1.
Asturian architecture
–
Pre-Romanesque architecture in Asturias is framed between the years 711 and 910, the period of the creation and expansion of the kingdom of Asturias. In the year 710, the Visigothic king Wittiza died, the young heir sought support to recover the throne, and apart from local backing, he approached the Muslim Kingdom in northern Africa. Tarik, the caliph of Damascus governor in Tangier, received permission to offer his army and disembark in Spain, ready to face the Visigothic army of King Roderic. On July 19,711, the battle of Guadalete took place near Gibraltar, tarik and his troops then took advantage of their military superiority, and marched on the Visigothic capital, Toledo, taking it almost without opposition. According to the chronicles, Asturian mercenaries, who had already been recruited by the Romans for their courage and fighting spirit, the kingdom of Asturias disappeared with King Alfonso III, who died in December of the year 910. This last aspect can be seen in such relevant works as the Cross of the Angels, the Victory Cross, the agate Box, the Reliquary in Astorga Cathedral and the Cross of Santiago. As regards its evolution, from its appearance, Asturian Pre-Romanesque followed a stylistic sequence closely associated with the political evolution. Five stages are distinguished, a first period belonging to the reigns of the kings Fáfila, Alfonso I, Fruela I, Aurelio, Silo, Mauregato, from this period, of the young kingdoms rise and consolidation, the existence of two churches have been registered. The Church of Santa Cruz at the original location, Cangas de Onís, of which we only have written references. The present-day one dates from 1950 and, like the original, is built over a barrow covering a dolmen, chronicles state that the Church of Santa Cruz was built in stone masonry, one nave with a barrel vault and a main chapel on one side. The second of these constructions is the Church of San Juan Apóstol y Evangelista, Santianes de Pravia and its construction results from the move of the royal court from Cangas de Onís to Pravia, an old Roman settlement and crossroads. It also had a single, semicircular apse, and an entrance vestibule. Several sculptural decorative elements showing floral and geometric designs, are on display in the sacristy. Alfonso II, known as the Chaste, was a king in the Asturian monarchy. Outside Asturias, with the legend of the discovery of the apostle St. James tomb in Galicia, in a known as campus stellae. When the Church of San Julián de los Prados, or Santullano, was built and it is worth noting the existence of a transept or transversal aisle located between the aisles and the sanctuary, exceeding the central nave in height. Finally, there was a sanctuary, divided into three chapels, and over the main one, only accessible from outside, there was a room whose function is still open to conjecture. As for the roof, the church had an interesting oaken ceiling carved with a variety of geometric designs, as elements outside the ground plan, there was a vestibule and two sacristies adjoining the north and south facades, communicating directly with the transept
Asturian architecture
–
St Juliàn Prados, Oviedo
Asturian architecture
–
Modern monument in memory of Pelayo in
Covadonga
Asturian architecture
–
Santianes de Pravia
Asturian architecture
–
Santullano
2.
Portugal
–
Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic, is a country on the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. It is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, to the west and south it is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean and to the east and north by Spain. The Portugal–Spain border is 1,214 kilometres long and considered the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union, the republic also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira, both autonomous regions with their own regional governments. The territory of modern Portugal has been settled, invaded. The Pre-Celts, Celts, Carthaginians and the Romans were followed by the invasions of the Visigothic, in 711 the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by the Moors, making Portugal part of Muslim Al Andalus. Portugal was born as result of the Christian Reconquista, and in 1139, Afonso Henriques was proclaimed King of Portugal, in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal established the first global empire, becoming one of the worlds major economic, political and military powers. Portugal monopolized the trade during this time, and the Portuguese Empire expanded with military campaigns led in Asia. After the 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy, the democratic but unstable Portuguese First Republic was established, democracy was restored after the Portuguese Colonial War and the Carnation Revolution in 1974. Shortly after, independence was granted to almost all its overseas territories, Portugal has left a profound cultural and architectural influence across the globe and a legacy of over 250 million Portuguese speakers today. Portugal is a country with a high-income advanced economy and a high living standard. It is the 5th most peaceful country in the world, maintaining a unitary semi-presidential republican form of government and it has the 18th highest Social Progress in the world, putting it ahead of other Western European countries like France, Spain and Italy. Portugal is a pioneer when it comes to drug decriminalization, as the nation decriminalized the possession of all drugs for use in 2001. The early history of Portugal is shared with the rest of the Iberian Peninsula located in South Western Europe, the name of Portugal derives from the joined Romano-Celtic name Portus Cale. Other influences include some 5th-century vestiges of Alan settlements, which were found in Alenquer, Coimbra, the region of present-day Portugal was inhabited by Neanderthals and then by Homo sapiens, who roamed the border-less region of the northern Iberian peninsula. These were subsistence societies that, although they did not establish prosperous settlements, neolithic Portugal experimented with domestication of herding animals, the raising of some cereal crops and fluvial or marine fishing. Chief among these tribes were the Calaicians or Gallaeci of Northern Portugal, the Lusitanians of central Portugal, the Celtici of Alentejo, a few small, semi-permanent, commercial coastal settlements were also founded in the Algarve region by Phoenicians-Carthaginians. Romans first invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 219 BC, during the last days of Julius Caesar, almost the entire peninsula had been annexed to the Roman Republic. The Carthaginians, Romes adversary in the Punic Wars, were expelled from their coastal colonies and it suffered a severe setback in 150 BC, when a rebellion began in the north
Portugal
–
Citânia de Briteiros, in the
Minho Province, is the best preserved
Iron Age and
Castro culture site in Portugal.
Portugal
–
Flag
Portugal
–
The
Roman Temple of Évora, in the
Alentejo, is a symbol of
Lusitania, Roman rule in Portugal.
Portugal
–
Monument in Porto to
Vimara Peres, first ruler of the County of Portugal
3.
Slovakia
–
Slovakia, officially the Slovak Republic, is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Austria to the west, Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east, Slovakias territory spans about 49,000 square kilometres and is mostly mountainous. The population is over 5 million and comprises mostly ethnic Slovaks, the capital and largest city is Bratislava. The Slavs arrived in the territory of present-day Slovakia in the 5th and 6th centuries, in the 7th century, they played a significant role in the creation of Samos Empire and in the 9th century established the Principality of Nitra. In the 10th century, the territory was integrated into the Kingdom of Hungary, which became part of the Habsburg Empire. After World War I and the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, a separate Slovak Republic existed in World War II as a client state of Nazi Germany. In 1945, Czechoslovakia was reëstablished under Communist rule as a Soviet satellite, in 1989 the Velvet Revolution ended authoritarian Communist rule in Czechoslovakia. Slovakia became an independent state on 1 January 1993 after the dissolution of Czechoslovakia. The country maintains a combination of economy with universal health care. The country joined the European Union in 2004 and the Eurozone on 1 January 2009, Slovakia is also a member of the Schengen Area, NATO, the United Nations, the OECD, the WTO, CERN, the OSCE, the Council of Europe and the Visegrád Group. The Slovak economy is one of the fastest growing economies in Europe and its legal tender, the Euro, is the worlds 2nd most traded currency. Although regional income inequality is high, 90% of citizens own their homes, in 2016, Slovak citizens had visa-free or visa-on-arrival access to 165 countries and territories, ranking the Slovak passport 11th in the world. Slovakia is the world’s biggest per-capita car producer with a total of 1,040,000 cars manufactured in the country in 2016 alone, the car industry represents 43 percent of Slovakia’s industrial output, and a quarter of its exports. Radiocarbon datingputs the oldest surviving archaeological artefacts from Slovakia – found near Nové Mesto nad Váhom – at 270,000 BC and these ancient tools, made by the Clactonian technique, bear witness to the ancient habitation of Slovakia. Other stone tools from the Middle Paleolithic era come from the Prévôt cave near Bojnice, the most important discovery from that era is a Neanderthal cranium, discovered near Gánovce, a village in northern Slovakia. The most well-known finds include the oldest female statue made of mammoth-bone, the statue was found in the 1940s in Moravany nad Váhom near Piešťany. Numerous necklaces made of shells from Cypraca thermophile gastropods of the Tertiary period have come from the sites of Zákovská, Podkovice, Hubina and these findings provide the most ancient evidence of commercial exchanges carried out between the Mediterranean and Central Europe. The Bronze Age in the territory of modern-day Slovakia went through three stages of development, stretching from 2000 to 800 BC
Slovakia
–
A
Venus from
Moravany nad Váhom, which dates back to 22,800 BC.
Slovakia
–
Flag
Slovakia
–
Left: A
Celtic Biatec coin Right: Five
Slovak crowns
Slovakia
–
A Roman inscription at the castle hill of
Trenčín (178–179 AD).
4.
Merovingian dynasty
–
The Merovingians were a Salian Frankish dynasty that ruled the Franks for nearly 300 years in a region known as Francia in Latin, beginning in the middle of the 5th century. Their territory largely corresponded to ancient Gaul as well as the Roman provinces of Raetia, Germania Superior and the southern part of Germania. The Merovingian dynasty was founded by Childeric I, the son of Merovech, leader of the Salian Franks, after the death of Clovis there were frequent clashes between different branches of the family, but when threatened by its neighbours the Merovingians presented a strong united front. During the final century of Merovingian rule, the kings were increasingly pushed into a ceremonial role, the Merovingian rule ended in March 752 when Pope Zachary formally deposed Childeric III. Zacharys successor, Pope Stephen II, confirmed and anointed Pepin the Short in 754, the Merovingian ruling family were sometimes referred to as the long-haired kings by contemporaries, as their long hair distinguished them among the Franks, who commonly cut their hair short. The Merovingian dynasty owes its name to the semi-legendary Merovech, leader of the Salian Franks, the victories of his son Childeric I against the Visigoths, Saxons, and Alemanni established the basis of Merovingian land. Childerics son Clovis I went on to unite most of Gaul north of the Loire under his control around 486, when he defeated Syagrius, the Roman ruler in those parts. He won the Battle of Tolbiac against the Alemanni in 496, at time, according to Gregory of Tours. He subsequently went on to defeat the Visigothic kingdom of Toulouse in the Battle of Vouillé in 507. After Cloviss death, his kingdom was partitioned among his four sons, leadership among the early Merovingians was probably based on mythical descent and alleged divine patronage, expressed in terms of continued military success. In 1906 the British Egyptologist Flinders Petrie suggested that the Marvingi recorded by Ptolemy as living near the Rhine were the ancestors of the Merovingian dynasty, upon Cloviss death in 511, the Merovingian kingdom included all of Gaul except Burgundy and all of Germania magna except Saxony. To the outside, the kingdom, even when divided under different kings, maintained unity, after the fall of the Ostrogoths, the Franks also conquered Provence. After this their borders with Italy and Visigothic Septimania remained fairly stable, internally, the kingdom was divided among Cloviss sons and later among his grandsons and frequently saw war between the different kings, who quickly allied among themselves and against one another. The death of one king created conflict between the brothers and the deceaseds sons, with differing outcomes. Later, conflicts were intensified by the personal feud around Brunhilda, however, yearly warfare often did not constitute general devastation but took on an almost ritual character, with established rules and norms. Eventually, Clotaire II in 613 reunited the entire Frankish realm under one ruler, later divisions produced the stable units of Austrasia, Neustria, Burgundy and Aquitania. The frequent wars had weakened royal power, while the aristocracy had made great gains and these concessions saw the very considerable power of the king parcelled out and retained by leading comites and duces. Very little is in fact known about the course of the 7th century due to a scarcity of sources, clotaires son Dagobert I, who sent troops to Spain and pagan Slavic territories in the east, is commonly seen as the last powerful Merovingian King
Merovingian dynasty
–
Signet ring of
Childeric I.
Monnaie de Paris.
Merovingian dynasty
–
Francia expanded from
Austrasia, established by the Merovingian dynasty.
Merovingian dynasty
–
Frankish gold
Tremissis, imitation of
Byzantine Tremissis, mid-6th century.
Merovingian dynasty
–
Coin of
Chlothar II, 584-628.
British Museum.
5.
Carolingian Renaissance
–
During this period, there was an increase of literature, writing, the arts, architecture, jurisprudence, liturgical reforms, and scriptural studies. The Carolingian Renaissance occurred mostly during the reigns of Carolingian rulers Charlemagne and it was supported by the scholars of the Carolingian court, notably Alcuin of York. Charlemagnes Admonitio generalis and Epistola de litteris colendis served as manifestos, the effects of this cultural revival were mostly limited to a small group of court literati. They also applied rational ideas to social issues for the first time in centuries, providing a common language, kenneth Clark was of the view that by means of the Carolingian Renaissance, Western civilization survived by the skin of its teeth. Instead of being a rebirth of new movements, the period was more an attempt to recreate the previous culture of the Roman Empire. In its earlier state of barbarousness, his kingdom had been touched at all by any such zeal. In our own time the thirst for knowledge is disappearing again, of even greater concern to some rulers was the fact that not all parish priests possessed the skill to read the Vulgate Bible. To address these problems, Charlemagne ordered the creation of schools in a known as the Charter of Modern Thought. A major part of his program of reform was to many of the leading scholars of the Christiandom of his day to his court. The Lombard Paul the Deacon was brought to court in 782 and remained until 787, theodulf of Orléans was a Spanish Goth who served at court from 782 to 797 when nominated as bishop of Orléans. Theodulf had been in competition over the standardization of the Vulgate with the chief among the Charlemagnes scholars. Alcuin was a Northumbrian monk and deacon who served as head of the Palace School from 782 to 796, after 796, he continued his scholarly work as abbot of St. Martins Monastery in Tours. Among those to follow Alcuin across the Channel to the Frankish court was Joseph Scottus, after this first generation of non-Frankish scholars, their Frankish pupils, such as Angilbert, would make their own mark. The later courts of Louis the Pious and Charles the Bald had similar groups of scholars, the Irish monk Dicuil attended the former court, and the more famous Irishman John Scotus Eriugena attended the latter. One of the efforts was the creation of a standardized curriculum for use at the recently created schools. Alcuin led this effort and was responsible for the writing of textbooks, creation of word lists, another contribution from this period was the development of Carolingian minuscule, a book-hand first used at the monasteries of Corbie and Tours that introduced the use of lower case letters. A standardized version of Latin was also developed that allowed for the coining of new words while retaining the grammatical rules of Classical Latin and this Medieval Latin became a common language of scholarship and allowed administrators and travelers to make themselves understood in various regions of Europe. Carolingian art spans the roughly hundred-year period from about 800–900, although brief, it was an influential period
Carolingian Renaissance
–
Carolingian minuscule, one of the products of the Carolingian Renaissance.
Carolingian Renaissance
–
Lorsch Abbey gatehouse, c. 800, an example of the Carolingian architectural style - a first, albeit isolated
classical movement in architecture.
Carolingian Renaissance
–
Alcuin (pictured center), was one of the leading scholars of the Carolingian Renaissance.
Carolingian Renaissance
–
Aachen Gospels (c. 820), an example of Carolingian
illumination.
6.
