Jobs delivered influential keynote speeches at Apple product, system, increasingly the word keynote is being used as a synonym for plenary session or invited talk, with some conferences having an opening keynote, a closing keynote, and many other keynotes. A keynote speaker may work independently, be represented by a speakers bureau, the term key note comes from the practice of a cappella, such as doo-wop or barbershop singers, playing a note before singing. The note played determines the key in which the song will be performed
22.
Hertz
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The hertz is the unit of frequency in the International System of Units and is defined as one cycle per second. It is named for Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, the first person to provide proof of the existence of electromagnetic waves. Hertz are commonly expressed in SI multiples kilohertz, megahertz, gigahertz, kilo means thousand, mega meaning million, giga meaning billion and tera for trillion. Some of the units most common uses are in the description of waves and musical tones, particularly those used in radio-. It is also used to describe the speeds at which computers, the hertz is equivalent to cycles per second, i. e. 1/second or s −1. In English, hertz is also used as the plural form, as an SI unit, Hz can be prefixed, commonly used multiples are kHz, MHz, GHz and THz. One hertz simply means one cycle per second,100 Hz means one hundred cycles per second, and so on. The unit may be applied to any periodic event—for example, a clock might be said to tick at 1 Hz, the rate of aperiodic or stochastic events occur is expressed in reciprocal second or inverse second in general or, the specific case of radioactive decay, becquerels. Whereas 1 Hz is 1 cycle per second,1 Bq is 1 aperiodic radionuclide event per second, the conversion between a frequency f measured in hertz and an angular velocity ω measured in radians per second is ω =2 π f and f = ω2 π. This SI unit is named after Heinrich Hertz, as with every International System of Units unit named for a person, the first letter of its symbol is upper case. Note that degree Celsius conforms to this rule because the d is lowercase. — Based on The International System of Units, the hertz is named after the German physicist Heinrich Hertz, who made important scientific contributions to the study of electromagnetism. The name was established by the International Electrotechnical Commission in 1930, the term cycles per second was largely replaced by hertz by the 1970s. One hobby magazine, Electronics Illustrated, declared their intention to stick with the traditional kc. Mc. etc. units, sound is a traveling longitudinal wave which is an oscillation of pressure. Humans perceive frequency of waves as pitch. Each musical note corresponds to a frequency which can be measured in hertz. An infants ear is able to perceive frequencies ranging from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz, the range of ultrasound, infrasound and other physical vibrations such as molecular and atomic vibrations extends from a few femtoHz into the terahertz range and beyond. Electromagnetic radiation is described by its frequency—the number of oscillations of the perpendicular electric and magnetic fields per second—expressed in hertz. Radio frequency radiation is measured in kilohertz, megahertz, or gigahertz
23.
Inch
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The inch is a unit of length in the imperial and United States customary systems of measurement now formally equal to 1⁄36 yard but usually understood as 1⁄12 of a foot. Derived from the Roman uncia, inch is also used to translate related units in other measurement systems. The English word inch was a borrowing from Latin uncia not present in other Germanic languages. The vowel change from Latin /u/ to English /ɪ/ is known as umlaut, the consonant change from the Latin /k/ to English /tʃ/ or /ʃ/ is palatalisation. Both were features of Old English phonology, inch is cognate with ounce, whose separate pronunciation and spelling reflect its reborrowing in Middle English from Anglo-Norman unce and ounce. In many other European languages, the word for inch is the same as or derived from the word for thumb, the inch is a commonly used customary unit of length in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom. It is also used in Japan for electronic parts, especially display screens, for example, three feet two inches can be written as 3′ 2″. Paragraph LXVII sets out the fine for wounds of various depths, one inch, one shilling, an Anglo-Saxon unit of length was the barleycorn. After 1066,1 inch was equal to 3 barleycorns, which continued to be its legal definition for several centuries, similar definitions are recorded in both English and Welsh medieval law tracts. One, dating from the first half of the 10th century, is contained in the Laws of Hywel Dda which superseded those of Dyfnwal, both definitions, as recorded in Ancient Laws and Institutes of Wales, are that three lengths of a barleycorn is the inch. However, the oldest surviving manuscripts date from the early 14th century, john Bouvier similarly recorded in his 1843 law dictionary that the barleycorn was the fundamental measure. He noted that this process would not perfectly recover the standard, before the adoption of the international yard and pound, various definitions were in use. In the United Kingdom and most countries of the British Commonwealth, the United States adopted the conversion factor 1 metre =39.37 inches by an act in 1866. In 1930, the British Standards Institution adopted an inch of exactly 25.4 mm, the American Standards Association followed suit in 1933. By 1935, industry in 16 countries had adopted the industrial inch as it came to be known, in 1946, the Commonwealth Science Congress recommended a yard of exactly 0.9144 metres for adoption throughout the British Commonwealth. This was adopted by Canada in 1951, the United States on 1 July 1959, Australia in 1961, effective 1 January 1964, and the United Kingdom in 1963, effective on 1 January 1964. The new standards gave an inch of exactly 25.4 mm,1.7 millionths of a longer than the old imperial inch and 2 millionths of an inch shorter than the old US inch. The United States retains the 1/39. 37-metre definition for survey purposes and this is approximately 1/8-inch in a mile
24.
Aspect ratio
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The aspect ratio of a geometric shape is the ratio of its sizes in different dimensions. For example, the ratio of a rectangle is the ratio of its longer side to its shorter side – the ratio of width to height. The aspect ratio is expressed as two separated by a colon. The values x and y do not represent actual widths and heights but, rather, as an example,8,5,16,10 and 1.6,1 are three ways of representing the same aspect ratio. In objects of more than two dimensions, such as hyperrectangles, the ratio can still be defined as the ratio of the longest side to the shortest side. The term is most commonly used reference to, Graphic / image Image aspect ratio Display aspect ratio. A square has the smallest possible ratio of 1,1. An ellipse with a ratio of 1,1 is a circle. A circle has the minimal DWAR which is 1, a square has a DWAR of sqrt. The Cube-Volume Aspect Ratio of a set is the d-th root of the ratio of the d-volume of the smallest enclosing axes-parallel d-cube. A square has the minimal CVAR which is 1, a circle has a CVAR of sqrt. An axis-parallel rectangle of width W and height H, where W>H, has a CVAR of sqrt = sqrt, if the dimension d is fixed, then all reasonable definitions of aspect ratio are equivalent to within constant factors. Aspect ratios are mathematically expressed as x, y, in digital images there is a subtle distinction between the Display Aspect Ratio and the Storage Aspect Ratio, see Distinctions. Ratio Equidimensional ratios in 3D List of film formats Squeeze mapping Vertical orientation
25.
