1.
Nickname
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A nickname is a substitute for the proper name of a familiar person, place, or thing, for affection or ridicule. The term hypocoristic is used to refer to a nickname of affection between those in love or with an emotional bond, compared with a term of endearment. The term diminutive name refers to nicknames that convey smallness, hence something regarded with affection or familiarity, the distinction between the two is often blurred. It is a form of endearment and amusement, as a concept, it is distinct from both pseudonym and stage name, and also from a title, although there may be overlap in these concepts. A moniker also means a nickname or personal name, the word often distinguishes personal names from nicknames that became proper names out of former nicknames. English examples are Bob and Rob, nickname variants for Robert, a nickname is often considered desirable, symbolising a form of acceptance, but can sometimes be a form of ridicule. The compound word ekename, literally meaning additional name, was attested as early as 1303 and this word was derived from the Old English phrase eaca an increase, related to eacian to increase. By the fifteenth century, the misdivision of the syllables of the phrase an ekename led to its reanalysis as a nekename, though the spelling has changed, the pronunciation and meaning of the word have remained relatively stable ever since. However, it is common for the nickname to be identified after a comma following the full real name or later in the body of the text. The middle name is generally eliminated, especially in speech, like English, German uses quotation marks between the first and last names. The latter may cause confusion because it resembles an English convention sometimes used for married, in Viking societies, many people had heiti, viðrnefni, or kenningarnöfn which were used in addition to, or instead of the first name. Slaves have often used nicknames, so that the master who heard about someone doing something could not identify the slave, in capoeira, a Brazilian martial art, the slaves had nicknames to protect them from being caught, as practising capoeira was illegal for decades. In Anglo-American culture, a nickname is based on a shortening of a persons proper name. However, in societies, this may not necessarily be the case. For example, my nickname is farmer Phil In Indian society, for example, generally people have at least one nickname, Indian nicknames very often are a trivial word or a diminutive. In Australian society, Australian men will often give ironic nicknames, for example, a man with red hair will be given the nickname Blue or Bluey. A tall man will be called Shorty, an obese person Slim, in England, some nicknames are traditionally associated with a persons surname. A man with the surname Clark will be nicknamed Nobby, the surname Miller will have the nickname Dusty, there are several other nicknames linked traditionally with a persons surname, including Chalky White, Bunny Warren, Tug Wilson, and Spud Baker
2.
Official state car
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A few countries bring their own official state car for state visits to other countries, for instance the USA, Russia and sometimes the UK. It also may serve as an symbol of the head of state. Part of the criteria for a state car is to have adequate security, capability. A limousine, executive car or sport utility vehicle is usually selected, due to the high security risk for the passengers, these vehicles are often heavily secured and protected. Vehicles may be armored by the manufacturer or an after-market specialist, when carrying an important passenger, state vehicles may be surrounded by a motorcade consisting of police or military personnel. For state visits and international conferences, the host country usually supplies the ground transportation, however, a few countries transport their official state cars to the destination. It is considered an honour for a car manufacturer to be selected to provide a car for their respective country. Members of the British Royal Family are driven in Jaguars, though other makes may be used in other Commonwealth realms, for countries without major indigenous manufacturers, an official state car may be purchased from a suitable manufacturer in a nation with strong economic and diplomatic ties. In some cases state cars may bear standard number plates, in special or no plates are used. The following information lists some state cars and their users of sovereign states and other territories, the President of Afghanistan travels in a convoy of armored Toyota Land Cruiser J200s without registration plates. The President of Argentina uses an armored Mercedes-Benz Vito and is escorted by Toyota Corollas and Volkswagen Jettas driven by the secret service, the Governor-General of Australia travels in a Rolls-Royce Phantom VI limousine for ceremonial occasions, such as the State Opening of Parliament. He more commonly uses a white ballistic and bullet-proof armoured BMW7 series when on official business, the official cars of the Governor-General fly the Flag of the Governor-General of Australia and display St. Edwards Crown instead of number plates. A similar arrangement is used for the Governors of the six states, when the Queen is in Australia, the Queens Personal Australian Flag is flown on the car in which she is travelling. During the Queens 2011 visit to Australia, the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh were driven in a Range Rover Vogue. The official state car of the Prime Minister of Australia is a white ballistic and bullet-proof armoured BMW 7-Series, prior to 2013, vehicles in the Prime Ministerial fleet were white Ford Territory and Holden Caprice models. The Prime Ministerial vehicle is also escorted by police vehicles from state, the Prime Ministers car bears the number plate C1 and a centrally mounted Australian flag. The Prime Ministerial car fleet operates as part of COMCAR, a division of the Australian Governments Department of Finance, the off-the-shelf replacements offer greater protection and better value for money. A BAE and GM-Holden Consortium also bid for the contract, senior government figures in Austria use Audi A8, BMW7 Series and Mercedes-Benz S-Class models
3.
President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
4.
Cadillac
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Cadillac /ˈkædᵻlæk/, formally the Cadillac Motor Car Division, is a division of the U. S. -based General Motors that markets luxury vehicles worldwide. Its primary markets are the United States, Canada, and China, historically, Cadillac automobiles have always held a place at the top of the luxury field within the United States. In 2016, Cadillacs U. S. sales were 170,006 vehicles, Cadillac is among the oldest automobile brands in the world, second in America only to fellow GM marque Buick. The firm was founded from the remnants of the Henry Ford Company in 1902 and it was named after Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac, who founded Detroit, Michigan. The Cadillac crest is based on his coat of arms, by the time General Motors purchased the company in 1909, Cadillac had already established itself as one of Americas premier luxury carmakers. The complete interchangeability of its parts had allowed it to lay the foundation for the modern mass production of automobiles. It was at the forefront of advances, introducing full electrical systems, the clashless manual transmission. The brand developed three engines, with its V8 setting the standard for the American automotive industry and it won the trophy again in 1912 for incorporating electric starting and lighting in a production automobile. Cadillac was formed from the remnants of the Henry Ford Company, after a dispute between Henry Ford and his investors, Ford left the company along with several of his key partners in March 1902. Instead, Leland persuaded the pair to continue manufacturing automobiles using Lelands proven single-cylinder engine, a new company called the Cadillac Automobile Company was established on 22 August 1902, re-purposing the Henry Ford Company factory at Cass Street and Amsterdam Avenue. It was named after French explorer Antoine Laumet de La Mothe, sieur de Cadillac, Cadillacs first automobiles, the Runabout and Tonneau, were completed in October 1902. They were two-seat horseless carriages powered by a 10 hp single-cylinder engine and they were practically identical to the 1903 Ford Model A. Cadillac displayed the new vehicles at the New York Auto Show in January 1903, Cadillacs biggest selling point was precision manufacturing, and therefore, reliability, a Cadillac was simply a better-made vehicle than its competitors. Runabout Rear-entrance tonneau Special bodies The Cadillac Automobile Company merged with Leland & Faulconer Manufacturing, forming The Cadillac Motor Company in 1905. From its earliest years, Cadillac aimed for precision engineering and stylish luxury finishes, Cadillac was the first volume manufacturer of a fully enclosed car in 1906. Cadillac participated in the 1908 interchangeability test in the United Kingdom, in 1912, Cadillac was the first automobile manufacturer to incorporate an electrical system enabling starting, ignition, and lighting. Cadillac was purchased by the General Motors conglomerate in 1909, Cadillac became General Motors prestige division, devoted to the production of large luxury vehicles. It was positioned at the top of GMs vehicle hierarchy, above Buick, Oldsmobile, Oakland, in 1915, Cadillac introduced a 90-degree flathead V8 engine with 70 horsepower at 2400 rpm and 180 pound force-feet of torque, allowing its cars to attain 65 miles per hour
5.
United States Secret Service
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The United States Secret Service is a federal law enforcement agency under the U. S. Department of Homeland Security. Until 2003, the Service was part of the U. S. Department of the Treasury, the Secret Services initial responsibility was to investigate counterfeiting of U. S. currency, which was rampant following the U. S. Civil War. The agency then evolved into the United States first domestic intelligence and counterintelligence agency, the Secret Service has two primary missions, investigation of financial crimes and physical protection of designated protectees. After the 1901 assassination of President William McKinley, Congress also directed the Secret Service to protect the President of the United States, Protection remains the other key mission of the United States Secret Service. From 1997 until 2013, legislation became effective limiting Secret Service protection to former Presidents, President Barack Obama signed legislation reversing this limit and reinstating lifetime protection on January 10,2013. The Secret Service investigates thousands of incidents a year of individuals threatening the President of the United States, the Director of Secret Service is appointed by the President of the United States. With a reported one third of the currency in circulation being counterfeit at the time, Chief William P. Wood was sworn in by Secretary of the Treasury Hugh McCulloch. It was commissioned in Washington, D. C. as the Secret Service Division of the Department of the Treasury with the mission of suppressing counterfeiting, the legislation creating the agency was on Abraham Lincolns desk the night he was assassinated. At the time, the other federal law enforcement agencies were the United States Park Police. Post Office Departments Office of Instructions and Mail Depredations, and the U. S. Marshals Service, the Marshals did not have the manpower to investigate all crime under federal jurisdiction, so the Secret Service began to investigate everything from murder to bank robbery to illegal gambling. After the assassination of President William McKinley in 1901, Congress informally requested that the Secret Service provide presidential protection, a year later, the Secret Service assumed full-time responsibility for presidential protection. In 1902, William Craig became the first Secret Service agent to die while serving, the Secret Service was the first U. S. domestic intelligence and counterintelligence agency. Domestic intelligence collection and counterintelligence responsibilities were vested in the Federal Bureau of Investigation upon the FBIs creation in 1908, the Secret Service assisted in arresting Japanese American leaders and in the Japanese American internment during World War II. Secret Service is not a part of the U. S, on October 16, the day of the summit, Burnham discovered a man holding a concealed palm pistol standing at the El Paso Chamber of Commerce building along the procession route. Burnham signaled a Texas Ranger, Private C. R. Moore, in 1950, President Harry S. Truman was residing in Blair House while the White House, across the street, was undergoing renovations. On November 1,1950, two Puerto Rican nationalists, Oscar Collazo and Griselio Torresola, approached Blair House with the intent to assassinate President Truman, Collazo and Torresola opened fire on Private Leslie Coffelt and other White House Police officers. Though mortally wounded by three shots from a 9 mm German Luger to his chest and abdomen, Private Coffelt returned fire, as of 2017, Coffelt is the only member of the Secret Service killed while protecting a US president against an assassination attempt. Collazo was also shot, but survived his injuries and served 29 years in prison before returning to Puerto Rico in late 1979, in 1968, as a result of Robert F. Kennedys assassination, Congress authorized protection of major presidential and vice presidential candidates and nominees
6.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
7.
Vehicle registration plate
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A vehicle registration plate, also known as a number plate or a license plate, is metal or plastic plate attached to a motor vehicle or trailer for official identification purposes. The registration identifier is a numeric or alphanumeric ID that uniquely identifies the owner within the issuing regions database. The first two letters indicate the state to which the vehicle is registered, the next two digit numbers are the sequential number of a district. Due to heavy volume of vehicle registration, the numbers were given to the RTO offices of registration as well, the third part indicates the year of registration of the vehicle and is a 4 digit number unique to each plate. In some countries, the identifier is unique within the entire country, whether the identifier is associated with a vehicle or a person also varies by issuing agency. In the vast majority of jurisdictions, the government holds a monopoly on the manufacturing of vehicle registration plates for that jurisdiction. Thus, it is illegal for private citizens to make and affix their own plates. Alternately, the government will merely assign plate numbers, and it is the owners responsibility to find an approved private supplier to make a plate with that number. In some jurisdictions, plates will be assigned to that particular vehicle for its lifetime. If the vehicle is destroyed or exported to a different country. Other jurisdictions follow a policy, meaning that when a vehicle is sold the seller removes the current plate from the vehicle. Buyers must either obtain new plates or attach plates they already hold, as well as register their vehicles under the buyers name, a person who sells a car and then purchases a new one can apply to have the old plates put onto the new car. One who sells a car and does not buy a new one may, depending on the laws involved, have to turn the old plates in or destroy them. Some jurisdictions permit the registration of the vehicle with personal plates, in some jurisdictions, plates require periodic replacement, often associated with a design change of the plate itself. Vehicle owners may or may not have the option to keep their original plate number, alternately, or additionally, vehicle owners have to replace a small decal on the plate or use a decal on the windshield to indicate the expiration date of the vehicle registration. Plates are usually fixed directly to a vehicle or to a frame that is fixed to the vehicle. Sometimes, the plate frames contain advertisements inserted by the service centre or the dealership from which the vehicle was purchased. Vehicle owners can also purchase customized frames to replace the original frames, in some jurisdictions licence plate frames are illegal
8.