Romanesque art
–
Romanesque art is the art of Europe from approximately 1000 AD to the rise of the Gothic style in the 13th century, or later, depending on region. The preceding period is known as the Pre-Romanesque period, Romanesque art was also greatly influenced by Byzantine art, especially in painting, and by the anti-classical energy of the decoration of the Insular art of the British Isles. From these elements was forged a highly innovative and coherent style, outside Romanesque architecture, the art of the period was characterised by a very vigorous style in both sculpture and painting. In illuminated manuscripts, for which the most lavishly decorated manuscripts of the period were mostly bibles or psalters, more originality is seen, as new scenes needed to be depicted. The same applied to the capitals of columns, never more exciting than in this period, colours, which can be seen as bright in the 21st century only in stained glass and well-preserved manuscripts, tended to be very striking, and mostly primary. Stained glass became widely used, although survivals are sadly few, monasteries continued to be extremely important, especially those of the expansionist new orders of the period, the Cistercian, Cluniac, and Carthusian, which spread across Europe. No Romanesque royal palace has really survived, the lay artist was becoming a valued figure – Nicholas of Verdun seems to have been known across the continent. Most masons and goldsmiths were now lay, and lay painters such as Master Hugo seem to have been in the majority, at least of those doing the best work, the iconography of their church work was no doubt arrived at in consultation with clerical advisors. Metalwork, including decoration in enamel, became very sophisticated, many spectacular shrines made to hold relics have survived, of which the best known is the Shrine of the Three Kings at Cologne Cathedral by Nicholas of Verdun and others. The Stavelot Triptych and Reliquary of St. Maurus are other examples of Mosan enamelwork, large reliquaries and altar frontals were built around a wooden frame, but smaller caskets were all metal and enamel. A few secular pieces, such as cases, jewellery and clasps have survived. The bronze Gloucester candlestick and the font of 1108–17 now in Liège are superb examples, very different in style. The former is highly intricate and energetic, drawing on manuscript painting, while the font shows the Mosan style at its most classical and majestic. The bronze doors, a column and other fittings at Hildesheim Cathedral, the Gniezno Doors. The aquamanile, a container for water to wash with, appears to have introduced to Europe in the 11th century. Artisans often gave the pieces fantastic zoomorphic forms, surviving examples are mostly in brass, many wax impressions from impressive seals survive on charters and documents, although Romanesque coins are generally not of great aesthetic interest. Like many pieces it was partly coloured. The Lewis chessmen are well-preserved examples of small ivories, of many pieces or fragments remain from croziers, plaques, pectoral crosses
Romanesque art
–
Carving from
Maria Laach Abbey, in the
Eifel,
Rhineland.
Romanesque art
–
The "Morgan Leaf", detached from the
Winchester Bible of 1160−75. Scenes from the life of
David.
Romanesque art
–
Master of Pedret, The Virgin and Child in Majesty and the Adoration of the Magi,
apse fresco from Tredòs,
Val d'Aran,
Catalonia, c. 1100, now at
The Cloisters in
New York.
Romanesque art
–
Stavelot Triptych,
Mosan, Belgium, c. 1156–58. 48×66 cm with wings open,
Morgan Library, New York
7.
Architecture
–
Architecture is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings and other physical structures. Architectural works, in the form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements, Architecture can mean, A general term to describe buildings and other physical structures. The art and science of designing buildings and nonbuilding structures, the style of design and method of construction of buildings and other physical structures. A unifying or coherent form or structure Knowledge of art, science, technology, the design activity of the architect, from the macro-level to the micro-level. The practice of the architect, where architecture means offering or rendering services in connection with the design and construction of buildings. The earliest surviving work on the subject of architecture is De architectura. According to Vitruvius, a building should satisfy the three principles of firmitas, utilitas, venustas, commonly known by the original translation – firmness, commodity. An equivalent in modern English would be, Durability – a building should stand up robustly, utility – it should be suitable for the purposes for which it is used. Beauty – it should be aesthetically pleasing, according to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfill each of these three attributes as well as possible. Leon Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, De Re Aedificatoria, saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, for Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealised human figure, the Golden mean. The most important aspect of beauty was, therefore, an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially, Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only true Christian form of architecture. The 19th-century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his Seven Lamps of Architecture, Architecture was the art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men. That the sight of them contributes to his health, power. For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding significance and his work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way adorned. For Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional building needed string courses or rustication, but suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say, This is beautiful, le Corbusiers contemporary Ludwig Mies van der Rohe said Architecture starts when you carefully put two bricks together. The notable 19th-century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan, promoted an overriding precept to architectural design, function came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural
Architecture
–
Brunelleschi, in the building of the dome of
Florence Cathedral in the early 15th-century, not only transformed the building and the city, but also the role and status of the architect.
Architecture
–
Section of
Brunelleschi 's dome drawn by the architect
Cigoli (c. 1600)
Architecture
–
The
Parthenon,
Athens,
Greece, "the supreme example among architectural sites."
(Fletcher).
Architecture
–
The
Houses of Parliament, Westminster, master-planned by
Charles Barry, with interiors and details by A.W.N. Pugin
8.
Monumental sculpture
–
The term monumental sculpture is often used in art history and criticism, but not always consistently. It combines two concepts, one of function, and one of size, and may include an element of a more subjective concept. It is often used for all sculptures that are large, human figures that are perhaps half life-size or above would usually be considered monumental in this sense by art historians, although in contemporary art a rather larger overall scale is implied. Monumental sculpture is distinguished from small portable figurines, small metal or ivory reliefs, diptychs. It is also used of sculpture used to create or form part of a monument of some sort, the third concept that may be involved when the term is used is not specific to sculpture, as the other two essentially are. The entry for Monumental in A Dictionary of Art and Artists by Peter and Linda Murray describes it as, The most overworked word in current art history and it is not a synonym for large. For example, when Meyer Schapiro, after a chapter analysing the carved capitals at Moissac, says and it is placed above the level of the eye, and is so large as to dominate the entire entrance. It is a gigantic semi-circular relief, size is certainly the dominant part of what he means by the word, and Schapiros further comments suggest that a lack of excess of virtuousity does not form part of what he intends to convey. Nonetheless, parts of the Murrays concept are included in his meaning, in Ancient Egypt, the Great Sphinx of Giza probably dates to the 3rd millennium BC, and may be older than the Pyramids of Egypt. Some undoubtedly advanced cultures, such as the Indus Valley civilization, appear to have had no monumental sculpture at all, though producing very sophisticated figurines, the Mississippian culture seems to have progressing towards its use, with small stone figures, when it collapsed. Other cultures, such as Ancient Egypt and the Easter Island culture, when a culture ceases to produce monumental sculpture, there may be a number of reasons. The most common is societal collapse, as in Europe during the so-called Dark Ages or the Classic Maya collapse in Mesoamerica, another may be aniconism, usually religiously motivated, as followed the Muslim conquests. Monumental sculpture is used within the stoneworking and funeral trades to cover all forms of grave headstones and other funerary art. In contemporary art, however, it is used to refer to all large sculptures regardless of purpose, for example, by the Cass Sculpture Foundation, in the UK. Sculptures covered by the term in art are likely to be over two metres in at least one dimension, and sufficiently large not to need a high plinth. Many are still commissioned as public art, often for placing at outdoor sites, Schapiro, Meyer, Selected Papers, volume 2, Romanesque Art,1977, Chatto & Windus, London, ISBN 0-7011-2239-0 Contemporary monumental sculptures
Monumental sculpture
–
Romanesque portal of
Moissac Abbey; a classic example of what is meant by "monumental sculpture" in ancient and medieval art history.
Monumental sculpture
–
Medieval and Renaissance wall tombs in
Santi Giovanni e Paolo, Venice. In discussing the
Early Modern period, the term may mean specifically sculptures that are
memorials.
Monumental sculpture
–
Maya stela
Monumental sculpture
–
Elogio del Horizonte (Eulogy to the Horizon), concrete (1989), a contemporary monumental sculpture, by
Eduardo Chillida, at
Gijon, Spain
9.
Classical art
–
The rate of stylistic development between about 750 and 300 BC was remarkable by ancient standards, and in surviving works is best seen in sculpture. There were important innovations in painting, which have to be reconstructed due to the lack of original survivals of quality. The art of ancient Greece is usually divided stylistically into four periods, the Geometric, Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic. The Geometric age is dated from about 1000 BC, although in reality little is known about art in Greece during the preceding 200 years. The 7th century BC witnessed the development of the Archaic style as exemplified by the black-figure style of vase painting. From some point in the 1st century BC onwards Greco-Roman is used, in reality, there was no sharp transition from one period to another. Forms of art developed at different speeds in different parts of the Greek world, strong local traditions, and the requirements of local cults, enable historians to locate the origins even of works of art found far from their place of origin. Greek art of various kinds was widely exported, the whole period saw a generally steady increase in prosperity and trading links within the Greek world and with neighbouring cultures. The survival rate of Greek art differs starkly between media and we have huge quantities of pottery and coins, much stone sculpture, though even more Roman copies, and a few large bronze sculptures. Almost entirely missing are painting, fine metal vessels, and anything in perishable materials including wood, the stone shell of a number of temples and theatres has survived, but little of their extensive decoration. By convention, finely painted vessels of all sorts are called vases, sculptural or architectural pottery, also very often painted, are referred to as terracottas, and also survive in large quantities. In much of the literature, pottery means only painted vessels, pottery was the main form of grave goods deposited in tombs, often as funerary urns containing the cremated ashes, and was widely exported. Other colours were limited, normally to small areas of white. Within the restrictions of these techniques and other conventions, vase-painters achieved remarkable results, combining refinement. White ground technique allowed more freedom in depiction, but did not wear well and was made for burial. Conventionally, the ancient Greeks are said to have made most pottery vessels for everyday use, not for display. Most surviving pottery consists of vessels for storing, serving or drinking liquids such as amphorae, kraters, hydria, libation bowls, oil and perfume bottles for the toilet, jugs, painted vessels for serving and eating food are much less common. Painted pottery was affordable even by people, and a piece decently decorated with about five or six figures cost about two or three days wages
Classical art
–
Late Geometric
pyxis,
British Museum
Classical art
–
7th-century BC plate with
sphinx from
Rhodes,
Louvre
Classical art
–
Interior (
tondo) of a red figure
kylix, depicting
Herakles and
Athena, by Phoinix (potter) and
Douris (painter), c. 480-470 BC,
Antikensammlungen Munich
10.
Early Christian art
–
In practice identifiably Christian art only survives from the 2nd century onwards. After 550 at the latest, Christian art is classified as Byzantine and it is hard to know when distinctly Christian art began. Prior to 100, Christians may have been constrained by their position as a group from producing durable works of art. Since Christianity was largely a religion of the classes in this period, the lack of surviving art may reflect a lack of funds for patronage. The Old Testament restrictions against the production of images may also have constrained Christians from producing art. Christians may have made or purchased art with pagan iconography, but given it Christian meanings, if this happened, Christian art would not be immediately recognizable as such. Early Christianity used the artistic media as the surrounding pagan culture. These media included fresco, mosaics, sculpture, and manuscript illumination, Early Christian art not only used Roman forms, it also used Roman styles. Late classical style included a portrayal of the human body. Late classical style is seen in early Christian frescos, such as those in the Catacombs of Rome, Early Christians adapted Roman motifs and gave new meanings to what had been pagan symbols. Among the motifs adopted were the peacock, grapevines, and the Good Shepherd, Early Christians also developed their own iconography, for example, such symbols as the fish, were not borrowed from pagan iconography. The earlier period being called the Pre-Constantinian or Ante-Nicene Period and after being the period of the First seven Ecumenical Councils, the earliest surviving Christian art comes from the late 2nd to early 4th centuries on the walls of Christian tombs in the catacombs of Rome. From literary evidence, there may well have been panel icons which, initially Jesus was represented indirectly by pictogram symbols such as the Ichthys, peacock, Lamb of God, or an anchor. The image of The Good Shepherd, a youth in pastoral scenes collecting sheep, was the most common of these images. These images bear some resemblance to depictions of figures in Greco-Roman art. The almost total absence from Christian monuments of the period of persecutions of the plain, the dove is a symbol of peace and purity. It can be found with a halo or celestial light, in one of the earliest known Trinitarian images, the Throne of God as a Trinitarian image, the dove represents the Spirit. It is flying above an empty throne representing God, in the throne are a chlamys, the Chi-Rho monogram, XP, apparently first used by Constantine I, consists of the first two characters of the name Christos in Greek
Early Christian art
–
Jesus healing the bleeding woman, Roman catacombs, 300-350
Early Christian art
–
Good Shepherd from the
Catacomb of Priscilla, 250-300
Early Christian art
–
Noah praying in the Ark, from a Roman catacomb
Early Christian art
–
The
Three Youths in the Fiery Furnace (),
catacomb of Priscilla
11.
Medieval art
–
The medieval art of the Western world covers a vast scope of time and place, over 1000 years of art in Europe, and at times the Middle East and North Africa. It includes major art movements and periods, national and regional art, genres, revivals, the crafts. Art historians attempt to classify medieval art into major periods and styles, in addition each region, mostly during the period in the process of becoming nations or cultures, had its own distinct artistic style, such as Anglo-Saxon art or Norse art. Medieval art in Europe grew out of the heritage of the Roman Empire. These sources were mixed with the vigorous barbarian artistic culture of Northern Europe to produce an artistic legacy. Indeed, the history of art can be seen as the history of the interplay between the elements of classical, early Christian and barbarian art. The period ended with the self-perceived Renaissance recovery of the skills and values of art. Since a revival of interest and understanding in the 19th century it has seen as a period of enormous achievement that underlies the development of later Western art. Many regions did not regain their population levels until the 17th century. The population of Europe is estimated to have reached a low point of about 18 million in 650, doubling by 1000, in 1450 it was still only 50 million. To these figures, Northern Europe, especially Britain, contributed a lower proportion than today, and Southern Europe, including France, the increase in prosperity, for those who survived, was much less affected by the Black Death. Until about the 11th century most of Europe was short of labour, with large amounts of unused land. The medieval period saw the falling away of the invasions and incursions from outside the area that characterized the first millennium. The impression may be left by the works that almost all medieval art was religious. Most churches have been rebuilt, often times, but medieval palaces and large houses have been lost at a far greater rate. The situation is similar in most of Europe, though the 14th century Palais des Papes in Avignon survives largely intact. Paper became available in the last centuries of the period, but was extremely expensive by todays standards. Art in the Middle Ages is a subject and art historians traditionally divide it in several large-scale phases, styles or periods
Medieval art
–
Byzantine monumental Church mosaics are one of the great achievements of medieval art. These are from
Monreale in
Sicily from the late 12th century.
Medieval art
–
Romanesque carving
Medieval art
–
Detail of The Effects of Good Government, a
fresco in the
City Hall of Siena by
Ambrogio Lorenzetti, 1338.
Medieval art
–
Scenes of
courtly love on a lady's
ivory mirror-case. Paris, 1300–1330.
12.
