1.
Latin
–
Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
Latin
–
Latin inscription, in the
Colosseum
Latin
–
Julius Caesar 's
Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this
patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the
Roman republic.
Latin
–
A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the
University Library of Graz
Latin
–
Latin and Ancient Greek Language - Culture - Linguistics at
Duke University in 2014.
2.
Emotion
–
Emotion, generally speaking, is any relatively brief conscious experience characterized by intense mental activity and a high degree of pleasure or displeasure. Scientific discourse has drifted to other meanings and there is no consensus on a definition, Emotion is often intertwined with mood, temperament, personality, disposition, and motivation. In some theories, cognition is an important aspect of emotion and those acting primarily on the emotions they are feeling may seem as if they are not thinking, but mental processes are still essential, particularly in the interpretation of events. For example, the realization of our believing that we are in a dangerous situation, other theories, however, claim that emotion is separate from and can precede cognition. According to some theories, they are states of feeling that result in physical and psychological changes that influence our behavior, the physiology of emotion is closely linked to arousal of the nervous system with various states and strengths of arousal relating, apparently, to particular emotions. Emotion is also linked to behavioral tendency, extroverted people are more likely to be social and express their emotions, while introverted people are more likely to be more socially withdrawn and conceal their emotions. Emotion is often the force behind motivation, positive or negative. Nor is the emotion an entity that causes these components, Emotions involve different components, such as subjective experience, cognitive processes, expressive behavior, psychophysiological changes, and instrumental behavior. More recently, emotion is said to consist of all the components, the different components of emotion are categorized somewhat differently depending on the academic discipline. In psychology and philosophy, emotion typically includes a subjective, conscious experience characterized primarily by psychophysiological expressions, biological reactions, a similar multicomponential description of emotion is found in sociology. For example, Peggy Thoits described emotions as involving physiological components, cultural or emotional labels, expressive body actions, the numerous theories that attempt to explain the origin, neurobiology, experience, and function of emotions have only fostered more intense research on this topic. Current areas of research in the concept of emotion include the development of materials that stimulate, in addition PET scans and fMRI scans help study the affective processes in the brain. Emotions can be defined as a positive or negative experience that is associated with a pattern of physiological activity. Emotions produce different physiological, behavioral and cognitive changes, the original role of emotions was to motivate adaptive behaviors that in the past would have contributed to the survival of humans. Emotions are responses to significant internal and external events, the word emotion dates back to 1579, when it was adapted from the French word émouvoir, which means to stir up. The term emotion was introduced into academic discussion to replace passion, according to one dictionary, the earliest precursors of the word likely dates back to the very origins of language. The modern word emotion is heterogeneous In some uses of the word, on the other hand, emotion can be used to refer to states that are mild and to states that are not directed at anything. One line of research looks at the meaning of the word emotion in everyday language
Emotion
–
Two Dimensions of Emotion
Emotion
–
Examples of basic emotions
Emotion
–
William James about the time he wrote on emotions
3.
Affection
–
Affection, attraction, infatuation, or fondness is a disposition or state of mind or body that is often associated with a feeling or type of love. It has given rise to a number of branches of philosophy and psychology concerning emotion, disease, influence, Affection is popularly used to denote a feeling or type of love, amounting to more than goodwill or friendship. Writers on ethics generally use the word to refer to states of feeling. Some contrast it with passion as being free from the sensual element. Even a very simple demonstration of affection can have a variety of emotional reactions, from embarrassment to disgust to pleasure. It also has a different physical effect on the giver and the receiver, more specifically, the word has been restricted to emotional states, the object of which is a living thing such as a human or animal. Affection is compared with passion, from the Greek pathos, as such it appears in the writings of French philosopher René Descartes, Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza, and most of the writings of early British ethicists. However, on grounds, it is generally and usefully distinguished from passion. In this narrower sense the word has played a part in ethical systems. For a consideration of these and similar problems, which depend ultimately on the degree in which the affections are regarded as voluntary, see H. Sidgwick, Affection can be communicated by words, gestures, or touches. Affectionate behavior may have evolved from parental nurturing behavior due to its associations with hormonal rewards, such affection has been shown to influence brain development in infants. Expressions of affection can be if they pose implied threats to ones well being. If welcomed, affectionate behavior may be associated with health benefits. It has been proposed that positive sentiment increases the propensity of people to interact, Affection can be displayed in different manners in different cultural societies. Some individuals such as alexithymics may have difficulty or even an inability to feel or express affection, spinifex Press, ISBN 187675608X,9781876756086 Elizabeth Sibthorpe Pinchard.2012. Family Affection, A Tale for Youth, publisher- Hardpress Publishing,2012 ISBN1290006709,9781290006705 Joshua Hordern. Political Affections, Civic Participation and Moral Theology, communicating Affection, Interpersonal Behavior and Social Context. Dominance & affection, The making of pets, ISBN0300032226 International Journal of Infant Observation and Its Applications
Affection
–
A kiss on the cheek, forehead, nose, mouth or lips expresses affection.
4.
Anger
–
Anger or wrath is an intense emotional response. It is an emotion that involves a strong uncomfortable and emotional response to a perceived provocation, Anger can occur when a person feels their personal boundaries are being or going to be violated. Some have a tendency to react to anger through retaliation as a way of coping. William DeFoore, an anger-management writer, described anger as a pressure cooker, Anger is an emotional reaction that impacts the body. A person experiencing anger will also experience physical conditions, such as increased rate, elevated blood pressure. Some view anger as an emotion which triggers part of the fight or flight brain response, Anger is used as a protective mechanism to cover up fear, hurt or sadness. The English term originally comes from the anger of Old Norse language. Anger can have physical and mental consequences. The external expression of anger can be found in facial expressions, body language, physiological responses, animals, for example, make loud sounds, attempt to look physically larger, bare their teeth, and stare. The behaviors associated with anger are designed to warn aggressors to stop their threatening behavior, rarely does a physical altercation occur without the prior expression of anger by at least one of the participants. Modern psychologists view anger as a primary, natural, and mature emotion experienced by all humans at times. Anger is seen as a mechanism to show a person that something is wrong. Anger can mobilize psychological resources for corrective action, uncontrolled anger can, however, negatively affect personal or social well-being and impact negatively on those around them. It is equally challenging to be around a person and the impact can also cause psychological/emotional trauma if not dealt with. While many philosophers and writers have warned against the spontaneous and uncontrolled fits of anger, displays of anger can be used as a manipulation strategy for social influence. Three types of anger are recognized by psychologists, Hasty and sudden anger is connected to the impulse for self-preservation and it is shared by human and other animals, and it occurs when the animal is tormented or trapped. This form of anger is episodic, settled and deliberate anger is a reaction to perceived deliberate harm or unfair treatment by others. This form of anger is episodic, dispositional anger is related more to character traits than to instincts or cognitions
Anger
–
A drawing of faces expressing anger.
Anger
–
The Anger of Achilles, by
Giovanni Battista Tiepolo depicts the Greek hero attacking
Agamemnon.
Anger
–
An angry exchange between two person, as evidenced by their
body language and
facial expressions. To hear the angry exchange, listen to the audio below.
Anger
–
The Fury of
Athamas by
John Flaxman (1755–1826).
5.