William Howard Taft
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William Howard Taft served as the 27th President of the United States and as the tenth Chief Justice of the United States, the only person to have held both offices. In 1921, President Warren G. Harding appointed Taft to be chief justice, Taft was born in Cincinnati in 1857. His father, Alphonso Taft, was a U. S. Attorney General, William Taft attended Yale and was a member of Skull and Bones secret society like his father, and after becoming a lawyer was appointed a judge while still in his twenties. He continued a rapid rise, being named Solicitor General and as a judge of the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals, in 1901, President William McKinley appointed Taft civilian governor of the Philippines. In 1904, Roosevelt made him Secretary of War, and he became Roosevelts hand-picked successor, despite his personal ambition to become chief justice, Taft declined repeated offers of appointment to the Supreme Court of the United States, believing his political work to be more important. With Roosevelts help, Taft had little opposition for the Republican nomination for president in 1908, in the White House, he focused on East Asia more than European affairs, and repeatedly intervened to prop up or remove Latin American governments. Taft sought reductions to trade tariffs, then a source of governmental income. Controversies over conservation and over antitrust cases filed by the Taft administration served to separate the two men. Roosevelt challenged Taft for renomination in 1912, Taft used his control of the party machinery to gain a bare majority of delegates, and Roosevelt bolted the party. The split left Taft with little chance of re-election, he took only Utah, after leaving office, Taft returned to Yale as a professor, continuing his political activity and working against war through the League to Enforce Peace. In 1921, President Harding appointed Taft as chief justice, an office he had long sought, Chief Justice Taft was a conservative on business issues, but under him, there were advances in individual rights. In poor health, he resigned in February 1930, after his death the next month, he was buried at Arlington National Cemetery, the first president and first Supreme Court justice to be interred there. Taft is generally listed near the middle in historians rankings of U. S. presidents, William Howard Taft was born September 15,1857 in Cincinnati, Ohio, to Alphonso Taft and Louise Torrey. The Taft family was not wealthy, living in a modest home in the suburb of Mount Auburn, Alphonso served as a judge, ambassador and in the cabinet, as War Secretary and Attorney General under Ulysses S. Grant. William Taft was not seen as brilliant as a child, but was a worker, Tafts demanding parents pushed him and his four brothers toward success. He attended Woodward High School in Cincinnati, at Yale College, which he entered in 1874, the heavyset, jovial Taft was popular. One classmate described him succeeding through hard work rather than being the smartest, in 1878, Taft graduated, second in his class out of 121. He attended Cincinnati Law School, and graduated with a Bachelor of Laws in 1880, while in law school, he worked on The Cincinnati Commercial newspaper, edited by Murat Halstead
9.
White House
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The White House is the official residence and principal workplace of the President of the United States, located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D. C. It has been the residence of every U. S. president since John Adams in 1800, the term White House is often used to refer to actions of the president and his advisers, as in The White House announced that. The residence was designed by Irish-born architect James Hoban in the Neoclassical style, construction took place between 1792 and 1800 using Aquia Creek sandstone painted white. When Thomas Jefferson moved into the house in 1801, he added low colonnades on each wing that concealed stables and storage. In 1814, during the War of 1812, the mansion was set ablaze by the British Army in the Burning of Washington, destroying the interior, reconstruction began almost immediately, and President James Monroe moved into the partially reconstructed Executive Residence in October 1817. Exterior construction continued with the addition of the semi-circular South portico in 1824, because of crowding within the executive mansion itself, President Theodore Roosevelt had all work offices relocated to the newly constructed West Wing in 1901. Eight years later in 1909, President William Howard Taft expanded the West Wing and created the first Oval Office, in the main mansion, the third-floor attic was converted to living quarters in 1927 by augmenting the existing hip roof with long shed dormers. A newly constructed East Wing was used as an area for social events. East Wing alterations were completed in 1946, creating additional office space, by 1948, the houses load-bearing exterior walls and internal wood beams were found to be close to failure. Under Harry S. Truman, the rooms were completely dismantled. Once this work was completed, the rooms were rebuilt. The Executive Residence is made up of six stories—the Ground Floor, State Floor, Second Floor, the property is a National Heritage Site owned by the National Park Service and is part of the Presidents Park. In 2007, it was ranked second on the American Institute of Architects list of Americas Favorite Architecture, in May 1790, New York began construction of Government House for his official residence, but he never occupied it. The national capital moved to Philadelphia in December 1790, the July 1790 Residence Act named Philadelphia, Pennsylvania the temporary national capital for a 10-year period while the Federal City was under construction. The City of Philadelphia rented Robert Morriss city house at 190 High Street for Washingtons presidential residence, the first president occupied the Market Street mansion from November 1790 to March 1797, and altered it in ways that may have influenced the design of the White House. As part of an effort to have Philadelphia named the permanent national capital, Pennsylvania built a much grander presidential mansion several blocks away. President John Adams also occupied the Market Street mansion from March 1797 to May 1800, on Saturday, November 1,1800, he became the first president to occupy the White House. The Presidents House in Philadelphia became a hotel and was demolished in 1832, the Presidents House was a major feature of Pierre Charles LEnfants plan for the newly established federal city, Washington, D. C
10.
Stable
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A stable is a building in which livestock, especially horses, are kept. It most commonly means a building that is divided into separate stalls for individual animals, the term stable is also used to describe a group of animals kept by one owner, regardless of housing or location. The exterior design of a stable can vary widely, based on climate, building materials, historical period, a wide range of building materials can be used, including masonry, wood and steel. Stables can range widely in size, from a building housing one or two animals to facilities at agricultural shows or race tracks that can house hundreds of animals. The stable is typically historically the second-oldest building type on the farm, the world’s oldest horse stables were discovered in the ancient city of Pi-Ramesses in Qantir, in Ancient Egypt, and were established by Ramesses II. These stables covered approximately 182,986 square feet, had floors sloped for drainage, free-standing stables began to be built from the 16th century. They were well built and placed near the house due to the value that the horses had as draught animals, high-status examples could have plastered ceilings to prevent dust falling through into the horses’ eyes. Relatively few examples survive of complete interiors from the century or earlier. Traditionally, stables in Great Britain had a hayloft on their first floor, doors and windows were symmetrically arranged. Their interiors were divided into stalls and usually included a stall for a foaling mare or sick horse. The floors were cobbled and featured drainage channels, outside steps to the first floor were common for farm hands to live in the building. For horses, stables are often part of a complex which includes trainers, vets. Stable is used metaphorically to refer to a group of people – often sportspeople – trained, coached, supervised or managed by the person or organisation. For example, art galleries typically refer to the artists they represent as their stable of artists, historically, the headquarters of a unit of cavalry, not simply their horses accommodation, would be known as a stable. Media related to stables at Wikimedia Commons, horse care, Barns and stables Glossary of equestrian terms Livery stable Nativity of Jesus Pen
11.
Garage (residential)
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A residential garage is a walled, roofed structure for storing a vehicle or vehicles that may be part of or attached to a home, or a separate outbuilding or shed. Residential garages typically have space for one or two cars, although three-car garages are used, when a garage is attached to a house, the garage typically has an entry door into the house. Garages normally have a door which can be raised to permit the entry and exit of a vehicle. A garage protects a vehicle from precipitation, and, if it is equipped with a garage door, it also protects the vehicle from theft. Garages are also used for a variety of projects including painting, woodworking and assembling of projects, some garages have an electrical mechanism to automatically open or close the garage door when the homeowner presses a button on a small remote control. Some garages have enough space, even with cars inside, for the storage of such as bicycles or a lawnmower, in some cases. Garages that are attached to a house may be built with the external materials. Garages that are not connected to the home may use a different style of construction from the house, in some places, the term is used synonymously with carport, though that term normally describes a structure that, while roofed, is not completely enclosed. A carport protects the vehicle to some degree from inclement weather, the word garage, introduced to English in 1902, originates from the French word garer, meaning shelter. In northern climates, temperatures inside an uninsulated attached residential garage can decrease to freezing levels during the winter, temperatures inside an uninsulated attached garage in temperate climates can reach uncomfortable levels during summer months. Extreme temperatures can be a source of waste and discomfort in adjoining living areas. Homes with an attached garage often experience this interface problem, insulating only the outside of the building against the elements without extending the insulation to the garage walls and roof is a costly mistake. Australian homes typically have a two, one and a half or double car garage, with newer houses having a triple garage, with one double door. The most common doors on these garages were either 2 wooden barn style doors with a standard sized access door on the side of the garage, or the B&D Rolla Door, which is described below. The most common garage door to date in Australia is the B&D Rolla Door, having been around since 1956 and they are a corrugated flexible but strong sheet steel door, sliding up tracks and rolling around a drum mounted above the door opening on the inside of the garage. These come in manual and remote controlled electric, with conversion kits available, newer homes feature more American styled tilting panel lift doors which slide up onto a track on the ceiling via a motor and chain drive. Most older unit blocks in Australia have garages on the ground floor accessible through a hallway and access doors. Newer ones now have underground parking, British homes featuring a garage typically have a single or double garage either built into the main building, detached within the grounds, or in a communal area
12.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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Franklin Delano Roosevelt, commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. A Democrat, he won a record four presidential elections and emerged as a figure in world events during the mid-20th century. He directed the United States government during most of the Great Depression and he is often rated by scholars as one of the three greatest U. S. Presidents, along with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. Roosevelt was born in 1882 to an old, prominent Dutch family from Dutchess County and he attended the elite educational institutions of Groton School, Harvard College, and Columbia Law School. At age 23 in 1905, he married Eleanor Roosevelt, and he entered politics in 1910, serving in the New York State Senate, and then as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson. In 1920, Roosevelt was presidential candidate James M. Coxs running mate and he was in office from 1929 to 1933 and served as a reform governor, promoting the enactment of programs to combat the depression besetting the United States at the time. In the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated incumbent Republican president Herbert Hoover in a landslide to win the presidency, Roosevelt took office while in the United States was in the midst of the worst economic crisis in its history. Energized by his victory over polio, FDR relied on his persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit. He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and farmers, and to labor union growth while more closely regulating business. His support for the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 added to his popularity, the economy improved rapidly from 1933–37, but then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937–38. The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented his packing the Supreme Court, when the war began and unemployment ended, conservatives in Congress repealed the two major relief programs, the WPA and CCC. However, they kept most of the regulations on business, along with several smaller programs, major surviving programs include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Wagner Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and Social Security. His goal was to make America the Arsenal of Democracy, which would supply munitions to the Allies, in March 1941, Roosevelt, with Congressional approval, provided Lend-Lease aid to Britain and China. He supervised the mobilization of the U. S. economy to support the war effort, as an active military leader, Roosevelt implemented a war strategy on two fronts that ended in the defeat of the Axis Powers and initiate the development of the worlds first atomic bomb. His work also influenced the creation of the United Nations. Roosevelts physical health declined during the war years, and he died 11 weeks into his fourth term. One of the oldest Dutch families in New York State, the Roosevelts distinguished themselves in other than politics. One ancestor, Isaac Roosevelt, had served with the New York militia during the American Revolution, Roosevelt attended events of the New York society Sons of the American Revolution, and joined the organization while he was president
13.
Sunshine Special (automobile)
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The Sunshine Special was the official state car used by Franklin D. Roosevelt, the 32nd President of the United States. It is said to have been the First Presidential car to acquire its own personality, at other times, the car was used as traditional presidential transportation. This was in spite of an assassination attempt against Roosevelt as he was riding in a Buick convertible. The Sunshine Special was originally a Lincoln K-series built by the Lincoln division of Ford and it was powered by a 150hp,414 cubic inch V12 L-head engine. The limousine was originally equipped with a siren, running lights, the vehicle had a convertible roof, hence the reasoning for the cars nickname. The car quickly became known as a favorite of the president, with the convertible top down Roosevelt sometimes appeared before crowds without actually leaving the vehicle. There are newsreels of the showing the car being driven on stage. The Secret Service did not use Al Capones car on the 8th of December, images of the president between the White House and Congress show him in a car that does not match any of Capones known automobiles. The Sunshine Special was modified to be capable of protecting him, with armor plating for the doors, bullet-proof tires, inch-thick windows and storage compartments for pistols, all of the safety modifications increased the cars weight to 9,300 pounds. Despite these precautions, Roosevelt preferred to ride with the top down during parades, the car was also fitted with the then-current 1942 Lincoln front end in 1942 from the Lincoln H-series. When the president traveled, the Sunshine Special, along with other Secret Service vehicles, was driven to the presidents destination or was transported on a special rail car. One special rail car was equipped with equipment and supplies for the maintenance of the vehicles, although some sources allege the Sunshine Special was transported to Tehran, Casablanca, Malta, and Yalta, there appears to be no evidence to confirm this. The need to maintain secrecy about the presidents travel during wartime makes it highly unlikely his special limousine would have been used overseas, the practice of transporting presidential limousines overseas did not start until after the Roosevelt administration. In March 1947 Life featured a photograph of President Truman visiting the pyramids at Teotihuacan near Mexico City, riding in the Sunshine Special or another nearly identical Lincoln. After Roosevelt’s death in 1945, the Sunshine Special remained in the White House fleet and was used by President Truman until a new fleet of Lincoln limousines was acquired after the 1948 election, the limousine is now on permanent display at the Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn, Michigan. Official state car Presidential State Car Franklin D. Roosevelt President of the United States
14.
