1.
Jane Austen
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Jane Austen was an English novelist known primarily for her six major novels, which interpret, critique and comment upon the British landed gentry at the end of the 18th century. Austens plots often explore the dependence of women on marriage in the pursuit of social standing. Her works critique the novels of sensibility of the half of the 18th century and are part of the transition to 19th-century literary realism. With the publications of Sense and Sensibility, Pride and Prejudice, Mansfield Park and Emma and she wrote two additional novels, Northanger Abbey and Persuasion, both published posthumously in 1818, and began another, eventually titled Sanditon, but died before its completion. Her novels have rarely been out of print, although they were published anonymously, a significant transition in her posthumous reputation occurred in 1869, fifty-two years after her death, when her nephews publication of A Memoir of Jane Austen introduced her to a wider audience. Austen has inspired a number of critical essays and literary anthologies. Her novels have inspired many films, from 1940s Pride and Prejudice to more recent productions, Sense and Sensibility, Jane Austens use of biting irony, along with her realism and social commentary have earned her great and historical importance to critics and scholars. The Bank of England has confirmed that the face of the new plastic £10 note will be Austen, the notes are expected to be released in summer 2017. There is little information about Jane Austens life except the few letters that survive. During her lifetime Austen wrote approximately 3,000 letters but only about 160 survive, many of the letters were written to Austens older sister Cassandra, who in 1843 burned the greater part of them and cut pieces out of those she kept. Cassandra believed that in the interest of tact and Janes penchant for forthrightness, the paucity of record of Austens life leaves modern biographers little to work with. The situation was compounded as successive generations of the family expunged and sanitized the already opaque details of Austens biography, Jane Austen was born in Steventon, Hampshire, on 16 December 1775. She was born a month later than her parents expected, her father wrote of her arrival in a letter that her mother certainly expected to have brought to bed a month ago. He added that her arrival was particularly welcome as a companion to her sister. The winter of 1776 was particularly harsh and it was not until 5 April that she was baptised at the church with the single name Jane. For much of Janes life, George Austen served as the rector of the Anglican parishes at Steventon, and he came from an old, respected, and wealthy family of wool merchants. Over the centuries as each generation of eldest sons received inheritances their wealth was consolidated and he and his two sisters were orphaned as children and had to be taken in by relatives. His sister Philadelphia went to India to find a husband and George entered St Johns College, Oxford on a fellowship and she came from the prominent Leigh family, her father was rector at All Souls College, Oxford, where she grew up among the gentry
2.
Regency novel
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The Regency period in the United Kingdom is the period between 1811 and 1820, when King George III was deemed unfit to rule and his son, later George IV, was instated to be his proxy as Prince Regent. It was a decade of particular manners and fashions, and overlaps with the Napoleonic period in Europe, modern Regency fiction, or later fiction set within the Regency era. - These include romance novels, historical fiction, detective fiction, in both cases the setting is typically Regency England, although the settings can sometimes be extended to the European continent or to the various British colonies of the same time period. All of these writers published most of their works during this period. Many of these classic Regency writers are associated with Romanticism. Romanticism expressed a revolt against the aristocratic, social, and political norms of the Enlightenment period which preceded it, all of these themes are evident in the best-known classic Regency works. A marriage based on love was rarely an option for most women in the British Regency, as securing a steady, Mary Shelleys Frankenstein was published in 1818, also falling within the Regency era. It is an example of horror fiction. Fiction set in the Regency period grew in popularity during the late 20th century, there has also been some Regency-set science fiction and fantasy, such as Naomi Noviks Temeraire books and some of Patricia Wredes novels. Authors generally attempt to write in a more British style, even if they are American, despite painstaking detail of historical accuracy, some criticize modern Regency novels for the behavior of the protagonists being more reflective of modern times than of the early 1800s. They may even be based on a true story, where true events are expanded into a narrative that contains elements of fiction. It may also feature notable historical occurrences during the Regency, such as the trade to the Americas. The Napoleonic Wars were a series of wars that were declared against Napoleons French Empire by opposing coalitions that ran from 1803 to 1815 and they include the War between Britain and France, which lasted from 1803 to 1814. Military fiction set in the Regency generally includes characters from British troops who were involved in this war, well-known authors include Bernard Cornwell, C. S. Forester, and Patrick OBrian. More recently, Novik refights the Napoleonic Wars with dragons for air support and these include mystery novels set in Regency-era England, some of which have been written as a series, such as Kate Rosss four book series featuring the character Julian Kestrel. Other well-known authors include, Stephanie Barron, Carrie Bebris, Ashley Gardner, many readers and writers of Regency romance make a distinction between traditional Regency romance, traditional Regency, and Regency historical. Many authors have written both traditionals and historicals, including Mary Balogh, Jo Beverley, Susan Carroll, Loretta Chase, Suzanne De Launton, Edith Layton, Mary Jo Putney and this genre includes modern romance novels set in the Regency with strong Christian themes. Authors include Bonnie Blythe, Heather Diane, Laurie Alice Eakes, Julie Klassen, there is generally a strong romantic theme throughout these novels, without the racy sex scenes often found in other modern Regency works
3.
Hertfordshire
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Hertfordshire is a county in southern England, bordered by Bedfordshire to the north, Cambridgeshire to the north-east, Essex to the east, Buckinghamshire to the west and Greater London to the south. For government statistical purposes, it is placed in the East of England region, in 2013, the county had a population of 1,140,700 living in an area of 634 square miles. Four towns have between 50,000 and 100,000 residents, Hemel Hempstead, Stevenage, Watford and St Albans. Hertford, once the market town for the medieval agricultural county derives its name from a hart. Elevations are high for the region in the north and west and these reach over 240m in the western projection around Tring which is in the Chilterns. The countys borders are approximately the watersheds of the Colne and Lea, hertfordshires undeveloped land is mainly agricultural and much is protected by green belt. The countys landmarks span many centuries, ranging from the Six Hills in the new town of Stevenage built by local inhabitants during the Roman period, Leavesden filmed much of the UK-based $7.7 Bn box office Harry Potter film series and has the countrys studio tour. Saint Alban, a Romano-British soldier, took the place of a Christian priest and was beheaded on Holywell Hill and his martyrs cross of a yellow saltire on a blue background is reflected in the flag and coat of arms of Hertfordshire. Hertfordshire is well-served with motorways and railways, providing access to London. The largest sector of the economy of the county is in services, Hertfordshire was the area assigned to a fortress constructed at Hertford under the rule of Edward the Elder in 913. Hertford is derived from the Anglo-Saxon heort ford, meaning deer crossing, the name Hertfordshire is first recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 1011. Deer feature in many county emblems, there is evidence of humans living in Hertfordshire from the Mesolithic period. It was first farmed during the Neolithic period and permanent habitation appeared at the beginning of the Bronze Age and this was followed by tribes settling in the area during the Iron Age. 293 the first recorded British martyrdom is believed to have taken place. Saint Alban, a Romano-British soldier, took the place of a Christian priest and was beheaded on Holywell Hill. His martyrs cross of a saltire on a blue background is reflected in the flag. He is the Patron Saint of Hertfordshire, with the departure of the Roman Legions in the early 5th century, the now unprotected territory was invaded and colonised by the Anglo-Saxons. By the 6th century the majority of the county was part of the East Saxon kingdom
4.
Derbyshire
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Derbyshire is a county in the East Midlands of England. A substantial portion of the Peak District National Park lies within Derbyshire, in 2003 the Ordnance Survey placed Church Flatts Farm at Coton in the Elms as the furthest point from the sea in Great Britain. The city of Derby is a unitary authority area, but remains part of the county of Derbyshire. The non-metropolitan county contains 30 towns with between 10,000 and 100,000 inhabitants, there is a large amount of sparsely populated agricultural upland, 75% of the population live in 25% of the area. Further occupation came with the Upper Paleolithic and Neolithic periods of the Stone Age when Mesolithic hunter gatherers roamed the hilly tundra, evidence of these nomadic tribes has been found in limestone caves located on the Nottinghamshire border. Deposits left in the date the occupancy at around 12,000 to 7,000 BCE. Burial mounds of Neolithic settlers are also situated throughout the county and these chambered tombs were designed for collective burial and are mostly located in the central Derbyshire region. There are tombs at Minninglow and Five Wells that date back to between 2000 and 2500 BCE, three miles west of Youlgreave lies the Neolithic henge monument of Arbor Low, which has been dated to 2500 BCE. It is not until the Bronze Age that real signs of agriculture, in the moors of the Peak District signs of clearance, arable fields and hut circles were discovered after archaeological investigation. However this area and another settlement at Swarkestone are all that have been found, during the Roman invasion the invaders were attracted to Derbyshire because of the lead ore in the limestone hills of the area. They settled throughout the county with forts built near Brough in the Hope Valley, later they settled around Buxton, famed for its warm springs, and set up a fort near modern-day Derby in an area now known as Little Chester. Several kings of Mercia are buried in the Repton area, following the Norman Conquest, much of the county was subject to the forest laws. To the northwest was the Forest of High Peak under the custodianship of William Peverel, the rest of the county was bestowed upon Henry de Ferrers, a part of it becoming Duffield Frith. In time the area was given to the Duchy of Lancaster. Meanwhile, the Forest of East Derbyshire covered the county to the east of the River Derwent from the reign of Henry II to that of Edward I. The main rivers in the county are the River Derwent and the River Dove which both join the River Trent in the south. The varied landscapes within Derbyshires have been formed mainly as a consequence of the underlying geology, the oldest rocks occur in the northern, more upland half of the county, and are mostly of Carboniferous age, comprising limestones, gritstones, sandstones and shales. In its north-east corner to the east of Bolsover there are also Magnesian Limestone rocks of Permian age, across both regions can be found drift deposits of Quaternary age – mainly terrace and river gravel deposits and boulder clays
5.
OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
6.
Dewey Decimal Classification
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The Dewey Decimal Classification, or Dewey Decimal System, is a proprietary library classification system first published in the United States by Melvil Dewey in 1876. It has been revised and expanded through 23 major editions, the latest issued in 2011 and it is also available in an abridged version suitable for smaller libraries. It is currently maintained by the Online Computer Library Center, a cooperative that serves libraries. OCLC licenses access to a version for catalogers called WebDewey. The Decimal Classification introduced the concepts of relative location and relative index which allow new books to be added to a library in their location based on subject. Libraries previously had given books permanent shelf locations that were related to the order of acquisition rather than topic, the classifications notation makes use of three-digit Arabic numerals for main classes, with fractional decimals allowing expansion for further detail. Using Arabic numerals for symbols, it is flexible to the degree that numbers can be expanded in linear fashion to cover aspects of general subjects. A library assigns a number that unambiguously locates a particular volume in a position relative to other books in the library. The number makes it possible to find any book and to return it to its place on the library shelves. The classification system is used in 200,000 libraries in at least 135 countries, the major competing classification system to the Dewey Decimal system is the Library of Congress Classification system created by the U. S. Melvil Dewey was an American librarian and self-declared reformer and he was a founding member of the American Library Association and can be credited with the promotion of card systems in libraries and business. He developed the ideas for his classification system in 1873 while working at Amherst College library. He applied the classification to the books in library, until in 1876 he had a first version of the classification. In 1876, he published the classification in pamphlet form with the title A Classification and Subject Index for Cataloguing and Arranging the Books and he used the pamphlet, published in more than one version during the year, to solicit comments from other librarians. It is not known who received copies or how many commented as only one copy with comments has survived, in March 1876, he applied for, and received copyright on the first edition of the index. The edition was 44 pages in length, with 2,000 index entries, comprised 314 pages, with 10,000 index entries. Editions 3–14, published between 1888 and 1942, used a variant of this same title, Dewey modified and expanded his system considerably for the second edition. In an introduction to that edition Dewey states that nearly 100 persons hav contributed criticisms, one of the innovations of the Dewey Decimal system was that of positioning books on the shelves in relation to other books on similar topics
7.
Library of Congress Classification
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The Library of Congress Classification is a system of library classification developed by the Library of Congress. It is used by most research and academic libraries in the U. S. the Classification is also distinct from Library of Congress Subject Headings, the system of labels such as Boarding schools and Boarding schools—Fiction that describe contents systematically. The classification was invented by Herbert Putnam in 1897, just before he assumed the librarianship of Congress, with advice from Charles Ammi Cutter, it was influenced by his Cutter Expansive Classification, the Dewey Decimal System, and the Putnam Classification System. It was designed specifically for the purposes and collection of the Library of Congress to replace the fixed location system developed by Thomas Jefferson, by the time Putnam departed from his post in 1939, all the classes except K and parts of B were well developed. LCC has been criticized for lacking a theoretical basis, many of the classification decisions were driven by the practical needs of that library rather than epistemological considerations. Although it divides subjects into broad categories, it is essentially enumerative in nature and that is, it provides a guide to the books actually in one librarys collections, not a classification of the world. In 2007 the Wall Street Journal reported that in the countries it surveyed most public libraries, the National Library of Medicine classification system uses the initial letters W and QS–QZ, which are not used by LCC. Some libraries use NLM in conjunction with LCC, eschewing LCCs R for Medicine, others use LCCs QP–QR schedules and include Medicine R. Subclass AC – Collections. Collected works Subclass AE – Encyclopedias Subclass AG – Dictionaries and other reference works Subclass AI – Indexes Subclass AM – Museums. Collectors and collecting Subclass AN – Newspapers Subclass AP – Periodicals Subclass AS – Academies, directories Subclass AZ – History of scholarship and learning. The humanities Subclass B – Philosophy Subclass BC – Logic Subclass BD – Speculative philosophy Subclass BF – Psychology Subclass BH – Aesthetics Subclass BJ – Ethics Subclass BL – Religions, rationalism Subclass BM – Judaism Subclass BP – Islam. Seals Subclass CE – Technical Chronology, calendar Subclass CJ – Numismatics Subclass CN – Inscriptions. Former Soviet Republics – Poland Subclass DL – Northern Europe, maps Subclass GA – Mathematical geography. Cartography Subclass GB – Physical geography Subclass GC – Oceanography Subclass GE – Environmental Sciences Subclass GF – Human ecology, anthropogeography Subclass GN – Anthropology Subclass GR – Folklore Subclass GT – Manners and customs Subclass GV – Recreation. Leisure Subclass H – Social sciences Subclass HA – Statistics Subclass HB – Economic theory, demography Subclass HC – Economic history and conditions Subclass HD – Industries. Labor Subclass HE – Transportation and communications Subclass HF – Commerce Subclass HG – Finance Subclass HJ – Public finance Subclass HM – Sociology Subclass HN – Social history, Social reform Subclass HQ – The family. Marriage, Women and Sexuality Subclass HS – Societies, secret, benevolent, races Subclass HV – Social pathology. Municipal government Subclass JV – Colonies and colonization, International migration Subclass JX – International law, see JZ and KZ Subclass JZ – International relations Subclass K – Law in general
8.
Sense and Sensibility
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Sense and Sensibility is a novel by Jane Austen, published in 1811. It was published anonymously, By A Lady appears on the page where the authors name might have been. It tells the story of the Dashwood sisters, Elinor and Marianne, the novel follows the young women to their new home with their widowed mother, a meagre cottage on the property of a distant relative, where they experience love, romance and heartbreak. The novel is set in southwest England, London and Sussex between 1792 and 1797, the novel sold out its first print run of 750 copies in the middle of 1813, marking a success for its author, who then had a second print run later that year. The novel continued in publication throughout the 19th, 20th and 21st centuries, because of primogeniture, when Mr Henry Dashwood dies, his house, Norland Park, passes directly to his son John, the child of his first wife. His second wife, Mrs Dashwood, and their daughters, Elinor, Marianne and Margaret, on his deathbed, Mr Dashwood extracts a promise from his son, to take care of his half-sisters. Johns greedy wife, Fanny, soon persuades him to renege on the promise, John and Fanny immediately move in as the new owners of Norland, while the Dashwood women are treated as unwelcome guests. Mrs Dashwood seeks somewhere else to live, in the meantime, Fannys brother, Edward Ferrars visits Norland and soon forms an attachment with Elinor. Fanny disapproves of the match and offends Mrs Dashwood with the implication that Elinor is motivated by money, Mrs Dashwood moves her family to Barton Cottage in Devonshire, near the home of her cousin, Sir John Middleton. Their new home is modest but they are received by Sir John and welcomed into local society—meeting his wife, Lady Middleton, his mother-in-law, Mrs Jennings and his friend. Colonel Brandon is attracted to Marianne, and Mrs Jennings teases them about it, Marianne is not pleased as she considers the thirty-five-year-old Colonel Brandon an old bachelor, incapable of falling in love or inspiring love in anyone else. Marianne, out for a walk, gets caught in the rain, slips, the dashing John Willoughby sees the accident and assists her. Marianne quickly comes to admire his good looks and outspoken views on poetry, music, art and his attentions lead Elinor and Mrs Dashwood to suspect that the couple are secretly engaged. Elinor cautions Marianne against her conduct, but Marianne refuses to check her emotions. Abruptly, Mr Willoughby informs the Dashwoods that his aunt, upon whom he is dependent, is sending him to London on business. Marianne is distraught and abandons herself to her sorrow, Edward Ferrars pays a short visit to Barton Cottage but seems unhappy. Elinor fears that he no longer has feelings for her, after Edward departs, Anne and Lucy Steele, the vulgar cousins of Lady Middleton, come to stay at Barton Park. Lucy informs Elinor in confidence of her secret engagement to Edward Ferrars that started when he was studying with her uncle
9.
