1.
Royal Astronomical Society
–
The Royal Astronomical Society is a learned society that began as the Astronomical Society of London in 1820 to support astronomical research. It became the Royal Astronomical Society in 1831 on receiving its Royal Charter from William IV, a Supplemental Charter in 1915 opened up the fellowship to women. Meetings are held in Burlington House, in Piccadilly, London and they are involved in the production of astronomical journals and periodicals. The society has over 3000 members, around a third of whom live outside the UK, in addition, those members of the public who have an interest in astronomy and geophysics and wish to support the work of the society may become Friends of the RAS. One of the activities of the RAS is publishing refereed journals. It publishes two primary research journals, the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society in astronomy and the Geophysical Journal International in geophysics and it also publishes the magazine A&G which includes reviews and other articles of wide scientific interest in a glossy format. Fellowship is open to anyone over the age of 18 who is considered acceptable to the society, as a result of the societys foundation in a time before there were many professional astronomers, no formal qualifications are required. However, around three quarters of fellows are professional astronomers or geophysicists, the society acts as the professional body for astronomers and geophysicists in the UK and fellows may apply for the Science Councils Chartered Scientist status through the society. The fellowship passed 3,000 in 2003, in 2009 an initiative was launched for those with an interest in astronomy and geophysics but without professional qualifications or specialist knowledge in the subject. Such people may join the Friends of the RAS, which offers popular talks, visits, ordinary meetings featuring lectures about research topics in astronomy and geophysics are normally held in Burlington House in London on the second Friday of every month from October through to May. Reports of the meetings appear in The Observatory magazine, scientific discussion meetings about particular research topics are held on the day of the ordinary meetings. These allow several speakers to present new research results and experts to present reviews of scientific fields, discussion meetings on two different topics within astronomy and geophysics frequently take place in parallel at different locations within Burlington House. The Society occasionally hosts meetings in other parts of the United Kingdom, the Society also sponsors the National Astronomy Meeting, a week-long general conference of professional astronomers, normally held each spring at a university campus in the United Kingdom. The Society holds occasional lunchtime public lectures in Central London aimed at a general, non-specialist, the Royal Astronomical Society has a more comprehensive collection of books and journals in astronomy and geophysics than the libraries of most universities and research institutions. The library receives some 300 current periodicals in astronomy and geophysics and its collection of astronomical rare books is second only to that of the Royal Observatory in Edinburgh in the UK. The RAS library is a resource not just for the society but also the wider community of astronomers, geophysicists. The society promotes astronomy to members of the public through their outreach pages for students, teachers. The RAS has a role in relation to UK public examinations, such as GCSEs
2.
Term of office
–
A term of office is the length of time a person serves in a particular elected office. In many jurisdictions there is a limit on how long terms of office may be before the officeholder must be subject to re-election. Some jurisdictions exercise term limits, setting a number of terms an individual may hold in a particular office. Being the origin of the Westminster system, aspects of the United Kingdoms system of government are replicated in other countries. The monarch serves as head of state until his or her death or abdication, in the United Kingdom Members of Parliament in the House of Commons are elected for the duration of the parliament. Following dissolution of the Parliament, an election is held which consists of simultaneous elections for all seats. For most MPs this means that their terms of office are identical to the duration of the Parliament, an MP elected in a by-election mid-way through a Parliament, regardless of how long they have occupied the seat, is not exempt from facing re-election at the next general election. The Septennial Act 1715 provided that a Parliament expired seven years after it had been summoned, prior to the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 parliaments had no minimum duration. Parliaments could be dissolved early by the monarch at the Prime Ministers request, the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 mandated that Parliaments should last their full five years. Early dissolution is possible, but under much more limited circumstances. Hereditary peers and life peers retain membership of the House of Lords for life, Lords Spiritual hold membership of the House of Lords until the end of their time as bishops, though a senior bishop may be made a life peer upon the end of their bishopric. The devolved administrations in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland are variations on the system of government used at Westminster, the office of the leader of the devolved administrations has no numeric term limit imposed upon it. However, in the case of the Scottish Government and the Welsh Assembly Government there are fixed terms for which the legislatures can sit and this is imposed at four years. Elections may be held before this time but only if no administration can be formed, offices of local government other regional elected officials follow similar rules to the national offices discussed above, with persons elected to fixed terms of a few years. Federal judges have different terms in office, however, the majority of the federal judiciary, Article III judges, such as those of the Supreme Court, courts of appeal, and federal district courts, serve for life. The terms of office for officials in state governments according to the provisions of state constitutions. The term for state governors is four years in all states but Vermont and New Hampshire, the National Conference of State Legislatures reported in January 2007 that among state legislatures,44 states had terms of office for the lower house of the state legislature at two years. Five had terms of office at four years,37 states had terms of office for the upper house of the state legislature at four years
3.