Migration Period art
–
Migration Period art denotes the artwork of the Germanic peoples during the Migration period. It includes the Migration art of the Germanic tribes on the continent, as well the start of the Insular art or Hiberno-Saxon art of the Anglo-Saxon and Celtic fusion in Britain and it covers many different styles of art including the polychrome style and the animal style. By the close of the 6th century the Western Roman Empire was almost completely replaced with smaller less politically organized, although these kingdoms were never homogeneous, they shared certain common cultural features. They settled in their new lands and become farmers and fishermen, the surviving art of the Germanic peoples is almost entirely personal adornment, portable, and before conversion to Christianity was buried with its owner. Much art in materials has no doubt not survived. The polychrome style originated with the Goths who had settled in the Black Sea area, the animal style was found in Scandinavia, north Germany and England. During the 2nd century the Goths of southern Russia discovered a taste for gold figurines. This style was borrowed from Scythians and the Sarmatians, had some Greco-Roman influences, perhaps the most famous examples are found in the fourth-century Pietroasele treasure, which includes a great gold eagle brooch. The Goths carried this style to Italy, southern France and Spain, one well known example is the Ostrogothic eagle Fibula_ from Cesena, Italy, now at the museum in Nuremberg. Another is the Visigothic polychrome votive crown of Recceswinth, King of Toledo, the popularity of the style can be attested to by the discovery of a polychrome sword in the tomb of Frankish king Childeric I, well north of the Alps. The study of Northern European, or Germanic, zoomorphic decoration was pioneered by Bernhard Salin in a work published in 1904 and he classified animal art of the period roughly from 400 to 900 into three phases, Styles I, II and III. The first two styles are very widely across Europe in the art of the barbarian peoples of the Migration Period. First appears in northwest Europe, it became a new style with the introduction of the chip carving technique applied to bronze. It is characterized by animals whose bodies are divided into sections, after about 560-570 Style I was in decline and Salins Style II began to replace it. The animal becomes subsumed into ornamental patterns, typically using interlace, thus two bears are facing each other in perfect symmetry, forming the shape of a heart. Examples of Style II can be found on the gold purse lid, after about 700 localised styles develop, and it is no longer very useful to talk of a general Germanic style. Salin Style III is found mainly in Scandinavia, and may also be called Viking art, Byzantine enameling highly influenced Migration period metalwork. The Church in the early Migration period emerged as the only force in Europe after the collapse of the Roman Empire
Migration Period art
–
Shoulder-clasps from the 7th century
Anglo-Saxon ship burial at
Sutton Hoo.
Alternate view.
British Museum.
Migration Period art
–
Germanic
fibulae, early 5th century
Migration Period art
–
Purse lid from
Sutton Hoo, c. 625
Migration Period art
–
Tara Brooch, front view, early 8th century.
13.
Insular art
–
Insular art, also known as Hiberno-Saxon art, is the style of art produced in the post-Roman history of Ireland and Britain. The term derives from insula, the Latin term for island, in this period Britain, most Insular art originates from the Irish monastic movement or metalwork for the secular elite, and the period begins around 600 with the combining Celtic and Anglo-Saxon styles. One major distinctive feature is interlace decoration, applied to decorating new types of objects mostly copied from the Mediterranean world, above all the codex or book. The finest period of the style was brought to an end by the disruption to monastic centres and these are presumed to have interrupted work on the Book of Kells, and no later Gospel books are as heavily or finely illuminated as the masterpieces of the 8th century. In England the style merged into Anglo-Saxon art around 900, whilst in Ireland the style continued until the 12th century, the influence of insular art affected all subsequent European medieval art, especially in the decorative elements of Romanesque and Gothic manuscripts. Surviving examples of Insular art are mainly illuminated manuscripts, metalwork and carvings in stone, surfaces are highly decorated with intricate patterning, with no attempt to give an impression of depth, volume or recession. The best examples include the Book of Kells, Lindisfarne Gospels, Book of Durrow, brooches such as the Tara Brooch, carpet pages are a characteristic feature of Insular manuscripts, although historiated initials, canon tables and figurative miniatures, especially Evangelist portraits, are also common. The term was derived from its use for Insular script, first cited by the OED in 1908, the Insular style is most famous for its highly dense, intricate and imaginative decoration, which takes elements from several earlier styles. From the Iron Age came the style called late Celtic art or Ultimate La Tène, there is no attempt to represent depth in manuscript painting, with all the emphasis on a brilliantly patterned surface. The origins of the format of the carpet page have often been related to Roman floor mosaics, Coptic carpets and manuscript paintings. Across all the society was effectively entirely rural, buildings were rudimentary. Especially in Ireland, clerical and secular elites were very closely linked. Ireland was divided into numerous, generally small kingdoms, while in Britain there was a number of generally larger kingdoms. The elites of all the peoples had long traditions of metalwork of the finest quality. The Insular style arises from the meeting of their two styles, Celtic and Anglo-Saxon animal style, in a Christian context, and with awareness of Late Antique style. This was especially so in their application to the book, which was a new type of object for both traditions, as well as to metalwork, the role of the Kingdom of Northumbria in the formation of the new style appears to have been pivotal. The Irish monastery at Iona was established by Saint Columba in 563, christianity discouraged the burial of grave goods so that, at least from the Anglo-Saxons, we have a larger number of pre-Christian survivals than those from later periods. The majority of examples survive from the Christian period have been found in archaeological contexts that suggest they were rapidly hidden
Insular art
–
This page (folio 292r) of the
Book of Kells contains the lavishly decorated text that opens the
Gospel of John.
Insular art
–
David from the
Durham Cassiodorus, early 8th century,?Jarrow.
Insular art
–
One of hundreds of small initials from the Book of Kells
Insular art
–
Early Anglo-Saxon shoulder-clasps from
Sutton Hoo, early 7th century. Gold, garnet, and
millefiori glass.
14.
Merovingian art and architecture
–
Merovingian art is the art of the Merovingian dynasty of the Franks, which lasted from the 5th century to the 8th century in present-day France, Benelux and a part of Germany. The advent of the Merovingian dynasty in Gaul in the 5th century led to important changes in the field of arts, sculpture regressed to be little more than a simple technique for the ornamentation of sarcophagi, altars and ecclesiastical furniture. Plans often continued the Roman basilica tradition, but also influences from as far away as Syria and Armenia. In the East, most structures were in timber, but stone was more common for significant buildings in the West, most major churches have been rebuilt, usually more than once, but many Merovingian plans have been reconstructed from archaeology. There are no Roman precedents for this Frankish innovation, the Saint Peters church in Vienne is the only surviving one. A number of buildings, now lost, including the Merovingian foundations of Saint-Denis, St. Gereon in Cologne. Some small buildings remain, especially baptistries, which out of fashion and were spared rebuilding. In Aix-en-Provence, Riez and Fréjus, three octagonal baptistries, each covered with a cupola on pillars, are testimony to the influence of oriental architecture. Very different from these Provençal baptistries, except for the one of Venasque. The original building has undergone a number of alterations but preserves in its decoration a Merovingian character. Among the very many crypts, numerous due to the importance of the cult of saints at the time, only those of St. Seurin, Bordeaux, St. Laurent, Grenoble, and the abbey of Jouarre survive. Merovingian masons also employed the opus gallicum extensively and are responsible for bringing it to England and bequeathing it to the Normans, the principal centres were the Abbey of Luxeuil, an Irish foundation, and later its daughter house at Corbie Abbey. A large Merovingian art collection in Berlin was taken by Soviet Occupiers to Russia, migration Period art Merovingian script Merovingian dynasty European Commission, Raphaël Programme. The Normans, a European people, The Norman heritage, 10th – 12th century, architectural Heritage, Italy — the Molise §8 Fortifications and castles, Fortifications — The opus gallicum in the fortifications. The Art Bulletin, Vol.47, No.1, lives of the Holy Abbots of Wearmouth and Jarrow
Merovingian art and architecture
–
Baptistery of cathedral Saint-Léonce of
Fréjus
Merovingian art and architecture
–
Baptistery Saint-Sauveur of Aix-en-Provence
Merovingian art and architecture
–
A gold
chalice from the
Treasure of Gourdon.
Merovingian art and architecture
–
Baptistery Saint-Jean of Poitiers
15.
Roman architecture
–
Ancient Roman architecture adopted the external language of classical Greek architecture for the purposes of the ancient Romans, but differed from Greek buildings, becoming a new architectural style. The two styles are considered one body of classical architecture. Roman architecture flourished in the Roman Republic and even more so under the Empire and it used new materials, particularly concrete, and newer technologies such as the arch and the dome to make buildings that were typically strong and well-engineered. Large numbers remain in some form across the empire, sometimes complete, Roman Architecture covers the period from the establishment of the Roman Republic in 509 BC to about the 4th century AD, after which it becomes reclassified as Late Antique or Byzantine architecture. Almost no substantial examples survive from before about 100 BC, and most of the major survivals are from the later empire, after about 100 AD. They moved from trabeated construction mostly based on columns and lintels to one based on walls, punctuated by arches. The classical orders now became largely decorative rather than structural, except in colonnades, however, they did not feel entirely restricted by Greek aesthetic concerns, and treated the orders with considerable freedom. Innovation started in the 3rd or 2nd century BC with the development of Roman concrete as a readily available adjunct to, or substitute for, stone, more daring buildings soon followed, with great pillars supporting broad arches and domes. The freedom of concrete also inspired the colonnade screen, a row of decorative columns in front of a load-bearing wall. In smaller-scale architecture, concretes strength freed the floor plan from rectangular cells to a more free-flowing environment, factors such as wealth and high population densities in cities forced the ancient Romans to discover new architectural solutions of their own. The use of vaults and arches, together with a knowledge of building materials. Examples include the aqueducts of Rome, the Baths of Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla and these were reproduced at a smaller scale in most important towns and cities in the Empire. Some surviving structures are almost complete, such as the walls of Lugo in Hispania Tarraconensis. The administrative structure and wealth of the empire made possible very large even in locations remote from the main centres, as did the use of slave labour. Especially under the empire, architecture often served a function, demonstrating the power of the Roman state in general. The influence is evident in many ways, for example, in the introduction and use of the Triclinium in Roman villas as a place, Roman builders employed Greeks in many capacities, especially in the great boom in construction in the early Empire. The Roman Architectural Revolution, also known as the Concrete Revolution, was the use in Roman architecture of the previously little-used architectural forms of the arch, vault. For the first time in history, their potential was fully exploited in the construction of a range of civil engineering structures, public buildings
Roman architecture
–
The
Colosseum in Rome, Italy
Roman architecture
–
An area at the
Ostia Antica archaeological site: at one time, shops were located here
Roman architecture
–
The Roman
Pantheon was the
largest dome in the world for more than a millennium. It is the largest unreinforced solid concrete dome to this day
Roman architecture
–
Dome of the
Pantheon, inner view
16.
Franks
–
Some Franks raided Roman territory, while other Frankish tribes joined the Roman troops of Gaul. In later times, Franks became the rulers of the northern part of Roman Gaul. The Salian Franks lived on Roman-held soil between the Rhine, Scheldt, Meuse, and Somme rivers in what is now Northern France, Belgium, the kingdom was acknowledged by the Romans after 357 CE. Following the collapse of Rome in the West, the Frankish tribes were united under the Merovingians, who succeeded in conquering most of Gaul in the 6th century, which greatly increased their power. The Merovingian dynasty, descendants of the Salians, founded one of the Germanic monarchies that would absorb large parts of the Western Roman Empire, the Frankish state consolidated its hold over the majority of western Europe by the end of the 8th century, developing into the Carolingian Empire. This empire would gradually evolve into the state of France and the Holy Roman Empire, in the Middle Ages, the term Frank was used in the east as a synonym for western European, as the Franks were then rulers of most of Western Europe. The Franks in the east kept their Germanic language and became part of the Germans, Dutch, Flemings, the Franconian languages, which are called Frankisch in Dutch or Fränkisch in German, originated at least partly in the Old Frankish language of the Franks. Nowadays, the German and Dutch names for France are Frankreich and Frankrijk, respectively, the name Franci was originally socio-political. To the Romans, Celts, and Suebi, the Franks must have seemed alike, they looked the same and spoke the same language, so that Franci became the name by which the people were known. Within a few centuries it had eclipsed the names of the tribes, though the older names have survived in some place-names, such as Hesse. Following the precedents of Edward Gibbon and Jacob Grimm, the name of the Franks has been linked with the word frank in English and it has been suggested that the meaning of free was adopted because, after the conquest of Gaul, only Franks were free of taxation. It is traditionally assumed that Frank comes from the Germanic word for javelin, there is also another theory that suggests that Frank comes from the Latin word francisca meaning. Words in other Germanic languages meaning fierce, bold or insolent, eumenius addressed the Franks in the matter of the execution of Frankish prisoners in the circus at Trier by Constantine I in 306 and certain other measures, Ubi nunc est illa ferocia. Feroces was used often to describe the Franks, contemporary definitions of Frankish ethnicity vary both by period and point of view. According to their law and their custom, writing in 2009, Professor Christopher Wickham pointed out that the word Frankish quickly ceased to have an exclusive ethnic connotation. North of the River Loire everyone seems to have considered a Frank by the mid-7th century at the latest. Two early sources describe the origin of the Franks are a 7th-century work known as the Chronicle of Fredegar. Neither of these works are accepted by historians as trustworthy, compared with Gregory of Tourss Historia Francorum, the chronicle describes Priam as a Frankish king whose people migrated to Macedonia after the fall of Troy
Franks
–
Aristocratic Frankish grave goods from the Merovingian period
Franks
–
A 19th century depiction of different Franks (AD 400–600)
Franks
–
Detail of the
Tabula Peutingeriana, showing Francia at the top
Franks
–
A 6th-7th century necklace of glass and ceramic beads with a central amethyst bead. Similar necklaces have been found in the graves of Frankish women in the Rhineland.
17.