IBook
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The iBook was a line of laptop computers designed and marketed by Apple Inc. from 1999 to 2006. The line targeted entry-level, consumer and education markets, with specifications and prices than the PowerBook. It was the first mass consumer product to offer Wi-Fi network connectivity, the iBook had three different designs during its lifetime. The first, known as the Clamshell, was inspired by the design of Apples popular iMac line at the time, two years later, the second generation abandoned the original form factor in favor of a more conventional, rectangular design. In October 2003, a third iteration was released that added a PowerPC G4 chip, Apple replaced the iBook line with the MacBook in May 2006 during Apples transition to Intel processors. The MacBook has also evolved into different models, such as the MacBook Pro targeting high performance and they were also a major name for education, with Henrico County Public Schools being the first of many school systems in the United States to distribute one to every student. This left only the consumer portable space empty, leading to much rumor on the Internet of potential designs and features. Putting an end to speculation, on June 21,1999, Steve Jobs unveiled the iBook G3 during the keynote presentation of Macworld Conference & Expo. Like the iMac, the iBook G3 had a PowerPC G3 CPU, USB, Ethernet, modem ports and an optical drive were standard. The ports were left uncovered along the side, as a cover was thought to be fragile and unnecessary with the iBooks new interfaces. When the lid was closed, the hinge kept it firmly shut, the hinge included an integrated carrying handle. Additional power connectors on the surface allowed multiple iBook G3s to be charged on a custom-made rack. The iBook G3 was the first Mac to use Apples new Unified Logic Board Architecture, the iBook was the first mainstream computer designed and sold with integrated wireless networking. The display bezel contained the wireless antenna, which attached to an optional internal wireless card, lucent helped create this wireless capability which established the industry standard. Apple released the AirPort Wireless Base Station at the same time, there was heated debate over many things such as the aesthetics, features, weight, performance and pricing. To provide sufficient impact protection, the iBook was larger and heftier than the PowerBook of the time, standard features like PC card slots were absent, and so were speculated features such as touch screens and an ultra-long battery life. The iBook gained the label Barbies toilet seat, due to the distinctive design, nevertheless, this same design made the iBook G3 unmistakable in movies and television shows. The iBook was a commercial success, the line continually received processor, memory, hard disk upgrades and new colors
26.
Mac OS 9
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Mac OS9 is the ninth and final major release of Apples classic Mac OS operating system. While Mac OS9 lacks protected memory and full pre-emptive multitasking, lasting improvements include the introduction of an automated Software Update engine, Apple discontinued development of Mac OS9 in 2001, transitioning all future development to macOS, then named Mac OS X. Since that time, no updates have been released, the final updates to Mac OS9 addressed compatibility issues with macOS while running in the Classic Environment and compatibility with Carbon applications. At the 2002 World Wide Developers Conference, Steve Jobs began his address by staging a mock funeral for OS9. Mac OS9 also featured integrated support for Apple’s suite of Internet services known as iTools, other features new to Mac OS9 include, Integrated support for multiple user accounts without using At Ease. Support for voice login through VoicePrint passwords, keychain, a feature allowing users to save passwords and textual data encrypted in protected keychains. A Software Update control panel for automatic download and installation of Apple system software updates, a redesigned Sound control panel and support for USB audio. Speakable Items 2.0, also known as PlainTalk, featuring improved speech synthesis, remote Access Personal Server 3.5, including support for TCP/IP clients over Point-to-Point Protocol. An updated version of AppleScript with support for TCP/IP, USB Printer Sharing, a control panel allowing certain USB printers to be shared across a TCP/IP network. 128-bit file encryption in the Finder, support for files larger than 2 GB. This is achieved through running Mac OS9 without access to Finder inside OS X and this requires Mac OS9 to be installed on the computer, even if computers that can run the Classic environment are not necessarily able to boot into Mac OS9. Some Mac OS9 applications do not run well in Classic and they demonstrate screen redraw problems and lagging performance. In addition, some drivers and other software directly interact with the hardware fail to work properly. In May 2002, at Apples Worldwide Developers Conference in San Jose, California, Steve Jobs, accompanied by a coffin, Mac OS9.2.2, released in December 2001, was the final version of Mac OS9 and the classic Mac OS. In June 2005, Jobs announced that the Macintosh platform would be transitioning to Intel x86 microprocessors, developer documentation of the Rosetta PowerPC emulation layer revealed that applications written for Mac OS8 or 9 would not run on x86-based Macs. The Classic Environment remains in the PowerPC version of OS X10.4, however, as a workaround for Intel-based Macs, Mac OS9 can be emulated up to version 9.0.4 by using SheepShaver, a PowerPC emulator. It cannot emulate above 9.0.4 because SheepShaver does not emulate a memory management unit, the PearPC PowerPC emulator does not support Mac OS9. While Mac OS9 is no longer supported by Apple, retail copies are available from several Internet businesses at varying prices
27.
Industrial design
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Industrial design is a process of design applied to products that are to be manufactured through techniques of mass production. This distinguishes industrial design from craft-based design, where the form of the product is determined by the creator at the time of its creation. The role of a designer is to create and execute design solutions for problems of form, function, usability, physical ergonomics, marketing, brand development, sustainability. The division of labour that underlies the practice of design did have precedents in the pre-industrial era. The use of drawing to specify how something was to be constructed later was first developed by architects and shipwrights during the Italian Renaissance. The emergence of industrial design is linked to the growth of industrialisation and mechanisation that began with the industrial revolution in Great Britain in the mid 18th century. The first use of the industrial design is often attributed to the industrial designer Joseph Claude Sinel in 1919. Christopher Dresser is considered among the first independent industrial designers, Industrial designs origins lie in the industrialization of consumer products. The earliest use of the term may have been in The Art Union, the Practical Draughtsmans Book of Industrial Design by Jacques-Eugène Armengaud was printed in 1853. The subtitle of the work explains, that it wants to offer a course of mechanical, engineering. The study of those types of drawing, according to Armengaud. This work paved the way for a big expansion in the drawing education in France, the United Kingdom. Robert Lepper helped to establish one of the countrys first industrial design programs at Carnegie Institute of Technology. Product design and industrial design overlap in the fields of user interface design, information design, except for certain functional areas of overlap between industrial design and engineering design, educational programs in the U. S. Most industrial designers complete a design or related program at a school or university. Diplomas and degrees take two to four years of study, the study results in a Bachelor of Industrial Design, Bachelor of Science or Bachelor of Fine Arts. Afterwards, the programme can be extended to postgraduate degrees such as Master of Design, Master of Fine Arts. Industrial design studies function and form—and the connection between product, user, and environment, generally, industrial design professionals work in small scale design, rather than overall design of complex systems such as buildings or ships
28.
Jonathan Ive
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Sir Jonathan Paul Jony Ive, KBE, is a British industrial designer who is currently the Chief Design Officer of Apple Inc. While working for a firm in London he was asked by Apple, then a struggling company. He took the design to Apple and was hired immediately, Ive oversees the Apple Industrial Design Group and also provides leadership and direction for Human Interface software teams across the company. Ive is the designer of many of Apples products, including the MacBook Pro, iMac, MacBook Air, Mac mini, iPod, iPod Touch, iPhone, iPad, iPad Mini, Apple Watch, Ive has received a number of accolades for his work. In 2003 he was the winner of the Design Museums Designer of the Year Award. In 2006, he was appointed as a fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering. In a 2004 BBC poll Ive was ranked the most influential person in British culture, Ive was born in Chingford, London, England. His father, Michael Ive, was a silversmith who lectured at Middlesex Polytechnic, Ive attended the Chingford Foundation School, then Walton High School in Stafford. During his high school years, Ive was passionate about cars, Ive studied industrial design at Newcastle Polytechnic. Items from his student portfolio, such as a hearing aid design, were exhibited at the Design Museum in London, Ive had been interested in drawing and making anything he could think of. Since he was a teenager, he was unsure of what area to specialise in after leaving Newcastle, after meeting with various design experts, he was drawn to product design. He was given employment at London design agency Roberts Weaver group, Ive graduated with a first class Bachelor of Arts degree in 1989. Ive explained that his discovery of the Apple Mac, after having a problem with computers during his later student years, was a turning point. Fearing he was inept, he felt the Apple user experience was a departure from the computer design at that time and was particularly impressed by the intuitive mouse-driven system. Ive was unhappy working for clients whom he disliked and who didnt possess the same principles, Apple was a Tangerine client that Ive appreciated and he had been acting in a consultancy role for the computer firm while at Tangerine, creating the initial PowerBook designs. Apple had actually been attempting to recruit him as an employee for two years without success. Ive worked as a consultant for Apples Chief of Industrial Design at the time, Robert Brunner and he designed the second generation of the Newton, the MessagePad 110, taking him by Taipei for the first time. Shortly before Jobss return to Apple, Ive nearly resigned from the company, jon Rubinstein, Ives boss at the time, managed to retain Ive as an employee by explaining that Apple was going to make history following the revival of the company
29.