Mansfield Park
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Mansfield Park is the third published novel by Jane Austen, first published in 1814. The novel tells the story of Fanny Price starting when her family sends her at age 10 to live in the household of her wealthy aunt and uncle. The novel was first published by Thomas Egerton, a second edition was published in 1816 by John Murray, still within Austens lifetime. The novel did not receive any attention when it was initially published. The critical reception from the late 20th century onward has been controversial, paula Byrne, writing in the 21st century, found this to be one of Austens best novels, and called it pioneering for being about meritocracy. Some critics characterize Thomass trip to Antigua as nothing more than an excuse for his long absence, the late Edward Said criticized the novel for failing to clearly criticize Sir Thomass profiteering in the West Indies. Frances Fanny Price, at age 10, is sent from her home to live with her uncle. It is a change, from the elder sister of many, to the youngest at the estate of Sir Thomas Bertram. Her cousin Edmund finds her one day and helps her. She wants to write to her older brother William, Edmund provides the writing materials, the first kindness to her in this new family. Her cousins are Julia, age 12, Maria, age 13, Edmund, age 15 and her aunt is kind but her uncle frightens her with his authoritative demeanor. Fanny’s mother has another sister, Mrs Norris and she is the wife of the clergyman at Mansfield parsonage. Mrs Norris has no children and takes a great interest in her nieces, Mrs Norris keeps up a strict difference between her Bertram nieces and lowly Fanny. Sir Thomas helps the sons of the Price family find occupations as they are old enough, William joins the Navy as a midshipman not long after Fanny is at Mansfield Park. He visits them once before going to sea, and writes to his sister, five years after Fanny arrives, Aunt Norris is widowed and moves into a cottage of her own. Her visits to Mansfield Park increase, as does her mistreatment of Fanny, Tom Bertram incurs a large debt and to pay it, Sir Thomas sells the living of the parsonage, freed up by the death of Uncle Norris, to clergyman Dr Grant. When Fanny is 16, Sir Thomas leaves to deal with problems on his plantation in Antigua and he takes Tom along and trusts to Aunt Norris for the others. Mrs Norris takes on the task of finding a husband for Maria and finds James Rushworth, with income of ₤12,000 a year, Maria accepts his marriage proposal, subject to Sir Thomass approval on his return
10.
Wikisource
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Wikisource is an online digital library of free content textual sources on a wiki, operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikisource is the name of the project as a whole and the name for each instance of that project, the projects aims are to host all forms of free text, in many languages, and translations. Originally conceived as an archive to store useful or important historical texts, the project officially began in November 24,2003 under the name Project Sourceberg. The name Wikisource was adopted later that year and it received its own domain name seven months later, the project has come under criticism for lack of reliability but it is also cited by organisations such as the National Archives and Records Administration. The project holds works that are either in the domain or freely licensed, professionally published works or historical source documents, not vanity products. Verification was initially made offline, or by trusting the reliability of digital libraries. Now works are supported by online scans via the ProofreadPage extension, some individual Wikisources, each representing a specific language, now only allow works backed up with scans. While the bulk of its collection are texts, Wikisource as a whole hosts other media, some Wikisources allow user-generated annotations, subject to the specific policies of the Wikisource in question. Wikisources early history included several changes of name and location, the original concept for Wikisource was as storage for useful or important historical texts. These texts were intended to support Wikipedia articles, by providing evidence and original source texts. The collection was focused on important historical and cultural material. The project was originally called Project Sourceberg during its planning stages, in 2001, there was a dispute on Wikipedia regarding the addition of primary source material, leading to edit wars over their inclusion or deletion. Project Sourceberg was suggested as a solution to this, perhaps Project Sourceberg can mainly work as an interface for easily linking from Wikipedia to a Project Gutenberg file, and as an interface for people to easily submit new work to PG. Wed want to complement Project Gutenberg--how, exactly, and Jimmy Wales adding like Larry, Im interested that we think it over to see what we can add to Project Gutenberg. It seems unlikely that primary sources should in general be editable by anyone -- I mean, Shakespeare is Shakespeare, unlike our commentary on his work, the project began its activity at ps. wikipedia. org. The contributors understood the PS subdomain to mean either primary sources or Project Sourceberg, however, this resulted in Project Sourceberg occupying the subdomain of the Pashto Wikipedia. A vote on the name changed it to Wikisource on December 6,2003. Despite the change in name, the project did not move to its permanent URL until July 23,2004, since Wikisource was initially called Project Sourceberg, its first logo was a picture of an iceberg
11.
Elizabeth Bennet
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Elizabeth Bennet is the protagonist in the 1813 novel Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen. She is often referred to as Eliza or Lizzy by her friends, Elizabeth is the second child in a family of five daughters. Though the circumstances of the time and environment push her to seek a marriage of convenience for economic security, Elizabeth is regarded as the most admirable and endearing of Austens heroines. She is considered one of the most beloved characters in British literature because of her complexity, Austen herself described Lizzy as as delightful a creature as ever appeared in print. Elizabeth is the second eldest of the five Bennet sisters of the Longbourn estate, situated near the market village of Meryton in Hertfordshire. She is 20 years old at the beginning of the novel, Elizabeth is described as an intelligent young woman, with a lively, playful disposition, which delighted in anything ridiculous. She often presents a playful good-natured impertinence that does not offend, early in the novel she is depicted as being personally proud of her wit and her accuracy in judging the social behaviour and intentions of others. Her father is a landowner, but his daughters cannot inherit because the estate is entailed upon the male line. Upon his death, Longbourn will therefore be inherited by his cousin and nearest male relation, Mr. William Collins and this future provides the cause of Mrs. Bennets eagerness to have her daughters married off to wealthy men. Elizabeth is her fathers favourite, described by him as having something more of quickness than her sisters, in contrast, she is the least dear to her mother, especially after Elizabeth refuses a marriage proposal from Mr Collins. Her mother tends to contrast her negatively with her sisters Jane and Lydia, whom she considers superior in beauty and disposition, respectively, Elizabeth is often upset and embarrassed by the impropriety and silliness of her mother and three younger sisters. Within her neighbourhood Elizabeth is considered a beauty and a young woman with fine eyes. From the beginning, opinions have been divided on the character, Anne Isabella Milbanke gave a review of the novel. The character of Elizabeth Bennet, marked by intelligence and independent thinking, helen Fieldings novel Bridget Joness Diary, as well as the film series of the same name, is a modern adaptation of Pride and Prejudice, with Elizabeth as Renée Zellwegers title character. In Gurinder Chadhas Bollywood adaptation, Bride and Prejudice, Aishwarya Rai plays the Elizabeth character, in the 2008 television film Lost in Austen, actress Gemma Arterton plays a version of Lizzy who switches places with a modern-day young woman. Lily James starred as the zombie-slaying Elizabeth Bennet in the version of Pride and Prejudice and Zombies. The most notable of performances has been that of Keira Knightley in, Pride and Prejudice, Knightley received a Best Actress Oscar Nomination for her portrayal of the heroine. Those Elegant Decorums, The Concept of Propriety in Jane Austens Novels, albany, State University of New York Press
12.
Regency era
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The Regency in Great Britain was a period when King George III was deemed unfit to rule and his son ruled as his proxy as Prince Regent. On the death of George III in 1820, the Prince Regent became George IV, the term Regency can refer to various stretches of time, some are longer period than the decade of the formal Regency which lasted from 1811–1820. The Regency era ended in 1837 when Queen Victoria succeeded William IV, the Regency is noted for its elegance and achievements in the fine arts and architecture. This era encompassed a time of social, political. War was waged with Napoleon and on other fronts, affecting commerce both at home and internationally as well as politics, despite the bloodshed and warfare the Regency was also a period of great refinement and cultural achievement, shaping and altering the societal structure of Britain as a whole. One of the greatest patrons of the arts and architecture was the Prince Regent himself, upper class society flourished in a sort of mini-Renaissance of culture and refinement. Naturally, this required dipping into the treasury and the Regent, in many ways there was a dark side to the beauty and fashion in England at this time. In the dingier, less affluent areas of London, thievery, womanising, gambling, the existence of rookeries, the population boom—the population increased from just under a million in 1801 to one and a quarter million by 1820—created a wild, roiling, volatile, and vibrant scene. The formation of the Regency after the retirement of George III saw the end of a pious and reserved society. This change was influenced by the Regent himself, who was entirely removed from the machinations of politics. Driving these changes was not only money and rebellious pampered youth, in 1814 The Times adopted steam printing. By this method it could now print 1,100 sheets every hour, not 200 as before—a fivefold increase in production capability,1811 George Augustus Frederick, Prince of Wales began his nine-year tenure as regent and became known as The Prince Regent. This sub-period of the Georgian era began the formal Regency, the Duke of Wellington held off the French at Fuentes dOnoro and Albuhera in the Peninsular War. The Prince Regent held a fete at 9,00 p. m, june 19,1811, at Carlton House in celebration of his assumption of the Regency. 1812 Spencer Perceval assassinated in the House of Commons, final shipment of the Elgin Marbles arrived in England. Sarah Siddons retired from the stage, shipping and territory disputes started the War of 1812 between the United Kingdom and the United States. The British were victorious over French armies at the Battle of Salamanca), charles John Huffam Dickens English writer and social critic of the Victorian era was born on 7 February 18121813 Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen was published. William Hedleys Puffing Billy, a steam locomotive, ran on smooth rails
13.