Clovis I
–
He is considered to have been the founder of the Merovingian dynasty, which ruled the Frankish kingdom for the next two centuries. Clovis was the son of Childeric I, a Merovingian king of the Salian Franks, and Basina, in 481, at the age of fifteen, Clovis succeeded his father. Clovis is important in the historiography of France as the first king of what would become France and his name is Germanic, composed of the elements hlod and wig, and is the origin of the later French given name Louis, borne by 18 kings of France. Dutch, the most closely related language to Frankish, reborrowed the name as Lodewijk from German in the 12th century. Clovis was baptized on Christmas Day in 508, numerous small Frankish kingdoms existed during the 5th century. After the collapse of Roman power in the last days of 406 the Salian Franks had expanded to the south of the military highway Boulogne-Cologne. The powerbase of Clovis father was the area around Tournai, in the current province of Hainault, upon the death of his father, Merovech in 457 Childeric I, Clovis father, became king of the subgroup of the Salian Franks based around Tournai. In 463 he fought in conjunction with Aegidius, the magister militum of northern Gaul, Childeric died in 481 and was buried in Tournai, Clovis succeeded him as king, aged just 15. Under Clovis, the Salian Franks came to dominate their neighbours, historians believe that Childeric and Clovis were both commanders of the Roman military in the Province of Belgica Secunda and were subordinate to the magister militum. Clovis then had the Frankish king Chararic imprisoned and executed, a few years later, he killed Ragnachar, the Frankish king of Cambrai, along with his brothers. Another victory followed in 491 over a group of Thuringians to the east. By this time Clovis had conquered all the Frankish kingdoms to the west of the River Maas and he secured an alliance with the Ostrogoths through the marriage of his sister Audofleda to their king, Theodoric the Great. With the help of the Ripuarian Franks he narrowly defeated the Alamanni in the Battle of Tolbiac in 496 and he made Paris his capital and established an abbey dedicated to Saints Peter and Paul on the south bank of the Seine. In 500 Clovis fought a battle with the Burgundian kingdom at Dijon but was unable to subdue them, the battle added most of Aquitaine to Clovis kingdom and resulted in the death of the Visigothic king Alaric II. According to Gregory of Tours, following the Battle of Vouillé, since Clovis name does not appear in the consular lists, it is likely he was granted a suffect consulship. Clovis became the first king of all Franks in 508, after he had conquered Cologne and this contrasted with Catholicism, whose followers believe that God the Father, Jesus and the Holy Spirit are three persons of one being. By the time of the ascension of Clovis, Gothic Arians dominated Christian Gaul and this included his wife, Clotilde, a Burgundian princess who was a Catholic in spite of the Arianism that surrounded her at court. Clotilde evangelized Clovis to convert to Catholicism, which he initially resisted, Clotilde had wanted her son to be baptized, but Clovis refused to allow it, so Clotilde had the child baptized without Cloviss knowledge
Clovis I
–
Clovis roi des Francs by
François-Louis Dejuinne (1786–1844)
Clovis I
–
Clovis I leading the Franks to victory in the
Battle of Tolbiac, in
Ary Scheffer 's 19th-century painting
Clovis I
–
Frankish territories at the time of Clovis' death
Clovis I
–
Tomb of Clovis I at the
Basilica of St Denis in
Saint Denis
18.
Loire
–
The Loire is the longest river in France. With a length of 1,012 kilometres, it drains an area of 117,054 km2, or more than a fifth of Frances land area, and is the 171st longest river in the world. Its main tributaries include the rivers Nièvre, Maine and the Erdre on its bank, and the rivers Allier, Cher, Indre, Vienne. The Loire gives its name to six departments, Loire, Haute-Loire, Loire-Atlantique, Indre-et-Loire, Maine-et-Loire, the central part of the Loire Valley, located in the Centre-Val de Loire region, was added to the World Heritage Sites list of UNESCO on December 2,2000. Vineyards and chateaux are found along the banks of the river throughout this area, gallic rule ended in the valley in 56 BC when Julius Caesar conquered the adjacent provinces for Rome. Christianity was introduced into this valley from the 3rd century AD, as missionaries, in this period, settlers established vineyards and began producing wines. They were originally created as feudal strongholds, over centuries past, the name Loire comes from Latin Liger, which is itself a transcription of the native Gaulish name of the river. The Gaulish name comes from the Gaulish word liga, which means silt, sediment, deposit, alluvium, a word that gave French lie, as in sur lie, which in turn gave English lees. Liga comes from the Proto-Indo-European root *legʰ-, meaning to lie, lay as in the Welsh word Lleyg which gave many words in English, such as to lie, to lay, ledge, law, etc. At a certain point during the history of uplift in the Paris Basin. The former bed of the Loire séquanaise is occupied by the Loing, the Loire Valley has been inhabited since the Middle Palaeolithic period from 40–90 ka. Neanderthal man used stone tools to fashion boats out of tree trunks, modern man inhabited the Loire valley around 30 ka. By around 5000 to 4000 BC, they began clearing forests along the edges and cultivating the lands. They built megaliths to worship the dead, especially from around 3500 BC, the Gauls arrived in the valley between 1500 and 500 BC, and the Carnutes settled in Cenabum in what is now Orléans and built a bridge over the river. By 600 BC the Loire had already become an important trading route between the Celts and the Greeks. A key transportation route, it served as one of the highways of France for over 2000 years. The Phoenicians and Greeks had used pack horses to transport goods from Lyon to the Loire to get from the Mediterranean basin to the Atlantic coast, during the Roman period, they successfully subdued the Gauls in 52 BC and began developing Cenabum, which they named Aurelianis. They also began building the city of Caesarodunum, now Tours, the Romans used the Loire as far as Roanne, around 150 km downriver from the source
Loire
–
River Loire in Maine-et-Loire
Loire
–
Map of France with the Loire highlighted
Loire
–
The Loire as it flows through
Blois.
Loire
–
The Vikings invading in 879
19.
St Columbanus
–
He is remembered as a key figure in the Hiberno-Scottish mission, or Irish missionary activity in early medieval Europe. Columbanus is one of the earliest identifiable Hiberno-Latin writers, most of what we know about Columbanus is based on Columbanus own works and Jonas of Bobbios Vita Columbani, which was written between 639 and 641. Jonas entered Bobbio after Columbanus death but relied on reports of monks who still knew Columbanus, a description of miracles of Columbanus written by an anonymous monk of Bobbio is of much later date. In the second volume of his Acta Sanctorum O. S. B, mabillon gives the life in full, together with an appendix on the miracles of the saint, written by an anonymous member of the Bobbio community. Columbanus was born in the Kingdom of Meath, now part of Leinster, in Ireland in 543, the year Saint Benedict died at Monte Cassino. Prior to his birth, his mother was said to have had visions of bearing a child who, in the judgement of those interpreting the visions, Columbanus was well-educated in the areas of grammar, rhetoric, geometry, and the Holy Scriptures. Columbanus left home to study under Sinell, Abbot of Cluaninis in Lough Erne, under Sinells instruction, Columbanus composed a commentary on the Psalms. He then moved to Bangor Abbey on the coast of Down and he stayed at Bangor until his fortieth year, when he received Comgalls permission to travel to the continent. After a brief stop in Britain, most likely on the Scottish coast, they crossed the channel, at Saint-Malo in Brittany, there is a granite cross bearing the saints name to which people once came to pray for rain in times of drought. The nearby village of Saint-Coulomb commemorates him in name, Columbanus and his companions were received with favour by King Gontram of Burgundy, and soon they made their way to Annegray, where they founded a monastery in an abandoned Roman fortress. In 590, Columbanus obtained from King Gontram the Gallo-Roman castle called Luxovium in present-day Luxeuil-les-Bains, the castle, soon transformed into a monastery, was located in a wild region, thickly covered with pine forests and brushwood. Columbanus erected a monastery called Ad-fontanas at present-day Fontaine-lès-Luxeuil, named for its numerous springs. These monastic communities remained under Columbanus authority, and their rules of life reflected the Irish tradition in which he had been formed. As these communities expanded and drew more pilgrims, Columbanus sought greater solitude, spending periods of time in a hermitage, often he would withdraw to a cave seven miles away, with a single companion who acted as messenger between himself and his companions. During his twenty years in Gaul, Columbanus became involved in a dispute with the Frankish bishops who may have feared his growing influence, during the first half of the sixth century, the councils of Gaul had given to bishops absolute authority over religious communities. The bishops objected to the continued observance of their own dating, which—among other issues—caused the end of Lent to differ. They also complained about the distinct Irish tonsure, in 602, the bishops assembled to judge Columbanus, but he did not appear before them as requested. In defence of his following his traditional paschal cycle, he wrote, I came as a poor stranger into these parts for the cause of Christ, Our Saviour
St Columbanus
–
Saint Columbanus, stained glass window,
Bobbio Abbey crypt
St Columbanus
–
Stone bridge over the Tebbia river leading to
Bobbio Abbey in northern Italy
St Columbanus
–
Fresco of Saint Columbanus in
Brugnato Cathedral
20.
Bishop
–
A bishop is an ordained, consecrated, or appointed member of the Christian clergy who is generally entrusted with a position of authority and oversight. Within these churches, bishops are seen as those who possess the full priesthood, Some Protestant churches including the Lutheran and Methodist churches have bishops serving similar functions as well, though not always understood to be within apostolic succession in the same way. Priests, deacons and lay ministers cooperate and assist their bishop in shepherding a flock, the earliest organization of the Church in Jerusalem was, according to most scholars, similar to that of Jewish synagogues, but it had a council or college of ordained presbyters. In, we see a system of government in Jerusalem chaired by James the Just. In, the Apostle Paul ordains presbyters in churches in Anatolia, in Timothy and Titus in the New Testament a more clearly defined episcopate can be seen. We are told that Paul had left Timothy in Ephesus and Titus in Crete to oversee the local church, Paul commands Titus to ordain presbyters/bishops and to exercise general oversight, telling him to rebuke with all authority. Early sources are unclear but various groups of Christian communities may have had the bishop surrounded by a group or college functioning as leaders of the local churches, eventually, as Christendom grew, bishops no longer directly served individual congregations. Instead, the Metropolitan bishop appointed priests to each congregation. Around the end of the 1st century, the organization became clearer in historical documents. While Ignatius of Antioch offers the earliest clear description of monarchial bishops he is an advocate of monepiscopal structure rather than describing an accepted reality. To the bishops and house churches to which he writes, he offers strategies on how to pressure house churches who dont recognize the bishop into compliance. Other contemporary Christian writers do not describe monarchial bishops, either continuing to equate them with the presbyters or speaking of episkopoi in a city, plainly therefore we ought to regard the bishop as the Lord Himself — Epistle of Ignatius to the Ephesians 6,1. Your godly bishop — Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 2,1, therefore as the Lord did nothing without the Father, either by Himself or by the Apostles, so neither do ye anything without the bishop and the presbyters. — Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 7,1. Be obedient to the bishop and to one another, as Jesus Christ was to the Father, and as the Apostles were to Christ and to the Father, — Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 13,2. Apart from these there is not even the name of a church, — Epistle of Ignatius to the Trallesians 3,1. Follow your bishop, as Jesus Christ followed the Father, and the presbytery as the Apostles, and to the deacons pay respect, as to Gods commandment — Epistle of Ignatius to the Smyrnans 8,1. He that honoureth the bishop is honoured of God, he that doeth aught without the knowledge of the bishop rendereth service to the devil — Epistle of Ignatius to the Smyrnans 9,1
Bishop
–
A 6th-century image of
Saint Augustine, bishop of
Hippo Regius.
Bishop
–
Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, student of
John the Apostle
Bishop
–
A bishop with other officials on an 11th-century grave in
Sweden.
Bishop
–
Johann Otto von Gemmingen,
Prince-Bishop of Augsburg
21.
Gregory of Tours
–
Saint Gregory of Tours was a Gallo-Roman historian and Bishop of Tours, which made him a leading prelate of Gaul. He was born Georgius Florentius and later added the name Gregorius in honour of his maternal great-grandfather and he is the primary contemporary source for Merovingian history. St. Martins tomb was a pilgrimage destination in the 6th century. Gregory was born in Clermont, in the Auvergne region of central Gaul, Gregory had several noted bishops and saints as close relatives, and, according to Gregory, he was connected to thirteen of the eighteen bishops of Tours preceding him by ties of kinship. Gregorys paternal grandmother, Leocadia, descended from Vettius Epagatus, the martyr of Lyons. His father evidently died while Gregory was young and his mother moved to Burgundy where she had property. Gregory went to live with his paternal uncle St. Gallus, Bishop of Clermont), under whom, Gregory also received the clerical tonsure from Gallus. Having contracted an illness, he made a visit of devotion to the tomb of St. Martin at Tours. Upon his recovery, he began to pursue a career and was ordained deacon by Avitus. Upon the death of St. Euphronius, he was chosen as Bishop by the clergy and people, who had been charmed with his piety, learning and he spent most of his career at Tours, although he assisted at the council of Paris in 577. The rough world he lived in was on the cusp of the world of Antiquity. Gregory lived also on the border between the Frankish culture of the Merovingians to the north and the Gallo-Roman culture of the south of Gaul, at Tours, Gregory could not have been better placed to hear everything and meet everyone of influence in Merovingian culture. Tours lay on the highway of the navigable Loire. Five Roman roads radiated from Tours, which lay on the thoroughfare between the Frankish north and Aquitania, with Spain beyond. At Tours the Frankish influences of the north and the Gallo-Roman influences of the south had their chief contact, Gregory struggled through personal relations with four Frankish kings, Sigebert I, Chilperic I, Guntram, and Childebert II and he personally knew most of the leading Franks. Gregory wrote in Late Latin which departed from classical usage frequently in syntax, the Historia Francorum is in ten books. At this date Gregory had been bishop of Tours for two years, the second part, books V and VI, closes with Chilperic Is death in 584. During the years that Chilperic held Tours, relations between him and Gregory were tense, after hearing rumours that the Bishop of Tours had slandered his wife, Fredegund, Chilperic had Gregory arrested and tried for treason—a charge which threatened both Gregorys bishopric and his life
Gregory of Tours
–
Saint Gregory of Tours, 19th century statue by Jean Marcellin, in the
Louvre
Gregory of Tours
–
Early Merovingian Gaul
Gregory of Tours
–
Frontispice of Historia Francorum.
Gregory of Tours
–
St. Gregory and King
Chilperic I, from the Grandes Chroniques de France de Charles V, 14th century illumination.
22.
Tours
–
Tours is a city located in the centre-west of France. It is the centre of the Indre-et-Loire department and the largest city in the Centre-Val de Loire region of France. In 2012, the city of Tours had 134,978 inhabitants, Tours stands on the lower reaches of the River Loire, between Orléans and the Atlantic coast. The surrounding district, the province of Touraine, is known for its wines, for the alleged perfection of its local spoken French. The city is also the end-point of the annual Paris–Tours cycle race, in Gallic times the city was important as a crossing point of the Loire. Becoming part of the Roman Empire during the 1st century AD, the name evolved in the 4th century when the original Gallic name, Turones, became first Civitas Turonum then Tours. It was at time that the amphitheatre of Tours, one of the five largest amphitheatres of the Empire, was built. Tours became the metropolis of the Roman province of Lugdunum towards 380–388, dominating the Loire Valley, Maine, one of the outstanding figures of the history of the city was Saint Martin, second bishop who shared his coat with a naked beggar in Amiens. This incident and the importance of Martin in the medieval Christian West made Tours, and its position on the route of pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela, a major centre during the Middle Ages. In the 6th century Gregory of Tours, author of the Ten Books of History, in the 9th century, Tours was at the heart of the Carolingian Rebirth, in particular because of Alcuin abbot of Marmoutier. The outcome was defeat for the Muslims, preventing France from Islamic conquest, in 845, Tours repulsed the first attack of the Viking chief Hasting. In 850, the Vikings settled at the mouths of the Seine, still led by Hasting, they went up the Loire again in 852 and sacked Angers, Tours and the abbey of Marmoutier. During the Middle Ages, Tours consisted of two juxtaposed and competing centres, in the west, the new city structured around the Abbey of Saint Martin was freed from the control of the City during the 10th century and became Châteauneuf. This space, organized between Saint Martin and the Loire, became the centre of Tours. Between these two centres remained Varennes, vineyards and fields, little occupied except for the Abbaye Saint-Julien established on the banks of the Loire, the two centres were linked during the 14th century. Tours became the capital of the county of Tours or Touraine and it was the capital of France at the time of Louis XI, who had settled in the castle of Montils, Tours and Touraine remained until the 16th century a permanent residence of the kings and court. The rebirth gave Tours and Touraine many private mansions and castles and it is also at the time of Louis XI that the silk industry was introduced – despite difficulties, the industry still survives to this day. At this time, the Catholics returned to power in Angers, the Massacre of Saint-Barthelemy was not repeated at Tours
Tours
–
Town hall and Place Jean Jaurès
Tours
–
Place Plumereau, Medieval buildings
Tours
–
Tours Cathedral: 15th-century
Flamboyant Gothic west front with Renaissance pinnacles, completed 1547.