Assassination of John F. Kennedy
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On November 22,1963, John F. Kennedy, the 35th President of the United States, was fatally shot in Dallas, Texas while riding in a motorcade in Dallas Dealey Plaza, at 12,30 p. m. Fatally shot by Lee Harvey Oswald, he was traveling with his wife, Jacqueline, Texas Governor John Connally, Kennedys death marked the fourth and most recent assassination of an American President. The Committee was not able to identify any individuals or groups involved with the conspiracy, in addition, the HSCA found that the original federal investigations were seriously flawed in respect of information-sharing and the possibility of conspiracy. As recommended by the HSCA, the evidence indicating conspiracy was subsequently re-examined and rejected. However, Kennedys assassination is still the subject of debate and has spawned numerous conspiracy theories. Polling in 2013 showed that 60% of Americans believe that a group of conspirators was responsible for the assassination, President Kennedy traveled to Texas to smooth over frictions in the Democratic Party between liberals Ralph Yarborough and Don Yarborough and conservative John Connally. A presidential visit to the state of Texas was first agreed upon by Lyndon B. Johnson, President John F. Kennedys vice president, and Texas native, President Kennedys trip to Dallas was first announced to the public in September 1963. The exact motorcade route was finalized on November 18 and announced to the public a few days before November 22, the White House staff informed the Secret Service that the President would arrive there via a short flight from Carswell Air Force Base in Fort Worth to Dallas Love Field. Leaving from Dallas Love Field,45 minutes had been allotted for the motorcade to reach the Trade Mart at an arrival time of 12,15 p. m. The actual route was chosen to be a meandering 10-mile route between the two places, which could be driven slowly in the allotted time, on November 14, both men attended a meeting at Love Field and drove over the route that Sorrels believed best suited for the motorcade. From Love Field, the route passed through a portion of Dallas, through Downtown along Main Street. The planned route to the Trade Mart was widely reported in Dallas newspapers several days before the event, for the benefit of people who wished to view the motorcade. The route on Main Street precluded a direct turn onto the Fort Worth Turnpike exit, the Texas School Book Depository was situated at this corner of Houston and Elm. Three vehicles were used for Secret Service and police protection in the Dallas motorcade, the first car, an unmarked white Ford, carried Dallas Police Chief Jesse Curry, Secret Service Agent Win Lawson, Sheriff Bill Decker and Dallas Field Agent Forrest Sorrels. The second car, a 1961 Lincoln Continental convertible, held driver Agent Bill Greer, SAIC Roy Kellerman, Governor John Connally, Nellie Connally, President Kennedy, Secret Service agents Clint Hill, Jack Ready, Tim McIntyre and Paul Landis rode on the running boards. By the time the motorcade reached Dealey Plaza, they were five minutes away from their planned destination. At 12,30 p. m. President, you cant say Dallas doesnt love you and those were the last words ever spoken by John F. Kennedy
15.
Hermetic seal
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A hermetic seal is the quality of something—a container, structure, etc. —being airtight. Used technically, it is stated in conjunction with a specific test method, the word hermetic comes from the Greek god Hermes, via the vocabulary of alchemy. The alchemists invented a process for making a glass tube. The process used a seal, whose invention was attributed to the legendary inspiration of alchemy. Some kinds of packaging must maintain a seal against flow of gases, foods, pharmaceuticals, some chemicals, the term can describe food preservation practices, such as vacuum packing and canning. Barrier packaging includes containers such as glass, aluminum cans, metal foils, buildings designed with sustainable architecture principles use airtight technologies to conserve energy. Under low energy building, passive house, low-energy house, self-sufficient homes, zero energy building, air barriers, careful sealing of construction joints and service penetrations achieve this. Airtightness minimizes the amount of air that can pass through the structure. Green buildings may include windows that combine triple-pane insulated glazing with argon or krypton gas to reduce thermal conductivity, in landscape and exterior construction projects, airtight seals protect general service and landscape lighting electrical connections and splices. Many other specific applications must meet standards to be waterproof or vapor-proof for human safety. Applications for hermetic sealing include semiconductor electronics, thermostats, optical devices, MEMS and it is used for electrical or electronic parts that must be secure against water vapor and foreign bodies to maintain proper functioning and reliability. Hermetic sealing for airtight conditions is used in archiving significant historical items, in 1951, The U. S. Constitution, U. S. Declaration of Independence, and U. S. Bill of Rights were hermetically sealed with helium gas in glass cases housed in the U. S. National Archives in Washington, in 2003, they were moved to new glass cases hermetically sealed with argon. Typical epoxy resins have pendant hydroxyl groups along their chain that can form bonds or strong polar attractions to oxide or hydroxyl surfaces, metals, minerals, glasses, ceramics—have polarity so they have high surface energy. The important factor in determining good adhesive strength is whether the energy of the substrate is close to or higher than the surface energy of the cured adhesive. When the glass and the metal being hermetically sealed have the same coefficient of thermal expansion and this type of glass-to-metal hermetic seal is the weaker of the two types and is generally used for low-intensity applications such as in light bulb bases. Compression seals occur when the glass and the metal have different coefficients of thermal expansion such that the metal compresses around the glass as it cools. Compression seals can withstand high pressure and are used in a variety of industrial applications
16.
Motorcade
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A motorcade, or autocade, is a procession of vehicles. The term motorcade was coined by Lyle Abbot, and is formed after cavalcade on the notion that -cade was a suffix meaning procession. Eric Partridge called the name a monstrosity, and Lancelot Hogben considered the word to be a counterfeit coinage, the original suffix in cavalcade is actually -ade. A funeral cortege is a procession of mourners, most often in a motorcade of vehicles following a hearse, motorcades can be used as protests and demonstrations. A large, organised, group of vehicles will travel a route at very slow speed in order to deliberately cause traffic disruption. This is a tactic most often associated with protest groups that have access to large vehicles. An example is the 2005 UK protests against fuel prices, as part of the Euromaidan protests in Ukraine in November 2013—February 2014, the sub-movement that made use of car processions as the means of protest was called the Automaidan. Motorcades can be used to transport an important person, usually a political figure. Such a procession consists of vehicles, usually accompanied by law enforcement support. Motorcades for heads of government and heads of state can consist of dozens of vehicles, those being armoured cars, SUVs, depending on the size of the motorcade and who it is carrying, routes may be completely blockaded from the general public. For security, this is common with motorcades for heads of state or government, the major members travel in armored vehicles, typically specially configured limousines. The motorcade contains several armored vehicles, a USSS Electronic Countermeasures Suburban, a counter-assault team, when called for, a hazardous materials team precedes the motorcade on alert for potential hazards. A police presence precedes the beginning of the presidential motorcade and these cars and motorcycles usually drive ahead to clear the way and block traffic. The motorcade for the president is made up of two parts, the first being the secure package, in the event of an emergency, the secure package separates from the rest of the group. It includes two limousines heavily guarded by law enforcement and Secret Service, with all cars driven by professional drivers. The second part is made up of vans that transport White House staff members, motorcade routes are selected by Secret Service agents in cooperation with local police forces. Escape routes are established in the event of an emergency. Official state car Air transports of heads of state and government Detailed description of the motorcade of the President of the United States
17.
Pennsylvania Avenue
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Pennsylvania Avenue is a street in Washington, D. C. that connects the White House and the United States Capitol. Called Americas Main Street, it is the location of official parades and processions, moreover, Pennsylvania Avenue is an important commuter route and is part of the National Highway System. The avenue runs for a total of 5.8 miles inside Washington and it continues within the city for 3.5 miles, from the southeast corner of the Capitol grounds through the Capitol Hill neighborhood, and over the Anacostia River on the John Philip Sousa Bridge. At this point, as a highway, it becomes Southern Maryland Boulevard. At one point in the century, Pennsylvania Avenue was designated DC4. Northwest of the White House, Pennsylvania Avenue runs for 1.4 miles to its end at M Street NW in Georgetown, from 1862 to 1962, streetcars ran the length of the avenue from Georgetown to the Anacostia River. Although Pennsylvania Avenue extends six miles within Washington, D. C. the expanse between the White House and the Capitol constitutes the heart of the nation. Washington called this stretch most magnificent & most convenient, and it has served the country well, laid out by Pierre Charles LEnfant, Pennsylvania Avenue was one of the earliest streets constructed in the Federal City. The first reference to the street as Pennsylvania Avenue comes in a 1791 letter from Thomas Jefferson, one theory is that the street was named for Pennsylvania as consolation for moving the capital from Philadelphia. Both Jefferson and George Washington considered the avenue an important feature of the new capital, after inspecting LEnfants plan, President Washington referred to the thoroughfare as a Grand Avenue. Jefferson concurred, and while the avenue was little more than a wide dirt road ridiculed as The Great Serbonian Bog. At one time Pennsylvania Avenue provided an unobstructed view between the White House and the Capitol, the construction of an expansion to the Treasury Building blocked this view, and supposedly President Andrew Jackson did this on purpose. In November 2012, as part of preparations for the inauguration of Barack Obama. On September 30,1965, portions of the avenue and surrounding area were designated the Pennsylvania Avenue National Historic Site, the National Park Service administers this area which includes the United States Navy Memorial, Old Post Office Tower, and Pershing Park. Congress created the Pennsylvania Avenue Development Corporation on October 27,1972 to rehabilitate the street between the Capitol and the White House, an area seen as blighted. In 2010, the District of Columbia designated Pennsylvania Avenue from the terminus of John Philip Sousa Bridge to the Maryland state line to be a D. C. The city spent $430 million to beautify the street and improve the roadway, ever since an impromptu procession formed around Jeffersons second inauguration, every United States president except Ronald Reagan has paraded down the Avenue after taking the oath of office. From William Henry Harrison to Gerald Ford, the funeral corteges of seven of the eight presidents who died in office, franklin Roosevelt was the only president who died in office whose cortege did not follow this route
18.
First inauguration of Barack Obama
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The first inauguration of Barack Obama as the 44th President of the United States took place on Tuesday, January 20,2009. The inauguration, which set a record attendance for any event held in Washington, D. C. marked the commencement of the first four-year term of Barack Obama as President and Joe Biden as Vice President. Based on the attendance numbers, television viewership, and Internet traffic. A New Birth of Freedom, a phrase from the Gettysburg Address, in his speeches to the crowds, Obama referred to ideals expressed by Lincoln about renewal, continuity and national unity. Obama mentioned these ideals in his speech to stress the need for shared sacrifice, for the first time, the committee opened the entire length of the National Mall as the public viewing area for the swearing-in ceremony, breaking with the tradition of past inaugurations. Among the celebrations for the inauguration, the committee hosted a first-ever Neighborhood Inaugural Ball with free or affordable tickets for ordinary citizens, in accordance with Article I, Section 6 of the United States Constitution, Obama resigned from the United States Senate effective November 16,2008. He was formally elected by the Electoral College on December 15,2008, the results were certified by a joint session of Congress on January 8,2009. Obama also represented a change as the first man elected President who was born in the 1960s. He inherited what Peter Orszag termed an economic mess that became known as the financial crisis. According to a CNN poll, he embodied youthful energy and transition at a time of economic despair, the inauguration was planned primarily by two committees, the Joint Congressional Committee on Inaugural Ceremonies and the 2009 Presidential Inaugural Committee. Although the election was scheduled for November 4,2008, the committee began construction of the inaugural platform on September 24,2008. The committee is overseen by the U. S. Senate Committee on Rules, the Joint Congressional Committee on Inaugural Ceremonies chose the inaugural theme, A New Birth of Freedom, a phrase from Abraham Lincolns Gettysburg Address from the Civil War era. In his reliance on the theme, Obama wanted to give Americans reassurance that today, as in Lincolns time. The congressional committee released the schedule of the January 20 inaugural events on December 17,2008. Obama decided to use his full name Barack Hussein Obama to follow the tradition, during the election campaign, Obamas detractors tried to use his middle name to imply falsely that he was a Muslim. The District of Columbia City Council passed legislation to enable bars, the co-chairs of the committee were William Daley, Penny Pritzker, John Rogers, Patrick Ryan and Julianna Smoot. The presidential committee set aside a section of the close to the U. S. Capitol for people holding reserved tickets for the inaugural event. To enable people in attendance to see and hear the swearing-in ceremony, despite criticism that such a large event could not be carbon-friendly, the presidential committee incorporated environment-friendly measures in its planning of the inaugural events
19.