Power Mac G5
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The Power Mac G5 is Apples marketing name for models of the Power Macintosh that contained the IBM PowerPC G5 CPU inside an anodized aluminium chassis. The Power Mac G5 was introduced with three models, sharing the same case, but differing in features and performance. The physical case of the Power Mac G5 was very different, although somewhat larger than the G4 tower it replaced, the G5 tower had room inside for only one optical, and two hard drives. Steve Jobs stated during his presentation that the Power Mac G5 would reach 3 GHz within 12 months. During the presentation, Apple also showed Virginia Techs Mac OS X computer cluster supercomputer known as System X, the supercomputer managed to become one of the top 5 supercomputers that year. The computer was soon dismantled and replaced with a new cluster made of a number of Xserve G5 rack-mounted servers. The PowerPC G5 is based upon IBMs dual-core POWER4 microprocessor, at the Power Mac G5s introduction, Apple announced a partnership with IBM in which IBM would continue to produce PowerPC variants of their POWER processors. According to IBMs Dr. John E, IBM invested over $3 billion US dollars in a new lab to produce these large,300 mm wafers. This lab was a completely automated facility located in East Fishkill, New York, the original PowerPC970 had 50 million transistors and was manufactured using IBM CMOS 9S at 130 nm fabrication process. CMOS 9S is the combination of SOI, low-k dielectric insulation, and copper interconnect technology, subsequent revisions of the G5 processor have included IBMs PowerPC 970FX, and the PowerPC 970MP. Apple refers to the dual-core PowerPC 970MP processors as either the G5 Dual, the Power Mac G5 line in 2006 consisted of three, dual-core PowerPC G5 configurations, which can communicate through its FSB at half its internal clock speed. Each processor in the Power Mac G5 has two unidirectional 32-bit pathways, one leading to the processor and the other from the processor and these result in a total bandwidth of up to 20 GB/s. The processor at the heart of the Power Mac G5 has a superscalar, superpipelined execution core that can handle up to 216 in-flight instructions, and uses a 128-bit, 162-instruction SIMD unit. Due to its 64-bit processor, the revision of the Power Mac G5 can hold 16 GB of Dual-Channel DDR2 PC4200 RAM using eight memory slots. DP designates a dual-processor machine, SP designates a single-processor machine, the 2.5 GHz model is notable as the first major PC with liquid cooling included as stock. 2004 October, A new SP1.8 reintroduced, with a slower,600 MHz FSB, PCI bus, Apples official name for this machine is Power Mac G5. 2005 April, CPU speed increased, DP2.5 GHz → DP2.7 GHz, DP2.0 GHz → DP2.3 GHz, DP1.8 GHz → DP2 GHz. Newly introduced features were the 16x dual-layer SuperDrives across the line and increased storage, the 1.8 GHz SP was not modified
30.
IMac
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IMac is a range of all-in-one Macintosh desktop computers designed and built by Apple Inc. It has been the part of Apples consumer desktop offerings since its debut in August 1998. The second major revision, iMac G4, moved the design to a base containing all the main components. The fifth major revision shared the same form as the model, but was thinner and used anodized aluminum. The sixth major revision uses a different display unit, omits the SuperDrive and this allows it to be thinner at the edge than older models, with an edge thickness of 5. 9mm. It also includes a dual microphone setup, and includes solid-state drive or hard disk storage, or an Apple Fusion Drive, a hybrid of solid state and hard disk drives. In October 2014, the major revision of the 27-inch iMac was announced. The new model includes a new processor, graphics chip. The seventh major revision of the 21. 5-inch iMac was announced in October 2015 and its main feature is a Retina 4K display at a resolution of 4096 ×2304 pixels. It has the new processor, graphics chip, and IO as the 27-inch iMac. The announcement of iMac in 1998 was a source of controversy and anticipation among commentators, Mac fans, opinions were divided over Apples drastic changes to the Macintosh hardware. At the time, Apple had suffered a series of setbacks as consumers increasingly opted for Wintel machines instead of Apples Performa models. As these stores developed, however, they became a detriment to Apple sales, as CompUSA employees were unfamiliar with the Macintosh, the designer behind iMacs case was Jonathan Ive. Ken Segall was an employee at an L. A. ad agency handling Apples account who came up with the name iMac, Jobs wanted the product to be called MacMan, but eventually warmed to Segalls suggestion. Segall says that the i stands for Internet, but also represents the product as a personal, attention was given to the out-of-box experience, the user needed to go through only two steps to set up and connect to the Internet. Theres no step 3. was the catch-phrase in a popular iMac commercial narrated by actor Jeff Goldblum, johann and Brodie finished in 8 minutes and 15 seconds, whereas Adam was still working on it by the end of the commercial. By 2005, it had more and more apparent that IBMs development for the desktop implementation of PowerPC was grinding to a halt. Apple announced at the Worldwide Developers Conference that it would be switching the Macintosh to the x86 architecture, the first Intel-equipped Macs were unveiled on January 10,2006, the Intel iMac and the introductory MacBook Pro
31.
Xserve
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Xserve was a line of rack unit computers designed by Apple Inc. for use as servers. When the Xserve was introduced in 2002, it was Apples first designated server hardware design since the Apple Network Server in 1996. and shipped with Mac OS X Server software. On November 5,2010, Apple announced that the Xserve line would be discontinued on January 31,2011 and replaced with the Mac Pro Server, Apple introduced the Xserve on May 14,2002. Initially, two options were available, a single-processor Xserve at US$2999 and a dual-processor Xserve at US$3999. Xserves sold before August 24,2002 shipped with Mac OS X v10.1 Puma Server, on February 10,2003, Apple released an improved and expanded Xserve lineup. Improvements included one or two 1.33 GHz PowerPC G4 processors, faster memory, and higher capacity Ultra ATA/133 hard disk drives, the front plate was redesigned for a slot-loading optical drive. On April 2,2003 the Xserve RAID was introduced, providing a higher capacity. On January 6,2004 Apple introduced the Xserve G5, a redesigned higher-performance Xserve, the 32-bit PowerPC G4s were replaced with one or two 64-bit PowerPC970 processors running at 2 GHz. Ventilation issues restricted it to three SATA hot-swap drive bays, with the space for the fourth drive bay used for air vents. The front plate and slot-loading optical drive were retained from the last Xserve G4, the higher memory capacity and bandwidth as well as the stronger floating-point performance of the PowerPC970 made it more suitable for high-performance computing applications. System X is one such cluster computer built with Xserves, three configuration options were available, a single-processor model at US$2999, a dual-processor model at $3999, and a dual-processor cluster node model at US$2999. On January 3,2005, Apple updated the Xserve G5 with faster processors in the dual-processor configurations,400 GB hard disks were made available for up to 1.2 TB of internal storage. The slot-loading optical drive was upgraded to a combination DVD-ROM/CD-RW standard, soon after, Apple updated the Xserve and Xserve RAID to allow the use of 500 GB Hard Drives. Xserve G5 models before April 2005 shipped with Mac OS X v10.3 Panther, after April 2005 shipped with Mac OS X v10.4 Tiger. The Intel-based Xserves were announced at the Worldwide Developers Conference on August 7,2006, the Intel Xserves now had on board video, freeing up an expansion slot. On January 8,2008 Xserve was updated to use Intel Xeon processors faster memory, the front-mounted FireWire 400 port featured in previous models was also replaced with a USB2.0 port. The Xserve RAID was discontinued on February 19,2008, on April 7,2009 Xserve was updated to use Intel Xeon processors DDR3 memory, and NVIDIA graphics with Mini DisplayPort output. The update also saw an increase to the storage capacity
32.