Angst
–
The word angst was introduced into English from the Danish, Norwegian and Dutch word angst and the German word Angst. It is attested since the 19th century in English translations of the works of Kierkegaard and it is used in English to describe an intense feeling of apprehension, anxiety, or inner turmoil. In common language, however, Angst is the word for fear. In other languages having the meaning of the Latin word pavor for fear, the word Angst has existed since the 8th century, from the Proto-Indo-European root *anghu-, restraint from which Old High German angust developed. It is pre-cognate with the Latin angustia, tensity, tightness and angor, choking, clogging, in Existentialist philosophy the term angst carries a specific conceptual meaning. The use of the term was first attributed to Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, in The Concept of Anxiety, Kierkegaard used the word Angest to describe a profound and deep-seated condition. Where animals are guided solely by instinct, said Kierkegaard, human beings enjoy a freedom of choice that we find both appealing and terrifying. Existential angst makes its appearance in musical composition in the early twentieth century as a result of both philosophical developments and as a reflection of the war-torn times. Angst began to be discussed in reference to music in the mid- to late 1950s amid widespread concerns over international tensions. Jeff Nuttalls book Bomb Culture traced angst in popular culture to Hiroshima, dread was expressed in works of folk rock such as Bob Dylans Masters of War and A Hard Rains a-Gonna Fall. The term often makes an appearance in reference to rock, grunge, nu metal. The dictionary definition of angst at Wiktionary
Angst
–
Edvard Munch tried to represent "an infinite scream passing through nature" in
The Scream (1893).
Angst
–
Ludger Gerdes, Angst, 1989
6.
Anguish
–
Anguish is a term used in philosophy, often as a translation from the Latin for angst. It is a paramount feature of existentialist philosophy, in which anguish is often understood as the experience of an utterly free being in a world with zero absolutes, kierkegaard views anguish as the same as suffering. Everyone wants to find the truth but it takes anguish and suffering to appropriate the truth, kierkegaard put it this way in 1847 and 1850. In the teachings of Sartre, anguish is seen when an utterly captured being realizes the unpredictability of his or her action, for example, when walking along a cliff, you would feel anguish to know that you have the freedom to throw yourself down to your imminent death. The dictionary definition of anguish at Wiktionary
Anguish
–
"Waiting On Shore"
Rosses Point, Sligo. The sculpture, by Niall Breton, reflects the anguish of seafaring people who watch for the safe return of loved ones.
7.
Annoyance
–
Annoyance is an unpleasant mental state that is characterized by such effects as irritation and distraction from ones conscious thinking. It can lead to such as frustration and anger. The property of being easily annoyed is called irritability, various reasons exist for why one finds particular stimuli annoying. Measurement of annoyance is highly subjective, as an attempt at measurement, psychological studies on annoyance often rely on their subjects own ratings of levels of annoyance on a scale. Any kind of stimuli can cause annoyance, such as getting poked in the side or listening to a song repeatedly, many stimuli that one is at first neutral to, or even finds pleasant, can turn into annoyances from repeated continued exposure. It also found one was more likely to blame the party who was causing the annoyance in the study, rather than ones self. Psychological warfare can involve creating annoyances to distract and wear down the resistance of the target, agitation Distraction Frustration Pet peeve Social alienation This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Annoy
Annoyance
–
The Dispute by
Eduard Kurzbauer
8.
Anticipation
–
Anticipation is the sixth album by comedian Lewis Black. It was released on August 5,2008 on Comedy Central Records, the album consists of stand-up material he has used on his tours over a three-year period, and was recorded on September 21,2007 in Wausau, Wisconsin. The album cover features part of the word Anticipation while the features the rest of the word. It was designed for people to think Black was anti-something
Anticipation
–
Anticipation
Anticipation
9.
Arousal
–
Arousal is the physiological and psychological state of being awoken or of sense organs stimulated to a point of perception. The arousal system involves many different neural systems, when these systems are in action, the receiving neural areas become sensitive and responsive to incoming signals, producing alertness and cortical activity. Arousal is important in regulating consciousness, attention, alertness, and it is a crucial for motivating certain behaviours, such as mobility, the pursuit of nutrition, the fight-or-flight response and sexual activity. It is also important in emotion and has included in theories such as the James-Lange theory of emotion. According to Hans Eysenck, differences in baseline arousal level lead people to be extraverts or introverts, the Yerkes-Dodson law states that an optimal level of arousal for performance exists, and too little or too much arousal can adversely affect task performance. One interpretation of the Yerkes-Dodson Law is the Easterbrook cue-utilisation hypothesis, Easterbrook states that an increase of arousal decreases the number of cues that can be used. The arousal system involves many different neural systems, when stimulated, these systems produce cortical activity and alertness. The noradrenergic system is a bundle of axons that originate in the locus coeruleus and ascends up into the neocortex, limbic system, most of the neurons are projected to the posterior cortex which is important with sensory information, and alertness. The activation of the locus coeruleus and release of norepinephrine causes wakefulness, the neurons that project into the basal forebrain impact cholinergic neurons that results in a flood of acetylcholine into the cerebral cortex. The acetylcholinergic system has its neurons located in the pons and in the basal forebrain, stimulation of these neurons result in cortical activity, shown from EEG records, and alertness. All of the other four neurotransmitters play a role in activating the acetylcholine neurons, another arousal system, the dopaminergic system, releases dopamine produced by the substantia nigra. The neurons arise in the ventral tegmental area in the midbrain, and projects to the nucleus accumbens, the forebrain, limbic system. The limbic system is important for control of mood, and the nucleus accumbens signal excitement, the path terminating in the prefrontal cortex is important in regulating motor movements, especially reward oriented movements. The serotonergic system has almost all of its serotonergic neurons originating in the raphe nuclei and this system projects to the limbic system and the prefrontal cortex. Stimulation of these axons and release of serotonin causes cortical arousal and impacts locomotion, the neurons of the histamergenic system are in the tuberomammillary nucleus of the hypothalamus. These neurons send pathways to the cortex, thalamus, and the basal forebrain. All of these systems are linked and show similar redundancy, the pathways described are ascending pathways, but there also arousal pathways that descend. One example is the preoptic area, which release GABA reuptake inhibitors
Arousal
10.
Boredom
–
It is also understood by scholars as a modern phenomenon which has a cultural dimension. There is no accepted definition of boredom. But whatever it is, researchers argue, it is not simply another name for depression or apathy, in both conceptions, boredom has to do fundamentally with an experience of time and problems of meaning. The expression boredom means state of being bored,1852, from bore + -dom and it also has been employed in a sense bores as a class and practice of being a bore. The word bore as a noun meaning a thing which causes ennui or annoyance is attested to since 1778, the noun bore comes from the verb bore, which had the meaning be tiresome or dull first attested 1768, a vogue word c. 1780-81 according to Grose, possibly an extension of to move forward slowly and persistently. The French term for boredom, ennui, is used in English as well. The term ennui was first used as a French word in English, in the 1660s, the term ennui comes from French ennui, from Old French enui annoyance, back-formation from enoiier, anuier. Different scholars use different definitions of boredom, which complicates research, Boredom has been defined by Cynthia D. Mark Leary et al. describe boredom as an affective experience associated with cognitive attentional processes. In positive psychology, boredom is described as a response to a challenge for which the subject has more than enough skill. There are three types of boredom, all of which problems of engagement of attention. Boredom proneness is a tendency to experience boredom of all types and this is typically assessed by the Boredom Proneness Scale. Recent research has found that boredom proneness is clearly and consistently associated with failures of attention, Boredom and its proneness are both theoretically and empirically linked to depression and similar symptoms. Nonetheless, boredom proneness has been found to be as strongly correlated with attentional lapses as with depression. Although boredom is often viewed as a trivial and mild irritant, proneness to boredom has been linked to a diverse range of possible psychological, physical, educational. Absent-mindedness is where a person shows inattentive or forgetful behaviour, absent-mindedness is a mental condition in which the subject experiences low levels of attention and frequent distraction. Absent-mindedness is not a condition but rather a symptom of boredom. When suffering from absent-mindedness, people tend to show signs of memory lapse and this can usually be a result of a variety of other conditions often diagnosed by clinicians such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and depression
Boredom
–
A souvenir seller appears bored as she waits for customers.