William Herschel
–
Frederick William Herschel, KH, FRS was a British astronomer and composer of German origin, and brother of fellow astronomer Caroline Herschel, with whom he worked. Born in the Electorate of Hanover, Herschel followed his father into the Military Band of Hanover, Herschel constructed his first large telescope in 1774, after which he spent nine years carrying out sky surveys to investigate double stars. The resolving power of the Herschel telescopes revealed that the nebulae in the Messier catalogue were clusters of stars, Herschel published catalogues of nebulae in 1802 and in 1820. In the course of an observation on 13 March 1781, he realized that one celestial body he had observed was not a star and this was the first planet to be discovered since antiquity and Herschel became famous overnight. As a result of this discovery, George III appointed him Court Astronomer and he was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society and grants were provided for the construction of new telescopes. Herschel pioneered the use of astronomical spectrophotometry as a tool, using prisms. Other work included a determination of the rotation period of Mars, the discovery that the Martian polar caps vary seasonally. In addition, Herschel discovered infrared radiation, Herschel was made a Knight of the Royal Guelphic Order in 1816. He was the first President of the Royal Astronomical Society when it was founded in 1820 and he died in August 1822, and his work was continued by his only son, John Herschel. Herschel was born in the Electorate of Hanover in Germany, then part of the Holy Roman Empire and his father was an oboist in the Hanover Military Band. In 1755 the Hanoverian Guards regiment, in whose band Wilhelm, at the time the crowns of Great Britain and Hanover were united under King George II. As the threat of war with France loomed, the Hanoverian Guards were recalled from England to defend Hanover, after they were defeated at the Battle of Hastenbeck, Herschels father Isaak sent his two sons to seek refuge in England in late 1757. Although his older brother Jakob had received his dismissal from the Hanoverian Guards, Wilhelm, nineteen years old at this time, was a quick student of the English language. In England he went by the English rendition of his name, in addition to the oboe, he played the violin and harpsichord and later the organ. He composed numerous works, including 24 symphonies and many concertos. Six of his symphonies were recorded in April 2002 by the London Mozart Players, Herschel moved to Sunderland in 1761 when Charles Avison immediately engaged him as first violin and soloist for his Newcastle orchestra, where he played for one season. In ‘Sunderland in the County of Durh, apprill 20th 1761’ he wrote his Symphony No.8 in C Minor. He was head of the Durham Militia band 1760–61 and visited the home of Sir Ralph Milbanke at Halnaby Hall in 1760, after Newcastle he moved to Leeds and Halifax where he was the first organist at St John the Baptist church
4.
Department for Business, Innovation and Skills
–
It was disbanded on the creation of the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy on 14 July 2016. Following the departments dissolution, it no longer has ministers responsible, the Permanent Secretary was Sir Martin Donnelly. Economic policy is devolved but several important policy areas are reserved to Westminster. Further and higher education policy is mostly devolved, reserved and excepted matters are outlined below. Official website bis. gov. uk/ Archived Website Precursor departments, Department for Business and Regulatory Reform Archived Website Department for Innovation, Universities and Skills Archived Website
5.