Mac Mini
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The Mac Mini is a small desktop computer manufactured by Apple Inc. Like earlier mini-ITX PC designs, it is 7.7 inches square and 1.4 inches tall, before the mid-2011 revision, all models, except the Late 2009 and Mid 2010 server models, came with an internal optical disc drive. Models pre-2010 used a power supply and were narrower but taller at 2.0 ×6.5 ×6.5 inches. The Mac Mini was the first consumer level Macintosh desktop to ship without a display, keyboard, or mouse since Apples success following the release of the iMac, with Apple marketing it as BYODKM. A special Server version of the computer was introduced in October 2009 that included the Server edition of the OS X operating system, the Server model was discontinued as of the late 2014 Mac Mini revision. A small form factor computer had been speculated and requested long before the release of the Mac Mini. Rumors predicted that the headless iMac would be small, include no display. The Mac Mini is a computer intended for budget-minded customers. Until the 2011 release, the Mac Mini had much less processing power than the computers of the Macintosh lineup. Unlike regular desktop computers, which use standard-sized components such as 3, previously, with the choice of components on the older models, the machine was considered somewhat slower than standard desktop computers. It also had storage and memory than comparable desktops. However, the 2011 upgrade addressed many of previous complaints. In general, the Mac Mini has been praised as a relatively affordable computer with a range of features. However, the press also agrees that it is relatively high priced for a computer aimed at the segment of the market. It is possible to buy small form factor computers at the price with faster processors, better graphics card, more memory. The small form factor has made the Mac Mini particularly popular as a home theater solution, in addition, the small size and observed reliability has helped keep resale values high. On October 22,2009, Apple introduced a new version of the Mac Mini along with revisions of the computer. This model lacks an optical drive, but contains a hard drive in its place because two hard drives and an optical drive would not fit inside the case
33.
Display device
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A display device is an output device for presentation of information in visual or tactile form. When the input information is supplied has a signal, the display is called an electronic display. Common applications for visual displays are televisions or computer monitors. Some displays can show only digits or alphanumeric characters and they are called segment displays, because they are composed of several segments that switch on and off to give appearance of desired glyph. The segments are usually single LEDs or liquid crystals and they are mostly used in digital watches and pocket calculators. There are several types, Seven-segment display Fourteen-segment display Sixteen-segment display HD44780 LCD controller a widely accepted protocol for LCDs and they use electro-mechanical parts to dynamically update a tactile image so that the image may be felt by the fingers. Optacon, using metal rods instead of light in order to convey images to blind people by tactile sensation, in the history of display technology, a variety of display devices and technologies have been used
34.
CPU cache
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Cache memory makes use of the fast technology SRAM, against a slower MM DRAM, connected directly to the processor. The term cache is derived from the French and refers to a place one can hide something. This term has many meanings depending on the context, examples are, disk cache, TLB, branch prediction cache, branch history table, Branch Address Cache, trace cache, that are physical memories. Others are handled by the software, to store data in reserved MM space. Note – CPU cache is a term and rarely or wrongly used in both literature and in industrial environment. For instance, in the US patents documents relating to the cache, the term CPU cache is used in less of 2% of the documents against to the Cache Memory and the Memory Cache. Cache general definition The Cache is a memory that stores data, in silent mode to upper level of utilization. In MM read operation, the controller first of all checks if the data is stored in cache. In case of match the data is fastly and directly supplied from the cache to the processor without involving the MM.3, else the data is read from MM. A cache stores only a subset of MM data – the most recent-used MRU, Data read from MM are temporary stored in cache. If the processor requires the data, this is supplied by the cache. The cache is effective because short instruction loops and routines are a common program structure, spatial locality - If a data is referenced, it is very likely that nearby data will be accessed soon. Instructions and data are transferred from MM to the cache in fixed blocks, Cache line size is in the range of 4 to 512 bytes so that more than one processing data is stored in each cache entry. After a first MM access, all cache line data are available in cache, next instruction usually comes from the next memory location. Data is usually structured and data in these structures normally are stored in memory locations. Large lines size increase the spatial locality but increase also the number of invalidated data in case of line replacement, Cache efficiency is measured in terms of Hit Rate. Hit Rate represents the percentage of Hits compared to the number of cache accesses. The opposite of Hit is called Miss The cache efficiency depends by several elements, cache size, line size, type and cache architecture, a good figure of the cache efficiency, for business applications, may be in the range of 80-95 % of hit
35.
Front-side bus
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A front-side bus was a computer communication interface often used in Intel-chip-based computers during the 1990s and 2000s. The competing EV6 bus served the function for AMD CPUs. Both typically carry data between the processing unit and a memory controller hub, known as the northbridge. Depending on the implementation, some computers may also have a bus that connects the CPU to the cache. This bus and the connected to it are faster than accessing the system memory via the front-side bus. The speed of the front side bus is used as an important measure of the performance of a computer. The original front-side bus architecture has replaced by HyperTransport, Intel QuickPath Interconnect or Direct Media Interface in modern volume CPUs. The term came into use by Intel Corporation about the time the Pentium Pro and Pentium II products were announced, in the 1990s. Front side refers to the interface from the processor to the rest of the computer system, as opposed to the back side. An FSB is mostly used on PC-related motherboards, seldom with the data and address used in embedded systems. This design represented an improvement over the single system bus designs of the previous decades. Front-side buses usually connect the CPU and the rest of the hardware via a chipset, which Intel implemented as a northbridge and a southbridge. Other buses like the Peripheral Component Interconnect, Accelerated Graphics Port and these secondary system buses usually run at speeds derived from the front-side bus clock, but are not necessarily synchronized to it. In response to AMDs Torrenza initiative, Intel opened its FSB CPU socket to third party devices. Prior to this announcement, made in Spring 2007 at Intel Developer Forum in Beijing, Intel had very closely guarded who had access to the FSB, the first example was Field-programmable gate array co-processors, a result of collaboration between Intel-Xilinx-Nallatech and Intel-Altera-XtremeData. The frequency at which a processor operates is determined by applying a clock multiplier to the bus speed in some cases. For example, a running at 3200 MHz might be using a 400 MHz FSB. This means there is a clock multiplier setting of 8
36.