Boredom
–
Boredom by
Gaston de La Touche, 1893
Boredom
–
1916
Rea Irvin illustration depicting a bore putting her audience to sleep
Boredom
–
The Princess Who Never Smiled by
Viktor Vasnetsov
11.
Contempt
–
Contempt, not classified among Paul Ekmans six basic emotions of anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise, is a mixture of disgust and anger. The word originated in 1393, from the Latin word contemptus meaning scorn and it is the past participle of contemnere and from com- intensive prefix + temnere to slight, scorn. Ekman and Friesen identified a specific facial expression that observers in ten different cultures, in this study, citizens of West Sumatra, Indonesia, were given photos of American, Japanese, and Indonesian peoples. “An expression in which the corner of the lip is tightened and raised slightly on one side of the face signaled contempt. ”This study showed that contempt, as well as the expression of contempt. Paul Ekman, a widely recognized psychologist, found six emotions that were recognized, anger, disgust, fear, joy, sadness. Findings on contempt are less clear, though there is at least some evidence that this emotion. In the 1990s Ekman proposed an expanded list of emotions, this time including contempt, contempt requires a judgment concerning the appearance or standing of the object of contempt. This may have not been done deliberately but by a lack of status and this lack of status may cause the contemptuous to classify the object of contempt as utterly worthless, or as not fully meeting a particular interpersonal standard. Therefore, contempt is a response to a failure to meet an interpersonal standard. Contempt is also a way of regarding or attending to the object of contempt. However, contempt may be experienced as a highly visceral emotion similar to disgust, contempt has a certain comparative element. Because of this element, contempt also involves what we might term a “positive self-feeling” of the contemptuous. A characteristic of contempt is the withdrawal or distance one typically feels regarding the object of one’s contempt. This psychological distancing is a way of expressing one’s nonidentification with the object of one’s contempt. This form of regard constitutes a psychological withdrawal from the object of contempt, contempt can be useful to being a functioning member of the moral community. An ethics of contempt provides a much larger breadth of answers than other competing systems of ethics, whether they be based on ethics of actions or ethics of feelings. By feeling contempt for those things which are found to be unethical, immoral, or morally unsavory, the main response of contempt lies within “publicized expression of low regard for the objects held in contempt”. So while one would make their feelings known to others, the person with contempt would not necessarily want to deal with the situation at hand
Contempt
–
A painting by
Louis-Léopold Boilly (ca. 1797). The woman has been interpreted as a
prostitute (who is disdaining the inadequate coin proffered by the fashionable gentleman getting his shoes shined at left).
Contempt
–
Facial expression of contempt
12.
Contentment
–
Contentment is a mental or emotional state of satisfaction maybe drawn from being at ease in ones situation, body and mind. Colloquially speaking, contentment could be a state of having accepted ones situation and is a milder, Contentment and the pursuit of contentment are possibly a central thread through many philosophical or religious schools across diverse cultures, times and geographies. Siddharta might have said Health is the most precious gain and contentment the greatest wealth, john Stuart Mill, centuries later, would write I have learned to seek my happiness by limiting my desires, rather than in attempting to satisfy them. Marcus Aurelius wrote Live with the gods, and he who does so constantly shows them that his soul is satisfied with what is assigned to them. Hebrews 13,5 reads Keep your lives free from the love of money and be content with what you have, because God has said, Never will I leave you and he follows the course of nature in whatever situation he may be. In general, the needs in Maslows hierarchy are achieved. Many religions have some form of bliss or heaven as their apparent goal. The source of all dissatisfaction appears to stem from the ability to compare experiences, in the Bible, there is an intriguing allegorical account that mans fall from his paradisal state was caused by man eating the forbidden fruit from the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil. Mans eyes were opened to know the distinction between good and evil, in other words, when man becomes intellectually developed to distinguish between good and bad, he realizes that is a gap between what he considers good or ideal and what he is experiencing. The perception of this disparity is what creates psychological and physiological tension, interestingly, in the Tao Te Ching, this development of man from his primal state of consciousness called Tao is similarly expounded in this manner, When the Tao is lost, there is goodness. When goodness is lost, there is morality, morality as we know is the intellectual discernment between good and evil. There is therefore a belief one can achieve contentment by living in the moment. For this reason, specializations in this pursuit to live in the moment are found in religious and mystical schools, manifested in forms of meditation. A more practical way for most people would be to simply practice contentment as an attitude, practicing gratitude is perhaps a way to understand what contentment as an attitude is about. Seen in this light, contentment is not an achievement but an attitude that one can adopt at any time. The American philosopher Robert Bruce Raup wrote a book Complacency, The Foundation of Human Behavior in which he claimed that the human need for complacency was the spring of human behavior. Raup made this the basis of his theory, which he later used in his severe criticisms of the American education system of the 1930s. In many ways, contentment can be associated with the concept of happiness
Contentment
–
Human Contentments (20th century), by
Edgard Farasyn
13.
Courage
–
Courage is the choice and willingness to confront agony, pain, danger, uncertainty, or intimidation. In some traditions, fortitude holds approximately the same meaning, more recently, courage has been explored by the discipline of psychology. An early Greek philosopher, Plato, set the groundwork for how courage would be viewed to future philosophers, Platos early writings found in Laches show a discussion on courage, but they fail to come to a satisfactory conclusion on what courage is. During the debate between three leaders, including Socrates, many definitions of courage are mentioned, Laches is an early writing of Platos, which may be a reason he does not come to a clear conclusion. In this early writing, Plato is still developing his ideas, in one of his later writings, The Republic, Plato gives more concrete ideas of what he believes courage to be. Civic courage is described as a sort of perseverance – preservation of the belief that has been inculcated by the law through education about what things, ideas of courage being perseverance also are seen in Laches. Plato further explains this perseverance as being able to persevere through all emotions, like suffering, pleasure, as a desirable quality, courage is discussed broadly in Aristotles Nicomachean Ethics, where its vice of shortage is cowardice and its vice of excess is recklessness. In the Roman Empire, courage formed part of the virtue of virtus. Roman philosopher and statesman Cicero lists the cardinal virtues does not name them such, Virtue may be defined as a habit of mind in harmony with reason and it has four parts, wisdom, justice, courage, temperance. In medieval virtue ethics, championed by Averroes and Thomas Aquinas and still important to Roman Catholicism, according to Thomas Aquinas, Among the cardinal virtues, prudence ranks first, justice second, fortitude third, temperance fourth, and after these the other virtues. Part of his justification for this hierarchy is that Fortitude without justice is an occasion of injustice, since the stronger a man is the more ready is he to oppress the weaker. On fortitudes general and special nature, Aquinas says, The term fortitude can be taken in two ways, secondly, fortitude may be taken to denote firmness only in bearing and withstanding those things wherein it is most difficult to be firm, namely in certain grave dangers. Therefore Tully says, that fortitude is deliberate facing of dangers, on this sense fortitude is reckoned a special virtue, because it has a special matter. For it is difficult to allay fear than to moderate daring, since the danger which is the object of daring and fear. Now to attack belongs to fortitude in so far as the latter moderates daring, therefore the principal act of fortitude is endurance, that is to stand immovable in the midst of dangers rather than to attack them. In both Catholicism and Anglicanism, courage is also one of the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit, for Thomas Aquinas, Fortitude is the virtue to remove any obstacle that keeps the will from following reason. In order to true courage in Christianity it takes someone who displays the virtues of faith, hope. Courage is a virtue which Saint Augustine did not consider a virtue for Christians
Courage
–
Fortitudo, 1470, by
Sandro Botticelli
Courage
–
The
Victoria Cross.