English literature
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However, until the early 19th century, it only deals with the literature of the United Kingdom and Ireland. It does not include literature written in the languages of Britain. The English language has developed over the course of more than 1,400 years, the earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the fifth century, are called Old English. Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman conquest of England, early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the King James Bible as well as the Great Vowel Shift. Through the influence of the British Empire, the English language has spread around the world since the 17th century. 450, after the withdrawal of the Romans, and ending soon after the Norman Conquest in 1066. These works include such as epic poetry, hagiography, sermons, Bible translations, legal works. In all there are about 400 surviving manuscripts from the period, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a collection of annals in Old English, from the 9th century, that chronicle the history of the Anglo-Saxons. The poem Battle of Maldon also deals with history and this is a work of uncertain date, celebrating the Battle of Maldon of 991, at which the Anglo-Saxons failed to prevent a Viking invasion. Oral tradition was strong in early English culture and most literary works were written to be performed. Epic poems were popular, and some, including Beowulf, have survived to the present day. Beowulf is the most famous work in Old English, and has achieved national status in England. The only surviving manuscript is the Nowell Codex, the date of which is debated. Beowulf is the title, and its composition is dated between the 8th and the early 11th century. Cædmon is the earliest English poet whose name is known, and it is also one of the earliest recorded examples of sustained poetry in a Germanic language. The poem, The Dream of the Rood, was inscribed upon the Ruthwell Cross, Two Old English poems from the late 10th century are The Wanderer and The Seafarer. Classical antiquity was not forgotten in Anglo-Saxon England, and several Old English poems are adaptations of late classical philosophical texts, the longest is King Alfreds 9th-century translation of Boethius Consolation of Philosophy. After the Norman conquest of England in 1066, the form of the Anglo-Saxon language became less common. Under the influence of the new aristocracy, French became the language of courts, parliament
14.
Keira Knightley
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Keira Christina Knightley is an English actress. She began acting as a child on television and made her debut in 1995. She had a role as Sabé in Star Wars, Episode I – The Phantom Menace. In 2014, she was nominated for a Golden Globe, a SAG, a BAFTA Award, in October 2015, Knightley made her Broadway debut in the title role of Thérèse Raquin. Knightley was born in Teddington, London, England, the daughter of Sharman Macdonald, an actress turned playwright, and Will Knightley and her Scottish-born mother is of Scottish and Welsh descent, while her father is English. She was meant to be named Kiera, after the Russian ice skater, Kira Ivanova and she has an older brother, Caleb. Knightley lived in Richmond, attending Stanley Junior School, Teddington School and she requested an agent at the age of three. Knightley has noted that she was single-minded about acting during her childhood and she performed in a number of local amateur productions, which included After Juliet, written by her mother, and United States, written by her drama teacher, Ian McShane. She focused on art, history, and English literature while at Esher, after getting an agent at six, Knightley worked mostly in commercials and small TV roles. Her first role was Little Girl in Royal Celebration, a 1993 TV film, a year later, she had a small role in the film A Village Affair. She later starred in 1995s Innocent Lies and 1998s Coming Home and she was a princess in the 1996 film The Treasure Seekers. Later in 1999, she appeared as Rose in Oliver Twist, sabés dialogue was dubbed over with Natalie Portmans voice. This was to hide the fact that the handmaiden Padmé was actually disclosed as the real Queen Amidala at the end of the film. Knightley was cast in the role because of her resemblance to Portman. Knightleys first starring role was in 2001, when she played the daughter of Robin Hood in the made-for-television Walt Disney Productions feature Princess of Thieves and she trained for several weeks in archery, fencing and horse riding. During this time, Knightley also appeared in The Hole, a thriller that received a release in the United States. Its director Nick Hamm described her as a version of Julie Christie. She appeared in the adaptation of Doctor Zhivago as Lara, alongside Scottish actor Hans Matheson in the title role
15.
Matthew Macfadyen
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He is also known for portraying John Birt in the political drama Frost/Nixon, as well as Detective Inspector Edmund Reid in the BBC series Ripper Street. In 2015 he starred in the Sky Living series The Enfield Haunting as Guy Lyon Playfair, Macfadyen was born in Great Yarmouth, Norfolk, the son of Meinir, a drama teacher and former actress, and Martin Macfadyen, an oil executive. His paternal grandparents were Scottish and his grandparents were Welsh. Macfadyen was brought up in a number of places, including Jakarta, Indonesia and he attended schools in England, Scotland and Indonesia, and went to Oakham School in Rutland, before being accepted to the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art at 17. His Benedick was played as an officer-class buffoon with a moustache, in 2005, he played Prince Hal in Henry IV, Parts One and Two at the Royal National Theatre, with Michael Gambon in the role of Falstaff. In 2007, he returned to the stage, portraying an American, Clay, a stay at home father with an attitude in the play The Pain. A TV breakthrough came when he appeared as Hareton Earnshaw in an adaptation of Wuthering Heights, further television drama work followed, including starring roles in the dramas Warriors and The Way We Live Now, both for the BBC. Also in 2001, he earned acclaim for his role in the BBC Two drama serial Perfect Strangers. In 2002, he starred in The Project, a BBC drama charting New Labours rise to power and he starred in Spooks, which became a success when screened on BBC One. A longer second season was screened in 2003, and a season was broadcast in autumn 2004. The series was aired as MI-5 on the A&E Network, in 2007 he appeared in the one-off Channel 4 drama Secret Life, which dealt with the controversial subject of paedophilia. Matthew won the Best Actor award at the Royal Television Society 2007 Awards for this part and he also appeared in a short sketch for Comic Relief as the bridegroom in Mr. Beans Wedding, alongside Rowan Atkinson and Michelle Ryan. Macfadyen appeared in films including Enigma, and In My Fathers Den and he stars as the romantic lead Fitzwilliam Darcy in an acclaimed adaptation of Pride and Prejudice, released in the UK in September 2005. Macfadyen starred in Frank Ozs Death at a Funeral and the film Incendiary, based on Chris Cleaves novel alongside Michelle Williams and he has also appeared in Ron Howards film Frost/Nixon, in which he played John Birt. In 2008, he played the male lead Arthur Clennam in the BBC adaptation of Charles Dickens Little Dorrit, in 2010, he played the Sheriff of Nottingham in Robin Hood. He starred as Prior Philip in the TV serial The Pillars of the Earth, in June 2010, Macfadyen won a British Academy Television Award for Best Supporting Actor for his work in Criminal Justice. In 2011, Macfadyen made a cameo in the BBC show Spooks. In December 2012 he began portraying Detective Inspector Edmund Reid in BBC Ones Ripper Street, in 2013-14 he played Jeeves in the award-winning production of Jeeves and Wooster in Perfect Nonsense at the Duke of Yorks theatre in the West End of London
16.
Mr. Darcy
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Fitzwilliam Darcy, generally referred to as Mr. Darcy, is one of the two central characters in Jane Austens novel Pride and Prejudice. He is an archetype of the romantic hero, and a romantic interest of Elizabeth Bennet. Usually referred to only as Mr. Darcy or Darcy by characters, in the novel, Mr. Darcy is a wealthy gentleman with an income exceeding £10,000 a year, and the proprietor of Pemberley, a large estate in Derbyshire, England. Darcy first meets Elizabeth Bennet at a ball, where he slights her by refusing to dance with her, gradually he becomes attracted to her and later attempts to court her while simultaneously struggling against his continued feelings of superiority. Ironically, Darcy disapproves when his friend Bingley develops an attachment to Elizabeths elder sister Jane. He later explains this seeming hypocrisy by asserting I was kinder to than to myself, eventually, Mr. Darcy declares his love for Elizabeth and offers her a proposal of marriage. He reminds her of the gap in their social status. A few months later, Darcy unexpectedly encounters Elizabeth when she is visiting his estate in Derbyshire with her aunt and uncle Gardiner. Elizabeth is first embarrassed to be discovered at Pemberley, having only visited on the belief that Darcy was absent, however, Darcys intervention was done not to win Elizabeth—he attempted to keep her from knowing of his involvement—but rather to ease her distress. Darcy also felt responsible for failing to warn Elizabeths family. Darcy then releases Mr. Bingley to return to Longbourn and woo Jane, accompanying his friend to Longbourn, Darcy proposes to Elizabeth again, who accepts him. Mr. Darcy is a proud and arrogant man to whom those are lower classes than him and he thinks he is better than them in rank and connections so he does not wish to interact with them. Look at what happened in Meryton, in all the parties he seemed distance himself from the rest of the crowd because he did not think them a worthy acquaintance. At the dance, he did not wish to dance with any girl because they were all beneath him in class and he is honourable, friendly, and caring to whom that are the same class as him. For example, his behaviour with Bingley is more than brotherly as he rescues him from a bad marriage and is constant companion at his side, through Elizabeth, he learns to be less boastful and arrogant because he realizes that his actions have deeply affected others. As in his first proposal to Elizabeth where he acted more prideful than loving and his actions made Elizabeth angrier than touched showing him the insincerity in his manners. Vivien Jones notes that Darcys handsome appearance, wealth and original arrogance signify to the reader that he is the hero of a romance novel, Darcy chooses to involve himself in arranging Lydias marriage, despite the risk to his own reputation. Manliness, or even the ability to survive had in fact almost entirely deserted those were suffering from the cult of sensibility
17.