Random-access memory
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Random-access memory is a form of computer data storage which stores frequently used program instructions to increase the general speed of a system. A random-access memory device allows data items to be read or written in almost the same amount of time irrespective of the location of data inside the memory. RAM contains multiplexing and demultiplexing circuitry, to connect the lines to the addressed storage for reading or writing the entry. Usually more than one bit of storage is accessed by the same address, in todays technology, random-access memory takes the form of integrated circuits. RAM is normally associated with types of memory, where stored information is lost if power is removed. Other types of non-volatile memories exist that allow access for read operations. These include most types of ROM and a type of memory called NOR-Flash. Integrated-circuit RAM chips came into the market in the early 1970s, with the first commercially available DRAM chip, early computers used relays, mechanical counters or delay lines for main memory functions. Ultrasonic delay lines could only reproduce data in the order it was written, drum memory could be expanded at relatively low cost but efficient retrieval of memory items required knowledge of the physical layout of the drum to optimize speed. Latches built out of vacuum tube triodes, and later, out of transistors, were used for smaller and faster memories such as registers. Such registers were relatively large and too costly to use for large amounts of data, the first practical form of random-access memory was the Williams tube starting in 1947. It stored data as electrically charged spots on the face of a cathode ray tube, since the electron beam of the CRT could read and write the spots on the tube in any order, memory was random access. The capacity of the Williams tube was a few hundred to around a thousand bits, but it was smaller, faster. In fact, rather than the Williams tube memory being designed for the SSEM, magnetic-core memory was invented in 1947 and developed up until the mid-1970s. It became a form of random-access memory, relying on an array of magnetized rings. By changing the sense of each rings magnetization, data could be stored with one bit stored per ring, since every ring had a combination of address wires to select and read or write it, access to any memory location in any sequence was possible. Magnetic core memory was the form of memory system until displaced by solid-state memory in integrated circuits. Data was stored in the capacitance of each transistor, and had to be periodically refreshed every few milliseconds before the charge could leak away
37.
Computer graphics
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Computer graphics are pictures and films created using computers. Usually, the term refers to computer-generated image data created with help from specialized hardware and software. It is a vast and recent area in computer science, the phrase was coined in 1960, by computer graphics researchers Verne Hudson and William Fetter of Boeing. It is often abbreviated as CG, though sometimes referred to as CGI. The overall methodology depends heavily on the sciences of geometry, optics. Computer graphics is responsible for displaying art and image data effectively and meaningfully to the user and it is also used for processing image data received from the physical world. Computer graphic development has had a significant impact on many types of media and has revolutionized animation, movies, advertising, video games, the term computer graphics has been used a broad sense to describe almost everything on computers that is not text or sound. Such imagery is found in and on television, newspapers, weather reports, a well-constructed graph can present complex statistics in a form that is easier to understand and interpret. In the media such graphs are used to illustrate papers, reports, thesis, many tools have been developed to visualize data. Computer generated imagery can be categorized into different types, two dimensional, three dimensional, and animated graphics. As technology has improved, 3D computer graphics have become more common, Computer graphics has emerged as a sub-field of computer science which studies methods for digitally synthesizing and manipulating visual content. Screens could display art since the Lumiere brothers use of mattes to create effects for the earliest films dating from 1895. New kinds of displays were needed to process the wealth of information resulting from such projects, early projects like the Whirlwind and SAGE Projects introduced the CRT as a viable display and interaction interface and introduced the light pen as an input device. Douglas T. Ross of the Whirlwind SAGE system performed an experiment in 1954 in which a small program he wrote captured the movement of his finger. Electronics pioneer Hewlett-Packard went public in 1957 after incorporating the decade prior, and established ties with Stanford University through its founders. This began the transformation of the southern San Francisco Bay Area into the worlds leading computer technology hub - now known as Silicon Valley. The field of computer graphics developed with the emergence of computer graphics hardware, further advances in computing led to greater advancements in interactive computer graphics. In 1959, the TX-2 computer was developed at MITs Lincoln Laboratory, the TX-2 integrated a number of new man-machine interfaces
38.
Accelerated Graphics Port
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The Accelerated Graphics Port is a high-speed point-to-point channel for attaching a video card to a computer system, primarily to assist in the acceleration of 3D computer graphics. It was originally designed as a successor to PCI-type connections for video cards, since 2004, AGP has been progressively phased out in favor of PCI Express, by mid-2008, PCI Express cards dominated the market and only a few AGP models were available. As computers increasingly became graphically oriented, successive generations of graphics adapters began to push the limits of PCI and this led to the development of AGP, a bus dedicated to graphics adapters. AGP is heavily based on PCI, and in fact the AGP bus is a superset of the conventional PCI bus, the primary advantage of AGP over PCI is that it provides a dedicated pathway between the slot and the processor rather than sharing the PCI bus. In addition to a lack of contention for the bus, the direct connection allows for higher clock speeds, the second major change is that AGP uses split transactions, where the address and data phases of a PCI transaction are separated. The card may send many address phases, and the host processes them in order and this avoids long delays, with the bus idle, during read operations. Third, PCI bus handshaking is simplified, further, rather than using the IRDY# and TRDY# signals for each word, data is transferred in blocks of four clock cycles, and pauses are allowed only between blocks. Finally, AGP allows sideband addressing, meaning that the address and this is done by adding an extra 8-bit SideBand Address bus over which the graphics controller can issue new AGP requests while other AGP data is flowing over the main 32 address/data lines. This results in improved overall AGP data throughput, system memory is made available using the graphics address remapping table, which apportions main memory as needed for texture storage. The maximum amount of memory available to AGP is defined as the AGP aperture. The AGP slot first appeared on x86-compatible system boards based on Socket 7 Intel P5 Pentium, Intel introduced AGP support with the i440LX Slot 1 chipset on August 26,1997, and a flood of products followed from all the major system board vendors. The first Socket 7 chipsets to support AGP were the VIA Apollo VP3, SiS 5591/5592, Intel never released an AGP-equipped Socket 7 chipset. Some early AGP boards used graphics processors built around PCI and were bridged to AGP. This resulted in the cards benefiting little from the new bus, with the only improvement used being the 66 MHz bus clock, with its resulting doubled bandwidth over PCI, examples of such cards were the Voodoo Banshee, Vérité V2200, Millennium II, and S3 ViRGE GX/2. Intels i740 was explicitly designed to exploit the new AGP feature set, after applying the patch the Windows 95 system became Windows 95 version 4.00.950 B. The first Windows NT-based operating system to receive AGP support was Windows NT4.0 with Service Pack 3, linux support for AGP enhanced fast data transfers was first added in 1999 with the implementation of the AGPgart kernel module. Intel released AGP specification 1.0 in 1997 and it specified 3.3 V signals and 1× and 2× speeds. Specification 2.0 documented 1.5 V signaling, which could be used at 1×, 2× and the additional 4× speed and 3.0 added 0.8 V signaling, available versions are listed in the table on the right
39.