14.
Curiosity
–
Curiosity is a quality related to inquisitive thinking such as exploration, investigation, and learning, evident by observation in humans and other animals. Curiosity is heavily associated with all aspects of development, in which derives the process of learning and desire to acquire knowledge. The term curiosity can also be used to denote the behavior or emotion of being curious, curiosity as a behavior and emotion is attributed over millennia as the driving force behind not only human development, but developments in science, language, and industry. Curiosity can be seen as a quality of many different species. It is common to human beings at all ages from infancy through adulthood, and is easy to observe in other animal species, these include apes, cats. Early definitions cite curiosity as a desire for information. This motivational desire has been said to stem from a passion or an appetite for knowledge, information, like other desires and need states that take on an appetitive quality, curiosity is linked with exploratory behavior and experiences of reward. Curiosity can be described as positive emotions and acquiring knowledge, when one’s curiosity has been aroused it is considered inherently rewarding, discovering new information may also be rewarding because it can help reduce undesirable states of uncertainty rather than stimulating interest. Theories have arisen in attempts to understand this need to rectify states of uncertainty. Curiosity-drive theory relates to the experiences of uncertainty. The reduction of these unpleasant feelings, in turn, is rewarding and this theory suggests that people desire coherence and understanding in their thought processes. Once understanding of unfamiliar has been achieved and coherence has been restored, causes can range from basic needs that need to be satisfied to needs in fear induced situations. Each of these theories state, that whether the need is primary or secondary curiosity is developed from experiences that create a sensation of uncertainty or perceived unpleasantness. Curiosity then acts as a means in which to dispel this uncertainty, by exhibiting curious and exploratory behavior, one is able to gain knowledge of the unfamiliar and thus reduce the state of uncertainty or unpleasantness. This theory, however, does not address the idea that curiosity can often be displayed even in the absence of new or unfamiliar situations and this type of exploratory behavior is common in many species. Take the example of a toddler who, if bored in his current situation devoid of arousing stimuli. The observation of curiosity even in the absence of novel stimuli pinpoints one of the shortcomings in the curiosity-drive model. Optimal-arousal theory developed out of the need to explain the desire for some to seek out opportunities to engage in exploratory behaviors without the presence of uncertain or ambiguous situations
Curiosity
–
Curious children gather around photographer
Toni Frissell, looking at her camera
Curiosity
–
Children peer over shoulders to see what their friends are reading.
Curiosity
–
Left: normal brain. Right: AD afflicted brain. Severe degeneration of areas implicated in curiosity
Curiosity
–
A crowd mills around the site of a car accident in
Czechoslovakia in 1980.
15.
Desire
–
Desire is a sense of longing or hoping for a person, object, or outcome. The same sense is expressed by such as craving. When a person desires something or someone, their sense of longing is excited by the enjoyment or the thought of the item or person, and they want to take actions to obtain their goal. The motivational aspect of desire has long noted by philosophers. Marketing and advertising companies have used psychological research on how desire is stimulated to find effective ways to induce consumers into buying a given product or service. The theme of desire is at the core of romance novels, the theme of desire is also used in other literary genres, such as gothic novels. Poets ranging from Homer to Toni Morrison have dealt with the themes of desire in their work, in philosophy, desire has been identified as a philosophical problem since Antiquity. In The Republic, Plato argues that individual desires must be postponed in the name of the higher ideal. In De Anima, Aristotle claims that desire is implicated in animal interactions, Hobbes proposed the concept of psychological hedonism, which asserts that the fundamental motivation of all human action is the desire for pleasure. Baruch Spinoza had a view which contrasted with Hobbes, in that he saw natural desires as a form of bondage that are not chosen by a person of their own free will. David Hume claimed that desires and passions are noncognitive, automatic bodily responses, immanuel Kant called any action based on desires a hypothetical imperative, meaning by this that it is a command of reason that applies only if one desires the goal in question. Kant also established a relation between the beautiful and pleasure in Critique of Judgment, georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel claimed that self-consciousness is desire. Because desire can cause humans to become obsessed and embittered, it has called one of the causes of woe for mankind. Within the teachings of Buddhism, craving is thought to be the cause of all suffering that one experiences in human existence, the eradication of craving leads one to ultimate happiness, or Nirvana. However, desire for wholesome things is seen as liberating and enhancing, in Hinduism, the Rig Vedas creation myth Nasadiya Sukta states regarding the one spirit, In the beginning there was Desire that was first seed of mind. Poets found the bond of being in non-being in their hearts thought, according to the early Buddhist scriptures, the Buddha stated that monks should generate desire for the sake of fostering skillful qualities and abandoning unskillful ones. There is a message here between what Buddha said, that desire must be created, and what some monks propose to their followers. Dr. Oscar R. Gómez holds that teachings imparted privately by H. H. 14th Dalai Lama are meant for leaders to be able to choose a desire consciously by creating it previously from the inside
Desire
–
A Pensive Moment (1904), by
Eugene de Blaas
Desire
–
Saudade (1899), by
José Ferraz de Almeida Júnior
16.
Disappointment
–
Disappointment is the feeling of dissatisfaction that follows the failure of expectations or hopes to manifest. It is a source of psychological stress, disappoint is traced to the Middle English disappointen by way of the Old French desapointer. In literal meaning, it is to remove from office and its use in the sense of general frustration traces to the late 15th century, and it first appears recorded in English as an emotional state of dejection in the middle 18th century. Disappointment is a subjective response related to anticipated rewards, Disappointment recovery time can vary among people for some it can take a few minutes some take a few days. Disappointment, and an inability to prepare for it, has also hypothesized as the source of occasional immune system compromise in optimists. The disappointment effect posits that optimists do not utilize emotional cushioning to prepare for disappointment and this disappointment effect has been challenged since the mid-1990s by researcher Suzanne C. Segerstrom, who has published, alone and in accord, several articles evaluating its plausibility and her findings suggest that, rather than being unable to deal with disappointment, optimists are more likely to actively tackle their problems and experience some immunity compromise as a result. Disappointment theory, pioneered in the mid-1980s by David E, Disappointment theory has been utilized in examining such diverse decision-making processes as return migration, taxpayer compliance and customer willingness to pay. David Gill and Victoria Prowse provide experimental evidence that people are disappointment averse when they compete, decision analysts operate on the assumption that individuals will anticipate the potential for disappointment and make decisions that are less likely to lead to the experience of this feeling. Disappointment is, along with regret, measured by direct questioning of respondents, further Evidence of the Impact of Regret and Disappointment in Choice under Uncertainty. Mandel, David R. Denis J. Hilton, Patrizia Catellani
Disappointment
–
Disappointment expressed by a team of
American football players commiserating after a defeat.
Disappointment
–
Disappointment (1882), by
Julius LeBlanc Stewart
Disappointment
–
Untitled - Woman with a peacock (1919), by Jogesh Chandra Seal
17.