Hugh Thomson
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Hugh Thomson was an Irish Illustrator born at Coleraine near Derry. He is best known for his illustrations of works by authors such as Jane Austen, Charles Dickens. Hugh Thomson was born to tea merchant John Thomson and shopkeeper Catherine and he was the eldest of their three surviving children. Although he had no artistic training, as a young boy he would often fill his schoolbooks with drawings of horses, dogs. He attended Coleraine Model School, but left at the age of fourteen to work as a clerk at E. Gribbon & Sons, several years later his artistic talents were discovered, and in 1877 he was hired by printing and publishing company Marcus Ward & Co. On 29 December 1884 Thomson married Jessie Naismith Miller in Belfast, soon afterwards they moved back to London for Thomsons career. They had one son together, John, born in 1886, in 1911, he and his family moved to Sidcup, hoping to improve their ever delicate health. Thomsons correspondence reflects the fact that he missed being close to the National Gallery, during World War I, demand for Thomsons work decreased to a few propaganda pamphlets and some commissions from friends. By 1917, Thomson had fallen on financial hardship and he had to take a job with the Board of Trade, Thomson died of heart disease at his home in Wandsworth Common on 7 May 1920. At the age of 17, Thomson joined the art department at Marcus Ward & Co, there his mentor was John Vinycomb, head of the art department. Vinycomb and Thomsons cousin, Mrs. William H. Dodd, Thomsons artistic ambitions led him to London in 1883 where he became a leading contributor The English Illustrated Magazine. He first worked for the magazine with Randolph Caldecott on the 1885–86 issue and his style at the time is said to be in the straight tradition of Caldecott. Thomson also gained praise and influenced many artists through his book illustrations. He notably illustrated editions of William Shakespeare, Jane Austen, and his illustrations for Elizabeth Gaskells Cranford inspired a slew of publishers to produce a series of gift books in a similar style. Between 1886 and 1900, he illustrated a set of classics for Macmillans. Much of his work during that period consisted of elaborately illustrated gift books, Thomsons most popular illustrations were fine line drawing of rural characters and gentle countrified society. His illustrations were featured in an 1891 exhibit with fellow illustrator Kate Greenaway at the Fine Art Society. Thomson is best known for his pen-and-ink illustrations and he prepared most of his work in black and white until the early years of the 20th century, but would sometimes tint pieces for exhibits
18.
C. E. Brock
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Charles Edmund Brock was a widely published English painter, line artist and book illustrator, who signed most of his work C. E. Brock. He was the eldest of four artist brothers, including Henry Matthew Brock, Brock was born on 5 February 1870 in Holloway, London. The family later settled in Cambridge and he studied art briefly under sculptor Henry Wiles. He received his first book commission at the age of 20 in 1890 and he became very successful, and illustrated books for authors such as Jonathan Swift, William Thackeray, Jane Austen, Charles Dickens, and George Eliot. Brock also contributed pieces to magazines such as The Quiver, The Strand. He used the Cambridge college libraries for his picture research, in illustration Brock is best known for his line work, initially working in the tradition of Hugh Thomson, but he was also a skilled colourist. As a painter he received plaudits for his realism and vibrancy he created in his work, only a small quantity of his known paintings have been located which is why their prices have been so high. He and his brothers maintained a Cambridge studio filled with various curios, antiques, furniture, and they owned a large collection of Regency era costume prints and fashion plates, and had clothes specially made as examples for certain costumes. Using these, family members would model for each other, unequivocally the most famous and valuable paintings in Brocks career were his golf paintings – The Bunker, The Drive, and The Putt – all of which were painted in 1894 as part of the same series. These paintings were famously acquired together by a Japanese collector in 1991 for $1.5 million, interestingly the initial unsigned painting is considered to be the more impressive of the two versions, and is even used as the print for postcards and posters sold in many Golf Museums. Brock did not publish any work after 1910. He died on 28 February 1938 in Cambridge, the approach of C. E. Brocks work varied with the sort of story he was illustrating. Other illustrations were drawn to amuse children looking at or reading storybooks. C. E. Brocks illustrations from the British Library Flickr account C. E. Brock at Library of Congress Authorities, with 60 catalogue records
19.
Pemberley
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Pemberley is the fictional country estate owned by Fitzwilliam Darcy, the male protagonist in Jane Austens novel Pride and Prejudice. It is located near the town of Lambton, and believed by some to be based on Chatsworth House. In describing the estate, Austen uses uncharacteristically explicit symbolism to represent the home of the man at the centre of the novel. On first visiting the estate, Elizabeth Bennet is charmed by the beauty of the surrounding countryside and its banks were neither formal, nor falsely adorned. She had never seen a place where nature had done more and they were all of them warm in her admiration, and at that moment she felt that to be mistress of Pemberley might be something. A sequel to Pride and Prejudice entitled Pemberley was written by Emma Tennant, lyme Park, near Stockport, was the setting for Pemberley for the 1995 television series of Pride and Prejudice starring Jennifer Ehle and Colin Firth. Chatsworth House, the inspiration for Pemberley, was used for the exterior scenes for Joe Wrights 2005 film version of Pride and Prejudice starring Keira Knightley. However, Wilton House was used for many of the interior scenes, Jane Austen mentions Chatsworth in the novel as one of the great houses Elizabeth and her aunt and uncle visited before Pemberley during their visit north. The Duchess of Devonshire believes that the author was thinking of Chatsworth House when describing Pemberley due to the number of similarities between Chatsworth and Pemberley. Chatsworth was again used for exterior, and some interior, scenes for the BBC adaptation of Death Comes to Pemberley, Harewood House, near Leeds in West Yorkshire, was the setting for Pemberley in the ITV fantasy series Lost in Austen. This series was not an adaptation of the novel, but the novel provided the majority of the plots, characters. Some interior scenes in the BBC adaptation of Death Comes to Pemberley were filmed at Harewood, Pemberley Press is the name of the publishing house that Bridget Jones works at in the 2001 film Bridget Joness Diary, in homage to Pride and Prejudice. In The Lizzie Bennet Diaries, a modern adaptation of Pride and Prejudice. Darcy says Pemberley is the name of the place that his fathers family comes from in England
20.
Bennet family
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The Bennet family are a fictional family of dwindling Hertfordshire landed gentry, created by English novelist Jane Austen. The family plays a role in the novel Pride and Prejudice, since it is the one to which the protagonist, Elizabeth. The complex relationships between its various members influence the evolution of the plot, Mr. Gardiner and Mrs. Philips contribute significantly to the progress and outcome of the story, but at a level and in a different register reflecting their respective social belonging. Collinss character serves as a link between the gentry of Hertfordshire, to which the Bennets belong, and the property owners Lady Catherine de Bourgh. William Collins have a claim to the Bennets family estate of Longbourn. He is the father of Elizabeth Bennet, the protagonist of the novel Pride and he is married to Mrs. Bennet, the daughter of a Meryton attorney, the late Mr. Gardener Sr. Together the couple has five daughters, Jane, Elizabeth, Mary, Catherine, none of the daughters are married at the beginning of the novel, much to Mrs Bennets dismay. Mr. Bennets family estate, Longbourn House, is an estate located within the environs of the township of Meryton, in Hertfordshire, from his family estate, Mr. Bennet derives an annual income of £2,000, which is a respectable income for a gentleman. Sadly, after 23/24-years of marriage, Mr. Bennet remains the last male scion of the Bennet family, because Mr Bennet has no immediate male heirs, the estate is entailed upon his next closest living male relative, Mr. William Collins. While his distant second cousin, Mr. Collins is his now current heir presumptive, if, however, emily Auerbach criticises Mr Bennet for ignoring the fate of his daughters, and suggests that he possesses too little sense of duty or responsibility. It is likely that this mistake he had made back as a bachelor is why he is the way he is now. Mr. Admittedly, he married a girl, but he has, for his part, completely given up his social role as pater familias. His disengagement is symbolized by his withdrawing into his library and hiding behind his cynical mockery, although he is an intelligent man, his indolence, lethargy and indifference results in him opting to spend his free time ridiculing the weaknesses of others rather than addressing his own problems. His irresponsibility has placed his family in the potentially devastating position of being homeless and he does recognize this fact, but has still done nothing to remedy the situation. Mr. Bennet seems to spend most all of his time in his sanctuary, Longbourns library/bookroom/study. Firmly tied to his serenity, he regards the world with an ironic detachment, when he is involved in a social event, such as the ball at Netherfield, it is as a silent and amused witness of the blunders of his family. Even the discovery of Darcys role in Lydias marriage only draws from him a selfish exclamation of relief and it will save me a world of trouble and economy. Though he does love his daughters, he fails as a parent, preferring, instead
21.