Hard disk drive
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The platters are paired with magnetic heads, usually arranged on a moving actuator arm, which read and write data to the platter surfaces. Data is accessed in a manner, meaning that individual blocks of data can be stored or retrieved in any order. HDDs are a type of storage, retaining stored data even when powered off. Introduced by IBM in 1956, HDDs became the dominant secondary storage device for computers by the early 1960s. Continuously improved, HDDs have maintained this position into the era of servers. More than 200 companies have produced HDDs historically, though after extensive industry consolidation most current units are manufactured by Seagate, Toshiba, as of 2016, HDD production is growing, although unit shipments and sales revenues are declining. While SSDs have higher cost per bit, SSDs are replacing HDDs where speed, power consumption, small size, the primary characteristics of an HDD are its capacity and performance. Capacity is specified in unit prefixes corresponding to powers of 1000, the two most common form factors for modern HDDs are 3. 5-inch, for desktop computers, and 2. 5-inch, primarily for laptops. HDDs are connected to systems by standard interface cables such as PATA, SATA, Hard disk drives were introduced in 1956, as data storage for an IBM real-time transaction processing computer and were developed for use with general-purpose mainframe and minicomputers. The first IBM drive, the 350 RAMAC in 1956, was approximately the size of two medium-sized refrigerators and stored five million six-bit characters on a stack of 50 disks. In 1962 the IBM350 RAMAC disk storage unit was superseded by the IBM1301 disk storage unit, cylinder-mode read/write operations were supported, and the heads flew about 250 micro-inches above the platter surface. Motion of the head array depended upon a binary system of hydraulic actuators which assured repeatable positioning. The 1301 cabinet was about the size of three home refrigerators placed side by side, storing the equivalent of about 21 million eight-bit bytes, access time was about a quarter of a second. Also in 1962, IBM introduced the model 1311 disk drive, users could buy additional packs and interchange them as needed, much like reels of magnetic tape. Later models of removable pack drives, from IBM and others, became the norm in most computer installations, non-removable HDDs were called fixed disk drives. Some high-performance HDDs were manufactured with one head per track so that no time was lost physically moving the heads to a track, known as fixed-head or head-per-track disk drives they were very expensive and are no longer in production. In 1973, IBM introduced a new type of HDD code-named Winchester and its primary distinguishing feature was that the disk heads were not withdrawn completely from the stack of disk platters when the drive was powered down. Instead, the heads were allowed to land on an area of the disk surface upon spin-down
40.
AirPort
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AirPort is the name given to a series of products by Apple Inc. using the protocols. These products comprise a number of routers and wireless cards. The AirPort Extreme name was intended to signify the addition of the 802. 11g protocol to these products. In Japan, the line of products is marketed under the brand AirMac due to registration by I-O Data. AirPort debuted on July 21,1999 at Macworld New York, the initial offering consisted of an optional expansion card for Apples new line of iBook notebooks and an AirPort Base Station. The AirPort card was added as an option for almost all of Apples product line, including PowerBooks, eMacs, iMacs. Only Xserves do not have it as a standard or optional feature, the original AirPort system allowed transfer rates up to 11 Mbit/s and was commonly used to share Internet access and files between multiple computers. On January 7,2003, Apple introduced AirPort Extreme, based on the 802. 11g specification, AirPort Extreme allows theoretical peak data transfer rates of up to 54 Mbit/s, and is fully backward-compatible with existing 802. 11b wireless network cards and base stations. Several of Apples desktop computers and portable computers, including the MacBook Pro, MacBook, Mac Mini, all other modern Macs have an expansion slot for the card. AirPort and AirPort Extreme cards are not physically compatible, AirPort Extreme cards cannot be installed in older Macs, the original AirPort card was discontinued in June 2004. On June 7,2004, Apple released the AirPort Express base station as a Swiss Army knife product, on January 9,2007, Apple unveiled a new AirPort Extreme Base Station, which introduced 802.11 Draft-N to the Apple AirPort product line. This implementation of 802.11 Draft-N can operate in both the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz ISM bands, and has modes that make it compatible with 802. 11b/g and 802. 11a. The number of Ethernet ports was increased to four—one nominally for WAN, a USB port was included for printers and other USB devices. The Ethernet ports were updated to Gigabit Ethernet on all ports. The styling is similar to that of the Mac Mini and Apple TV, on January 15,2008, Apple introduced Time Capsule, an AirPort Extreme with an internal hard drive. The device includes software to any computer running a reasonably recent version of Mac OS or Windows to access the disk as a shared volume. Macs running Mac OS X10.5 and later, which includes the Time Machine feature, can use the Time Capsule as a backup device, allowing automatic. As an access point, the unit is equivalent to an AirPort Extreme, with four Gigabit Ethernet ports
41.
IEEE 802.11
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They are created and maintained by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers LAN/MAN Standards Committee. The base version of the standard was released in 1997, and has had subsequent amendments, the standard and amendments provide the basis for wireless network products using the Wi-Fi brand. As a result, in the marketplace, each tends to become its own standard. The 802.11 family consists of a series of half-duplex over-the-air modulation techniques that use the basic protocol. 802. 11-1997 was the first wireless networking standard in the family, but 802. 11b was the first widely accepted one, followed by 802. 11a,802. 11g,802. 11n, and 802. 11ac. Other standards in the family are service amendments that are used to extend the current scope of the existing standard, which may also include corrections to a previous specification. 802. 11b and 802. 11g use the 2.4 GHz ISM band, operating in the United States under Part 15 of the U. S. Federal Communications Commission Rules and Regulations. Because of this choice of band,802. 11b and g equipment may occasionally suffer interference from microwave ovens, cordless telephones. Better or worse performance with higher or lower frequencies may be realized,802. 11n can use either the 2.4 GHz or the 5 GHz band,802. 11ac uses only the 5 GHz band. The segment of the frequency spectrum used by 802.11 varies between countries. In the US,802. 11a and 802. 11g devices may be operated without a license, as allowed in Part 15 of the FCC Rules and Regulations. Frequencies used by one through six of 802. 11b and 802. 11g fall within the 2.4 GHz amateur radio band. Licensed amateur radio operators may operate 802. 11b/g devices under Part 97 of the FCC Rules and Regulations, allowing increased power output but not commercial content or encryption. 802.11 technology has its origins in a 1985 ruling by the U. S. Federal Communications Commission that released the ISM band for unlicensed use, in 1991 NCR Corporation/AT&T invented a precursor to 802.11 in Nieuwegein, the Netherlands. The inventors initially intended to use the technology for cashier systems, the first wireless products were brought to the market under the name WaveLAN with raw data rates of 1 Mbit/s and 2 Mbit/s. Vic Hayes, who held the chair of IEEE802.11 for 10 years, in 1999, the Wi-Fi Alliance was formed as a trade association to hold the Wi-Fi trademark under which most products are sold. The original version of the standard IEEE802.11 was released in 1997 and clarified in 1999 and it specified two net bit rates of 1 or 2 megabits per second, plus forward error correction code. The latter two radio technologies used microwave transmission over the Industrial Scientific Medical frequency band at 2.4 GHz, some earlier WLAN technologies used lower frequencies, such as the U. S.900 MHz ISM band
42.