Cadillac CTS
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The Cadillac CTS is a mid-size luxury car / executive car designed, engineered, manufactured and marketed by Cadillac, and now in its third generation. Wayne Cherry and Kip Wasenko designed the exterior of the first generation CTS, Bob Boniface and Robin Krieg designed the exterior of the third generation CTS. Introduced in January 2002 as a 2003 model, the CTS sedan was built on GMs new rear-wheel drive Sigma platform and it marked a return to RWD cars for the brand, and was the first Cadillac to be offered with a manual transmission since the 1988 Cimarron. The CTS was designed as a replacement for the Opel-based Catera, wayne Cherry and Kip Wasenko designed the exterior of the first generation CTS and this vehicle marked the production debut of the Art and Science design language first seen on the Evoq concept car. CTSs are manufactured at GMs Lansing Grand River plant in Lansing, the CTS was also assembled in China during 2006, and production was subsequently discontinued. Originally powered by a 3.2 L LA3 V6 producing 220 hp, the 3.2 L engine went out of production in 2005, when a new 2.8 L version of the DOHC V6 debuted in an entry-level version of the CTS. In Europe, the 2.8 L replaces the previous entry-level 2.6 L engine, the CTS was originally offered with either GMs in-house five-speed 5L40-E automatic transmission or a five-speed Getrag 260 manual transmission. For the 2005 model year, the Getrag was replaced with an Aisin AY-6 six-speed. In 2004, GM introduced the CTS-V, a performance version of the CTS intended to compete with luxury performance sedans like the BMW M3/M5, Audi S4/S6. As the LS6 was phased out, the 2006 and 2007 CTS-Vs received the 6. 0L LS2 V-8, on April 2,2006, in a 60 Minutes interview with Bob Lutz, part of a prototype Cadillac was revealed to audiences. The car featured interior and exterior design influences from the 2003 Cadillac Sixteen concept car, GM revealed the all-new 2008 CTS at the North American International Auto Show in January 2007. The 2008–2009 base model featured a 3.6 L LY7 V6 with 263 hp and 253 lb·ft of torque carried over from the previous generation, the 2010 base model featured a 3.0 L variable valve timing V6 with 270 hp and 252 lb·ft of torque. A second engine, a new 3.6 L direct-injection V6 VVT engine with 304 hp and 274 lb·ft of torque was also offered. A 6-speed manual transmission was standard equipment on the second generation CTS, on-demand all-wheel drive was offered with both engines when equipped with an automatic transmission. Suspension, braking, and steering improvements from the previous generation CTS-V were designed into the new standard CTS, the second generation CTS was wider and longer than the original, measuring 191.6 in long,72.5 in wide and 58 in in height. Wheelbase remained unchanged at 113.4 in, but with a wider track of 61.8 /62.0 inches. Available features on the second-gen CTS included a Bose 5, in 2008, the General Motors chose the CTS to re-launch the Cadillac brand in Australia and New Zealand. However, in early 2009, amidst the financial crisis
20.
Cadillac Escalade
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The Cadillac Escalade is a full-size luxury SUV engineered and manufactured by Cadillac. It was Cadillacs first major entry into the popular SUV market, the Escalade was introduced for the 1999 model year in response to German and Japanese competitors and to Fords 1998 release of the Lincoln Navigator. The Escalade project went into production only ten months after it was approved, the Escalade is built in Arlington, Texas. The word escalade refers to a siege warfare tactic of scaling defensive walls or ramparts with the aid of ladders or siege towers. The 1999 Escalade was nearly identical to the 1999 GMC Yukon Denali, Escalade production was skipped for the 2001 model year. The Escalade ESV and its sibling the Escalade EXT were made in Silao, Mexico, before the 2007 redesign. As of 2015, the Cadillac Escalade is available in country that Cadillac is available in. The Escalade ESV version is available in the United States, Canada, Mexico, and it is Cadillacs largest luxury oriented, passenger and load carrying vehicle which was previously served by the Cadillac Commercial Chassis. The introduction of the Lincoln Navigator in the 1998 model year necessitated that General Motors be able to compete in the burgeoning American market for full-size luxury-type trucks and this generation was only a five-seat SUV. Fearing the growing hegemony of the Lincoln Navigator, the Escalade was rushed through the process to reach dealers quickly. Essentially little more than a badge-engineered GMC Yukon Denali, the SUVs aesthetics were similar to the Denali, the Escalades underpinnings were borrowed from the Yukon Denali line, with the GMC logos on the center caps replaced with Cadillacs crest. The Escalade also used the same 5.7 L Vortec 5700 V8 at 255 hp, all first-generation Escalades featured Auto-Trac selectable 4x4. The 1999-2000 Escalade achieves 11 mpg‑US city and 15 mpg‑US highway based on U. S. EPA test protocols, the Escalade also included a Bose surround system, a first for an SUV. The Escalade gauge cluster differed slightly from the used in the Tahoe. The Escalade gauges features white needles instead of orange and the speedometer reads to 120 mph, in 2005 all Rear-wheel drive and All-wheel drive Escalades came with the High output 6. 0L Vortec V8. All models offered seating up to 8 people, for 2004, XM Satellite Radio, second-row bucket seats, and a tire pressure monitoring system were made standard on all Escalades except the EXT.0 liter V8 producing 345 horsepower. The OnStar system was upgraded for the 2005 model year and had become a system instead of the analog system that had been in use. 2002–20035. 3L LM7 Vortec V8,285 horsepower 2004–20065. 3L LM7 Vortec V8,295 horsepower 2002–20066, the regular Escalade was again joined by a stretched ESV version as well as a new EXT sport utility truck
21.
CNET
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CNET is an American media website that publishes reviews, news, articles, blogs, podcasts and videos on technology and consumer electronics globally. Founded in 1994 by Halsey Minor and Shelby Bonnie, it was the brand of CNET Networks. In addition CNET currently has region-specific and language-specific editions and these include the United Kingdom, Australia, China, Japan, French, German, Korean and Spanish. CNET TV was composed of CNET Central, The Web, CNET Central was created first and aired in syndication in the United States on the USA Network. Later, it began airing on USAs sister network Sci-Fi Channel along with The Web and these were later followed by TV. com in 1996. Current American Idol host Ryan Seacrest first came to prominence at CNET, as the host of The New Edge. In addition, CNET produced another television technology news program called News. com that aired on CNBC beginning in 1999, from 2001 to 2003, CNET operated CNET Radio on the Clear Channel-owned KNEW in the San Francisco Bay Area, WBPS in Boston and on XM Satellite Radio. After failing to attract a sufficient audience, CNET Radio ceased operating in January 2003 due to financial losses, as CNET Networks, the site made various acquisitions to expand its reach across various web platforms, regions, and markets. In July 1999, CNET acquired the Swiss-based company GDT, GDT was later renamed to CNET Channel. In 1998, CNET granted the right to Asiacontent to set up CNET Asia, in January 2000, the same time CNET became CNET Networks, they acquired comparison shopping site mySimon for $736 million. In October 2000, CNET Networks acquired ZDNet for approximately $1.6 billion, in April 2001, CNET acquired TechRepublic Inc. which provides content for IT professionals from Gartner, Inc. for $23 million in cash and stock. On July 14,2004, CNET announced that it would acquire Webshots, in October 2007, they sold Webshots to American Greetings for $45 million. In December 2006, James Kim, an editor at CNET, CNET hosted a memorial show and podcasts dedicated to him. On March 1,2007, CNET announced the launch of BNET. BNET had been running under beta status since 2005, on May 15,2008 it was announced that CBS Corporation would buy CNET Networks for US$1.8 billion. On June 30,2008, the acquisition was completed, former CNET properties are now part of CBS Interactive. On September 19,2013 CBS Interactive launched a Spanish language sister site under the name CNET en Español and it focuses on topics of relevance primarily to Spanish-speaking technology enthusiasts. The site offered a new perspective on technology and is under the leadership of managing editor Gabriel Sama, in March 2014, CNET refreshed its site by merging with CNET UK and vowing to merge all editions of the agency into a unified agency
22.
Chevrolet Kodiak
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The Chevrolet Kodiak is a line of medium duty trucks that was marketed and sold by General Motors from 1980 to 2009, when the company exited the medium-duty truck segment. The Kodiak/TopKick were commonly used as a basis for work trucks, cargo haulers, dump trucks, there are aftermarket coachbuilders that built them as pickup trucks and commercial trucks for consumers. For 1980, General Motors introduced the Chevrolet Kodiak and GMC TopKick as Class 5-7 conventional trucks, two-door and four-door cab configurations were available. Distinguished from the medium duty C/K by its hood, the Kodiak/TopKick was given a full-width grille. In place of twin headlights inside the grille, the trucks were given quad rectangular headlights mounted below the grille, the Kodiak followed the Chevrolet naming tradition of frontier beast names for heavy conventionals while the TopKick was a military slang term. Shared with the C/K, the Kodiak/TopKick had two Chevrolet big-block engines for the engine lineup, a 6. 0L V8 and a 7. 0L V8. Two diesel engines were available, a Detroit Diesel 8. 2L V8, for 1990, General Motors redesigned the Kodiak/TopKick model lines as part of a redesign that consolidated its multiple large truck lines into a single product line. Based on the all-new GMT530 architecture, the conventionals adopted their cabs from the GMT400 C/K pickup introduced in 1988, as before, two-door and four-door cab configurations were available, a raised-roof cab was an optional configuration. Over its thirteen-year production run, the Kodiak/TopKick changed relatively little, in 1995, the Kodiak and TopKick nameplates were dropped, in favor of C4500-C8500 nameplates, bringing the medium-duty trucks in line with the rest of the C/K naming convention. In the mid-1990s, a low-profile aerodynamic hood became an option, it was not available in severe-service, while U. S. production of the Kodiak/TopKick ended after 2002, it remained in production for the Mexican domestic market in the GM Toluca, Mexico facility through 2008. As with its predecessor, the Kodiak/TopKick/medium-duty C used gasoline engines as the standard offering, in 2002, the 7. 4L V8 was replaced by an 8. 1L V8, the highest-displacement standard production engine ever built by Chevrolet. In addition to the engines, GM offered variants of the Caterpillar 3116 and 3126 inline-six diesels throughout the production run of the vehicle. For 2003, the General Motors medium-duty range was again redesigned, due to their nameplate association, the Kodiak and TopKick nameplates were reinstated alongside their various model ranges. Based on the new GMT560 architecture, the Kodiak/TopKick made a shift in their overall layout. Although an extended cab was unavailable, a four-door crew-cab was produced with four full doors, also available as cab and chassis for class 8 truck 8500 series tandem with gvw rating up to 46000lbs Depending on size range, the Kodiak/TopKick was available with several different engines. On 4500/5500 models, an 8. 1L gasoline V8 was standard, on 6500 models and up, an Isuzu-built 7. 8L diesel inline-6 available, in addition to Caterpillar C7. In 2005, factory-installed four-wheel drive was added as an option to Kodiak/TopKick C4500/5500s and these trucks featured solid front axles, instead of independent front suspension featured on the Class 33500 Silverado/Sierra. The drive-train consisted of a 6. 6L Duramax V8 diesel, Allison 2000 series 5 speed 2003-2006, Allison 2350 series 6speed transmission, Dana s135 2003-2005 Dana S14- 110L rear axle 2005-2009
23.
Gasoline
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Gasoline /ˈɡæsəliːn/, known as petrol /ˈpɛtrəl/ outside North America, is a transparent, petroleum-derived liquid that is used primarily as a fuel in internal combustion engines. It consists mostly of organic compounds obtained by the distillation of petroleum. On average, a 42-gallon barrel of oil yields about 19 US gallons of gasoline when processed in an oil refinery. The characteristic of a gasoline blend to resist igniting too early is measured by its octane rating. Gasoline is produced in several grades of octane rating, sometimes, gasoline also contains ethanol as an alternative fuel, for economic or environmental reasons. Gasoline, as used worldwide in the vast number of combustion engines used in transport and industry, has a significant impact on the environment. Gasoline may also enter the environment uncombusted, as liquid and as vapors, from leakage and handling during production, transport and delivery, from tanks, from spills. As an example of efforts to control leakage, many storage tanks are required to have extensive measures in place to detect. Gasoline contains benzene and other known carcinogens, Gasoline inhalation can produce an intense high, however the practice is thought to cause severe organ damage, including mental retardation. The first automotive combustion engines, so-called Otto engines, were developed in the last quarter of the 19th century in Germany, the fuel was a relatively volatile hydrocarbon obtained from coal gas. With a boiling point near 85 °C, it was suited for early carburetors. The development of a spray nozzle carburetor enabled the use of less volatile fuels, further improvements in engine efficiency were attempted at higher compression ratios, but early attempts were blocked by knocking. In the 1920s, antiknock compounds were introduced by Thomas Midgley Jr. and Boyd and this innovation started a cycle of improvements in fuel efficiency that coincided with the large-scale development of oil refining to provide more products in the boiling range of gasoline. In the 1950s oil refineries started to focus on high octane fuels, the 1970s witnessed greater attention to the environmental consequences of burning gasoline. These considerations led to the out of TEL and its replacement by other antiknock compounds. Subsequently, low-sulfur gasoline was introduced, in part to preserve the catalysts in modern exhaust systems, Gasoline is the term that is used in North America to refer to the most popular automobile fuel. The Oxford English Dictionary dates the first use to 1863, when it was spelled gasolene and it was never a trademark, although it may have been derived from older trademarks such as Cazeline and Gazeline. Variant spellings of gasoline had been used to refer to raw petroleum since the 16th century, Petrol is the preferred term in most Commonwealth countries
24.