Research Councils UK
–
It enables the Councils to work together more effectively to enhance the overall impact and effectiveness of their research, training, and innovation. Research councils are non-departmental government bodies incorporated by Royal Charter, each is governed by its own governing council comprising a mix of academic and non-academic members, appointed by the Secretary for Innovation, Universities and Skills following a public nomination. The councils receive public funds from the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills, in 2008 the combined annual budget was £3.5 billion, of which over £1 billion went to research grants and training at universities. This is one element of the UKs dual system of research funding, Research Council grants support around 50,000 researchers through 18,000 grants at any one time. About 8,000 PhDs are awarded annually as a result of their funding, however, in the UK funding system only a few permanent institutes that require permanent infrastructure are directly controlled or core-funded by the Councils. Most funding is allocated competitively and few awards last more than ten years, Research council funding decisions are guided by the Haldane Principle, the idea that decisions are best made by researchers independently from government. Research council funding competitions use open peer review, there are seven Research Councils, The MRCs headquarters is in central London and the other six research councils and the RCUK operate from a single complex in Swindon. In 2007 the Government raised the status of the Technology Strategy Board to become, in effect, the TSB has set up its headquarters next door to the Swindon offices of the research councils. Government funding of science in the United Kingdom began in 1675 when the Royal Observatory was established in Greenwich. This trend continued in the 19th century with the creation of the British Geological Survey in 1832, by the First World War in 1915, claims about the poor state of British manufacturing compared to Germanys led to the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. It was a part of government, staffed by servants who distributed grants, operated laboratories. Examples included the Radio Research Station, established in Ditton Park in 1924, lord Hailsham dubbed this separation of duties as the Haldane principle in 1964 when he was Minister of Science, it has remained a guiding principle ever since. In 1931 the Agricultural Research Council was established by incorporating 12 major agricultural research institutes that had created in England. In 1949 Nature Conservancy was established as a Research Council in all, the National Research Development Corporation was also created to provide financial assistance for the development of inventions. In 1957 the National Institute for Research in Nuclear Science was formed to operate the Rutherford High Energy Laboratory, to respond to this growth, in 1963 Sir Burke Trend chaired a committee to enquire into the organisation of civil science. Under the control of the Department of Education and Science, the Science & Technology Act of 1965 created both the Science Research Council and the Natural Environment Research Council, NERC incoporporated the Nature Conservancy and British Geological Survey. In 1981, the emphasis in policy on innovation rather than pure science increased so the SRC became the Science, in 1983 the ARC also changed its focus to outputs rather than methods to become the Agricultural and Food Research Council. Given a lack of control over exchange rate fluctuations and the need to meet commitments, cuts regularly fell on the short-term grants
6.
International Astronomical Union
–
The International Astronomical Union is an international association of professional astronomers, at the PhD level and beyond, active in professional research and education in astronomy. Among other activities, it acts as the recognized authority for assigning designations to celestial bodies. The IAU is a member of the International Council for Science and its main objective is to promote and safeguard the science of astronomy in all its aspects through international cooperation. The IAU maintains friendly relations with organizations that include amateur astronomers in their membership, the IAU has its head office on the second floor of the Institut dAstrophysique de Paris in the 14th arrondissement of Paris. The IAU is also responsible for the system of astronomical telegrams which are produced and distributed on its behalf by the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams, the Minor Planet Center also operates under the IAU, and is a clearinghouse