Tours
–
Place Jean Jaurès
23.
Saint Perpetuus
–
Saint Perpetuus was the sixth Bishop of Tours, from 460 to 490. He succeeded his relative, probably an uncle, Eustochius, and was succeeded by another close relative, born of a senatorial family, he became bishop of Tours around 460. It is said of him that he dedicated the revenues of his estates to the relief of those in need. He maintained a careful surveillance over the conduct of the clergy of his diocese, and mention is made of priests who were removed from their office because they had proved unworthy. He built monasteries and various churches, but above all he desired to replace by a beautiful basilica the little chapel that Saint Britius had constructed, to protect the tomb of St. Martin of Tours. He is noted for his veneration for St. Martin. St. Gregory of Tours states that Perpetuus decreed that all of the members of his diocese should fast on Wednesdays and Fridays and he set aside several Mondays as fasts as well, especially in the period of the Christian year that became Advent. These fasts were still being celebrated in the 7th century, the will of St. Perpetuus was published for the first time in 1661 by Dom Luc dAchery in his Spicilegium. St. Perpetuus left them all pastures, groves, vineyards, houses, gardens, water-mills, gold, silver, ^ His death is also given as April 8,491. Saint Patricks Saint Index, April 8 - St. Perpetuus Catholic Encyclopedia, St. Perpetuus
Saint Perpetuus
–
Saint Perpetuus
24.
Carolingian dynasty
–
The Carolingian dynasty was a Frankish noble family with origins in the Arnulfing and Pippinid clans of the 7th century AD. The name Carolingian derives from the Latinised name of Charles Martel, the Carolingian dynasty reached its peak in 800 with the crowning of Charlemagne as the first Emperor of Romans in over three centuries. His death in 814 began a period of fragmentation of the Carolingian empire and decline that would eventually lead to the evolution of the Kingdom of France. This picture, however, is not commonly accepted today, the greatest Carolingian monarch was Charlemagne, who was crowned Emperor by Pope Leo III at Rome in 800. His empire, ostensibly a continuation of the Western Roman Empire, is referred to historiographically as the Carolingian Empire, the Carolingian rulers did not give up the traditional Frankish practice of dividing inheritances among heirs, though the concept of the indivisibility of the Empire was also accepted. The Carolingians had the practice of making their sons kings in the various regions of the Empire. The Carolingians were displaced in most of the regna of the Empire by 888 and they ruled in East Francia until 911 and held the throne of West Francia intermittently until 987. One chronicler of Sens dates the end of Carolingian rule with the coronation of Robert II of France as junior co-ruler with his father, Hugh Capet, the dynasty became extinct in the male line with the death of Eudes, Count of Vermandois. His sister Adelaide, the last Carolingian, died in 1122, the Carolingian dynasty has five distinct branches, The Lombard branch, or Vermandois branch, or Herbertians, descended from Pepin of Italy, son of Charlemagne. Though he did not outlive his father, his son Bernard was allowed to retain Italy, Bernard rebelled against his uncle Louis the Pious, and lost both his kingdom and his life. Deprived of the title, the members of this branch settled in France. The counts of Vermandois perpetuated the Carolingian line until the 12th century, the Counts of Chiny and the lords of Mellier, Neufchâteau and Falkenstein are branches of the Herbertians. With the descendants of the counts of Chiny, there would have been Herbertian Carolingians to the early 14th century, the Lotharingian branch, descended from Emperor Lothair, eldest son of Louis the Pious. At his death Middle Francia was divided equally between his three surviving sons, into Italy, Lotharingia and Lower Burgundy, the sons of Emperor Lothair did not have sons of their own, so Middle Francia was divided between the western and eastern branches of the family in 875. The Aquitainian branch, descended from Pepin of Aquitaine, son of Louis the Pious, since he did not outlive his father, his sons were deprived of Aquitaine in favor of his younger brother Charles the Bald. The German branch, descended from Louis the German, King of East Francia, since he had three sons, his lands were divided into Duchy of Bavaria, Duchy of Saxony and Duchy of Swabia. His youngest son Charles the Fat briefly reunited both East and West Francia — the entirety of the Carolingian empire — but it again after his death. With the failure of the lines of the German branch, Arnulf of Carinthia
Carolingian dynasty
–
A Carolingian family tree, from the Chronicon Universale of
Ekkehard of Aura, 12th century
Carolingian dynasty
–
Carolingian denier of
Lothair I, struck in
Dorestad (
Middle Francia) after 850.
Carolingian dynasty
–
Carloman, son
Carolingian dynasty
–
Pepin, son
25.
Ottonian architecture
–
Ottonian Architecture is an architectural style which evolved during the reign of Emperor Otto the Great. The style was found in Germany and lasted from the mid 10th century until the mid 11th century, Ottonian architecture draws its inspiration from Carolingian and Byzantine architecture. Inspiration though from the Roman basilica remains concurrent, and Ottonian architecture preserves the Carolingian double ended feature with apses at either end of the church. Church of St. Gertrude, Nivelles, Belgium Church of St. Michael, Hildesheim, Germany Abbey Church of Gernrode Ottonian art Ottonian Renaissance
Ottonian architecture
–
St. Michael's Church, Hildesheim.
Ottonian architecture
–
Reconstruction of the abbey of
Essen.
26.
Holy Roman Empire
–
The Holy Roman Empire was a multi-ethnic complex of territories in central Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806. On 25 December 800, Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish king Charlemagne as Emperor, reviving the title in Western Europe, more than three centuries after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The title was revived in 962 when Otto I was crowned emperor, fashioning himself as the successor of Charlemagne, some historians refer to the coronation of Charlemagne as the origin of the empire, while others prefer the coronation of Otto I as its beginning. Scholars generally concur, however, in relating an evolution of the institutions and principles constituting the empire, the office of Holy Roman Emperor was traditionally elective, although frequently controlled by dynasties. Emperor Francis II dissolved the empire on 6 August 1806, after the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine by Napoleon, before 1157, the realm was merely referred to as the Roman Empire. In a decree following the 1512 Diet of Cologne, the name was changed to Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, by the end of the 18th century, the term Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation had fallen out of official use. As Roman power in Gaul declined during the 5th century, local Germanic tribes assumed control, by the middle of the 8th century, however, the Merovingians had been reduced to figureheads, and the Carolingians, led by Charles Martel, had become the de facto rulers. In 751, Martel’s son Pepin became King of the Franks, the Carolingians would maintain a close alliance with the Papacy. In 768 Pepin’s son Charlemagne became King of the Franks and began an expansion of the realm. He eventually incorporated the territories of present-day France, Germany, northern Italy, on Christmas Day of 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor, restoring the title in the west for the first time in over three centuries. After the death of Charles the Fat in 888, however, the Carolingian Empire broke apart, according to Regino of Prüm, the parts of the realm spewed forth kinglets, and each part elected a kinglet from its own bowels. After the death of Charles the Fat, those crowned emperor by the pope controlled only territories in Italy, the last such emperor was Berengar I of Italy, who died in 924. Around 900, autonomous stem duchies reemerged in East Francia, on his deathbed, Conrad yielded the crown to his main rival, Henry the Fowler of Saxony, who was elected king at the Diet of Fritzlar in 919. Henry reached a truce with the raiding Magyars, and in 933 he won a first victory against them in the Battle of Riade, Henry died in 936, but his descendants, the Liudolfing dynasty, would continue to rule the Eastern kingdom for roughly a century. Upon Henry the Fowlers death, Otto, his son and designated successor, was elected King in Aachen in 936 and he overcame a series of revolts from an elder brother and from several dukes. After that, the managed to control the appointment of dukes. In 951, Otto came to the aid of Adelaide, the queen of Italy, defeating her enemies, marrying her. In 955, Otto won a victory over the Magyars in the Battle of Lechfeld
Holy Roman Empire
–
The Holy Roman Empire at its maximal extent, in the 13th century
Holy Roman Empire
–
Imperial Banner
Holy Roman Empire
–
An illustration from
Schedelsche Weltchronik depicting the structure of the Reich: The Holy Roman Emperor is sitting; on his left are three ecclesiastics; on his right are four secular electors.
Holy Roman Empire
–
Double-headed eagle with coats of arms of individual states, symbol of the Holy Roman Empire (painting from 1510)
27.
Romanesque architecture
–
Romanesque Architecture is an architectural style of medieval Europe characterized by semi-circular arches. There is no consensus for the date of the Romanesque style, with proposals ranging from the 6th to the late 10th century. It developed in the 12th century into the Gothic style, marked by pointed arches, examples of Romanesque architecture can be found across the continent, making it the first pan-European architectural style since Imperial Roman Architecture. The Romanesque style in England is traditionally referred to as Norman architecture, each building has clearly defined forms, frequently of very regular, symmetrical plan, the overall appearance is one of simplicity when compared with the Gothic buildings that were to follow. The style can be identified right across Europe, despite regional characteristics, Many castles were built during this period, but they are greatly outnumbered by churches. The most significant are the great churches, many of which are still standing, more or less complete. The largest groups of Romanesque survivors are in areas that were less prosperous in subsequent periods, including parts of southern France, northern Spain and rural Italy. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word Romanesque means descended from Roman and was first used in English to designate what are now called Romance languages, Romance language is not degenerated Latin language. Latin language is degenerated Romance language, Romanesque architecture is not debased Roman architecture. Roman architecture is debased Romanesque architecture, the first use in a published work is in William Gunns An Inquiry into the Origin and Influence of Gothic Architecture. The term is now used for the more restricted period from the late 10th to 12th centuries, Many castles exist, the foundations of which date from the Romanesque period. Most have been altered, and many are in ruins. By far the greatest number of surviving Romanesque buildings are churches, the scope of Romanesque architecture Romanesque architecture was the first distinctive style to spread across Europe since the Roman Empire. In the more northern countries Roman building styles and techniques had never been adopted except for official buildings, although the round arch continued in use, the engineering skills required to vault large spaces and build large domes were lost. There was a loss of continuity, particularly apparent in the decline of the formal vocabulary of the Classical Orders. In Rome several great Constantinian basilicas continued in use as an inspiration to later builders, the largest building is the church, the plan of which is distinctly Germanic, having an apse at both ends, an arrangement not generally seen elsewhere. Another feature of the church is its regular proportion, the plan of the crossing tower providing a module for the rest of the plan. These features can both be seen at the Proto-Romanesque St. Michaels Church, Hildesheim, 1001–1030, the style, sometimes called First Romanesque or Lombard Romanesque, is characterised by thick walls, lack of sculpture and the presence of rhythmic ornamental arches known as a Lombard band
Romanesque architecture
–
Maria Laach Abbey, Germany
Romanesque architecture
–
Tum Collegiate Church, Poland
Romanesque architecture
–
Lessay Abbey, Normandy, France.
Romanesque architecture
–
Portal, Church of Santa Maria, Viu de Llevata,
Catalonia, Spain
28.
Aix Cathedral
–
Aix Cathedral in Aix-en-Provence in southern France is a Roman Catholic cathedral and the seat of the Archbishop of Aix-en-Provence and Arles. It is built on the site of the 1st century Roman forum of Aix and it is a national monument of France. The cathedral is located on the route of the Roman road, a fragment of a Roman wall and the columns of the baptistery seem to be the origin of the legend that the church was built on top of a Roman temple dedicated to Apollo. The historian Pitton claimed that the temple had been dedicated to a sun god, maximin built a modest chapel on the site of the present cathedral and dedicated it to the Holy Saviour. During the invasion of the Saracens in the 8th and 9th centuries, around the year 500, under the Bishop Basilius, a group of episcopal buildings was constructed on top of the old Roman forum, including a chapel, a baptistery and several other rooms. A second nave, dedicated to Saint Maximinus, was built in about 1165-1177 as the church of the canons, the choir of this church ended in a flat chevet wall, which connected by a door with the Sainte-Chapelle, part of the original 6th century episcopal buildings. The chapel was rebuilt in the 12th century, and when the Gothic nave was added, was incorporated into the cathedral and became the oratory of the Saviour. At the end of the 12th century and beginning of the 13th century, Aix became the capital of Provence, religious orders began to arrive, the Franciscans first, then the Dominicans, Carmelites, and Augustinians, building new churches, monasteries and convents. A surge of construction on the cathedral paralleled the growth of importance of Aix, two new wings of the transept, built in the Gothic style, were begun in about 1285-1290, and finished in 1316. Bay by bay, the old Romanesque church was transformed into a Gothic cathedral, the building of the new church was interrupted by the Black Death and then the Hundred Years War. Work did not resume for 130 years, until 1472, when the last bay was built, the façade took another thirty years, and the last statues were not put in place until 1513, at the beginning of the Renaissance. The original Romanesque front of Saint Marys nave was destroyed in the 15th century, and replaced with a new Gothic front, jacotin Paproche, from Picardy, sculpted the ten small prophets and twenty cherubim on the façade. Pierre Souquet created the two statues on the level, representing the first two bishops of Aix, traditionally named as Maximinus and Sidonius. The centrepiece of the façade is Saint Michael Crushing the Dragon, by Jean Paumier, the façade originally also included twelve statues of the apostles and six statues on the tympanum, which were destroyed during the French Revolution. The doors of the cathedral were commissioned by the chapter in 1505, the doors feature four figures in high relief of the major prophets of the Old Testament. Above the prophets are the figures of twelve Sybils, pagan fortune-tellers from antiquity, honoured by medieval Christian scholars for having forecast the birth, death, only the octagonal baptismal pool and the lower part of the walls remain from that period. The other walls and the dome were rebuilt in the Renaissance, a viewing hole in the floor reveals the bases of the porticoes of the Roman forum under the baptistery. The cloister was used by the canons, the priests who served the bishop and it was built at the end of the 12th century, at a time when canons were urged to live a more austere and more monastic communal life
Aix Cathedral
–
Aix Cathedral
Aix Cathedral
–
Statue of St. Peter in the cathedral cloister
Aix Cathedral
–
Interior of Aix Cathedral
Aix Cathedral
–
Portal of Aix Cathedral
29.