V8 engine
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A V8 engine is an eight-cylinder V configuration engine with the cylinders mounted on the crankcase in two sets of four, with all eight pistons driving a common crankshaft. Most banks are set at an angle to each other, some at a narrower angle, with 45°, 60°. In its simplest form, the V8 is basically two parallel inline-four engines sharing a common crankshaft, since the 1920s, most V8s have used the somewhat more complex crossplane crankshaft with heavy counterweights to eliminate the vibrations. This results in an engine that is smoother than a V6, most racing V8s continue to use the single plane crankshaft because it allows faster acceleration and more efficient exhaust system designs. In 1902, Léon Levavasseur took out a patent on a light and he called it the Antoinette after the young daughter of his financial backer. From 1904 he installed this engine in a number of competition speedboats, the aviation pioneer Alberto Santos-Dumont saw one of these boats in Côte dAzur and decided to try it on his 14-bis aircraft. Its early 24 hp at 1400 rpm version with only 55 kg of weight was interesting, Santos-Dumont ordered a larger and more powerful version from Levavasseur. He changed its dimensions from the original 80 mm stroke and 80 mm bore to 105 mm stroke and 110 mm bore, obtaining 50 hp with 86 kg of weight and its power-to-weight ratio was not surpassed for 25 years. Levavasseur eventually produced its own line of V8 equipped aircraft, named Antoinette I to VIII, hubert Latham piloted the V8 powered Antoinette IV and Antoinette VII in July 1909 on two failed attempts to cross the English Channel. However, in 1910, Latham used the VII with the engine to become the first in the world to reach an altitude of 3600 feet. Voisin constructed pusher biplanes with Antoinette engines, also, notably the one first flown successfully by Henry Farman in 1908, the V8 engine configuration became popular in France from 1904 onward, and was used in a number of aircraft engines introduced by Renault, and Buchet among others. Some of these found their way into automobiles in small quantities. In 1905, Darracq built a car to beat the world speed record. They came up with two racing car built on a common crankcase and camshaft. The result was monstrous engine with a displacement of 1,551 cu in, victor Hemery fixed that record on 30 December 1905 with a speed of 109.65 mph. Rolls-Royce built a 3,535 cc V8 car from 1905 to 1906, in 1907 The Hewitt Motor Company built a large 5 passenger Touring Car. It was equipped with a hefty V8 engine that developed 50/60 horsepower and had a bore of 4 inches, the Hewitt was the first American Automobile to be equipped with a V8 engine. De Dion-Bouton introduced a 7,773 cc automobile V8 in 1910 and it was produced only in small quantities, but inspired a number of manufacturers to follow suit
25.
Diesel fuel
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Diesel engines have found broad use as a result of higher thermodynamic efficiency and thus fuel efficiency. This is particularly noted where diesel engines are run at part-load, as their air supply is not throttled as in a petrol engine, to distinguish these types, petroleum-derived diesel is increasingly called petrodiesel. Ultra-low-sulfur diesel is a standard for defining diesel fuel with substantially lowered sulfur contents, as of 2016, almost all of the petroleum-based diesel fuel available in UK, Europe and North America is of a ULSD type. In the UK, diesel fuel for use is commonly abbreviated DERV, standing for diesel-engined road vehicle. In Australia diesel fuel is known as distillate, and in Indonesia, it is known as Solar. Diesel fuel originated from experiments conducted by German scientist and inventor Rudolf Diesel for his engine he invented in 1892. Diesel fuel is produced from various sources, the most common being petroleum, other sources include biomass, animal fat, biogas, natural gas, and coal liquefaction. Petroleum diesel, also called petrodiesel, or fossil diesel is the most common type of diesel fuel, synthetic diesel can be produced from any carbonaceous material, including biomass, biogas, natural gas, coal and many others. The raw material is gasified into synthesis gas, which after purification is converted by the Fischer–Tropsch process to a synthetic diesel, the process is typically referred to as biomass-to-liquid, gas-to-liquid or coal-to-liquid, depending on the raw material used. Paraffinic synthetic diesel generally has a content of sulfur and very low aromatics content, reducing unregulated emissions of toxic hydrocarbons, nitrous oxides. Fatty-acid methyl ester, more known as biodiesel, is obtained from vegetable oil or animal fats which have been transesterified with methanol. It can be produced from many types of oils, the most common being rapeseed oil in Europe, methanol can also be replaced with ethanol for the transesterification process, which results in the production of ethyl esters. FAME can be used pure in engines where the manufacturer approves such use, FAME as a fuel is specified in DIN EN14214 and ASTM D6751. Pure biodiesel has an energy content about 5–10% lower than petroleum diesel, the loss in power when using pure biodiesel is 5–7%. As FAME contains low levels of sulfur, the emissions of oxides and sulfates. Use of biodiesel also results in reductions of unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, CO emissions using biodiesel are substantially reduced, on the order of 50% compared to most petrodiesel fuels. The exhaust emissions of particulate matter from biodiesel have been found to be 30% lower than overall particulate matter emissions from petrodiesel, the exhaust emissions of total hydrocarbons are up to 93% lower for biodiesel than diesel fuel. Biodiesel also may reduce risks associated with petroleum diesel
26.
Duramax V8 engine
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The Duramax is a General Motors diesel engine family for trucks, designed by GM and Isuzu. The 6. 6-liter Duramax is produced by DMAX, a joint venture between GM and Isuzu in Moraine, Ohio, the Duramax block and heads are poured at The Defiance GM Powertrain foundry in Defiance, Ohio. This engine was installed in 2001 model year Chevy and GMC trucks and has been an option since then in pickups, vans. In 2006, production at Moraine was reportedly limited to approximately 200,000 engines per year, on May 9,2007, DMAX announced the production of the 1,000, 000th Duramax V-8 diesel at its Moraine facility. RPO LB7 was first introduced in 2001 and continued until early-2004 and it is a 32-valve design with high-pressure common-rail direct injection and an experimental composite design cylinder head. The most common issue with the LB7 is injector failure, so common that a special bulletin was issued. Fuel leaked and entered the crankcase, causing oil dilution, early on, customers came forward complaining of severe overheating, and in some situations, blown head gaskets. Initially GM denied it was a problem, but after being sued by a group, GM relented and included overheating. GM issued a warranty for this after the fact for injectors and it is a 32-valve design with high-pressure common-rail direct injection and aluminum cylinder heads. The LLY was GMs first attempt to implement emissions requirements on their diesel trucks, to meet this goal they turned to a newly developed Garrett turbocharger with a variable geometry vane system and they installed an Exhaust Gas Recirculation valve or. While it is the LBZ it has LLY tune tables and this was introduced in late 2005 and continued into 2007 sold only in the classic body style. It has an engine computer tune that produces increased power. The LMM was the only Duramax offered for model years 2008-2010, a version was used in Trident Iceni. It is an advanced version of the LMM engine with the majority of the changes addressing a required drastic reduction in engine emissions. Some mechanical aspects of the engine, such as oil flow design for improved temperature control. New 29,000 PSI piezo injectors, a complete fuel system-hardening to tolerate up to 20% biodiesel mixtures and urea injection with a 5.3 gallon urea tank are updating the fuel and emissions systems. This engine has a fuel injector in the exhaust tract, to allow raw fuel injection during the particulate filter recycling routine, the RPO LML engine is rated at 397 horsepower at 3000 rpm and 765 lb·ft of torque at 1600 rpm. The L5P duramax is the latest version of the Duramax V8 diesel engine, introduced in the 2017 model year it is the most powerful diesel engine GM has produced with 445 hp @2,800 rpm and 910 lb-ft @1,600 rpm
27.
Autoweek
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Autoweek is an American fortnightly automotive enthusiast publication based in Detroit, Michigan. It was first published in 1958 and in 1977 the publication was purchased by Crain Communications Inc, the magazine covers auto racing, auto shows, vehicle trends, reviews and automotive lifestyle stories. It is also available via autoweek. com and on the iPad, the Autoweek Media Group also includes an Autoweek iPhone and iPad app. Autoweek began publication in 1958 as a bi-weekly motorsports newsletter, titled Competition Press, one of the editors involved with the creation of the magazine was professional racer Denise McCluggage. In 1964, distribution was changed to weekly, the title was changed to Competition Press & Autoweek, the name was shortened to Autoweek in 1975. In 1977, the paper was purchased by Crain Communications, Inc. in 1988, Leon Mandel was named Publisher, a position he held until November,2001. Leon’s son, Dutch Mandel, joined Autoweek in 1997 and as of 2012 is the magazine’s Editorial Director, distribution frequency was changed from weekly to fortnightly in 2009. In January 1,2013, shopautoweek. com merged with autoweek. com, at its launch Autoweek aimed to provide information for car and racing enthusiasts that was not readily available through other media outlets. The publication gave thorough coverage of major and minor races, as well as auto shows, auto racing coverage included full grids, qualifying times, speeds, and tires, for both amateur and professional races. As television and cable began increasing motorsports coverage during the 1970s, 1980s, as of 2012, in addition to covering auto racing and auto shows, Autoweek covers vehicle trends, reviews and automotive lifestyle stories. Autoweeks Vinsetta Garage is a show that ran from January 3,2012 on Discovery Channels Velocity TV until December that year. The show was hosted by Courtney Hansen and guests included automotive executives, musicians, race car drivers, the shows name came from the Vinsetta Garage, which opened in 1919 and is located on Woodward Avenue in Berkley, about 20 miles north of Detroit. Constructed when Woodward Avenue was still a road, the garage began as a gas station that serviced horse-drawn carriages. Later the garage took on the role of car repair shop. After 91 years, its doors were closed in 2010 and it was being converted into a restaurant
28.
Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company
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The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company is an American multinational tire manufacturing company founded in 1898 by Frank Seiberling and based in Akron, Ohio. Goodyear manufactures tires for automobiles, commercial trucks, light trucks, motorcycles, SUVs, race cars, airplanes, farm equipment, the company was named after American Charles Goodyear, inventor of vulcanized rubber. The first Goodyear tires became popular because they were easily detachable, Goodyear is also known for the Goodyear Blimp. Though Goodyear had been manufacturing airships and balloons since the early 1900s, today it is one of the most recognizable advertising icons in America. The company is the most successful tire supplier in Formula One history, with starts, wins. They pulled out of the sport after the 1998 season and it is the sole tire supplier for NASCAR series. Goodyear is a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average. The company opened a new headquarters building in Akron in 2013. The first Goodyear factory opened in Akron, Ohio, in 1898, the thirteen original employees manufactured bicycle and carriage tires, rubber horseshoe pads, and poker chips. The company grew with the advent of the automobile, in 1901 Frank Seiberling provided Henry Ford with racing tires. In 1903, Paul Weeks Litchfield was granted a patent for the first tubeless automobile tire, by 1908 Ford was outfitting his Model T with Goodyear tires. In 1909 Goodyear manufactured its first aircraft tire, in 1911 Goodyear started experimenting with airship design. It later manufactured airships and observation balloons for the United States Army Air Service during World War I, the transport and reconnaissance capabilities that Goodyear provided contributed significantly to the Allied victory. In 1916, Litchfield found land in the Phoenix area suitable for growing long-staple cotton, the 36,000 acres purchased were controlled by the Southwest Cotton Company, formed with Litchfield as president. In 1924, Litchfield, as Goodyear Vice President, forged a joint venture with the German Luftschiffbau Zeppelin Company to form the Goodyear-Zeppelin Corporation, by 1926 Goodyear was the largest rubber company in the world. Only four years earlier it was forced to halt production of racing tires due to heavy competition. Nevertheless, the popularity of the Goodyear tire on the circuit led to a popular demand for the return of the brand. On August 5,1927, Goodyear had its public offering and was listed on the New York Stock Exchange
29.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
30.