Disgust
–
Disgust is an emotional response of revulsion to something considered offensive, distasteful, or unpleasant. In The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, Charles Darwin wrote that disgust is a sensation that refers to something revolting. Disgust is experienced primarily in relation to the sense of taste, musically sensitive people may even be disgusted by the cacophony of inharmonious sounds. Disgust is one of the emotions of Robert Plutchiks theory of emotions and has been studied extensively by Paul Rozin. It invokes a characteristic expression, one of Paul Ekmans six universal facial expressions of emotion. Unlike the emotions of fear, anger, and sadness, disgust is associated with a decrease in heart rate and it is believed that the emotion of disgust has evolved as a response to offensive foods that may cause harm to the organism. A common example of this is found in human beings who show disgust reactions to mouldy milk or contaminated meat, Disgust appears to be triggered by objects or people who possess attributes that signify disease. This behavioral immune system has found to make sweeping generalizations because it is more costly to perceive a sick person as healthy than to perceive a healthy person as sickly. This can be explained in terms of each of the types of disgust, for those especially sensitive to moral disgust, they would want to be less aggressive because they want to avoid hurting others. Based on these findings, disgust may be used as an tool to decrease aggression in individuals. Disgust may produce specific responses, such as reduced blood pressure, lowered heart-rate. Research has also found that people who are sensitive to disgust tend to find their own in-group more attractive. Taking a further look into hygiene, disgust was the strongest predictor of attitudes toward obese individuals. A disgust reaction to obese individuals was also connected with views of moral values, Disgust may have an important role in certain forms of morality. Pathogen disgust arises from a desire to survive and, ultimately and he compares it to a behavioral immune system that is the first line of defense against potentially deadly agents such as dead bodies, rotting food, and vomit. Sexual disgust arises from a desire to avoid biologically costly mates, the two primary considerations are intrinsic quality and genetic compatibility. Moral disgust pertains to social transgressions and includes such as lying, theft, murder. Unlike the other two domains, moral disgust motivates avoidance of social relationships with norm-violating individuals because those relationships threaten group cohesion, sensitivity to disgust rises during pregnancy, along with levels of the hormone progesterone
Disgust
–
Adriaen Brouwer 's The Bitter Tonic, depicting a man's response of disgust to a beverage
Disgust
–
A woman expressing disgust.
18.
Ecstasy (emotion)
–
Ecstasy is a subjective experience of total involvement of the subject, with an object of his or her awareness. In classical Greek literature it refers to removal of the mind or body from its place of function. The word is used to refer to any heightened state of consciousness or intensely pleasant experience. It is also used specifically to denote states of awareness of non-ordinary mental spaces. For the duration of the ecstasy the ecstatic is out of touch with life and is capable neither of communication with other people nor of undertaking normal actions. The experience can be brief in time, or it can go on for hours. Subjective perception of time, space or self may strongly change or disappear during ecstasy, for instance, if one is concentrating on a physical task, then any intellectual thoughts may cease. On the other hand, making a journey in an ecstatic trance involves the cessation of voluntary bodily movement. The particular technique that an individual uses to induce ecstasy is usually associated with that individuals particular religious. Sometimes an ecstatic experience takes place due to contact with something or somebody perceived as extremely beautiful or holy. In some cases, a person might obtain an ecstatic experience by mistake, maybe the person unintentionally triggers one of the, probably many, physiological mechanisms through which such an experience can be reached. In such cases, it is not rare to find that the later, by reading, looks for an interpretation. People interpret the experience afterward according to their culture and beliefs, when a person is using an ecstasy technique, he usually does so within a tradition. When he reaches an experience, an interpretation of it already exists. The experience together with its subsequent interpretation may strongly and permanently change the value system, in 1925, James Leuba wrote, Among most uncivilized populations, as among civilized peoples, certain ecstatic conditions are regarded as divine possession or as union with the Divine. These states are induced by means of drugs, by physical excitement, but, however produced and at whatever level of culture they may be found, they possess certain common features which suggest even to the superficial observer some profound connection. Always described as delightful beyond expression, these awesome ecstatic experiences end commonly in mental quiescence or even in total unconsciousness. To recognize a continuity of impulse, of purpose, of form, in everyday language, the word ecstasy denotes an intense, euphoric experience
Ecstasy (emotion)
–
The Ecstasy of
St. Theresa by
Gianlorenzo Bernini (1652). Left transept of Santa Maria della Vittoria (17th century) in Rome.
Ecstasy (emotion)
–
St Filippo Neri in Ecstasy
Ecstasy (emotion)
–
Ecstasy, by
Jean Benner (
Strasbourg Museum of Modern and Contemporary Art)
19.
Embarrassment
–
Embarrassment is an emotional state of intense discomfort with oneself, experienced when having a socially unacceptable act or condition witnessed by or revealed to others. Usually some amount of loss of honor or dignity is involved, but how much and it is similar to shame, except that shame may be experienced for an act known only to oneself. Also, embarrassment usually carries the connotation of being caused by an act that is socially unacceptable. Embarrassment can be personal, caused by unwanted attention to private matters or personal flaws or mishaps, in many cultures, being seen nude or inappropriately dressed is a particularly stressful form of embarrassment. Personal embarrassment is usually accompanied by some combination of blushing, sweating, nervousness, stammering, sometimes the embarrassed person tries to mask embarrassment with smiles or nervous laughter, especially in etiquette situations. Such a response is common in certain cultures, which may lead to misunderstanding. There may also be feelings of anger depending on the seriousness of the situation. There is a range of responses, with the most minor being a perception of the act as inconsequential or even humorous. The capacity to experience embarrassment can also be seen as functional for the group or culture, similarly, embarrassment exhibited by boys more likely to engage in aggressive/delinquent behaviour was less than one-third of that exhibited by non-aggressive boys. Thus proneness to embarrassment can act as a brake on behaviour that would be dysfunctional for a group or culture, Embarrassment can also be professional or official, especially after statements expressing confidence in a stated course of action, or willful disregard for evidence. Embarrassment increases greatly in instances involving official duties or workplace facilities, large amounts of money or materials, even small errors or miscalculations can lead to significantly greater official embarrassment if it is discovered that there was willful disregard for evidence or directives involved. Not all official failures result in embarrassment, even if the circumstances lead to some slight personal embarrassment for the people involved. Similarly, a scientist might be disappointed and embarrassed if one of his hypotheses was proven wrong. By contrast, exposure of falsified data supporting a claim would likely lead to professional embarrassment in the scientific community. Professional or official embarrassment is often accompanied by expressions of anger, denial of involvement. One typology of embarrassment is by Sharkey and Stafford, based on these types, Cupach and Metts classify two basic embarrassment situations, the actor responsible and the observer responsible. The word derives from the French word embarrasser, to block,5 However, it certainly is not directly derived from it, as the substitution of r for rr in Ibero-Romantic languages was not a known occurrence. The Spanish word may come from the Italian imbarazzare, from imbarazzo, joan Corominas and José Pacual, embarazar, Diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico, Vol. II, p. 555-556
Embarrassment
–
A woman in a state of embarrassment
Embarrassment
–
An embarrassing proposal by
Antoine Watteau
20.