Fast Ethernet
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In computer networking, Fast Ethernet is a collective term for a number of Ethernet standards that carry traffic at the nominal rate of 100 Mbit/s. Of the Fast Ethernet standards, 100BASE-TX is by far the most common, Fast Ethernet was introduced in 1995 as the IEEE802. 3u standard and remained the fastest version of Ethernet for three years before the introduction of Gigabit Ethernet. The acronym GE/FE is sometimes used for supporting both standards. Fast Ethernet is an extension of the 10-megabit Ethernet standard and it runs on UTP data or optical fiber cable in a star wired bus topology, similar to 10BASE-T where all cables are attached to a hub. Fast Ethernet devices are backward compatible with existing 10BASE-T systems. Fast Ethernet is sometimes referred to as 100BASE-X, where X is a placeholder for the FX, the standard specifies the use of CSMA/CD for media access control. A full-duplex mode is also specified and in all modern networks use Ethernet switches. The 100 in the type designation refers to the transmission speed of 100 Mbit/s. The letter following the dash refers to the medium that carries the signal. A Fast Ethernet adapter can be divided into a media access controller, which deals with the higher-level issues of medium availability. The MAC may be linked to the PHY by a four-bit 25 MHz synchronous parallel interface known as a media-independent interface, in rare cases the MII may be an external connection but is usually a connection between ICs in a network adapter or even within a single IC. The specs are based on the assumption that the interface between MAC and PHY will be a MII but they do not require it. Repeaters may use the MII to connect to multiple PHYs for their different interfaces, the MII fixes the theoretical maximum data bit rate for all versions of Fast Ethernet to 100 Mbit/s. 100BASE-T is any of several Fast Ethernet standards for twisted pair cables, including, 100BASE-TX, 100BASE-T4, the segment length for a 100BASE-T cable is limited to 100 metres. All are or were standards under IEEE802.3, almost all 100BASE-T installations are 100BASE-TX. In the early days of Fast Ethernet, much vendor advertising centered on claims by competing standards that said vendors standards will work better with existing cables than other standards. Thus most networks had to be rewired for 100 Megabit speed whether or not there had supposedly been CAT3 or CAT5 cable runs, 100BASE-TX is the predominant form of Fast Ethernet, and runs over two wire-pairs inside a category 5 or above cable. Like 10BASE-T, the pairs in a standard connection are terminated on pins 1,2,3 and 6
43.
Ethernet
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Ethernet /ˈiːθərnɛt/ is a family of computer networking technologies commonly used in local area networks, metropolitan area networks and wide area networks. It was commercially introduced in 1980 and first standardized in 1983 as IEEE802.3, over time, Ethernet has largely replaced competing wired LAN technologies such as token ring, FDDI and ARCNET. The original 10BASE5 Ethernet uses coaxial cable as a medium, while the newer Ethernet variants use twisted pair. Over the course of its history, Ethernet data transfer rates have increased from the original 2.94 megabits per second to the latest 100 gigabits per second. The Ethernet standards comprise several wiring and signaling variants of the OSI physical layer in use with Ethernet, systems communicating over Ethernet divide a stream of data into shorter pieces called frames. As per the OSI model, Ethernet provides services up to, since its commercial release, Ethernet has retained a good degree of backward compatibility. Features such as the 48-bit MAC address and Ethernet frame format have influenced other networking protocols, the primary alternative for some uses of contemporary LANs is Wi-Fi, a wireless protocol standardized as IEEE802.11. Ethernet was developed at Xerox PARC between 1973 and 1974 and it was inspired by ALOHAnet, which Robert Metcalfe had studied as part of his PhD dissertation. In 1975, Xerox filed a patent application listing Metcalfe, David Boggs, Chuck Thacker, in 1976, after the system was deployed at PARC, Metcalfe and Boggs published a seminal paper. Metcalfe left Xerox in June 1979 to form 3Com and he convinced Digital Equipment Corporation, Intel, and Xerox to work together to promote Ethernet as a standard. The so-called DIX standard, for Digital/Intel/Xerox, specified 10 Mbit/s Ethernet, with 48-bit destination and source addresses and it was published on September 30,1980 as The Ethernet, A Local Area Network. Data Link Layer and Physical Layer Specifications, version 2 was published in November,1982 and defines what has become known as Ethernet II. Formal standardization efforts proceeded at the time and resulted in the publication of IEEE802.3 on June 23,1983. Ethernet initially competed with two largely proprietary systems, Token Ring and Token Bus, in the process, 3Com became a major company. 3Com shipped its first 10 Mbit/s Ethernet 3C100 NIC in March 1981, an Ethernet adapter card for the IBM PC was released in 1982, and, by 1985, 3Com had sold 100,000. Parallel port based Ethernet adapters were produced for a time, with drivers for DOS, by the early 1990s, Ethernet became so prevalent that it was a must-have feature for modern computers, and Ethernet ports began to appear on some PCs and most workstations. This process was sped up with the introduction of 10BASE-T and its relatively small modular connector. Since then, Ethernet technology has evolved to meet new bandwidth, in addition to computers, Ethernet is now used to interconnect appliances and other personal devices
44.
USB
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It is currently developed by the USB Implementers Forum. USB was designed to standardize the connection of peripherals to personal computers. It has become commonplace on other devices, such as smartphones, PDAs, USB has effectively replaced a variety of earlier interfaces, such as serial ports and parallel ports, as well as separate power chargers for portable devices. Also, there are 5 modes of USB data transfer, in order of increasing bandwidth, Low Speed, Full Speed, High Speed, SuperSpeed, USB devices have some choice of implemented modes, and USB version is not a reliable statement of implemented modes. Modes are identified by their names and icons, and the specifications suggests that plugs, unlike other data buses, USB connections are directed, with both upstream and downstream ports emanating from a single host. This applies to power, with only downstream facing ports providing power. Thus, USB cables have different ends, A and B, therefore, in general, each different format requires four different connectors, a plug and receptacle for each of the A and B ends. USB cables have the plugs, and the corresponding receptacles are on the computers or electronic devices, in common practice, the A end is usually the standard format, and the B side varies over standard, mini, and micro. The mini and micro formats also provide for USB On-The-Go with a hermaphroditic AB receptacle, the micro format is the most durable from the point of view of designed insertion lifetime. The standard and mini connectors have a lifetime of 1,500 insertion-removal cycles. Likewise, the component of the retention mechanism, parts that provide required gripping force, were also moved into plugs on the cable side. A group of seven companies began the development of USB in 1994, Compaq, DEC, IBM, Intel, Microsoft, NEC, a team including Ajay Bhatt worked on the standard at Intel, the first integrated circuits supporting USB were produced by Intel in 1995. The original USB1.0 specification, which was introduced in January 1996, Microsoft Windows 95, OSR2.1 provided OEM support for the devices. The first widely used version of USB was 1.1, the 12 Mbit/s data rate was intended for higher-speed devices such as disk drives, and the lower 1.5 Mbit/s rate for low data rate devices such as joysticks. Apple Inc. s iMac was the first mainstream product with USB, following Apples design decision to remove all legacy ports from the iMac, many PC manufacturers began building legacy-free PCs, which led to the broader PC market using USB as a standard. The USB2.0 specification was released in April 2000 and was ratified by the USB Implementers Forum at the end of 2001.1 specification, the USB3.0 specification was published on 12 November 2008. Its main goals were to increase the transfer rate, decrease power consumption, increase power output. USB3.0 includes a new, higher speed bus called SuperSpeed in parallel with the USB2.0 bus, for this reason, the new version is also called SuperSpeed
45.