Barack Obama
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Barack Hussein Obama II is an American politician who served as the 44th President of the United States from 2009 to 2017. He is the first African American to have served as president and he previously served in the U. S. Senate representing Illinois from 2005 to 2008, and in the Illinois State Senate from 1997 to 2004. Obama was born in Honolulu, Hawaii, two years after the territory was admitted to the Union as the 50th state and he grew up mostly in Hawaii, but also spent one year of his childhood in Washington State and four years in Indonesia. After graduating from Columbia University in 1983, he worked as a community organizer in Chicago, in 1988 Obama enrolled in Harvard Law School, where he was the first black president of the Harvard Law Review. After graduation, he became a civil rights attorney and professor, Obama represented the 13th District for three terms in the Illinois Senate from 1997 to 2004, when he ran for the U. S. Senate. In 2008, Obama was nominated for president, a year after his campaign began and he was elected over Republican John McCain, and was inaugurated on January 20,2009. Nine months later, Obama was named the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize laureate, during his first two years in office, Obama signed more landmark legislation than any Democratic president since LBJs Great Society. Main reforms were the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, after a lengthy debate over the national debt limit, Obama signed the Budget Control and the American Taxpayer Relief Acts. In foreign policy, Obama increased U. S. troop levels in Afghanistan, reduced nuclear weapons with the U. S. -Russian New START treaty, and ended military involvement in the Iraq War. He ordered military involvement in Libya in opposition to Muammar Gaddafi, after winning re-election over Mitt Romney, Obama was sworn in for a second term in 2013. Obama also advocated gun control in response to the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, and issued wide-ranging executive actions concerning climate change and immigration. In foreign policy, Obama ordered military intervention in Iraq in response to gains made by ISIL after the 2011 withdrawal from Iraq, Obama left office in January 2017 with a 60% approval rating. He currently resides in Washington, D. C and his presidential library will be built in Chicago. Obama was born on August 4,1961, at Kapiʻolani Maternity & Gynecological Hospital in Honolulu and he is the only President to have been born in Hawaii. He was born to a mother and a black father. His mother, Ann Dunham, was born in Wichita, Kansas, of mostly English descent, with some German, Irish, Scottish, Swiss and his father, Barack Obama Sr. was a married Luo Kenyan man from Nyangoma Kogelo. Obamas parents met in 1960 in a Russian language class at the University of Hawaii at Manoa, the couple married in Wailuku, Hawaii on February 2,1961, six months before Obama was born. In late August 1961, Obamas mother moved him to the University of Washington in Seattle for a year
31.
Joe Biden
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Joseph Robinette Joe Biden Jr. is an American politician who was the 47th Vice President of the United States from 2009 to 2017, having been jointly elected twice with President Barack Obama. A member of the Democratic Party, he represented Delaware as a United States Senator from 1973 until becoming Vice President in 2009, Biden was born in Scranton, Pennsylvania, in 1942, and lived there for ten years before moving to Delaware. He became an attorney in 1969, and was elected to the New Castle County council in 1970 and he was first elected to the Senate in 1972, and became the sixth-youngest senator in U. S. history. He was re-elected to the Senate six times, and was the fourth most senior senator at the time of his resignation to assume the Vice Presidency in 2009 and he was a long-time member and former chairman of the Foreign Relations Committee. He opposed the Gulf War in 1991, but advocated U. S. and he voted in favor of the resolution authorizing the Iraq War in 2002, but opposed the surge of U. S. troops in 2007. He chaired the Judiciary Committee during the contentious U. S. Supreme Court nominations of Robert Bork, Biden unsuccessfully sought the Democratic presidential nomination in 1988 and in 2008, both times dropping out after lacklucster showings. In the 2008 U. S. presidential election, Barack Obama chose Biden to be his mate in the race. He became the first Roman Catholic, and the first Delawarean, in 2011, he opposed going ahead with the military mission that resulted in the death of Osama bin Laden. Obama and Biden were re-elected in 2012, in October 2015, after months of speculation, Biden chose not to run for President of the United States in 2016. On January 12,2017, Obama awarded him the Presidential Medal of Freedom, after leaving office, Biden was named the Benjamin Franklin Presidential Practice professor at the University of Pennsylvania. Biden was born on November 20,1942, at St. Marys Hospital in Scranton, Pennsylvania, to Catherine Eugenia Jean Biden and Joseph Robinette Joe Biden Sr. He was the first of four siblings in a Catholic family, with a sister, Valerie and his mother was of either Irish or Northern Irish descent, with roots variously attributed to County Louth or County Londonderry. His paternal grandparents, Mary Elizabeth and Joseph H. Biden, an oil businessman from Baltimore, Maryland, were of English, French and his paternal great-great-great grandfather, William Biden, was born in Sussex, England, and immigrated to the United States. His maternal great-grandfather, Edward Francis Blewitt, was a member of the Pennsylvania State Senate, Bidens father had been very well-off earlier in his life, but suffered several business reversals by the time his son was born. For several years, the family had to live with Bidens maternal grandparents, when the Scranton area went into economic decline during the 1950s, Bidens father could not find enough work. In 1953, the Biden family moved to an apartment in Claymont, Delaware, Joe Biden Sr. was then more successful as a used car salesman, and the familys circumstances were middle class. He played on the team as well. During these years, he participated in an anti-segregation sit-in at a Wilmington theatre, academically, he was an above-average student, was considered a natural leader among the students, and was elected class president during his junior and senior years
32.
Bulletproof glass
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Bulletproof glass is a type of strong but optically transparent material that is particularly resistant to being penetrated when struck. Like any material, however, it is not completely impenetrable and it is usually made from a combination of two or more types of glass, one hard and one soft. The softer layer makes the glass more elastic, so it can instead of shatter. The index of refraction for both of the used in the bulletproof layers must be almost the same to keep the glass transparent and allow a clear. Bulletproof glass varies in thickness from 3⁄4 to 3 1⁄2 inches, bulletproof glass is used in windows of buildings that require security, such as jewelry stores and embassies, as well as military and private vehicles. Bullet-resistant glass is constructed using layers of laminated glass, the more layers the higher the protection. When a weight reduction is needed 3mm of polycarbonate is laminated onto the safe side, the aim is to make a material with the appearance and clarity of standard glass but with effective protection from small arms. Polycarbonate designs usually consist of such as Armormax, Makroclear, Cyrolon, Lexan or Tuffak. The polycarbonate usually has one of two types of coating to resist abrasion, a coating that heals after being scratched or a hard coating that prevents scratching. The plastic in laminate designs also provides resistance to impact from physical assault from blunt, the plastic provides little in the way of bullet-resistance. The glass, which is harder than plastic, flattens the bullet. The ability of the layer to stop projectiles with varying energy is directly proportional to its thickness. Laminated glass layers are built from glass sheets bonded together with polyvinyl butyral, polyurethane, when treated with chemical processes, the glass becomes much stronger. This design has been in use on combat vehicles since World War II. It is typically thick and is extremely heavy. Bullet-resistant materials are tested using a gun to fire a projectile from a set distance into the material, levels of protection are based on the ability of the target to stop a specific type of projectile traveling at a specific speed. When projectiles do not penetrate, the depth of the dent left by the impact can be measured and related to the projectile’s velocity and thickness of the material. Some researchers have developed models based on results of this kind of testing to help them design bulletproof glass to resist specific anticipated threats. S
33.
Toll road
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A toll road, also known as a turnpike or tollway, is a public or private roadway for which a fee is assessed for passage. It is a form of road pricing typically implemented to help recoup the cost of road construction, the amount of the toll usually varies by vehicle type, weight, or number of axles, with freight trucks often charged higher rates than cars. Tolls are collected at points known as toll booths, toll houses, plazas, stations, bars, some toll collection points are unmanned and the user deposits money in a machine which opens the gate once the correct toll has been paid. To cut costs and minimize time delay many tolls today are collected by some form of automatic or electronic toll collection equipment which communicates electronically with a toll payers transponder, Toll booths are usually still required for the occasional users who do not have a transponder. The tolls are often prepaid or collected automatically from a credit card service. Some toll roads have automated toll enforcement systems that take photos of drivers who do not pay the tolls and they typically get the toll bill delivered to them in the mail. Criticisms of toll roads include the time taken to stop and pay the toll, automated toll paying systems help minimize both of these. Others object to paying twice for the road, in fuel taxes. In addition to roads, toll bridges and toll tunnels are also used by public authorities to generate funds to repay the cost of building the structures. Some tolls are set aside to pay for maintenance or enhancement of infrastructure, or are applied as a general fund by local governments. This is sometimes limited or prohibited by government legislation. Also road congestion pricing schemes have been implemented in a number of urban areas as a transportation demand management tool to try to reduce traffic congestion. Toll roads have existed for at least the last 2,700 years, as tolls had to be paid by travellers using the Susa–Babylon highway under the regime of Ashurbanipal, aristotle and Pliny refer to tolls in Arabia and other parts of Asia. In India, before the 4th century BC, the Arthasastra notes the use of tolls, germanic tribes charged tolls to travellers across mountain passes. A 14th-century example is Castle Loevestein in the Netherlands, which was built at a point where two rivers meet. River tolls were charged on boats sailing along the river, in 14th-century England, some of the most heavily used roads were repaired with money raised from tolls by pavage grants. Widespread toll roads sometimes restricted traffic so much, by their high tolls, tolls were used in the Holy Roman Empire in the 14th and 15th centuries. In the 20th century, road tolls were introduced in Europe to finance the construction of motorway networks and specific transport infrastructure such as bridges, Italy was the first European country to charge motorway tolls, on a 50 km motorway section near Milan in 1924
34.
Run-flat tire
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There are three basic technologies currently available, described below. The origins of the commercial self-supporting run-flat tire started in 1935 with a tire that had an inner tire. The tire was advertised as a protection against blow outs, a common, in 1934, Michelin introduced a tire that was based on technology developed for local commuter trains and trolleys. It had a safety rim inside the tire which if punctured would run on a special foam lining, the tire was sold for military use and for specialized vehicles like bank armoured cars. It was advertised as semi-bullet proof, while the tire performed as advertised it was far too expensive to be a feasible option for most private automobile users. In 1958, Chrysler teamed with Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company to offer Captive Air run-flat tires using an interlining to carry the weight, most recently, Bridgestone and Pirelli run-flat tires are supplied on some new model BMW cars. The automaker promoted these as a safety feature and as an alternative to carrying a spare tire, self-supporting run-flat tires are now common on light trucks and passenger cars and typically provide for the vehicle to drive for 50 miles at around 50 miles per hour. These tires carry a 20 to 40 percent weight penalty over similar standard tires, the thicker sidewall also means higher rolling resistance, which reduces the vehicles fuel economy. These tires contain an extra lining within the tire that self-seals in the event of a hole due to a nail or screw. In this way, the loss of air is prevented from the outset such that the tire is either permanently self-repairing or at least loses air very slowly, there are also a number of retrofitted tire sealants which act in a similar way to self-sealing tires. These compounds are normally injected through the tire valve, the rotating force then distributes the compound onto the inner surface of the tire to act as a self-sealing lining within the tire. In this system, there is a support ring or insert attached to the wheel that can support the weight of the vehicle in the event of a loss of pressure. Performance criteria are therefore in terms of distance and speed at which the vehicle can escape without becoming immobile, the usual standard of performance, especially for military or security vehicles, are the Finabel standards. Run-flat tires accounted for less than 1% of replacement tire sales in the U. S. in 2005, a Michelin study released in 2008 found that 3 percent of drivers worldwide want run-flat tires. U. S. market share is well below 1 percent, american Honda Motor Co. announced that the 2009 Honda Odyssey Touring and Acura RL were its last models available with run-flat tires and with Honda no longer using run-flats. This leaves only a handful of manufacturers offering them as standard fittings. An exception is BMW, who are the largest fitter of run-flats as original equipment, former US President Barack Obamas presidential limo, the Beast, had Goodyear Kevlar lined run flat tires. Besides the cost, which can be more than other tires of comparable size, run-flat tires can not be run flat if the flat is due to sidewall damage
35.