Landed gentry
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Landed gentry is a largely historical British social class consisting of land owners who could live entirely from rental income. It was distinct from, and socially below, the aristocracy or peerage and they often worked as administrators of their own lands, while others became public, political and armed forces figures. The decline of this privileged class largely stemmed from the 1870s agricultural depression, by the late 19th century, the term was also applied to peers such as the Duke of Westminster who lived on landed estates. The book series Burkes Landed Gentry recorded the members of this class, successful burghers often used their accumulated wealth to buy country estates, with the aim of establishing themselves as landed gentry. Knights, originally a rank, this status was increasingly awarded to civilians as a reward for service to the Crown. Holders have the right to be addressed as Sir as are baronets, but unlike baronet, Esquires, originally men aspiring to knighthood, were the principal attendants on a knight. After the Middle Ages the title of Esquire - Esq. - became an honour that could be conferred by the Crown, gentlemen, possessors of a social status recognised as a separate title by the Statute of Additions of 1413. Generally men of birth or rank, good social standing, and wealth. The term landed gentry, although used to mean nobility. Once identical, eventually these terms became complementary, in the sense that their definitions began to fill in parts of what the other lacked, the historical term gentry by itself, so Peter Coss argues, is a construct that historians have applied loosely to rather different societies. Any particular model may not fit a specific society, yet a single definition nevertheless remains desirable, the phrase landed gentry referred in particular to the untitled members of the landowning upper class. The most stable and respected form of wealth has historically been land, the primary meaning of landed gentry encompasses those members of the land owning classes who are not members of the peerage. It was a designation, one belonged to the landed gentry if other members of that class accepted one as such. However, during the 19th century, as the new rich of the Industrial Revolution became more and more numerous and politically powerful, from the late 16th-century, the gentry emerged as the class most closely involved in politics, the military and law. It provided the bulk of Members of Parliament, with many gentry families maintaining political control in a locality over several generations. Owning land was a prerequisite for suffrage in county constituencies until the Reform Act 1832, until then, Members of the landed gentry were upper class, this was a highly prestigious status. Particular prestige was attached to those who inherited landed estates over a number of generations and these are often described as being from old families. Titles are often considered central to the class, but this is certainly not universally the case
22.
Gentry
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Gentry are well-born, genteel and well-bred people of high social class, especially in the past. In the United Kingdom, the term refers to the social class of the landed aristocracy or to the minor aristocracy whose income derives from their large landholdings. The idea of gentry in the sense of noblesse is extinct in common parlance in modern day Britain. Though the untitled nobility in modern day Britain are normally termed gentry, the older sense of nobility is that of a quality identical to gentry. The fundamental social division in most parts of Europe in the Middle Ages was between the nobiles, i. e. the tenants in chivalry, and the ignobles, i. e. the villeins, citizens and burgesses. The division into nobles and ignobles in smaller regions of Europe in the Middle Ages was less due to a more rudimentary feudal order. After the Reformation, intermingling between the class and the often hereditary clerical upper class became a distinctive feature in several Nordic countries. Besides the gentry there have been other analogous traditional elites, the Indo-Europeans who settled Europe, Western Asia and the Indian subcontinent conceived their societies to be ordered in a tripartite fashion, the three parts being castes. Castes came to be divided, perhaps as a result of greater specialisation. The classic formulation of the system as largely described by Georges Dumézil was that of a priestly or religiously occupied caste, a warrior caste. Dumézil divided the Proto-Indo-Europeans into three categories, sovereignty, military, and productivity and he further subdivided sovereignty into two distinct and complementary sub-parts. One part was formal, juridical, and priestly, but rooted in this world, the other was powerful, unpredictable, and also priestly, but rooted in the other, the supernatural and spiritual world. The second main division was connected with the use of force, the military, finally, there was a third group, ruled by the other two, whose role was productivity, herding, farming, and crafts. This system of roles can be seen in the castes which flourished on the Indian subcontinent. Emperor Constantine convoked the First Council of Nicaea in 325 whose Nicene Creed included belief in one holy catholic and apostolic Church, emperor Theodosius I made Nicene Christianity the state church of the Roman Empire with the Edict of Thessalonica of 380. In this power vacuum, the Church rose to become the dominant power in the West, the classical heritage flourished throughout the Middle Ages in both the Byzantine Greek East and Latin West. During the Middle Ages it was customary to classify the population of Christendom into laboratores, bellatores, the last group, though small in number, monopolized the instruments and opportunities of culture, and ruled with almost unlimited sway half of the most powerful continent on the globe. The clergy, like Platos guardians, were placed in authority, in the latter half of the period in which they ruled, the clergy were as free from family cares as even Plato could desire
23.
Patriarch
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Originally, a patriarch was a man who exercised autocratic authority as a pater familias over an extended family. The system of rule of families by senior males is termed patriarchy. The word patriarch originally acquired its religious meaning in the Septuagint version of the Bible, today, the word has acquired specific ecclesiastical meanings. In particular, the bishops in Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, the Catholic Church. The office and the circumscription of such a patriarch is termed a patriarchate. Historically, a patriarch has often been the choice to act as ethnarch of the community identified with his religious confession within a state or empire of a different creed. He included in this also the western part of North Africa. Justinians system was given formal recognition by the Quinisext Council of 692. Popes have in the past occasionally used the title Patriarch of the West, beginning 1863, this title appeared in the annual reference publication, Annuario Pontificio, which in 1885 became a semi-official publication of the Holy See. This publication suppressed the title in its 2006 edition, the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity explained the decision in a press release issued later that year. It stated that the title Patriarch of the West had become obsolete and practically unusable, since the Second Vatican Council, the Latin Church, with which the title could be considered associated, is now organized as a number of episcopal conferences and their international groupings. The Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem The Patriarch of the East Indies a titular see, united to Goa. The Patriarch of Aquileia – with rival line of succession moved to Grado - dissolved in 1752, the Patriarch of Grado – in 1451 merged with the Bishopric of Castello and Venice to form the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Venice. The Patriarch of the West Indies – a titular patriarchal see, the Latin Patriarch of Antioch – title abolished in 1964. The titular Latin Patriarch of Alexandria – title abolished in 1964, the Latin Patriarch of Constantinople – title abolished in 1964.02.24 to Alessandro Cescenzi, Somascans, former Latin Titular Patriarch of Alexandria, who resigned the title on 1682.01.09. However, differences exist in the order of precedence and in the mode of accession, no papal confirmation is needed for newly elected patriarchs before they take office. They are just required to petition the pope as soon as possible for the concession of what is called ecclesiastical communion, the five ancient Patriarchates, the Pentarchy, in order of preeminence ranked by the Quinisext Council in 692. The title of patriarch created in 531 by Justinian. The Patriarch of the West, currently not an Episcopal or Patriarchal authority in the Eastern Orthodox Church, following the Great Schism in 1054
24.
A Memoir of Jane Austen
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A Memoir of Jane Austen is a biography of the novelist Jane Austen published in 1869 by her nephew James Edward Austen-Leigh. A second edition was published in 1871 which included previously unpublished Jane Austen writings, a family project, the biography was written by James Edward Austen-Leigh but owed much to the recollections of Jane Austens many relatives. However, it was the decisions of her friend and sister, Cassandra Austen. Austen-Leigh described his dear Aunt Jane domestically, as someone who was uninterested in fame, however, the manuscripts appended to the second edition suggest that Jane Austen was intensely interested in revising her manuscripts and was perhaps less content than Austen-Leigh described her. The Memoir does not attempt to tell the story of Jane Austens life. The Memoir introduced the public to the works of Jane Austen and it remained the primary biographical work on the author for over half a century. In the late 1860s, the Austen family decided to write a biography of Jane Austen. The death of Sir Francis Austen, her last surviving sibling, public interest in Jane Austen was also developing and the family became concerned that an outsider or another branch of the family would produce a biography. James Edward Austen-Leigh, as the son of the eldest branch, in a spirit of censorship as well as communication, with the help and support of his sisters and Jane Austens nieces, he collected materials. The biography was largely the work of James Edward Austen-Leigh, his half-sister Jane Anna Elizabeth Austen Lefroy and, his younger sister Caroline Mary Craven Austen, and their cousin Cassy Esten. The Godmersham or Kentish Austens viewed Jane Austen as more inward, moreover, as Caroline wrote, the generation who knew her is passing away. As Sutherland explains, the ingredients of the Memoir, as well as its reverent colouring, are owed, in one way or another. Cassandra was the executor of Janes will and was responsible for the preservation and destruction of all remaining letters, thus, while writing the Memoir, Austen-Leigh did not have access to large numbers of Jane Austens letters. Furthermore, the rest had scattered as bequests, a complete collection of Jane Austens letters was only gathered in 1932. There may have been disagreements between the descendants regarding how much information to private, particularly with regards to Jane Austens romances. For example, the first edition of the Memoir states I have no reason to think that she felt any attachment by which the happiness of her life was at all affected. This kind of reticence was not isolated to the Austen family, James Edward Austen-Leigh began writing the Memoir on 30 March 1869 and finished it five months later in September. It was published on 16 December 1869 in an edition of about 1,000 copies, in 1871, Austen-Leigh published a second edition, which contained additional letters, family papers, and biographical material
25.