for all non-planetary or non-moon bodies in the Solar System. The Working Group for Meteor Shower Nomenclature and the Meteor Data Center coordinate the nomenclature of meteor showers, the IAU was founded on July 28,1919, at the Constitutive Assembly of the International Research Council held in Brussels, Belgium. The 7 initial member states were Belgium, Canada, France, Great Britain, Greece, Japan, the first executive committee consisted of Benjamin Baillaud, Alfred Fowler, and four vice presidents, William Campbell, Frank Dyson, Georges Lecointe, and Annibale Riccò. Thirty-two Commissions were appointed at the Brussels meeting and focused on topics ranging from relativity to minor planets, the reports of these 32 Commissions formed the main substance of the first General Assembly, which took place in Rome, Italy, May 2–10,1922. By the end of the first General Assembly, ten nations had joined the Union. Although the Union was officially formed eight months after the end of World War I, the first 50 years of the Unions history are well documented. Subsequent history is recorded in the form of reminiscences of past IAU Presidents, twelve of the fourteen past General Secretaries in the period 1964-2006 contributed their recollections of the Unions history in IAU Information Bulletin No.100. Six past IAU Presidents in the period 1976–2003 also contributed their recollections in IAU Information Bulletin No.104, the IAU includes a total of 12,664 individual members who are professional astronomers from 96 countries worldwide. 83% of all members are male, while 17% are female, among them the unions current president. Membership also includes 79 national members, professional astronomical communities representing their countrys affiliation with the IAU, the sovereign body of the IAU is its General Assembly, which comprises all members. The Assembly determines IAU policy, approves the Statutes and By-Laws of the Union, the right to vote on matters brought before the Assembly varies according to the type of business under discussion. On budget matters, votes are weighted according to the subscription levels of the national members. A second category vote requires a turnout of at least two-thirds of national members in order to be valid, an absolute majority is sufficient for approval in any vote, except for Statute revision which requires a two-thirds majority. An equality of votes is resolved by the vote of the President of the Union, since 1922, the IAU General Assembly meets every three years, with the exception of the period between 1938 and 1948, due to World War II
7.
Francis Baily
–
Francis Baily was an English astronomer. He is most famous for his observations of Bailys beads during an eclipse of the Sun, Baily was also a major figure in the early history of the Royal Astronomical Society, as one of the founders and president four times. Baily was born at Newbury in Berkshire in 1774 to Richard Baily, after a tour in the unsettled parts of North America in 1796–1797, his journal of which was edited by Augustus de Morgan in 1856, Baily entered the London Stock Exchange in 1799. Later, in 1843, he would win the Gold Medal again and he was elected as President of the Royal Astronomical Society four times, with two-year terms each. No other person has served in the more than Bailys four times. The reform of the Nautical Almanac in 1829 was set on foot by his protests and he was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1832. His observations of Bailys Beads, during an eclipse of the sun on 15 May 1836, at Inch Bonney in Roxburghshire. In other work, he completed and discussed H, fosters pendulum experiments, deducing from them an ellipticity for the earth of 1/289.48. This value was corrected for the length of the seconds-pendulum by introducing an element of reduction. His laborious operations for determining the density of the earth, carried out by Henry Cavendishs method. Baily died in London on 30 August 1844 and was buried in the vault in St Marys Church in Thatcham. His Account of the Rev. John Flamsteed is of importance to the scientific history of that time. It included a republication of the British Catalogue, the lunar crater Baily was named in his honour, as was the rigid and thermally insensitive alloy used to cast the 1855 standard yard and a local primary school in his home town of Thatcham. Memoir of the late Francis Baily, monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. Works written by or about Francis Baily at Wikisource Baily, Francis, map of Etoiles fixes Awarding of RAS gold medal,1827, MNRAS114 Awarding of RAS gold medal,1843, MNRAS5248 Archival material relating to Francis Baily
8.