Rocket-propelled grenade
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A rocket-propelled grenade is a shoulder-fired, anti-tank weapon system that fires rockets equipped with an explosive warhead. These warheads are affixed to a motor and stabilized in flight with fins. Some types of RPG are reloadable, while others are single-use, RPGs, with some exceptions, are generally loaded from the muzzle. RPGs with high explosive warheads are very effective against armored vehicles such as armoured personnel carriers. However, heavily armored vehicles, such as main battle tanks, are too well armored to be penetrated by an RPG. Various warheads are also capable of causing damage to vulnerable systems. The RPG has its roots in the 20th century with the development of the explosive shaped charge. Before the adoption of the charge, anti-tank guns and tank guns relied primarily on kinetic energy to defeat armor. Armies found that they needed to give infantry the means to defeat enemy armor when no anti-tank guns were available, initial attempts to put such weapons in the hands of the infantry resulted in weapons like the Soviet RPG-40 blast effect hand grenade. What was needed was a means of delivering the shaped charge warhead from a distance, different approaches to this goal would lead to the anti-tank spigot mortar, the recoilless rifle and, from the development of practical rocketry, the rocket propelled grenade. Research occasioned by World War II produced such weapons as the American Bazooka and German Panzerfaust, the Soviet-developed RPG-7 is the most widely distributed, recognizable and used RPG in the world. In the 2000s, they were still being used widely in conflict areas such as Chechnya, Iraq, the RPG has a design that is comparable to a shaped charge explosive. A shaped charge is an explosive charge shaped to focus the effect of the explosives energy, various types are used to penetrate tank armour. A typical modern lined shaped charge can penetrate armor to a depth of seven or more times the diameter of the charge, though greater depths of 10 CD. An RPG comprises two parts, the launcher and a rocket equipped with a warhead. The most common types of warheads are high explosive and high explosive anti-tank rounds and these warheads are affixed to a rocket motor and stabilized in flight with fins. Some types of RPG are single-use disposable units, such as the RPG-22 and M72 LAW, others are reloadable, such as the Soviet RPG-7, the launcher is designed so that the rocket exits the launcher without discharging an exhaust that would be dangerous to the operator. In the case of the RPG-7, the rocket is launched by a booster charge
36.
Night vision
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Night vision is the ability to see in low light conditions. Whether by biological or technological means, night vision is possible by a combination of two approaches, sufficient spectral range, and sufficient intensity range. Humans have poor night vision compared to animals, in part because the human eye lacks a tapetum lucidum. Night-useful spectral range techniques can sense radiation that is invisible to a human observer, human vision is confined to a small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum called visible light. Enhanced spectral range allows the viewer to take advantage of sources of electromagnetic radiation. Some animals such as the shrimp can see using much more of the infrared and/or ultraviolet spectrum than humans. Sufficient intensity range is simply the ability to see with very small quantities of light, many animals have better night vision than humans do, the result of one or more differences in the morphology and anatomy of their eyes. These include having a larger eyeball, a lens, a larger optical aperture, more rods than cones in the retina. Enhanced intensity range is achieved via technological means through the use of an image intensifier, gain multiplication CCD, or other very low-noise and high-sensitivity array of photodetectors. All photoreceptor cells in the eye contain molecules of photoreceptor protein which is a combination of the protein photopsin in color vision cells, rhodopsin in night vision cells, and retinal. The retinal must diffuse from the cell, out of the eye. In bright light conditions, most of the retinal is not in the photoreceptors and it takes about 45 minutes of dark for all of the photoreceptor proteins to be recharged with active retinal, but most of the night vision adaptation occurs within the first five minutes in the dark. Adaptation results in sensitivity to light. In dark conditions only the rod cells have enough sensitivity to respond, rhodopsin in the human rods is insensitive to the longer red wavelengths, so traditionally many people use red light to help preserve night vision. Red light only slowly depletes the rhodopsin stores in the rods, another theory posits that since stars typically emit light with shorter wavelengths, the light from stars will be in the blue-green color spectrum. Therefore, using red light to navigate would not desensitize the receptors used to detect star light, using red light for night vision is less effective for people with red–green color blindness, due to their insensitivity to red light. This is found in nocturnal animals and some deep sea animals. Humans, and monkeys, lack a tapetum lucidum, nocturnal mammals have rods with unique properties that make enhanced night vision possible
37.
Tear gas
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Tear gas, formally known as a lachrymatory agent or lachrymator, is a chemical weapon that causes severe eye, respiratory, and skin irritation, pain, vomiting, and even blindness. In the eye, it stimulates the nerves of the gland to produce tears. Common lachrymators include pepper spray, CS gas, CR gas, CN gas, nonivamide, bromoacetone, xylyl bromide, syn-propanethial-S-oxide, lachrymatory agents are commonly used for riot control. Their use in warfare is prohibited by international treaties. During World War I, increasingly toxic lachrymatory agents were used, tear gas works by irritating mucous membranes in the eyes, nose, mouth and lungs, and causes crying, sneezing, coughing, difficulty breathing, pain in the eyes, and temporary blindness. With CS gas, symptoms of irritation typically appear after 20–60 seconds of exposure, with pepper spray, the onset of symptoms, including loss of motor control, is almost immediate. There can be variation in tolerance and response, according to the National Research Council Committee on Toxicology. The California Poison Control System analyzed 3,671 reports of pepper spray injuries between 2002 and 2011, severe symptoms requiring medical evaluation were found in 6. 8% of people, with the most severe injuries to the eyes, respiratory system and skin. The most severe occurred in law enforcement training, intentionally incapacitating people. Lachrymators are thought to act by attacking sulfhydryl functional groups in enzymes, one of the most probable protein targets is the TRPA1 ion channel that is expressed in sensory nerves of the eyes, nose, mouth and lungs. As with all non-lethal, or less-lethal weapons, there is risk of serious permanent injury or death when tear gas is used. This includes risks from being hit by tear gas cartridges, which include severe bruising, loss of eyesight, skull fracture, skin exposure to CS may cause chemical burns or induce allergic contact dermatitis. When people are hit at close range or are severely exposed, use of tear gas in warfare is prohibited by various international treaties that most states have signed. Police and private use is not banned in the same manner. Armed forces can legally use tear gas for drills and for riot control, first used in 1914, xylyl bromide was a popular tearing agent since it was easily prepared. The US Chemical Warfare Service developed tear gas grenades for use in control in 1919. Certain lachrymatory agents are used by police to force compliance. In some countries, another common substance is mace, the self-defense weapon form of mace is based on pepper spray, and comes in small spray cans, and versions including CS are manufactured for police use
38.
Oxygen
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Oxygen is a chemical element with symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the group on the periodic table and is a highly reactive nonmetal. By mass, oxygen is the third-most abundant element in the universe, after hydrogen, at standard temperature and pressure, two atoms of the element bind to form dioxygen, a colorless and odorless diatomic gas with the formula O2. This is an important part of the atmosphere and diatomic oxygen gas constitutes 20. 8% of the Earths atmosphere, additionally, as oxides the element makes up almost half of the Earths crust. Most of the mass of living organisms is oxygen as a component of water, conversely, oxygen is continuously replenished by photosynthesis, which uses the energy of sunlight to produce oxygen from water and carbon dioxide. Oxygen is too reactive to remain a free element in air without being continuously replenished by the photosynthetic action of living organisms. Another form of oxygen, ozone, strongly absorbs ultraviolet UVB radiation, but ozone is a pollutant near the surface where it is a by-product of smog. At low earth orbit altitudes, sufficient atomic oxygen is present to cause corrosion of spacecraft, the name oxygen was coined in 1777 by Antoine Lavoisier, whose experiments with oxygen helped to discredit the then-popular phlogiston theory of combustion and corrosion. One of the first known experiments on the relationship between combustion and air was conducted by the 2nd century BCE Greek writer on mechanics, Philo of Byzantium. In his work Pneumatica, Philo observed that inverting a vessel over a burning candle, Philo incorrectly surmised that parts of the air in the vessel were converted into the classical element fire and thus were able to escape through pores in the glass. Many centuries later Leonardo da Vinci built on Philos work by observing that a portion of air is consumed during combustion and respiration, Oxygen was discovered by the Polish alchemist Sendivogius, who considered it the philosophers stone. In the late 17th century, Robert Boyle proved that air is necessary for combustion, English chemist John Mayow refined this work by showing that fire requires only a part of air that he called spiritus nitroaereus. From this he surmised that nitroaereus is consumed in both respiration and combustion, Mayow observed that antimony increased in weight when heated, and inferred that the nitroaereus must have combined with it. Accounts of these and other experiments and ideas were published in 1668 in his work Tractatus duo in the tract De respiratione. Robert Hooke, Ole Borch, Mikhail Lomonosov, and Pierre Bayen all produced oxygen in experiments in the 17th and the 18th century but none of them recognized it as a chemical element. This may have been in part due to the prevalence of the philosophy of combustion and corrosion called the phlogiston theory, which was then the favored explanation of those processes. Established in 1667 by the German alchemist J. J. Becher, one part, called phlogiston, was given off when the substance containing it was burned, while the dephlogisticated part was thought to be its true form, or calx. The fact that a substance like wood gains overall weight in burning was hidden by the buoyancy of the combustion products
39.
Fuel tank
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A fuel tank is a safe container for flammable fluids. Though any storage tank for fuel may be so called, the term is applied to part of an engine system in which the fuel is stored and propelled or released into an engine. Fuel tanks range in size and complexity from the plastic tank of a butane lighter to the multi-chambered cryogenic Space Shuttle external tank. Typically, a fuel tank must allow or provide the following, Storage of fuel, filling, the fuel tank must be filled in a secure way, without sparks. Provide a method for determining level of fuel in tank, gauging, anticipate potentials for damage and provide safe survival potential. Considering the inertia and kinetic energy of fuel in a tank being transported by a vehicle. The flammability of fuel makes stress cracking a possible cause of catastrophic failure, emergencies aside, HDPE plastic is suitable for short term storage of diesel and gasoline. Underwriters Laboratories approved tanks would be a design consideration. While most tanks are manufactured, some fuel tanks are still fabricated by craftsmen or hand-made in the case of bladder-style tanks. These include custom and restoration tanks for automotive, aircraft, motorcycles, construction of fuel tanks follows a series of specific steps. The craftsman generally creates a mockup to determine the size and shape of the tank. Next, design issues that affect the structure of the tank are addressed - such as where the outlet, drain, fluid level indicator, seams, then the craftsmen must determine the thickness, temper and alloy of the sheet he will use to make the tank. After the sheet is cut to the shapes needed, various pieces are bent to create the basic shell and/or ends, many fuel tanks baffles contain lightening holes. These flanged holes serve two purposes, they reduce the weight of the tank while adding strength to the baffles, toward the end of construction, openings are added for the filler neck, fuel pickup, drain, and fuel-level sending unit. Sometimes these holes are created on the shell, other times they are added at the end of the fabrication process. Baffles and ends can be riveted into place, the heads of the rivets are frequently brazed or soldered to prevent tank leaks. Ends can then be hemmed in and soldered, or flanged and brazed or the ends can be flanged, once the soldering, brazing or welding is complete, the fuel tank is leak-tested. The maximum distance a combustion-engine powered car with a tank can cover is the product of the tank capacity
40.
Pump action
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A pump-action or slide-action firearm is one in which a forend can be moved forward and backward in order to eject a spent round of ammunition and to chamber a fresh one. It is much faster than a bolt-action and somewhat faster than a lever-action, once fired, the forend is slid rearward by hand and the expended cartridge ejected. It is then reloaded by manually moving the forend to the front, the first slide action patent was issued to Alexander Bain of Britain in 1854. This technique is called a slamfire, and was used in conjunction with the M1897 in the First World Wars trench warfare. Semi-automatic shotguns must use some of the energy of each round fired to cycle their actions, in addition, like all manual action guns, pump-action guns are inherently more reliable than semi-automatic guns under adverse conditions, such as exposure to dirt, sand, or climatic extremes. Thus, until recently, military combat shotguns were almost exclusively pump-action designs, the cycling time of a pump-action is quite short. The manual operation gives a pump-action the ability to cycle rounds of varying power that a gas or recoil operated firearm would fail to cycle. The simplicity of the relative to a semi-automatic design also leads to improved durability. It has also noticed that the time taken to work the action allows the operator to identify and aim on a new target. However, most are not truly ambidextrous, as the spent casing is ejected out the side in most designs, like most lever-action rifles, most pump-action shotguns and rifles do not use a detachable magazine. This makes for slow reloading, as the cartridges have to be inserted individually into the firearm, however, some pump action shotguns and rifles, such as the Russian Zlatoust RB-12, Italian Valtro PM5 and the American Remington 7600 series use detachable box magazines. A pump-action firearm is fed from a tubular magazine underneath the barrel. The rounds are fed in one by one through a port in the receiver, a latch at the rear of the magazine holds the rounds in place in the magazine until they are needed. If it is desired to load the gun fully, a round may be loaded through the port directly into the chamber, or cycled from the magazine. Pump shotguns with box magazines or even drums exist. Nearly all pump-actions use a motion of the forend to cycle the action. The forend is connected to the bolt by one or two bars, two bars are considered reliable because it provides symmetric forces on the bolt and pump. The motion of the back and forth in a tubular magazine model will also operate the elevator
41.