Empathy
–
Empathy is the capacity to understand or feel what another person is experiencing from within the other persons frame of reference, i. e. the capacity to place oneself in anothers position. Empathy is seeing with the eyes of another, listening with the ears of another, there are many definitions for empathy which encompass a broad range of emotional states. Types of empathy include cognitive empathy, emotional empathy, and somatic empathy, the English word empathy is derived from the Ancient Greek word εμπάθεια. This, in turn, comes from εν and πάθος, the term was adapted by Hermann Lotze and Robert Vischer to create the German word Einfühlung, which was translated by Edward B. Titchener into the English term empathy, alexithymia is a word used to describe a deficiency in understanding, processing or describing emotions in oneself as opposed to in others. This term comes from the negation of two Ancient Greek words, αλέξω and θυμός, thus alexithymia literally means pushing away your emotions. It also is the ability to feel and share another persons emotions, some believe that empathy involves the ability to match anothers emotions, while others believe that empathy involves being tenderhearted toward another person. Having empathy also can include having the understanding that there are factors that go into decision making. Past experiences have an influence on the making of today. Understanding this allows a person to have empathy for individuals who sometimes make decisions to a problem that most individuals would respond with an obvious response. Broken homes, childhood trauma, lack of parenting and many factors can influence the connections the brain which a person uses to make decisions in the future. Martin Hoffman is a Psychologist who studied the development of empathy, according to Hoffman everyone is born with the capability of feeling empathy. Compassion and sympathy are two terms that many associate with empathy, but all three of these terms are unique, even so, definitions vary, contributing to the challenge of defining empathy. Compassion is often defined as an emotion we feel when others are in need, Sympathy is a feeling of care and understanding for someone in need. It can also be understood as having the separateness of defining oneself, some include in sympathy also an empathic concern, a feeling of concern for another, in which some scholars include the wish to see them better off or happier. Empathy is distinct also from pity and emotional contagion, pity is feeling that another is in trouble and in need of help as they cannot fix their problems themselves, often described as feeling sorry for someone. Emotional contagion is when a person catches the emotions that others are showing without necessarily recognizing this is happening. Since empathy involves understanding the emotional states of people, the way it is characterized is derived from the way emotions themselves are characterized
Empathy
–
When children are shown videoclips with situations where they see people suffering pain by coincidence, neural circuits related to pain are being activated in their brain.
21.
Enthusiasm
–
Enthusiasm is intense enjoyment, interest, or approval. The word was used to refer to a person possessed by a god. Socrates taught that the inspiration of poets is a form of enthusiasm, the term was confined to a belief in religious inspiration, or to intense religious fervour or emotion. From this, a Syrian sect of the 4th century was known as the Enthusiasts. They believed that by perpetual prayer, ascetic practices and contemplation, man could become inspired by the Holy Spirit, in spite of the evil spirit. From their belief in the efficacy of prayer, they were known as Euchites. Several Protestant sects of the 16th and 17th centuries were called enthusiastic, during the years that immediately followed the Glorious Revolution, enthusiasm was a British pejorative term for advocacy of any political or religious cause in public, i. e. fanaticism. The Royal Society bylaws stipulated that any person discussing religion or politics at a Society meeting was to be ejected for being an enthusiast. Artistic inspiration Connoisseur Emotional contagion Entheogen Euphoria Fan Flow Motivation Zest Daniels, M. D. D. Price, PhD, the Essential Enneagram, New York, HarperCollins, ISBN 0-06-251676-0 Ronald Knox. Enthusiasm, a Chapter in the History of Religion, with Special Reference to the XVII and XVIII Centuries, New York, Dover Publications Susie Tucker. Enthusiasm, A Study in Semantic Change, enthusiasm, A Study in Project Management
Enthusiasm
22.
Envy
–
Envy is an emotion which occurs when a person lacks anothers superior quality, achievement, or possession and either desires it or wishes that the other lacked it. Bertrand Russell said that envy was one of the most potent causes of unhappiness, Not only is the envious person rendered unhappy by his or her envy, Russell explained, but that person also wishes to inflict misfortune on others. One theory that helps to explain envy and its effects on behavior is the Socioevolutionary theory. Thus, this provides a framework for understanding social behavior and experiences, such as the experience and expression of envy, as rooted in biological drives for survival. Recent studies have demonstrated that inciting envy actually changes cognitive function, boosting mental persistence, schadenfreude means taking pleasure in the misfortune of others and can be understood as an outgrowth of envy in certain situations. Often, envy involves a motive to outdo or undo the rivals advantages, in part, this type of envy may be based on materialistic possessions rather than psychological states. Basically, people find themselves experiencing an overwhelming emotion due to someone else owning or possessing desirable items that they do not, for example, your next door neighbor just bought a brand new ocarina—a musical instrument youve been infatuated with for months now but cant afford. Feelings of envy in this situation would occur in the forms of pain, a lack of self-worth. It is that, which is why it flourishes in market societies, democracies of desire, they might be called, with money for ballots, but envy is more or less than desire. It begins with the almost frantic sense of emptiness inside oneself, one has to be blind to perceive the emptiness, of course, but thats what envy is, a selective blindness. Invidia, Latin for envy, translates as nonsight, and Dante had the envious plodding along under cloaks of lead, what they are blind to is what they have, God-given and humanly nurtured, in themselves. Envy may negatively affect the closeness and satisfaction of relationships, overcoming envy might be similar to dealing with other negative emotions. Individuals experiencing anger often seek professional treatment to help understand why they feel the way they do, subjects experiencing envy often have a skewed perception on how to achieve true happiness. By helping people to change perceptions, they will be more able to understand the real meaning of fortune. According to Lazarus, coping is a feature of the emotion process. There are very few theories that emphasize the coping process for emotions as compared to the information concerning the emotion itself. There are numerous styles of coping, of which there has been a significant amount of research done, for example, coping with envy can be similar to coping with anger. The issue must be addressed cognitively in order to work through the emotion, according to the research done by Salovey and Rodin, more effective strategies for reducing initial envy appear to be stimulus focused rather than self-focused
Envy
–
Portrait of a Woman Suffering from Obsessive Envy;
Théodore Géricault
Envy
–
Invidia,
allegorical painting by
Giotto di Bondone, ca. 1305-1306
Envy
–
Hieronymus Bosch,
The Seven Deadly Sins and the Four Last Things (Invidia)
Envy
–
The Seven Deadly Sins - Envy, by
Jacques Callot
23.
Euphoria
–
Euphoria is an affective state in which a person experiences pleasure or excitement and intense feelings of well-being and happiness. Certain drugs, many of which are addictive, can cause euphoria, similarly, certain natural rewards and social activities, such as aerobic exercise, laughter, listening to emotionally arousing music, music-making, and dancing, can induce a state of euphoria. Euphoria is also a symptom of certain neurological or neuropsychiatric disorders, romantic love and components of the human sexual response cycle are also associated with the induction of euphoria. According to Kent Berridge, an affective neuroscientist, intense euphoria occurs from the activation of every hedonic hotspot within the brains reward system. The word euphoria is derived from the Ancient Greek terms εὐφορία, εὖ eu meaning well and it is semantically opposite to dysphoria. A1706 English dictionary defined euphoria as the bearing of the Operation of a Medicine. A1903 article in The Boston Daily Globe refers to euphoria as pleasant excitement, in 1920 Popular Science magazine described euphoria as a high sounding name meaning feeling fit, normally making life worth living, motivating drug use, and ill formed in certain mental illnesses. In 1940 The Journal of Psychology defined euphoria as a state of well being. However, in 1957 British pharmacologist D. A. Cahal did not regard opioid euphoria as medically undesirable, the 1977 edition of A Concise Encyclopaedia of Psychiatry called euphoria a mood of contentment and well-being, with pathologic associations when used in a psychiatric context. As a sign of disease, it was described as bland and out of context. Many different types of stimuli can induce euphoria, including drugs, natural rewards. Affective disorders such as mania or bipolar disorder can involve euphoria as a symptom. Euphoria can occur as a result of dancing to music, music-making, neuroimaging studies have demonstrated that the reward system plays a central role in mediating music-induced pleasure. Pleasurable emotionally arousing music strongly increases dopamine neurotransmission in the pathways that project to the striatum. A euphoriant is a type of drug which tends to induce euphoria. Most euphoriants are addictive drugs due to their properties and ability to activate the brains reward system. Dopaminergic stimulants like amphetamine, methamphetamine, cocaine, MDMA, nicotine is a parasympathetic stimulant that acts as a mild euphoriant in some people. Certain depressants can produce euphoria, some of the euphoriant drugs in this class include drinking alcohol in moderate doses, γ-hydroxybutyric acid, some barbiturates and benzodiazepines may cause euphoria
Euphoria
–
Playing can induce an intense state of happiness and contentment.