Merovingians
–
The Merovingians were a Salian Frankish dynasty that ruled the Franks for nearly 300 years in a region known as Francia in Latin, beginning in the middle of the 5th century. Their territory largely corresponded to ancient Gaul as well as the Roman provinces of Raetia, Germania Superior and the southern part of Germania. The Merovingian dynasty was founded by Childeric I, the son of Merovech, leader of the Salian Franks, after the death of Clovis there were frequent clashes between different branches of the family, but when threatened by its neighbours the Merovingians presented a strong united front. During the final century of Merovingian rule, the kings were increasingly pushed into a ceremonial role, the Merovingian rule ended in March 752 when Pope Zachary formally deposed Childeric III. Zacharys successor, Pope Stephen II, confirmed and anointed Pepin the Short in 754, the Merovingian ruling family were sometimes referred to as the long-haired kings by contemporaries, as their long hair distinguished them among the Franks, who commonly cut their hair short. The Merovingian dynasty owes its name to the semi-legendary Merovech, leader of the Salian Franks, the victories of his son Childeric I against the Visigoths, Saxons, and Alemanni established the basis of Merovingian land. Childerics son Clovis I went on to unite most of Gaul north of the Loire under his control around 486, when he defeated Syagrius, the Roman ruler in those parts. He won the Battle of Tolbiac against the Alemanni in 496, at time, according to Gregory of Tours. He subsequently went on to defeat the Visigothic kingdom of Toulouse in the Battle of Vouillé in 507. After Cloviss death, his kingdom was partitioned among his four sons, leadership among the early Merovingians was probably based on mythical descent and alleged divine patronage, expressed in terms of continued military success. In 1906 the British Egyptologist Flinders Petrie suggested that the Marvingi recorded by Ptolemy as living near the Rhine were the ancestors of the Merovingian dynasty, upon Cloviss death in 511, the Merovingian kingdom included all of Gaul except Burgundy and all of Germania magna except Saxony. To the outside, the kingdom, even when divided under different kings, maintained unity, after the fall of the Ostrogoths, the Franks also conquered Provence. After this their borders with Italy and Visigothic Septimania remained fairly stable, internally, the kingdom was divided among Cloviss sons and later among his grandsons and frequently saw war between the different kings, who quickly allied among themselves and against one another. The death of one king created conflict between the brothers and the deceaseds sons, with differing outcomes. Later, conflicts were intensified by the personal feud around Brunhilda, however, yearly warfare often did not constitute general devastation but took on an almost ritual character, with established rules and norms. Eventually, Clotaire II in 613 reunited the entire Frankish realm under one ruler, later divisions produced the stable units of Austrasia, Neustria, Burgundy and Aquitania. The frequent wars had weakened royal power, while the aristocracy had made great gains and these concessions saw the very considerable power of the king parcelled out and retained by leading comites and duces. Very little is in fact known about the course of the 7th century due to a scarcity of sources, clotaires son Dagobert I, who sent troops to Spain and pagan Slavic territories in the east, is commonly seen as the last powerful Merovingian King
Merovingians
–
Signet ring of
Childeric I.
Monnaie de Paris.
Merovingians
–
Francia expanded from
Austrasia, established by the Merovingian dynasty.
Merovingians
–
Frankish gold
Tremissis, imitation of
Byzantine Tremissis, mid-6th century.
Merovingians
–
Coin of
Chlothar II, 584-628.
British Museum.
30.
Charlemagne
–
Charlemagne or Charles the Great, numbered Charles I, was the King of the Franks from 768, King of the Lombards from 774 and Emperor of the Romans from 800. He united much of Europe during the early Middle Ages and he was the first recognised emperor in western Europe since the fall of the Western Roman Empire three centuries earlier. The expanded Frankish state which Charlemagne founded was called the Carolingian Empire, Charlemagne was the oldest son of Pepin the Short and Bertrada of Laon. He became king in 768 following his fathers death, initially as co-ruler with his brother Carloman I, carlomans sudden death in 771 in unexplained circumstances left Charlemagne as the undisputed ruler of the Frankish Kingdom. He continued his fathers policy towards the papacy and became its protector, removing the Lombards from power in northern Italy and he campaigned against the Saxons to his east, Christianising them upon penalty of death and leading to events such as the Massacre of Verden. Charlemagne reached the height of his power in 800 when he was crowned Emperor of the Romans by Pope Leo III on Christmas Day at Old St. Peters Basilica. Charlemagne has been called the Father of Europe, as he united most of Western Europe for the first time since the Roman Empire and his rule spurred the Carolingian Renaissance, a period of energetic cultural and intellectual activity within the Western Church. All Holy Roman Emperors considered their kingdoms to be descendants of Charlemagnes empire, up to the last Emperor Francis II and these and other machinations led to the eventual split of Rome and Constantinople in the Great Schism of 1054. Charlemagne died in 814, having ruled as emperor for thirteen years and he was laid to rest in his imperial capital of Aachen in what is today Germany. He married at least four times and had three sons, but only his son Louis the Pious survived to succeed him. By the 6th century, the western Germanic Franks had been Christianised, Francia, ruled by the Merovingians, was the most powerful of the kingdoms that succeeded the Western Roman Empire. Following the Battle of Tertry the Merovingians declined into powerlessness, for which they have dubbed the rois fainéants. Almost all government powers were exercised by their chief officer, the mayor of the palace, in 687, Pepin of Herstal, mayor of the palace of Austrasia, ended the strife between various kings and their mayors with his victory at Tertry. He became the governor of the entire Frankish kingdom. Pepin was the grandson of two important figures of the Austrasian Kingdom, Saint Arnulf of Metz and Pepin of Landen, Pepin of Herstal was eventually succeeded by his illegitimate son Charles, later known as Charles Martel. After 737, Charles governed the Franks in lieu of a king, Charles was succeeded in 741 by his sons Carloman and Pepin the Short, the father of Charlemagne. In 743, the brothers placed Childeric III on the throne to curb separatism in the periphery and he was the last Merovingian king. Carloman resigned office in 746, preferring to enter the church as a monk, Pepin brought the question of the kingship before Pope Zachary, asking whether it was logical for a king to have no royal power
Charlemagne
–
A coin of Charlemagne with the inscription KAROLVS IMP AVG (Karolus Imperator Augustus)
Charlemagne
–
Francia, early 8th century
Charlemagne
–
External video
Charlemagne
–
Moorish Hispania in 732
31.
Jouarre Abbey
–
Jouarre Abbey is a Benedictine abbey in Jouarre in the département of Seine-et-Marne. In the mid-ninth century the abbey acquired relics of St. Potentian, the reputation of the house stood so high the abbey received a visit from Pope Innocent II in 1131 and was able to house a synod in 1133. The abbesss submission to the bishop of Meaux did not come about until Bossuet held the post in 1690, the abbey is an important pilgrimage center. A fortified town was built around it and gave birth to the present city of Jouarre, at the time of the St. Bartholomews Day massacre, the abbess Charlotte of Bourbon converted to Protestantism and escaped from the abbey in a cart of hay, and fled to Germany. She married William I of Orange-Nassau, the present monastery buildings, once again occupied by Benedictine nuns, date from the eighteenth century, their traditional vegetable and fruit garden are notable
Jouarre Abbey
–
Jouarre Abbey church
Jouarre Abbey
–
Crypt and sarcophagi
Jouarre Abbey
–
Charlotte of Bourbon
32.
Benedictine Convent of Saint John
–
The Abbey of Saint John is an ancient Benedictine monastery in the Swiss village of Müstair, in the Canton of Graubünden. By reason of its exceptionally well-preserved heritage of Carolingian art, it has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1983. The Carolingian Renaissance is deeply in debt to the success of Charlemagne as a king and patron, throughout history, art, education and leisure have all only truly thrived in times of peace, although war is often the most important factor for technological change. In the early Middle Ages the constant conflicts between the Frankish Kingdoms hindered the artistic progress previously enjoyed by the Romans when their empire was at its height. Under Charlemagne’s prosperous kingship, the introduction of a new monastic order began, paving the way for the frescos. As a devout Christian, Charlemagne wished to further the ability for his people to be educated in the teachings of the church, and for his kingdom to be stable. One of the ways that he achieved this was through his patronage of many monasteries throughout the Frankish Kingdom. The monasteries served as a ground for missionaries, who were to be sent to the newly conquered areas of his empire. His goals were mostly focused on education, and his mission as king was to provide the basis for the education of the clergy so they could in turn educate the parishioners and these monasteries served as canvas for much of the art and architecture of the Carolingian Renaissance. The Carolingian artisans were known to be skilled painters, jewelers and their aptitude for extensive and grandiose decoration was often used to decorate the manuscripts that were written by monks at abbeys such as St John’s. Such skilled and advanced artistry further highlights the importance of peace as a canvas for improved art, as it is possible to see from the Pictures of St Johns Fresco’s, painting was also a large part of the Carolingian Renaissance. The Carolingian style of painting was founded in Roman, Christian, the manner in which figures were portrayed was clearly Roman in style, the subject matter very often Christian, and the geometric designs and animal figures were Germanic in nature. Depictions from the gospels, as well as those of King David were particularly popular, as well as some Carolingian kings and it is believed that the abbey was established ca.780 by a bishop of Chur, perhaps under orders from Charlemagne. It was built during a wave of construction that included the nearby monasteries at Cazis, Mistail, Pfäfers. The abbey was located along the Val Müstair pass over the Alps from Italy and was fortified to allow it to control the pass, in 881 the abbey passed over to be completely under the control of the Bishop of Chur. During the early years of the abbey, in the early 9th century, later, in the 11th and 12th centuries, the abbey experienced a second expansion and new paintings were added or painted over the old frescoes. These paintings were rediscovered in the 20th century. In the 10th century, the tower was added to the abbey church
Benedictine Convent of Saint John
–
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Benedictine Convent of Saint John
–
Statue of Charlemagne in the abbey church
Benedictine Convent of Saint John
–
Dinner of Herod Antipas with dancing Salome
33.
Lorsch Abbey
–
The Abbey of Lorsch is a former Imperial abbey in Lorsch, Germany, about 10 km east of Worms. It was one of the most renowned monasteries of the Carolingian Empire, even in its ruined state, its remains are among the most important pre-Romanesque–Carolingian style buildings in Germany. Its chronicle, entered in the Lorscher Codex compiled in the 1170s is a document for early medieval German history. Another famous document from the library is the Codex Aureus of Lorsch. In 1991 the ruined abbey was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and it was dedicated to Saint Peter and Saint Paul. The founders entrusted its government to Cancors nephew Chrodegang, Archbishop of Metz, the pious founders enriched the new abbey by further donations. To make the popular as a shrine and a place of pilgrimage, Chrodegang obtained from Pope Paul I the body of Saint Nazarius. On 11 July 765, the relics arrived, and with great solemnity were deposited in the basilica of the monastery. In 766 Chrodegang resigned the office of abbot, in favour of his duties as Archbishop of Metz. He then sent his brother Gundeland to Lorsch as his successor, in 772, Gundeland applied to the highest authority, Charlemagne, who found in his favour. Gundeland gave the abbey with all his properties to the king, turning it into a Royal abbey, many miracles were said to be wrought through the intercession of Saint Nazarius at Lorsch, and from all parts of Europe pilgrims in large numbers came to visit the shrine. In 876, shortly after the death of Ludwig der Deutsche and his son, Ludwig der Jüngere and his grandson Hugo were also buried at Lorsch. The burial chapel later continued to serve as a Royal burial ground, e. g. for Kunigunde, wife of the first non-Carolingean king and it was declared a Reichsabtei (a sovereign principality in its own right, subject directly and solely to the emperor. From 895-956, the abbey was not allowed to elect its own abbots, emperor Otto I restored this right to Lorsch. A confrontation between ruler and abbot about the construction of the castle Starkenburg within view of the resulted in abbot Udalrich confronting the king at Trebur with 1,200 armed riders. By 1090, Lorsch had been visited by kings/emperors around 20 times, in 1052, Pope Leo IX came to consecrate an altar in the burial chapel of the eastern Carolingeans. The abbey, enjoying sovereign territorial rights, became implicated in several local feuds, from 1232 to 1248 Lorsch was used by the Cistercians. In 1248 Premonstratensian monks from Allerheiligen were given charge of the monastery with the sanction of Pope Celestine IV, in 1461, the abbey was mortgaged to Electoral Palatinate
Lorsch Abbey
–
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Lorsch Abbey
–
Church ruins
34.
Palatine Chapel in Aachen
–
The Palatine Chapel in Aachen is an early medieval chapel and remaining component of Charlemagnes Palace of Aachen in what is now Germany. Although the palace itself no longer exists, the chapel was preserved and it is the citys major landmark and a central monument of the Carolingian Renaissance. The chapel held the remains of Charlemagne, later it was appropriated by the Ottonians and their coronations were held there from 936 to 1531. As part of Aachen Cathedral, the chapel is designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Charlemagne began the construction of the Palatine Chapel around 792, along with the building of the rest of the palace structures. It was consecrated in 805 by Pope Leo III in honor of the Virgin Mary, the building is a centrally planned, domed chapel. The east end had an apse, and was originally flanked by two basilican structures, now lost but known through archaeology. The chapel was entered through an atrium, to the west. The plan and decoration of the building elements of Classical, Byzantine and Pre-Romanesque. Nothing more is known of him, the building he designed has a simple exterior and a complex interior, with a double shell octagonal dome resting on heavy piers, a two-story elevation, and elaborate revetment and decoration. In 936 Otto I, the first Holy Roman Emperor of the Ottonian dynasty, took advantage of the close association with Charlemagne. Ottonian rulers continued to be crowned in the Palatine Chapel until 1531, in 1000, in what was most likely a symbolic exhibition, Otto III placed the tomb of Charlemagne in the chapel and paid homage to his remains. The original tomb was probably a sepulchral niche, afterwards known as the Karlsmemorie, there is a sixteen-sided ambulatory with a gallery overhead encircling the central octagonal dome. The plan and decoration owe much to the sixth-century Basilica of San Vitale, indeed, Charlemagne visited Ravenna three times, the first in 787. In that year he wrote to Pope Hadrian I and requested mosaic, marbles, multi-coloured marble veneer is used to create a sumptuous interior. The chapel makes use of ancient spolia, conceivably from Ravenna, the bronze decoration is of extraordinarily high quality, especially the doors with lions heads and the interior railings, with their Corinthian order columns and acanthus scrolls. The dome was decorated originally with a fresco, and later with mosaic, in the Baroque period, it was replaced by stucco. The original mosaic was reproduced in the 19th century with the iconography as the original. It depicts the twenty-four elders of the Apocalypse bearing crowns and standing around the base of the dome, above the main altar, and facing the royal throne, is an image of Christ in Majesty
Palatine Chapel in Aachen
–
Exterior view
Palatine Chapel in Aachen
–
Interior view
Palatine Chapel in Aachen
–
Throne of Charlemagne in the palace chapel.
35.