George Airy
–
Sir George Biddell Airy KCB PRS was an English mathematician and astronomer, Astronomer Royal from 1835 to 1881. His reputation has been tarnished by allegations that, through his inaction, Airy was born at Alnwick, one of a long line of Airys who traced their descent back to a family of the same name residing at Kentmere, in Westmorland, in the 14th century. The branch to which he belonged, having suffered in the English Civil War, moved to Lincolnshire, Airy was educated first at elementary schools in Hereford, and afterwards at Colchester Royal Grammar School. An introverted child, Airy gained popularity with his schoolmates through his skill in the construction of peashooters. From the age of 13, Airy stayed frequently with his uncle, Arthur Biddell at Playford, Biddell introduced Airy to his friend Thomas Clarkson, the slave trade abolitionist who lived at Playford Hall. As a result, he entered Trinity in 1819, as a sizar, meaning that he paid a reduced fee, here he had a brilliant career, and seems to have been almost immediately recognised as the leading man of his year. In 1822 he was elected scholar of Trinity, and in the year he graduated as senior wrangler. On 1 October 1824 he was elected fellow of Trinity, and this chair he held for little more than a year, being elected in February 1828 Plumian professor of astronomy and director of the new Cambridge Observatory. In 1836 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and in 1840, in 1859 he became foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. At the Cambridge Observatory Airy soon showed his power of organisation, the only telescope in the establishment when he took charge was the transit instrument, and to this he vigorously devoted himself. Before long a mural circle was installed, and regular observations were instituted with it in 1833, Airys writings during this time are divided between mathematical physics and astronomy. In 1831 the Copley Medal of the Royal Society was awarded to him for these researches. One of the sections of his able and instructive report was devoted to A Comparison of the Progress of Astronomy in England with that in other Countries and this reproach was subsequently to a great extent removed by his own labours. One of the most remarkable of Airys researches was his determination of the density of the Earth. In 1826, the idea occurred to him of attacking this problem by means of experiments at the top. His first attempt, made in the year, at the Dolcoath mine in Cornwall. A second attempt in 1828 was defeated by a flooding of the mine, the experiments eventually took place at the Harton pit near South Shields in 1854.566. The currently accepted value for Earths density is 5.5153 g/cm³, in 1830, Airy calculated the lengths of the polar radius and equatorial radius of the earth using measurements taken in the UK
9.
Henry Thomas Colebrooke
–
Henry Thomas Colebrooke FRS FRSE was an English orientalist and mathematician. He has been described as the first great Sanskrit scholar in Europe, Henry Thomas Colebrooke, third son of Sir George Colebrooke, 2nd Baronet, Chairman of the East India Company, and Mary Gaynor of Antigua, was born in London. He was educated at home, and when only fifteen he had made considerable attainments in classics and mathematics, from the age of twelve to sixteen he resided in France. In 1782 Colebrooke was appointed to a writership in India, about a year after his arrival there he was placed in the board of accounts in Calcutta, and three years later he was removed to a situation in the revenue department at Tirhut. He was sent to Nagpur in 1799 on a special mission, in 1805, Lord Wellesley appointed him honorary professor of Hindu law and Sanskrit at the college of Fort William. In 1807 he became a member of council and was elected President of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta and he returned to England in 1815. In 1823 he was a founder of the Royal Asiatic Society and he was a director of the society, and many of the papers in the societys Transactions were communicated by him. In 1822 he was elected the president of the Royal Astronomical Society. He translated the two treatises, the Mitacshara of Vijnaneshwara and the Dayabhaga of Jimutavahana, under the title Law of Inheritance. The Agriculture and Commerce of Bengal Bible translations into Persian Calcutta Kosha, Or Dictionary of the Sanscrit Language by Umura Singha with an English Interpretation, algebra, with Arithmetic and mensuration, from the Sanscrit of Brahmegupta. On the Religion and Philosophy of the Hindus, translated Mithakshara into English A posthumous essay on his fathers life was published by Sir T. E. Colebrooke in 1873 as part of a reprinting of Miscellaneous Essays. Colebrooke married Elizabeth Wilkinson in 1810, the marriage was short-lived and she died in 1814. Buckland, C. E. ed. Colebrooke, Henry Thomas in Dictionary of Indian Biography, also available online at, Colebrooke, Henry Thomas, archive. org. Life of Colebrooke in Frederick Max Müllers Chips from a German Workshop, also available here in reprint edition, Life of Colebrooke, archive. org. Higgenbothom, J. J. Colebrooke, Henry Thomas in Men Whom India Has Known, also available online, Colebrooke, Henry Thomas, archive. org. The Making of Western Indology, Henry Thomas Colebrooke and the East India Company, London, Routledge for the Royal Asiatic Society
.jpg)
.jpg)