Euphoria
–
Runners can experience a euphoric state often called a "runner's high".
Euphoria
–
A large dose of
methamphetamine causes a drug-induced euphoria.
24.
Fear
–
Fear in human beings may occur in response to a specific stimulus occurring in the present, or in anticipation or expectation of a future threat perceived as a risk to body or life. The fear response arises from the perception of danger leading to confrontation with or escape from/avoiding the threat, in humans and animals, fear is modulated by the process of cognition and learning. Thus fear is judged as rational or appropriate and irrational or inappropriate, an irrational fear is called a phobia. Watson, Robert Plutchik, and Paul Ekman have suggested there is only a small set of basic or innate emotions. This hypothesized set includes such emotions as acute stress reaction, anger, angst, anxiety, fright, horror, joy, panic, and sadness. Fear is closely related to, but should be distinguished from, the emotion anxiety, the fear response serves survival by generating appropriate behavioral responses, so it has been preserved throughout evolution. Many physiological changes in the body are associated with fear, summarized as the fight-or-flight response and this primitive mechanism may help an organism survive by either running away or fighting the danger. With the series of changes, the consciousness realizes an emotion of fear. People develop specific fears as a result of learning and this has been studied in psychology as fear conditioning, beginning with John B. Watsons Little Albert experiment in 1920, which was inspired after observing a child with a fear of dogs. In this study, an 11-month-old boy was conditioned to fear a white rat in the laboratory, the fear became generalized to include other white, furry objects, such as a rabbit, dog, and even a ball of cotton. Fear can be learned by experiencing or watching a frightening traumatic accident, for example, if a child falls into a well and struggles to get out, he or she may develop a fear of wells, heights, enclosed spaces, or water. There are studies looking at areas of the brain that are affected in relation to fear, when looking at these areas, it was proposed that a person learns to fear regardless of whether they themselves have experienced trauma, or if they have observed the fear in others. In a study completed by Andreas Olsson, Katherine I and this suggests that fear can develop in both conditions, not just simply from personal history. Fear is affected by cultural and historical context, for example, in the early 20th century, many Americans feared polio, a disease that can lead to paralysis. There are consistent cross-cultural differences in how people respond to fear, display rules affect how likely people are to show the facial expression of fear and other emotions. Although many fears are learned, the capacity to fear is part of human nature, many studies have found that certain fears are much more common than others. These fears are also easier to induce in the laboratory and this phenomenon is known as preparedness
Fear
–
A scared child shows fear in an
uncertain environment.
Fear
–
This cartoon depicts the nursery rhyme "
Little Miss Muffet ", in which the title character is "frightened away" by a spider.
Fear
–
Painting by
Guido Reni c. 1611
25.
Frustration
–
In psychology, frustration is a common emotional response to opposition. There are two types of frustration, internal and external, conflict, such as when one has competing goals that interfere with one another, can also be an internal source of frustration and can create cognitive dissonance. External causes of frustration involve conditions outside of a control, such as a physical roadblock. There are multiple ways individuals cope with such as passive–aggressive behavior, anger. This makes it difficult to identify the cause of their frustration. However, a direct and common response is a propensity towards aggression. Frustration originates from feelings of uncertainty and insecurity which stems from a sense of inability to fulfill needs, if the needs of an individual are blocked, uneasiness and frustration are more likely to occur. When these needs are ignored or unsatisfied, anger, depression, loss of self-confidence, aggression. Needs can be blocked two different ways, internally and externally, internal blocking happens within an individual’s mind, either through lack of ability, confidence, conflicting goals and desires, and/or fears. External blocking happens to an individual outside of their control such as physical roadblocks, difficult tasks, some people are predisposed towards feelings of frustration, indexed in terms of temperament, in adolescence and neuroticism in adulthood. Temperamental frustration is associated with alterations including changes in perceived relationship affection. Frustration can be considered a behavior and can have a number of effects. Stubborn refusal to respond to new conditions affecting the goal, such as removal or modification of the barrier and it follows that punishment is a dangerous tool, since it often has effects which are entirely the opposite of those desired. Frustration tolerance is ones ability to resist becoming frustrated when facing difficult tasks, having a low frustration tolerance is related to trait anger and a higher level of frustration tolerance is related to lower levels of anger and longer persistence on difficult tasks. For example, a child with a high frustration tolerance may be able to deal with repeated challenges and failures without experiencing significant frustration, the child with a low frustration tolerance can be quick to experience frustration when asked to perform tasks of moderate difficulty. Frustration–aggression hypothesis Anger Aggression Disappointment Depression Frustration
Frustration
–
A frustrated man sitting at a desk.
Frustration
–
A woman who is frustrated
26.
Gratitude
–
Gratitude, thankfulness, or gratefulness is the proper, fitting or called-for response to benefits or beneficence from a benefactor. The experience of gratitude has historically been a focus of world religions. It has also been a topic of interest to ancient, medieval and modern philosophers, Gratitude is not the same as indebtedness. While both emotions occur following help, indebtedness occurs when a person perceives that they are under an obligation to make some repayment of compensation for the aid, Gratitude may also serve to reinforce future prosocial behavior in benefactors. For example, one experiment found that customers of a store who were called and thanked showed a subsequent 70% increase in purchases. In comparison, customers who were called and told about a sale showed only a 30% increase in purchases, in another study, regular patrons of a restaurant gave bigger tips when servers wrote Thank you on their checks. The link between spirituality and gratitude has recently become a subject of study. Gratitude is viewed as a prized human propensity in the Christian, Buddhist, Muslim, Jewish, Bahai, worship with gratitude to God is a common theme in such religions and therefore, the concept of gratitude permeates religious texts, teachings, and traditions. For this reason, it is one of the most common emotions that religions aim to provoke, in Judaism, gratitude is an essential part of the act of worship and a part of every aspect of a worshiper’s life. According to the Hebrew worldview, all come from God and because of this. The Hebrew Scriptures are filled with the idea of gratitude, two examples included in the psalms are O Lord my God, I will give thanks to you forever, and I will give thanks to the Lord with my whole heart. The concluding prayer, the Alenu, also speaks of gratitude by thanking God for the destiny of the Jewish people. Along with these prayers, faithful worshipers recite more than one hundred blessings called berachot throughout the day, in Judaism there is also a major emphasis on gratitude for acts of human kindness and goodness. Gratitude has been said to mold and shape the entire Christian life, martin Luther referred to gratitude as The basic Christian attitude and today it is still referred to as the heart of the gospel. As each Christian believes they were created by a personal God, Christians are strongly encouraged to praise, Gratitude in Christianity is an acknowledgment of God’s generosity that inspires Christians to shape their own thoughts and actions around such ideals. Instead of simply a feeling, Christian gratitude is regarded as a virtue that shapes not only emotions and thoughts but also actions. Jonathan Edwards writes in his A Treatise Concerning Religious Affections that gratitude, because of this interpretation, modern measures of religious spirituality include assessments of thankfulness and gratitude towards God. In a study done by Samuels and Lester it was contended that in a sample of Catholic nuns and priests, out of 50 emotions, love
Gratitude
–
American flag with "merci", the
French word for "thank you", written on it, planted in front of a cross in the
Normandy American Cemetery and Memorial
Gratitude
–
New Orleans: Thank you message in the grotto of
Our Lady of Guadalupe Church; added by those for whom prayer or miracles were granted
27.