Theodulf of Orleans
–
Theodulf of Orléans was a writer, poet and the Bishop of Orléans during the reign of Charlemagne and Louis the Pious. He is mainly remembered for this and the survival of the oratory or chapel made for his villa at Germigny-des-Prés. Theodulf was born in Spain, probably Saragossa, between 750 and 760, and was of Visigothic descent and he fled Spain because of the Moorish occupation of the region and traveled to the South-Western province of Gaul called Aquitaine, where he received an education. He went on to join the monastery near Maguelonne in Southern Gaul led by the abbot Benedict of Aniane, Charlemagne recognized Theodulfs importance within his court and simultaneously named him Bishop of Orléans and abbot of many monasteries, most notably the Benedictine abbey of Fleury-sur-Loire. He then went on to public schools outside the monastic areas which he oversaw. He was a witness to the emperors will in 811, Charlemagne died in 814 and was succeeded by his son Louis the Pious. Louis nephew, King Bernard of Italy, sought independence from the Frankish empire, Bernard was talked into surrendering, but was punished by Louis severely, sentencing him to have his sight removed. The procedure of blinding Bernard went wrong and he died as a result of the operation, Louis believed that numerous people in his court were conspiring against him with Bernard, and Theodulf was one of many who were accused of treason. He was forced to abandon his position of Bishop of Orléans in 817 and was exiled to a monastery in Angers in 818 where he spent the two years of his life. After he was released in 820, he tried to reclaim his bishopric in Orléans but was never able to reach the city because it is believed that he died during the trip or some time after that. Theodulf of Orléans died on January 18,821 and his body was brought back to Angers where it was buried, according to some sources Theodulf may have been married at the beginning of his career and had a daughter named Gisla. The oratory at Germigny-des-Prés, an example of Carolingian architecture, was built by Bishop Theodulf in 806 as part of his Gallo-Roman villa in Germaniacus, Theodulf was also abbot of the neighboring monastery of Saint-Benoît-sur-Loire. His complex at Germigny-des-Prés was in a general sense modelled on Charlemagnes Palace of Aachen, all except the oratory was destroyed by the Normans within a century of construction. As Bishop of Orléans, Theodulf wrote two important capitularies, capitula ad presbyteros parochiae The first capitulary was a reminder to the priests of his diocese of the importance of manual labour, studying, prayer and chastity. Gloria, laus et honor is the most famous one of them, according to the Libri Carolini, images may be used as ecclesiastical ornaments, for purposes of instruction, and in memory of past events. It would be foolish, however, to burn incense before them and to use lights, though it would be wrong to cast them out of the churches. The Greek word προσκύνησις that the Council in fact used means no more than reverence in a prostrate attitude, Theodulf brought fresh ideas and an open mind to the period known as the Carolingian Renaissance. He believed in keeping the door open and never refusing pilgrims
Theodulf of Orleans
–
The oratory at Germigny-des-Prés, after a heavy-handed restoration in the 19th century
36.
Lobbes
–
Lobbes is a Walloon municipality located in the Belgian province of Hainaut. On January 1,2006, Lobbes had a population of 5,499. The total area is 32.08 km² which gives a density of 171 inhabitants per km². The municipality consists of the following sub-municipalities, Lobbes proper, Mont-Sainte-Geneviève, Sars-la-Buissière, the town grew up round Lobbes Abbey, a religious house established here in about 650. The tramway of the ASVi runs through Lobbes, jonas van Genechten, professional road bicycle racer Alfred Wotquenne, musical bibliographer Romain Zingle, professional cyclist Media related to Lobbes at Wikimedia Commons
Lobbes
–
Lobbes on the river Sambre
37.
Belgium
–
Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a sovereign state in Western Europe bordered by France, the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, and the North Sea. It is a small, densely populated country which covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres and has a population of about 11 million people. Additionally, there is a group of German-speakers who live in the East Cantons located around the High Fens area. Historically, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg were known as the Low Countries, the region was called Belgica in Latin, after the Roman province of Gallia Belgica. From the end of the Middle Ages until the 17th century, today, Belgium is a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. It is divided into three regions and three communities, that exist next to each other and its two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia, Belgiums linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its political history and complex system of governance, made up of six different governments. Upon its independence, declared in 1830, Belgium participated in the Industrial Revolution and, during the course of the 20th century, possessed a number of colonies in Africa. This continuing antagonism has led to several far-reaching reforms, resulting in a transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement during the period from 1970 to 1993. Belgium is also a member of the Eurozone, NATO, OECD and WTO. Its capital, Brussels, hosts several of the EUs official seats as well as the headquarters of major international organizations such as NATO. Belgium is also a part of the Schengen Area, Belgium is a developed country, with an advanced high-income economy and is categorized as very high in the Human Development Index. A gradual immigration by Germanic Frankish tribes during the 5th century brought the area under the rule of the Merovingian kings, a gradual shift of power during the 8th century led the kingdom of the Franks to evolve into the Carolingian Empire. Many of these fiefdoms were united in the Burgundian Netherlands of the 14th and 15th centuries, the Eighty Years War divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces and the Southern Netherlands. The latter were ruled successively by the Spanish and the Austrian Habsburgs and this was the theatre of most Franco-Spanish and Franco-Austrian wars during the 17th and 18th centuries. The reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1815, although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 and for women in 1949. The main political parties of the 19th century were the Catholic Party, French was originally the single official language adopted by the nobility and the bourgeoisie
Belgium
–
Charlemagne and
Charles V
Belgium
–
Flaga
Belgium
Belgium
–
Episode of the
Belgian Revolution of 1830 (1834), by
Egide Charles Gustave Wappers
38.
St. Michael, Fulda
–
St. Michaels Church, in Fulda, Hesse, is considered to be the oldest Holy Sepulchre church in Germany, built in the Carolingian architectural style on behalf of abbot Eigil in the years. It served as a chapel to Fulda monastery founded in 744. St. Michael stands in the neighbourhood of Fulda cathedral, the rotunda and crypt remain preserved from this time. In the 10th and 11th century, the church was extended from the rotunda, in 1618 the roof over the rotunda was rebuilt with a conical roof, and in 1715 -1716 a chapel was added to the north side. Wall paintings in the date from the 11th century. Saint Michael, Roman Catholic traditions and views Taken from the German Wikipedia article, Michaelskirche Reference cited in Michaelskirche, Die Michaelskirche zu Fulda
St. Michael, Fulda
–
St. Michael's Church, Fulda
St. Michael, Fulda
–
St. Michael, Fulda, interior
39.
Michelstadt
–
Michelstadt in the Odenwald is a town in the Odenwaldkreis in southern Hesse, Germany between Darmstadt and Heidelberg. It has a population of around 16,000, Michelstadt is the biggest town in the Odenwaldkreis and borders on the district seat of Erbach. Michelstadt’s Stadtteile, besides the town, also called Michelstadt, are Rehbach, Steinbach, Steinbuch, Stockheim, Vielbrunn, Weiten-Gesäß. Michelstadt had its first documentary mention in 741 from Mayor of the Palace Carloman, Michelstadt is one of the oldest settlements in the inner Odenwald. Its castle grew out of a Frankish baronial estate and this was built into a refuge for the local inhabitants. As a royal estate, Prince Carloman donated it in 741 to Saint Boniface’s pupil Burchard and this donation was apparently meant for Bishop Burchard personally, for the Michelnstat area passed back to the Frankish Crown upon Burchard’s death in 791. In 815, the Michlinstat area was donated once again, in recognition of his great merit as confidant at Charlemagne’s court, Einhard acquired the main town and all land within two leagues from Charlemagne’s son, Louis the Pious, as a freehold. In 819, he bequeathed his Odenwald holdings to Lorsch Abbey, upon Einhard’s death on 14 March 840, the monastery came into its inheritance. In the 17th century, the first houses outside the wall were built. In 1773, a new gate was built, called the Neutor. In the 19th century, the towers were all torn down one after the other. In 1806, Michelstadt, along with the County of Erbach, the building of the railway line and its completion through to Darmstadt in 1870 and then Eberbach in 1881 brought Michelstadt a sharp economic upswing. Out of what was once a farming community grew a sizeable town with important industrial operations on the foundation of the centuries-old ironworking. From the clothweavers’ and dyers’ guild grew a cloth factory, from foundries grew machine factories, ivory carving was a starting point for businesses in the souvenir industry and plastics processing. In 1962, the hosted the second Hessentag state festival. In 2007, a decision to merge the town with the town of Erbach was thwarted by a civic vote. The municipal election held 2006 and 2016 yielded the following results, the mayor, Stephan Kelbert, in office since 16 September 2009, was elected on 8 March 2009 with a share of 52. 7% in the first round of voting. Rumilly, Haute-Savoie, France Hulst, Zeeuws Vlaanderen, Netherlands The town’s arms might be described thus, Michelstadt was granted these arms in 1541 along with its new seal by Count Georg of Erbach
Michelstadt
–
Timber-frame house at the marketplace with the market well
Michelstadt
Michelstadt
–
Old
coat of arms at the town hall from 1743
Michelstadt
–
Town Hall
40.
Abbey of Corvey
–
The Imperial Abbey of Corvey or Princely Abbey of Corvey was a Benedictine abbey on the River Weser,2 km northeast of Höxter, now in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It was one of the Imperial abbeys of the Holy Roman Empire from the late Middle Ages until 1792 when the abbey was dissolved and it was in turn secularized in 1803 and absorbed into the newly created Principality of Nassau-Orange-Fulda. In 2014, the abbey was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. To that end, bishoprics were established, in addition, the idea of setting up an abbey in Saxony was first mooted during Charlemagnes rein. However, the plan was implemented under his son, Emperor Louis the Pious. This was located at a place named Hethis, although there is some uncertainty over the exact location, it is today thought to be near Neuhaus im Solling. The first monks arrived in 816 from the Benedictine abbey from Corbie Abbey in Picardy and they set up a Probstei, a subsidiary of the motherhouse. Due to the location chosen, the monks chose to move in 822 - to the current location near what was then called Villa Huxori. The new house known as Nova Corbeia. The first abbot of Corvey was a cousin of Charlemagne, Adalard of Corbie, ansgar, who later became the Apostle of Scandinavia, founded the abbey school in 823. The abbey library was established with works from Corbie, augmented by the output of the local scriptorium, in 826, Corvey became an independent abbey, dedicated to Saint Stephen. In 833, it was granted the right of coinage within the Franconian realm, in 836, the remains of Saint Vitus were gifted to Corvey by the abbey of St Denis near Paris. Saint Vitus now became the saint of the Saxons. Since he was one of the Fourteen Holy Helpers, his veneration was very popular in the Middle Ages. Other gifts and donations by individuals made Corvey one of the richest abbeys in Central Europe and its position as Reichsabtei meant that its abbot was answerable directly to the emperor in secular matters. The first stone church was consecrated in 844, in 873-885, the Westwerk that is still extant today was constructed. Corvey thus became one of the most privileged Carolingian monastic sanctuaries in the 9th-century Duchy of Saxony and it soon became famous for its school, which produced many celebrated scholars, among them the 10th-century Saxon historian Widukind of Corvey, author of Res gestae Saxonicae. From its cloisters went forth a stream of missionaries who evangelised Northern Europe, the site of the abbey, where the east-west route called the Hellweg crossed the Weser, was of some strategic importance and assured its economic and cultural importance
Abbey of Corvey
–
The westwork of Corvey Abbey
Abbey of Corvey
–
Courtyard of Corvey Abbey
Abbey of Corvey
–
Territory of the Imperial Abbey of Corvey in the 18th century
Abbey of Corvey
–
Initial page of the "Wernigerode Gospels". A 10th-century book illumination from the scriptorium of Corvey Abbey.
41.
Reichenau Island
–
Reichenau Island is an island in Lake Constance in southern Germany. It lies almost due west of the city of Konstanz, between the Gnadensee and the Untersee, two parts of Lake Constance. With a total surface of 4.3 square kilometres and a circumference of 11 kilometres. The highest point, the Hochwart, stands some 43 metres above the surface and 438.7 metres above mean sea level. A low road bridge allows the passage of boats but not of sailing-boats. The island was declared a World Heritage Site in 2000 because of its monastery, the abbeys Münster is dedicated to the Virgin and Saint Mark. Two further churches were built on the island consecrated to Saint George and to Saints Peter, the famous artworks of Reichenau include the Ottonian murals of miracles of Christ, unique survivals from the 10th century. The abbeys bailiff was housed in a stone building to which two more storeys of timber framing were added in the 14th century, one of the oldest timber-frame buildings in south Germany. Among the Abbeys far-flung landholdings was Reichenau, a village on the upper Rhine in the municipality of Tamins in the canton of Graubünden, Switzerland, today the island is also famous for its vegetable farms. The Wollmatinger Ried next to the island is a nature preserve. The Alemannic name of the island was Sindleozesauua, but it was known as simply Ow, Auua – Latinized as Augia, later also Augia felix or Augia dives, hence Richenow. Pirmins conflict with Santfrid resulted in his leaving Reichenau in 727, under his successor Haito the monastery began to flourish. It gained influence in the Carolingian dynasty, under Abbot Waldo of Reichenau, Abbot Reginbert of Reichenau built up the important book collection. Abbot Walahfrid Strabo, who was educated at Reichenau, was renowned as a poet, the Abbey stood along a main north–south highway between Germany and Italy, where the lake passage eased the arduous route. An example of the production is the Pericopes of Henry II, made for the Emperor. Reichenau has preserved its precious relics, which include the pitcher from the wedding at Cana, the Abbey reached its apex under Abbot Berno of Reichenau. During his time, important scholars, such as Hermannus Contractus, when the abbey lands were secularized and the monks disbanded under Napoleon, part of Reichenaus famed library was preserved in the state library at Karlsruhe. The Geographus Bavarus and several important documents may be found in the Bavarian State Library in Munich
Reichenau Island
–
15th-century towers on the Romanesque church of Sts Peter and Paul in Reichenau-Niederzell
Reichenau Island
–
One of the island's many vegetable fields with Sankt Georg Kirche in the background
Reichenau Island
–
Aerial view
Reichenau Island
–
South West Reichenau Island
42.
Church of St Philibert, Tournus
–
Saint-Philibert de Tournus is a medieval church, the main surviving building of a former Benedictine abbey in Tournus, Saône-et-Loire, France. It is of importance as an example of Romanesque architecture. In 875 Charles the Bald gave Tournus to a community of monks who came to the locality with the relics of Saint Philibert, the monks had fled Viking raids on Noirmoutier, and had previously stopped at Saint-Philbert-de-Grand-Lieu. The abbey was damaged by a Hungarian invasion in 936/937, the abbey was closed in the seventeenth century and St Philibert became a collegiate church. Like many other churches in France, it was secularised as a Temple of Reason during the French Revolution, roman Catholic worship resumed after the Concordat of 1801 formally ended the period of dechristianisation. According to a tradition, a tenth-century abbot began construction of the present building, some sources follow tradition in suggesting that construction began before 1000. However, current thinking is that the earliest parts of the church are eleventh century and it is in the early First Romanesque style of Burgundy, which began to use further Romanesque and early Gothic styles during the beginning of the 11th century. The church is set in an enclosure, and defence was evidently a factor in the design of the building. The west front can be described as lithic in that it has heavy masonry walls, the nave is roofed with barrel vaulting, supported on tall cylindrical columns The church was included in the List of historic monuments of 1840. Like others on the list, the required conservation work which it received under the direction of the preservationist architect Charles-Auguste Questel. Ermentar of Noirmoutier Noirmoutier was the location of the first recorded Viking raid on continental Europe, around 863 the monk Ermentarius wrote a history of the transfer of the monastery and the relics of Philibert of Jumièges. First Romanesque in France, Pictures of St. Philibert at Tournus and St. Martin at Chapaize Tournus page on the site Bourgogne Romane
Church of St Philibert, Tournus
–
St. Philibert's Church in Tournus
43.