Vainglory
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Vanity is the excessive belief in ones own abilities or attractiveness to others. Prior to the 14th century it did not have such narcissistic undertones, in Christian teachings vanity is considered an example of pride, one of the seven deadly sins. Philosophically speaking, vanity may refer to a sense of egoism. Friedrich Nietzsche wrote that vanity is the fear of appearing original, it is thus a lack of pride, one of Mason Cooleys aphorisms is Vanity well fed is benevolent. In Western art, vanity was often symbolized by a peacock, during the Renaissance, vanity was invariably represented as a naked woman, sometimes seated or reclining on a couch. She attends to her hair with comb and mirror, the mirror is sometimes held by a demon or a putto. Symbols of vanity include jewels, gold coins, a purse, often we find an inscription on a scroll that reads Omnia Vanitas, a quotation from the Latin translation of the Book of Ecclesiastes. The artist invites us to pay lip-service to condemning her, writes Edwin Mullins and she admires herself in the glass, while we treat the picture that purports to incriminate her as another kind of glass—a window—through which we peer and secretly desire her. The theme of the recumbent woman often merged artistically with the one of a reclining Venus. In his table of the Seven deadly sins, Hieronymus Bosch depicts a woman admiring herself in a mirror held up by a devil. Behind her is a jewelry box. A painting attributed to Nicolas Tournier, which hangs in the Ashmolean Museum, is An Allegory of Justice, a young woman holds a balance, symbolizing justice, she does not look at the mirror or the skull on the table before her. All is Vanity, by Charles Allan Gilbert, carries on this theme, an optical illusion, the painting depicts what appears to be a large grinning skull. Upon closer examination, it reveals itself to be a young woman gazing at her reflection in the mirror, in the film The Devils Advocate, Satan claims that vanity is his favourite sin. Such artistic works served to warn viewers of the nature of youthful beauty, as well as the brevity of human life
26.
Vanity
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Vanity is the excessive belief in ones own abilities or attractiveness to others. Prior to the 14th century it did not have such narcissistic undertones, in Christian teachings vanity is considered an example of pride, one of the seven deadly sins. Philosophically speaking, vanity may refer to a sense of egoism. Friedrich Nietzsche wrote that vanity is the fear of appearing original, it is thus a lack of pride, one of Mason Cooleys aphorisms is Vanity well fed is benevolent. In Western art, vanity was often symbolized by a peacock, during the Renaissance, vanity was invariably represented as a naked woman, sometimes seated or reclining on a couch. She attends to her hair with comb and mirror, the mirror is sometimes held by a demon or a putto. Symbols of vanity include jewels, gold coins, a purse, often we find an inscription on a scroll that reads Omnia Vanitas, a quotation from the Latin translation of the Book of Ecclesiastes. The artist invites us to pay lip-service to condemning her, writes Edwin Mullins and she admires herself in the glass, while we treat the picture that purports to incriminate her as another kind of glass—a window—through which we peer and secretly desire her. The theme of the recumbent woman often merged artistically with the one of a reclining Venus. In his table of the Seven deadly sins, Hieronymus Bosch depicts a woman admiring herself in a mirror held up by a devil. Behind her is a jewelry box. A painting attributed to Nicolas Tournier, which hangs in the Ashmolean Museum, is An Allegory of Justice, a young woman holds a balance, symbolizing justice, she does not look at the mirror or the skull on the table before her. All is Vanity, by Charles Allan Gilbert, carries on this theme, an optical illusion, the painting depicts what appears to be a large grinning skull. Upon closer examination, it reveals itself to be a young woman gazing at her reflection in the mirror, in the film The Devils Advocate, Satan claims that vanity is his favourite sin. Such artistic works served to warn viewers of the nature of youthful beauty, as well as the brevity of human life
27.
Conceit
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In literature, a conceit is an extended metaphor with a complex logic that governs a poetic passage or entire poem. By juxtaposing, usurping and manipulating images and ideas in surprising ways, extended conceits in English are part of the poetic idiom of Mannerism, during the late sixteenth and early seventeenth century. In English literature the term is associated with the 17th century metaphysical poets. The metaphysical conceit differs from an analogy in the sense that it does not have a clear-cut relationship between the things being compared. An example of the latter occurs in John Donnes A Valediction, Forbidding Mourning, the metaphysical conceit is often imaginative, exploring specific parts of an experience. John Donnes The Flea is a poem seemingly about fleas in a bed, when Sir Philip Sidney begins a sonnet with the conventional idiomatic expression My true-love hath my heart and I have his. He takes the metaphor literally and teases out a number of possibilities in the exchange of hearts. The result is a fully formed conceit, the Petrarchan conceit is a form of love poetry wherein a mans love interest is referred to in hyperbole. For instance, the lover is a ship on a stormy sea, the paradoxical pain and pleasure of lovesickness is often described using oxymoron, for instance uniting peace and war, burning and freezing, and so forth. But images which were novel in the sonnets of Petrarch became clichés in the poetry of later imitators, romeo uses hackneyed Petrarchan conceits when describing his love for Rosaline as bright smoke, cold fire, sick health. In the Renaissance, the term indicated any particularly fanciful expression of wit, within this critical sense, the Princeton Encyclopedia makes a distinction between two kinds of conceits, the Metaphysical conceit, described above, and the Petrarchan conceit. (1989} More than Cool Reason, A Field Guide to Poetic Metaphor, Princeton, NJ, University of Chicago Press Preminger, Alex and T. V. F. The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics, Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press George Herbert, Praise Shakespeares Sonnet 130, from Wikisource
28.
George Wickham
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George Wickham is a fictional character created by Jane Austen who appears in her novel Pride and Prejudice, published in 1813. George Wickham is introduced as an officer who has a shared history with Mr. Darcy. Henry Fieldings Tom Jones influenced the development of Wickhams character and he has traits of the main protagonists of The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling, the hero, Tom Jones, and his half-brother, Blifil. There is a resemblance between the confrontational relationship between the two characters in Fieldings novel and in the one created by Jane Austen between Wickham and Darcy. Finally, the Pemberley estate, under the authority of Mr. Darcy, Senior, master Blifil and the bastard Tom grew up in the same estate, and have received the same education and the same affection from the squire. Like the treacherous Blifil, Wickham is permanently banned from the paradise of his childhood, another parallel of Wickham and Darcys younger days is with the Biblical figures Jacob and Esau. Another inspiration is Joseph Surface from The School for Scandal, who, like Wickham, seems to be charming and upright and he has all the appearance of the ideal romantic hero. The uniform, the red coat of Colonel Forsters militia, adds to his prestige among the women. Susan Morgan notes that in contrast to Austens introductions of other characters, Wickhams introduction tells us nothing of Mr. Wickhams qualities or nature, Elizabeth Bennet, in particular, is delighted, she finds him well above the captains of the militia in elegance and manners. He seems to her much more worthy of interest when he appears to be an innocent victim of the cruelty and jealousy of Mr. Darcy, whom she finds so unpleasant. As the narrator reveals nothing of the new officers past, he is exclusively through the positive image that Elizabeth. A native of Derbyshire, where she had lived ten or twelve years before her marriage, he gave her the opportunity to evoke pleasant memories of youth, so she was inclined towards him. According to David Shapard, the reason why Wickham and Elizabeth do not seriously consider marriage is that they are both without funds. The Bennets, who were offended by the snobbery of Darcy and of Bingleys sisters, welcome him and listen to the story of his grievances with sympathy, Mr. Bennet himself has a certain weakness for him. Jennifer Preston Wilson asserts that Wickham relies upon making a good first impression. The first appearance of Wickham in Meryton is when Darcy and Elizabeth meet again after their first encounter at the ball, only Elizabeth, burning to know the explanation, notices the brief exchange between Wickham and Darcy, one turned red, the other pale. As all the focus is on Elizabeth noticing this exchange between the men, Burns suggests that we are not told that Wickham is observing Darcy, Wickham profits from the sympathy enjoyed in the city by Colonel Forster and his regiment choosing Meryton as its winter quarters. It is one of the local militias raised to reinforce the army against the threat of French invasion, as some came with their spouses, teas and visits between women increased the occasions for marriageable young ladies to meet these dashing idle officers in red coats
29.