PC Card
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In computing, PC Card is a configuration for computer parallel communication peripheral interface, designed for laptop computers. Originally introduced as PCMCIA, the PC Card standard as well as its successors like CardBus were defined and developed by the Personal Computer Memory Card International Association and it was originally designed as a standard for memory-expansion cards for computer storage. The existence of a general standard for notebook peripherals led to many kinds of devices being made available based on its configurability, including network cards, modems. The PCMCIA1.0 card standard was published by the Personal Computer Memory Card International Association in November 1990 and was adopted by more than eighty vendors. It corresponds with the Japanese JEIDA memory card 4.0 standard, sanDisk launched its PCMCIA card in October 1992. The company was the first to introduce a writeable Flash RAM card for the HP 95LX and these cards conformed to a supplemental PCMCIA-ATA standard that allowed them to appear as more conventional IDE hard drives to the 95LX or a PC. This had the advantage of raising the limit on capacity to the full 32M available under DOS3.22 on the 95LX. It soon became clear that the PCMCIA card standard needed expansion to support smart I/O cards to address the emerging need for fax, modem, LAN, harddisk and it also needed interrupt facilities and hot plugging, which required the definition of new BIOS and operating system interfaces. This led to the introduction of release 2.0 of the PCMCIA standard and JEIDA4.1 in September 1991, many notebooks in the 1990s had two adjacent type-II slots, which allowed installation of two type-II cards or one, double-thickness, type-III card. The cards were used in early digital SLR cameras, such as the Kodak DCS300 series. However, their use as storage expansion is no longer common. The PC Card port has been superseded by the ExpressCard interface since 2003, some Japanese brand consumer entertainment devices such as TV sets include a PC Card slot for playback of media. PC Card = PCMCIA Card, 16-bit or 32-bit PC Card 32-bit version = Cardbus 16-bit vs. 32-bit,32 bit includes DMA or bus mastering, 16-bit does not Types I–III, Type I, configuration thickness 3.3 mm Type II, 16-bit or 32-bit. Configuration thickness 5.0 mm Type III, 16-bit or 32-bit, configuration thickness 10.5 mm PC Card was superseded by ExpressCard in 2003. PCMCIA stands for Personal Computer Memory Card International Association, the group of companies that defined the standard and this acronym was difficult to say and remember, and was sometimes jokingly referred to as People Cant Memorize Computer Industry Acronyms. To recognize increased scope beyond memory, and to aid in marketing and this was the name of the standard from version 2 of the specification onwards. These cards were used for wireless networks, modems, and other functions in notebook PCs, all PC Card devices use a similar sized package which is 85.6 millimetres long and 54.0 millimetres wide, the same size as a credit card. The shape is used by the Common Interface form of conditional-access modules for DVB broadcasts
46.
VGA
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Video Graphics Array is the display hardware first introduced with the IBM PS/2 line of computers in 1987. Today, the VGA analog interface is used for high definition video, including resolutions of 1080p, while the transmission bandwidth of VGA is high enough to support even higher resolution playback, there can be picture quality degradation depending on cable quality and length. How discernible this degradation is depends on the individuals eyesight and the display, though it is noticeable when switching to. The VGA supports both All Points Addressable graphics modes, and alphanumeric text modes, the other color modes defaulted to standard EGA or CGA compatible palettes, but could still be redefined if desired using VGA-specific programming. g. 400×600 or 360×480, and thin pixels,16 colors and the 70 Hz refresh rate with e. g. 736×410 mode. Its single-chip implementation allowed the VGA to be placed directly on a PC′s motherboard with a minimum of difficulty, since it only required video memory, timing crystals, the original VGA specifications are as follows,256 KB Video RAM 16-color and 256-color paletted display modes. 262, 144-color global palette Selectable 25.175 MHz or 28.322 MHz master pixel clock Usual line rate fixed at 31, compatibility is almost full at BIOS level, but even at register level, a very high value of compatibility is reached. The formula for the VGA horizontal frequency is thus ×525 kHz =4500 ÷143 kHz ≈31.4685 kHz, All other frequencies used by the VGA card are derived from this value by integer multiplication or division. Since the exactness of quartz oscillators is limited, real cards will have higher or lower frequency. All derived VGA timings can be varied widely by software that bypasses the VGA firmware interface and communicates directly with the VGA hardware, the use of other timings may in fact damage such monitors and thus was usually avoided by software publishers. For the most common VGA mode, the timings are. The figures shown in this image may be inaccurate and not match the above table exactly. The same general layout applies, merely at a lower frequency and these timings are the same in the higher frequency mode, but all pixel counts are correspondingly multiplied by 9/8ths – thus,720 active pixels,900 total per line, and a 54 pixel back porch. The monitor is triggered into synchronising at the higher frame rate by use of a positive-polarity VSync pulse. Depending on manufacturer, the details of active period and front/back porch widths, particularly in the horizontal domain. 640×400 @70 Hz is traditionally the video used for booting most VGA-compatible x86 personal computers which show a graphical boot screen. 640×480 @60 Hz is the default Windows graphics mode, up to Windows 2000 and it remains an option in XP and later versions via the boot menu low resolution video option and per-application compatibility mode settings. 320×200 @70 Hz is the most common mode for VGA-era PC games, using exactly the same timings as the 640×400 mode, the actual timings vary slightly from the defined standard
47.
S-Video
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S-Video is a signaling standard for standard definition video, typically 480i or 576i. By separating the black-and-white and coloring signals, it achieves better image quality than composite video, the S-video cable carries video using two synchronized signal and ground pairs, termed Y and C. Y is the signal, which carries the luminance – or black-and-white – of the picture. C is the signal, which carries the chrominance – or coloring-in – of the picture. This signal contains both the saturation and the hue of the video, the luminance signal carries horizontal and vertical sync pulses in the same way as a composite video signal. Luma is a signal carrying luminance after gamma correction, and is therefore termed Y because of the similarity to the lower-case Greek letter gamma, in composite video, the signals co-exist on different frequencies. To achieve this, the signal must be low-pass filtered, dulling the image.57 to 4.43 megahertz. It is worth noting that this difference is meaningless on home videotape systems, carrying the color information as one signal means that the color has to be encoded in some way, typically in accord with NTSC, PAL, or SECAM, depending on the applicable local standard. Also, S-Video suffers from low color resolution, NTSC S-Video color resolution is typically 120 lines horizontal, versus 250 lines horizontal for the Rec. 601-encoded signal of a DVD, or 30 lines horizontal for standard VCRs, in many European Union countries, S-Video is less common because of the dominance of SCART connectors, which are present on most existing televisions. It is possible for a player to output S-Video over SCART, but televisions SCART connectors are not necessarily wired to accept it, in this case it is sometimes possible to modify the SCART adapter cable to make it work. Game consoles sold in PAL territories usually do not output S-Video, early consoles generally came with RF adapters, and the equally uncommon composite video on the classic RCA type video jack. The Nintendo 64 was a case, Both NTSC and PAL models could output S-Video. In the US and some other NTSC countries, S-Video is provided on some equipment, including most televisions. The primary exceptions are VHS and Beta VCRs, the four-pin mini-DIN connector is the most common of several S-Video connector types. The same mini-DIN connector is used in the Apple Desktop Bus for Macintosh computers, other connector variants include seven-pin locking dub connectors used on many professional S-VHS machines, and dual Y and C BNC connectors, often used for S-Video patch panels. Early Y/C video monitors often used phono that were switchable between Y/C and composite video input, though the connectors are different, the Y/C signals for all types are compatible. The mini-DIN pins, being weak, sometimes bend and this can result in the loss of colour or other corruption in the signal