St. Cyriakus, Gernrode
–
St. Cyriakus is a medieval church in Gernrode, Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. It is one of the few surviving examples of Ottonian architecture, built in 959/960-965 by Margrave Gero and it is now used by the Protestant community of Gernrode. The church is part of the tourist route Romanesque Road, as it is an important example of an Ottonian church which inspired later, fully Romanesque, churches, Gero was a follower of Otto I from one of the most powerful families of eastern Saxony. In 937, Otto made Gero Margrave of the Eastern March, Gero, who owned a castle at Gernrode, decided to found a collegiate church and female convent here, in cooperation with his son Siegfried. Construction on the crypt, the apse and the convent started in 959. In 961, the foundation was awarded royal protection and in 963 the pope issued a privilege, Siegfried had died heirless in 959. After Siegfrieds death, his widow Hathui had become abbess of the convent, Gero returned from a trip to Rome with a valuable relic of Saint Cyriacus and the church was dedicated to this saint in 963. In 965, Gero died and was buried in front of the already finished eastern choir, a hiatus in construction followed Geros death and is seen as the likely source of the shift in the churchs axis - see map. Hathui ruled the convent for 55 years until her death in 1014, in 999, Emperor Otto III granted the convent Imperial status and in 1004, Empress Kunigunde, wife of Emperor Heinrich II visited the convent. The first stage of construction ended in 1014 and that same year, on Hathuis death, Adelheid, daughter of Emperor Otto II succeeded her as abbess. Adelheid held that position until 1044, additions to the church in the 11th and 12th centuries include the west crypt, side galleries, the enlargement of the westwork and the towers and the two-storey cloisters. In 1188, Emperor Friedrich I Barbarossa held court at Gernrode, the vaults of the transept were added in the Gothic period. The last Catholic abbess was Scholastika von Anhalt Dessau and her successor, Elisabeth von Weida introduced Reformation in 1521. In 1525, Elisabeth managed to prevent damage to the convent during the German Peasants War, with its introduction into the Landeskirche the convent lost its independence and fell under the influence of the local princes. Abbess Anna von Plauen founded the first school and supported the role in providing medical care. From 1533, the church was shared with the parish. When Gernrode was awarded the status of town in 1539, the abbess donated a coat of arms, the last Stiftsdame, Sophia Elisabeth von Anhalt, died in 1616. In 1619, the became a secular domain of the prince
St. Cyriakus, Gernrode
–
St. Cyriakus.
St. Cyriakus, Gernrode
–
Plan of the church.
44.
Mainz Cathedral
–
Mainz Cathedral or St. Martins Cathedral is located near the historical center and pedestrianized market square of the city of Mainz, Germany. This 1000-year-old Roman Catholic cathedral is the site of the see of the Bishop of Mainz. Mainz Cathedral is predominantly Romanesque in style, but later additions over many centuries have resulted in the appearance of various architectural influences seen today. It comprises three naves and stands under the patronage of Saint Martin of Tours, the eastern quire is dedicated to Saint Stephen. The cathedral also has a courtyard and statues of Saint Boniface. During Willigis time, the city of Mainz flourished economically, Willigis became one of the most influential politicians of that time, he even was regent of the empire between 991 and 994. He ordered the construction of a new cathedral in the pre-Romanesque Ottonian architecture and this new and impressive building was part of Willigiss vision of Mainz as the second Rome. Most of the synods and other important meetings were held at St. Albans Abbey, the new cathedral consisted of a double chancel with two transepts. The main hall was built in the typical triple-nave cross pattern, as was usual at that time no vault was included because of structural difficulties relating to the size of the building. Six towers rose from the church, a cloister was enclosed in the structure and a small freestanding church, St. Marys Church, connected by a colonnade. This small church developed later into the church of St. Maria ad Grada. Sandstone was used as the building material for the cathedral. The inside was plastered white under the Archbishop Bardo, probably in the middle of the 10th century, during renovations ordered by Henry IV in the late 11th century, much of the outside was also plastered, but the cornices were left exposed in their original red and yellow. It is believed that the coloring of the cathedral was changed more times, the cathedral suffered extensive damage from a fire on the day of its inauguration in 1009. Archbishop Bardo presided over the completion of the cathedral begun under Willigis, by 1037 the main portions of the body of Mainz Cathedral were complete. Willigis was buried in the church he had initiated, St. Stephans. The reason for building two chancels is not entirely clear, many scholars suggest that there is some symbolic significance, such as empire and church, or body and spirit, but no irrefutable evidence for these theories exists. Others claim that the construction has a purpose for ceremonial processions
Mainz Cathedral
–
Mainz
Mainz Cathedral
–
Mainz Cathedral across from St. John's, 1890
Mainz Cathedral
–
Present-day floor plan of the cathedral (↑S)
Mainz Cathedral
–
South nave
45.
Ebbo Gospels
–
The Ebbo Gospels is an early Carolingian illuminated Gospel book known for an unusual, energetic style of illustration. The book was produced in the century at the Benedictine Abbaye Saint-Pierre d’Hautvillers. The Gospel book contains a poem to Ebbo, and so is dated within the time he was archbishop, Ebbo also held Rheims from 840-841 and the Gospel book may have been made for his return. This gospel book and related works had a influence on Carolingian art. Each page is 10 in by 8 in, the illustration has its roots in late classical painting. Landscape is represented in the style of late classical painting. Greek artists fleeing the Byzantine iconoclasm of the 8th century brought this style to Aachen, the vibrant emotionalism, however, was new to Carolingian art and also distinguishes the Ebbo Gospels from classical art. Figures in the Ebbo Gospels are represented in nervous, agitated poses, the illustration uses an energetic, streaky style with swift brush strokes. The style directly influenced manuscript illumination for decades, as the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram bears witness, the Utrecht Psalter is the most famous example of this school. Commentators have noted the similarity between the Utrecht Psalter and the Ebbo Gospels, the evangelist portrait of Matthew in the Ebbo Gospels is similar to the illustration of the psalmist in the first psalm of the Utrecht Psalter. Other images in the Ebbo Gospels appear to be based on distortions of drawings which may have been from the Utrecht Psalter, according to Goldschmidt, Robert G. Calkins. Illuminated books of the middle ages, archbishops Ebo and Hincmar of Reims and the Utrecht Psalter. New light on the origin of the Utrecht Psalter, the Art Bulletin, Vol.13, No.1. The Exhibition of Carolingian art at Aachen, Art Journal, Vol.26, No.2. Ross, Nancy, Carolingian Art, Smarthistory, undated
Ebbo Gospels
–
St. Mark from the Ebbo Gospels
Ebbo Gospels
–
External video
46.
Carolingian art
–
The Carolingian era is part of the period in Medieval art sometimes called the Pre-Romanesque. After a rather chaotic interval following the Carolingian period, the new Ottonian dynasty revived Imperial art from about 950, building on and further developing Carolingian style in Ottonian art. He wished to establish himself as the heir to the rulers of the past, to emulate and symbolically link the artistic achievements of Early Christian. But it was more than a desire to revive ancient Roman culture. During Charlemagnes reign the Byzantine Iconoclasm controversy was dividing the Byzantine Empire, Charlemagne supported the Western churchs consistent refusal to follow iconoclasm, the Libri Carolini sets out the position of his court circle, no doubt under his direction. With no inhibitions from a memory of Mediterranean pagan idolatry, Charlemagne introduced the first Christian monumental religious sculpture. With the end of Carolingian rule around 900, high quality artistic production greatly declined for three generations in the Empire. By the later 10th century with the Cluny reform movement, New Pre-Romanesque styles appeared in Germany with the Ottonian art of the next stable dynasty, in England with late Anglo-Saxon art, after the threat from the Vikings was removed, and in Spain. The most numerous surviving works of the Carolingian renaissance are illuminated manuscripts, narrative images and especially cycles are rarer, but many exist, mostly of the Old Testament, especially Genesis – New Testament scenes are more often found on the ivory reliefs on the covers. A few of the grandest imperial manuscripts were written on purple parchment, the Utrecht Psalter, stands alone as a very heavily illustrated library version of the Psalms done in pen and wash, and almost certainly copied from a much earlier manuscript. Other liturgical works were produced in luxury manuscripts, such as sacramentaries. Teaching books such as theological, historical, literary and scientific works from ancient authors were copied and generally only illustrated in ink, if at all. The Chronography of 354 was a Late Roman manuscript that apparently was copied in the Carolingian period, the surviving manuscripts have been assigned, and often reassigned, to workshops by scholars, and the controversies attending this process have largely died down. These are the centres, but others exist, characterized by the works of art produced there. The Court School manuscripts were ornate and ostentatious, and reminiscent of 6th-century ivories and mosaics from Ravenna, in the early 9th-century Archbishop Ebo of Rheims, at Hautvillers, assembled artists and transformed Carolingian art to something entirely new. The Gospel book of Ebbo was painted with swift, fresh and vibrant brush strokes, evoking an inspiration, another style developed at the monastery of St Martin of Tours, in which large Bibles were illustrated based on Late Antique bible illustrations. Three large Touronian Bibles were created, the last, and best, example was made about 845/846 for Charles the Bald, called the Vivian Bible. The Tours School was cut short by the invasion of the Normans in 853, the diocese of Metz was another center of Carolingian art
Carolingian art
–
Lorsch Gospels 778–820. Charlemagne's Court School.
Carolingian art
–
Ivory plaque, probably from a book cover,
Reims late 9th century, with two scenes from the life of
Saint Remy and the Baptism of
Clovis
Carolingian art
–
Drogo Sacramentary, c. 850: a
historiated initial 'C' contains the
Ascension of Christ. The text is in gold ink.
Carolingian art
–
Saint Mark from the
Ebbo Gospels
47.
Basilica
–
The Latin word basilica has three distinct applications in modern English. The word was used to describe an ancient Roman public building where courts were held, as well as serving other official. To a large extent these were the halls of ancient Roman life. The basilica was centrally located in every Roman town, usually adjacent to the main forum, later, the term came to refer specifically to a large and important Roman Catholic church that has been given special ceremonial rights by the Pope. Roman Catholic basilicas are Catholic pilgrimage sites, receiving tens of millions of visitors per year. In December 2009 the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Mexico City set a new record with 6.1 million pilgrims during Friday and Saturday for the anniversary of Our Lady of Guadalupe. The Roman basilica was a public building where business or legal matters could be transacted. The first basilicas had no function at all. The central aisle tended to be wide and was higher than the flanking aisles, the oldest known basilica, the Basilica Porcia, was built in Rome in 184 BC by Cato the Elder during the time he was Censor. Other early examples include the basilica at Pompeii, probably the most splendid Roman basilica is the one begun for traditional purposes during the reign of the pagan emperor Maxentius and finished by Constantine I after 313 AD. In the 3rd century AD, the elite appeared less frequently in the forums. They now tended to dominate their cities from opulent palaces and country villas, rather than retreats from public life, however, these residences were the forum made private. Seated in the tribune of his basilica, the man would meet his dependent clientes early every morning. A private basilica excavated at Bulla Regia, in the House of the Hunt and its reception or audience hall is a long rectangular nave-like space, flanked by dependent rooms that mostly also open into one another, ending in a semi-circular apse, with matching transept spaces. Clustered columns emphasised the crossing of the two axes, the remains of a large subterranean Neopythagorean basilica dating from the 1st century AD were found near the Porta Maggiore in Rome in 1915. The ground-plan of Christian basilicas in the 4th century was similar to that of this Neopythagorean basilica, the usable model at hand, when Constantine wanted to memorialise his imperial piety, was the familiar conventional architecture of the basilicas. In, and often also in front of, the apse was a platform, where the altar was placed. Constantine built a basilica of this type in his complex at Trier, later very easily adopted for use as a church
Basilica
–
St Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City, a
major basilica of the
Roman Catholic Church, is a central-plan building, enlarged by a basilical nave
Basilica
–
St. John in the Lateran is both an architectural and an ecclesiastical basilica
Basilica
–
Remains of the
Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine in Rome. The building's northern aisle is all that remains.
Basilica
–
Floor plan of the Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine
48.
Early Christian art and architecture
–
In practice identifiably Christian art only survives from the 2nd century onwards. After 550 at the latest, Christian art is classified as Byzantine and it is hard to know when distinctly Christian art began. Prior to 100, Christians may have been constrained by their position as a group from producing durable works of art. Since Christianity was largely a religion of the classes in this period, the lack of surviving art may reflect a lack of funds for patronage. The Old Testament restrictions against the production of images may also have constrained Christians from producing art. Christians may have made or purchased art with pagan iconography, but given it Christian meanings, if this happened, Christian art would not be immediately recognizable as such. Early Christianity used the artistic media as the surrounding pagan culture. These media included fresco, mosaics, sculpture, and manuscript illumination, Early Christian art not only used Roman forms, it also used Roman styles. Late classical style included a portrayal of the human body. Late classical style is seen in early Christian frescos, such as those in the Catacombs of Rome, Early Christians adapted Roman motifs and gave new meanings to what had been pagan symbols. Among the motifs adopted were the peacock, grapevines, and the Good Shepherd, Early Christians also developed their own iconography, for example, such symbols as the fish, were not borrowed from pagan iconography. The earlier period being called the Pre-Constantinian or Ante-Nicene Period and after being the period of the First seven Ecumenical Councils, the earliest surviving Christian art comes from the late 2nd to early 4th centuries on the walls of Christian tombs in the catacombs of Rome. From literary evidence, there may well have been panel icons which, initially Jesus was represented indirectly by pictogram symbols such as the Ichthys, peacock, Lamb of God, or an anchor. The image of The Good Shepherd, a youth in pastoral scenes collecting sheep, was the most common of these images. These images bear some resemblance to depictions of figures in Greco-Roman art. The almost total absence from Christian monuments of the period of persecutions of the plain, the dove is a symbol of peace and purity. It can be found with a halo or celestial light, in one of the earliest known Trinitarian images, the Throne of God as a Trinitarian image, the dove represents the Spirit. It is flying above an empty throne representing God, in the throne are a chlamys, the Chi-Rho monogram, XP, apparently first used by Constantine I, consists of the first two characters of the name Christos in Greek
Early Christian art and architecture
–
Jesus healing the bleeding woman, Roman catacombs, 300-350
Early Christian art and architecture
–
Good Shepherd from the
Catacomb of Priscilla, 250-300
Early Christian art and architecture
–
Noah praying in the Ark, from a Roman catacomb
Early Christian art and architecture
–
The
Three Youths in the Fiery Furnace (),
catacomb of Priscilla
49.
Westwork
–
A westwork is the monumental, west-facing entrance section of a Carolingian, Ottonian, or Romanesque church. The exterior consists of stories between two towers. The interior includes a vestibule, a chapel, and a series of galleries overlooking the nave. A westwork is usually broader than the width of the nave and it is sometimes used synonymously with narthex. The westwork of Corvey Abbey, Germany, is the oldest extant example, the frescos inside the westwork show scenes from the Odyssey. The King, later the Emperor, and his entourage lodged in the westwork when visiting the abbey during their travels around the country, the feature was introduced into Norman architecture in the 11th century by Robert of Jumièges at the church of Jumièges Abbey, consecrated in 1067. The pattern was continued in German Gothic architecture, media related to Westworks at Wikimedia Commons
Westwork
–
Westwork of
Corvey Abbey