Shotgun
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Shotguns come in a wide variety of sizes, ranging from 5. A shotgun is generally a smoothbore firearm, which means that the inside of the barrel is not rifled, preceding smoothbore firearms, such as the musket, were widely used by armies in the 18th century. The direct ancestor to the shotgun, the blunderbuss, was used in a similar variety of roles from self-defense to riot control. It was often used by cavalry troops because of its shorter length and ease of use. In the 19th century, however, these weapons were replaced on the battlefield with breechloading rifled firearms. The military value of shotguns was rediscovered in the First World War, since then, it has been used in a variety of roles in civilian, law enforcement, and military applications. The shot pellets from a spread upon leaving the barrel, and the power of the burning charge is divided among the pellets. In a hunting context, this makes shotguns useful primarily for hunting birds, however, in a military or law enforcement context, the large number of projectiles makes the shotgun useful as a close quarters combat weapon or a defensive weapon. Militants or insurgents may use shotguns in asymmetric engagements, as shotguns are commonly owned civilian weapons in many countries, shotguns are also used for target shooting sports such as skeet, trap, and sporting clays. These involve shooting clay disks, known as clay pigeons, thrown in various ways, shotguns come in a wide variety of forms, from very small up to massive punt guns, and in nearly every type of firearm operating mechanism. The common characteristics that make a unique center around the requirements of firing shot. These features are the typical of a shotgun shell, namely a relatively short, wide cartridge, with straight walls. Ammunition for shotguns is referred to in the USA as shotgun shells, shotshells, the term cartridges is standard usage in the United Kingdom. The shot is fired from a smoothbore barrel, another configuration is the rifled slug barrel. The typical use of a shotgun is against small and fast moving targets, the spreading of the shot allows the user to point the shotgun close to the target, rather than having to aim precisely as in the case of a single projectile. The disadvantages of shot are limited range and limited penetration of the shot, which is why shotguns are used at short ranges, and typically against smaller targets. Larger shot sizes, up to the case of the single projectile slug load, result in increased penetration. Aside from the most common use against small, fast moving targets, First, it has enormous stopping power at short range, more than nearly all handguns and many rifles
42.
Blood type
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A blood type is a classification of blood based on the presence and absence of antibodies and also based on the presence or absence of inherited antigenic substances on the surface of red blood cells. These antigens may be proteins, carbohydrates, glycoproteins, or glycolipids, some of these antigens are also present on the surface of other types of cells of various tissues. Several of these red blood cell antigens can stem from one allele. Blood types are inherited and represent contributions from both parents, a total of 35 human blood group systems are now recognized by the International Society of Blood Transfusion. The two most important ones are ABO and the RhD antigen, they determine someones blood type, many pregnant women carry a fetus with a blood type which is different from their own, which is not a problem. What can matter is whether the baby is RhD positive or negative, mothers who are RhD- and carry a RhD+ baby can form antibodies against fetal RBCs. Sometimes this is lethal for the fetus, in cases it is called hydrops fetalis. A complete blood type would describe a set of 30 substances on the surface of RBCs. Across the 35 blood groups, over 600 different blood-group antigens have been found, another more common cause in blood type change is a bone marrow transplant. Bone-marrow transplants are performed for many leukemias and lymphomas, among other diseases, if a person receives bone marrow from someone who is a different ABO type, the patients blood type will eventually convert to the donors type. Some blood types are associated with inheritance of other diseases, for example, certain blood types may affect susceptibility to infections, an example being the resistance to specific malaria species seen in individuals lacking the Duffy antigen. The Duffy antigen, presumably as a result of selection, is less common in ethnic groups from areas with a high incidence of malaria. In human blood there are two antigens and antibodies, the two antigens are antigen A and antigen B. The two antibodies are antibody A and antibody B, the antigens are present in the red blood cells and the antibodies in the serum. The antibodies present together with the antigens are found as follows,1, antigen A with antibody B2. Antigen B with antibody A3, antigen AB has no antibodies 4. Antigen nil with antibody A and B, the ABO system is the most important blood-group system in human-blood transfusion. The associated anti-A and anti-B antibodies are usually immunoglobulin M, abbreviated IgM, ABO IgM antibodies are produced in the first years of life by sensitization to environmental substances such as food, bacteria, and viruses
43.
Infrared
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It extends from the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum at 700 nanometers, to 1000000 nm. Most of the radiation emitted by objects near room temperature is infrared. Like all EMR, IR carries radiant energy, and behaves both like a wave and like its quantum particle, the photon, slightly more than half of the total energy from the Sun was eventually found to arrive on Earth in the form of infrared. The balance between absorbed and emitted infrared radiation has an effect on Earths climate. Infrared radiation is emitted or absorbed by molecules when they change their rotational-vibrational movements and it excites vibrational modes in a molecule through a change in the dipole moment, making it a useful frequency range for study of these energy states for molecules of the proper symmetry. Infrared spectroscopy examines absorption and transmission of photons in the infrared range, Infrared radiation is used in industrial, scientific, and medical applications. Night-vision devices using active near-infrared illumination allow people or animals to be observed without the observer being detected, Infrared thermal-imaging cameras are used to detect heat loss in insulated systems, to observe changing blood flow in the skin, and to detect overheating of electrical apparatuses. Thermal-infrared imaging is used extensively for military and civilian purposes, military applications include target acquisition, surveillance, night vision, homing, and tracking. Humans at normal body temperature radiate chiefly at wavelengths around 10 μm, Infrared radiation extends from the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum at 700 nanometers to 1 mm. This range of wavelengths corresponds to a range of approximately 430 THz down to 300 GHz. Below infrared is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Sunlight, at a temperature of 5,780 kelvins, is composed of near thermal-spectrum radiation that is slightly more than half infrared. At zenith, sunlight provides an irradiance of just over 1 kilowatt per square meter at sea level, of this energy,527 watts is infrared radiation,445 watts is visible light, and 32 watts is ultraviolet radiation. Nearly all the radiation in sunlight is near infrared, shorter than 4 micrometers. On the surface of Earth, at far lower temperatures than the surface of the Sun, almost all thermal radiation consists of infrared in mid-infrared region, much longer than in sunlight. Of these natural thermal radiation processes only lightning and natural fires are hot enough to produce much visible energy, thermal infrared radiation also has a maximum emission wavelength, which is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature of object, in accordance with Wiens displacement law. Therefore, the band is often subdivided into smaller sections. Due to the nature of the blackbody radiation curves, typical hot objects, such as exhaust pipes, the three regions are used for observation of different temperature ranges, and hence different environments in space
44.
Smoke grenade
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A smoke grenade is a canister-type grenade used as a signaling device, target or landing zone marking device, or as a screening device for unit movements. Smoke grenades generally emit a far larger amount of smoke than smoke bombs, smoke grenades often cost around US$40 compared to smoke bombs, which can often cost just a few cents. Typical design consists of a steel cylinder with four emission holes on top. The filler consists of 250 to 350 grams of colored smoke composition in any color. The reaction is exothermic and though they remain intact, smoke grenade casings will often remain scalding hot for some even after the grenade is no longer emitting smoke. Although modern smoke grenades are designed not to emit fire or sparks. Another type of smoke grenade is the bursting variation and these are filled with white phosphorus, a pyrophoric agent which is spread quickly into a cloud by an internal bursting charge. White phosphorus burns with a brilliant yellow flame, while producing copious amounts of white smoke, smoke grenades are used for several purposes. The primary use is the creation of smoke screens for concealment, the most common color for concealment smoke is white or grey. With the advent of infrared imaging goggles which can spot troop movements through smoke screens, smoke grenades can also be used to signal aircraft. Since locating a target from above can be impossible, even with good radio contact. Colored signalling smoke grenades are used in CASEVAC and close air support situations where quickly locating friendly ground forces is of paramount importance. Common colors are red, yellow, green and purple, since the basic design of a smoke grenade is so simple, improvised devices are ubiquitous across the world. Protestors, football spectators, and airsoft enthusiasts often create their own smoke grenades using common materials
45.
Anti-tank missile
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An anti-tank missile, anti-tank guided missile, anti-tank guided weapon or anti-armor guided weapon, is a guided missile primarily designed to hit and destroy heavily armored military vehicles. Germany developed a design for a wire-guided anti tank missile derived from the Ruhrstahl X-4 air to air missile concept in the months of World War II. Reliable information for this weapon is elusive and it was never used in combat and allegedly had serious guidance to target issues. The SS.10 is the first anti-tank missile widely used and it entered service in the French Army in 1955. It was also the first anti-tank missile used by the US Army, the Malkara missile was one of the earliest anti-tank guided missiles. It was jointly developed by Australia and the United Kingdom between 1951 and 1954, and was in service from 1958 until gradually replaced by the Vickers Vigilant missile in the late 1960s. It was intended to be enough to deploy with airborne forces. First-generation manually command guided MCLOS missiles require input from an operator using a joystick or similar device to steer the missile to the target, the disadvantage is that the operator must keep the sights cross hairs on the target and then steer the missile into the cross hairs—i. e. To do this, the operator must be trained and must remain stationary. Because of this, the operator is vulnerable while guiding the missile, the first system to become operational and to see combat was the French Nord SS.10 during the early 1950s. Second-generation semi-automatically command guided SACLOS missiles require the operator to keep the sights on the target until impact. Automatic guidance commands are sent to the missile through wires or radio, examples are the Russian 9M133 Kornet, Israeli LAHAT and the American Hellfire I missiles. Again, the operator must remain stationary during the missiles flight, third-generation guidance systems rely on a laser, electro-optical imager seeker or a W band radar seeker in the nose of the missile. Once the target is identified, the missile needs no further guidance during flight, it is fire-and-forget, however, fire-and-forget missiles are more subject to electronic countermeasures than MCLOS and SACLOS missiles. Examples include the German PARS3 LR, Spike and the Indian Nag, most modern ATGMs have shaped charge high explosive warheads, designed specifically for penetrating armor. Tandem-charge missiles attempt to defeat ERA protected armor, the small initial charge sets off the ERA while the follow-up main charge attempts to penetrate the main armor. Top-attack weapons such as the Indian Nag, American Javelin and the Swedish Bill are designed to strike vehicles from above, both come with the downside of significant weight and bulk. However, inclusion of armor in older vehicles as a part of re-design is possible
46.
General Motors
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With global headquarters at the Renaissance Center in Detroit, Michigan, United States, GM manufactures cars and trucks in 35 countries. In 2008,8.35 million GM cars and trucks were sold globally under various brands, current auto brands are Buick, Cadillac, Chevrolet, GMC, Holden, and Wuling. Former GM automotive brands include McLaughlin, Oakland, Oldsmobile, Pontiac, Hummer, Saab, Saturn, Vauxhall, the company was founded by William C. Durant on September 16,1908 as a holding company. The company was the largest automobile manufacturer from 1931 through 2007, in addition to brands selling assembled vehicles, GM also has had various automotive-component and non-automotive brands, many of which it divested in the 1980s through 2000s. General Motors produces vehicles in 37 countries under twelve brands, Chevrolet, Buick, GMC, Cadillac, Holden, HSV, Opel, Vauxhall, Wuling, Baojun, Jie Fang, and Ravon. The current company, General Motors Company LLC, was formed in 2009 following the bankruptcy of General Motors Corporation, the new company purchased the majority of the assets of the old GM, including the brand General Motors. In addition to its twelve brands, General Motors also holds a 20% stake in IMM, General Motors employs 212,000 people and does business in more than 140 countries. General Motors is divided into five segments, GM North America, Opel Group, GM International Operations, GM South America. General Motors led global vehicle sales for 77 consecutive years from 1931 through 2007, longer any other automaker. General Motors acts in most countries outside the U. S. via wholly owned subsidiaries, GMs OnStar subsidiary provides vehicle safety, security and information services. In 2009, General Motors shed several brands, closing Saturn, Pontiac, and Hummer, in 2010, the reorganized GM made an initial public offering that was one of the worlds top five largest IPOs to date, and returned to profitability later that year. General Motors Corporation was formed on September 16,1908, in Flint, Michigan, GMs co-founder was Charles Stewart Mott, whose carriage company was merged into Buick prior to GMs creation. Over the years, Mott became the largest single stockholder in GM, and spent his life with his Mott Foundation, GM acquired Oldsmobile later that year. In 1909, Durant brought in Cadillac, Elmore, Oakland, also in 1909, GM acquired the Reliance Motor Truck Company of Owosso, Michigan, and the Rapid Motor Vehicle Company of Pontiac, Michigan, the predecessors of GMC Truck. Durant, along with R. S. McLaughlin, lost control of GM in 1910 to a bankers trust, because of the amount of debt taken on in its acquisitions. The next year, Durant started the Chevrolet Motor Car Company in the U. S. and in Canada in 1915, Durant took back control of the company after one of the most dramatic proxy wars in American business history. Durant then reorganized General Motors Company into General Motors Corporation in 1916, merging Chevrolet with GM, shortly thereafter, he again lost control, this time for good, after the new vehicle market collapsed. These facilities were added to the factories that were exclusive to Cadillac, Buick, Oldsmobile, Oakland
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