Grief
–
Grief is a multifaceted response to loss, particularly to the loss of someone or something that has died, to which a bond or affection was formed. Although conventionally focused on the response to loss, it also has physical, cognitive, behavioral, social, cultural. While the terms are used interchangeably, bereavement refers to the state of loss. Grief is a response to loss. It is the suffering one feels when something or someone the individual loves is taken away. Crying is a normal and natural part of grieving and it has also been found, however, that crying and talking about the loss is not the only healthy response and, if forced or excessive, can be harmful. Lack of crying is also a natural, healthy reaction, potentially protective of the individual, Science has found that some healthy people who are grieving do not spontaneously talk about the loss. Pressing people to cry or retell the experience of a loss can be harmful, berger identifies five ways of grieving, as exemplified by, Nomads, Nomads have not yet resolved their grief and do not seem to understand the loss that has affected their lives. Memorialists, This identity is committed to preserving the memory of the one that they have lost. Normalizers, This identity is committed to re-creating a sense of family, activists, This identity focuses on helping other people who are dealing with the same disease or with the same issues that caused their loved ones death. Seekers, This identity will adopt religious, philosophical, or spiritual beliefs to create meaning in their lives, in Bonannos book, The Other Side of Sadness, What the New Science of Bereavement Tells Us About Life After a Loss, he summarizes his research. His findings include that a natural resilience is the component of grief. The first researcher to use data, he outlined four trajectories of grief. Bonannos work has demonstrated that absence of grief or trauma symptoms is a healthy outcome, rather than something to be feared as has been the thought. Recovery, When normal functioning temporarily gives way to threshold or sub-threshold psychopathology, usually for a period of at least several months, chronic dysfunction, Prolonged suffering and inability to function, usually lasting several years or longer. Delayed grief or trauma, When adjustment seems normal but then distress, researchers have not found evidence of delayed grief, but delayed trauma appears to be a genuine phenomenon. The Kübler-Ross model, commonly known as the five stages of grief, is a theory first introduced by Elisabeth Kübler-Ross in her 1969 book, On Death, kubler-Ross actually applied the stages to persons who were dying, not persons who were grieving. Her studies involved her work with the ill and it was not until much later in her career did she give into the notion that it could be applied to those grieving
Grief
–
A family mourns during a funeral at the Lion's cemetery during the
Siege of Sarajevo in 1992.
Grief
–
Grief can be caused by the loss of one's home and possessions, as occurs with refugees.
Grief
–
"
Pietà " by
El Greco, 1571–1576. Philadelphia Museum of Art
Grief
–
People who become unemployed, such as these California workers, may face grief from the loss of their job
28.
Guilt (emotion)
–
It is closely related to the concept of remorse. Guilt is an important factor in perpetuating obsessive–compulsive disorder symptoms, Guilt and its associated causes, merits, and demerits are common themes in psychology and psychiatry. Both in specialized and in language, guilt is an affective state in which one experiences conflict at having done something that one believes one should not have done. It gives rise to a feeling which does not go away easily, sigmund Freud described this as the result of a struggle between the ego and the superego – parental imprinting. Freud rejected the role of God as punisher in times of illness or rewarder in time of wellness, while removing one source of guilt from patients, he described another. For his later explicator, Lacan, guilt was the companion of the signifying subject who acknowledged normality in the form of the Symbolic order. This may be linked to what Les Parrott has called the disease of false guilt. At the root of false guilt is the idea that what you feel must be true, if you feel guilty, you must be guilty. The philosopher Martin Buber underlined the difference between the Freudian notion of guilt, based on conflicts, and existential guilt, based on actual harm done to others. Guilt is often associated with anxiety, in mania, according to Otto Fenichel, the patient succeeds in applying to guilt the defense mechanism of denial by overcompensation. re-enacts being a person without guilt feelings. In psychological research, guilt can be measured by using questionnaires, such as the Differential Emotions Scale, defenses against feeling guilt can become an overriding aspect of ones personality. The methods that can be used to avoid guilt are multiple and they include, Repression, usually used by the superego and ego against instinctive impulses, but on occasion employed against the superego/conscience itself. If the defence fails, then one may begin to feel guilty years later for actions lightly committed at the time, projection is another defensive tool with wide applications. Alternatively, not the guilt, but the agency itself, may be projected onto other people. Feelings of guilt can prompt subsequent virtuous behavior, people who feel guilty may be more likely to exercise restraint, avoid self-indulgence, and exhibit less prejudice. Guilt appears to prompt reparatory behaviors to alleviate the negative emotions that it engenders, people appear to engage in targeted and specific reparatory behaviors toward the persons they wronged or offended. Individuals high in psychopathy lack any sense of guilt or remorse for harm they may have caused others. Instead, they rationalize their behavior, blame someone else, or deny it outright, a person with psychopathy has a tendency to be harmful to his or herself and to others. They have little ability to plan ahead for the future, an individual with psychopathy will never find themselves at fault because they will do whatever it takes to benefit themselves without reservation
Guilt (emotion)
–
Emotions
29.
Happiness
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Happiness is a mental or emotional state of well-being defined by positive or pleasant emotions ranging from contentment to intense joy. Happy mental states may also reflect judgements by a person about their overall well-being, a variety of biological, psychological, economic, religious and philosophical approaches have striven to define happiness and identify its sources. Various research groups, including psychology and happiness economics are employing the scientific method to research questions about what happiness is. The United Nations declared 20 March the International Day of Happiness to recognise the relevance of happiness, philosophers and religious thinkers often define happiness in terms of living a good life, or flourishing, rather than simply as an emotion. Happiness in this sense was used to translate the Greek eudaimonia, there has been a transition over time from emphasis on the happiness of virtue to the virtue of happiness. A widely discussed political value expressed in the United States Declaration of Independence of 1776 and this seems to suggest a subjective interpretation but one that nonetheless goes beyond emotions alone. In fact, this discussion is based on the naive assumption that the word happiness meant the same thing in 1776 as it does today. In fact, happiness meant prosperity, thriving, wellbeing in the 18th century, nowadays, happiness is a fuzzy concept and can mean many different things to many people. Part of the challenge of a science of happiness is to identify different concepts of happiness, related concepts are well-being, quality of life and flourishing. At least one author defines happiness as contentment, the 2012 World Happiness Report stated that in subjective well-being measures, the primary distinction is between cognitive life evaluations and emotional reports. Happiness is used in both life evaluation, as in “How happy are you with your life as a whole. ”, using these measures, the World Happiness Report identifies the countries with the highest levels of happiness. Since the 1960s, happiness research has been conducted in a variety of scientific disciplines, including gerontology, social psychology, clinical and medical research. Numerous short-term self-help interventions have been developed and demonstrated to improve well-being, Happiness in its broad sense is the label for a family of pleasant emotional states, such as joy, amusement, satisfaction, gratification, euphoria, and triumph. For example, happiness comes from encountering unexpected positive events, seeing a significant other, more narrowly, it refers to experiential and evaluative well-being. Experiential well-being, or objective happiness, is measured in the moment via questions such as How good or bad is your experience now. In contrast, evaluative well-being asks questions such as How good was your vacation, and measures ones subjective thoughts and feelings about happiness in the past. Experiential well-being is less prone to errors in memory. The two measures of happiness can be related by such as the peak-end rule
Happiness
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A smiling 95-year-old man from
Pichilemu,
Chile.
Happiness
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The
smiley face is a well-known
symbol of happiness
Happiness
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Joy,
Tacuinum Sanitatis Casanatensis (14th century)
Happiness
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Tibetan Buddhist monk
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This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "article name needed". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