Mr. William Collins
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Mr. William Collins is a fictional character in the novel Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen. He is the cousin of Mr. Bennet, and is the clergyman at the Hunsford parsonage near Rosing’s Park, since Mr. and Mrs. Bennet have no sons, Mr. Collins is the current heir presumptive to the Bennets family estate of Longbourn House. Mr. Collins is first introduced during his visit to Longbourn, Mr. William Collins,25 years old as the novel begins, is Mr Bennets distant second cousin, a clergyman, and the current heir presumptive to his estate of Longbourn House. Born to a father, Mr. Collins Sr and his father passes away some point not too long prior to events at the beginning of the novel. His physical appearance is described as being tall, heavy looking young man of five and his air was grave and stately, and his manners were very formal. Austen writes that prior to his entry into the novel, his circumstances in early life and he has a ridiculously high regard for Lady Catherine de Bourgh and her daughter, of whom he is eloquent in their praise. Elizabeths rejection of Mr Collinss marriage proposal is welcomed by her father, Mr Collins then marries Elizabeths friend, Charlotte Lucas. Mr. Collins is usually considered to be the foil to Mr. Darcy, who is grave and serious, on the other hand, Mr. Collins acts with impropriety and exaggerated humility, which offers some comedic relief. He likes things, especially if they are expensive &/or numerous, Mr. Collins is first mentioned when Mr. Bennet tells his wife that his cousin will be visiting them. Mr. Bennet reads them a letter sent to him from Mr. Collins where Collins speaks of making amends for any past disagreements between his father and Mr Bennet. In his letter, Mr. Collins readily assumes that his overtures of peace will be gratefully accepted, upon the first night of his visit he spends time dining with the family and reading to them from Fordyce’s Sermons in their parlor. It is at point that Mr. Collins seems to take a fancy to the eldest daughter. When discussing his intentions with Mrs. Bennet he is told that Jane may very soon be engaged and it takes Mr. Collins only a few moments to redirect his attentions to Elizabeth Bennet, who in he believes in “birth and beauty, ” succeeds her sister. He spends the rest of his stay making visits around the neighborhood with the young Misses Bennet and they visit Mrs. Phillips, Mrs. Bennet’s sister. Mr. Collins is quite charmed by this encounter and seems extremely pleased to be treated so well by the family and he continues to pay specific attention to Miss Elizabeth. Collins first gives Elizabeth a hint of his intentions prior to the Netherfield ball hosted by Charles Bingley and he asks Elizabeth if she will allow him the pleasure of being her partner for the first two dances. Though Mr. Collins quite enjoys himself during these dances, Elizabeth has entirely different feelings on the matter, Miss Elizabeth has a strong aversion for Mr. Collins. However, she tries to avoid any conversation beyond what is polite
30.
Lady Catherine de Bourgh
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Lady Catherine de Bourgh is a character in the 1813 novel Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen. Lady Catherine is the widow of Sir Lewis de Bourgh, the two had a single daughter, Anne de Bourgh. Lady Catherine was the sister of Lady Anne Darcy, mother of Mr. Fitzwilliam Darcy, both Lady Catherine and Lady Anne were the daughters of an earl and their brother is the sitting earl during the events of the novel. At the end of the novel, Lady Catherine becomes the aunt-in-law of Elizabeth Bennet after Elizabeth marries Mr. Darcy, Lady Catherine desired to marry her own daughter Anne to Mr. Darcy. She also considers that Mr. Darcy is marrying someone much below him, Lady Catherine is the daughter of an earl, thus she and her sister are always styled as Lady Catherine and Lady Anne, regardless of marriage. If she were not noble, she would be styled as Lady de Bourgh, Rosings is the home of Catherine de Bourgh. It is noted many times within the novel as being a house with many fine fittings. One such feature is a fireplace with glazing worth over five hundred pounds, the elegance and correctness of Rosings underline the side of Mr. Darcys background that impresses Elizabeth, although she refuses to be overawed by it. Quote by Mr Collins recounting Lady Catherine Mr. Collins, you must marry, a clergyman like you must marry. Choose properly, choose a gentlewoman for my sake, and for you own, let her be an active, useful sort of person, not brought up high, find such a woman as soon as you can, bring her to Hunsford, and I will visit her. To Elizabeth, Your father’s estate is entailed on Mr. Collins, for your sake, I am glad of it, but otherwise I see no occasion for entailing estates from the female line. It was not thought necessary in Sir Lewis de Bourgh’s family, do you play and sing, Miss Bennet. Then sometime or other we shall be happy to hear you and our instrument is a capital one, probably superior to ---- you shall try it some day. Do your sisters play and sing, why did not you all learn. You ought all to have learned, the Miss Webbs all play, and their father has not so good an income as yours. But I suppose you had no opportunity and your mother should have taken you to town every spring for the benefit of masters. Five daughters brought up at home without a governess, I never heard of such a thing. Your mother must have quite a slave to your education
31.
Dowry
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A dowry is a transfer of parental property at the marriage of a daughter. Dowry contrasts with the concepts of bride price and dower. Similarly, dower is the property settled on the bride herself, by the groom at the time of marriage, Dowry is an ancient custom, and its existence may well predate records of it. Dowries continue to be expected, and demanded as a condition to accept a proposal, in some parts of the world, mainly in parts of Asia, Northern Africa. In some parts of the world, disputes related to dowry sometimes result in acts of violence against women, including killings, the custom of dowry is most common in cultures that are strongly patrilineal and that expect women to reside with or near their husbands family. Dowries have a history in Europe, South Asia, Africa. A dowry is the transfer of property to a daughter at her marriage rather than at the owners death. A dowry establishes a type of fund, the nature of which may vary widely. This fund may provide an element of security in widowhood or against a negligent husband. Dowries may also go toward establishing a marital household, and therefore might include such as linens. This practice differs from the majority of Sub-Saharan African societies that practice homogenous inheritance in which property is transmitted only to children of the same sex as the property holder. These latter African societies are characterized by the transmission of the bride price, drawing on the work of Ester Boserup, Goody notes that the sexual division of labour varies in intensive plough agriculture and extensive shifting horticulture. In sparsely populated regions where shifting cultivation takes place, most of the work is done by women and these are the societies that give brideprice. Boserup further associates shifting horticulture with the practice of polygamy, in plough agriculture farming is largely mens work, this is where dowry is given. In contrast, plough agriculture is associated with property and marriage tends to be monogamous. Close family are the preferred marriage partners so as to property within the group. There is a debate on Goodys theory. She notes that Goodys is a model in which these historical variables may not be the decisive factors today
32.
Joseph Hall (bishop)
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Joseph Hall was an English bishop, satirist and moralist. His contemporaries knew him as a writer, and a high-profile controversialist of the early 1640s. In church politics, he tended in fact to a middle way, Thomas Fuller wrote, He was commonly called our English Seneca, for the purenesse, plainnesse, and fulnesse of his style. Not unhappy at Controversies, more happy at Comments, very good in his Characters, better in his Sermons, Hall was born at Bristow Park, Ashby-de-la-Zouch,1 July 1574. His father, John Hall, was employed under Henry Hastings, 3rd Earl of Huntingdon, president of the north and his mother was Winifred Bambridge, a strict puritan, whom her son compared to St Monica. The first part of his education was received at Ashby Grammar School, when he was of the age of fifteen Mr. Pelset, lecturer at Leicester, a divine of puritan views, offered to take him under indentures and educate him for the ministry. Just before this arrangement was completed, it came to the knowledge of Nathaniel Gilby, son of Anthony Gilby and a fellow of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, Gilby induced Halls father to send his son to Emmanuel College in 1589. The expense of his education at the university was partly borne by his uncle and he was elected scholar and afterwards fellow of Emmanuel College, graduating B. A. in 1592 and M. A. in 1596. Fuller, nearly a contemporary, says that Hall passed all his degrees with great applause and he obtained a high reputation in the university for scholarship, and read the public rhetoric lecture in the schools for two years with much credit. Having taken holy orders, Hall was offered the mastership of Blundells School, Tiverton, nevertheless, in 1603, he married Elizabeth Wynniff of Brettenham, Suffolk. At Brussels, he disputed at the Jesuit college on the authenticity of modern miracles, Halls devotional writings had attracted the notice of Henry, Prince of Wales, who made him one of his chaplains. Hall preached officially on the anniversary of King Jamess accession in 1613. In 1612, Edward Denny gave Hall the curacy of Waltham-Holy-Cross, Essex, in the next year Hall was chosen as one of the English deputies at the Synod of Dort. However he fell ill, and was replaced by Thomas Goad, at the time when Marco Antonio de Dominis announced his intention to return to Rome, after a stay in England, Hall wrote to try to dissuade him, without success. In a long-unpublished reply De Dominis justified himself in a statement of his mission against schism and its limited results, hampered by Dort. In a sermon Columba Noæ of February 1624 to Convocation, he gave a list or personal panorama of leading theologians of the Church of England. In the same year he refused the see of Gloucester, at the time English delegates to Dort were receiving preferment. Hall was then involved as a mediator, taking a part in the Arminian and Calvinist controversy in the English church
33.
Jeremy Taylor
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Jeremy Taylor was a cleric in the Church of England who achieved fame as an author during the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell. He is sometimes known as the Shakespeare of Divines for his style of expression. He is remembered in the Church of Englands calendar of saints with a Lesser Festival on 13 August, Taylor was under the patronage of William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury. He went on to become chaplain in ordinary to King Charles I as a result of Lauds sponsorship and this made him politically suspect when Laud was tried for treason and executed in 1645 by the Puritan parliament during the English Civil War. After the parliamentary victory over the King, he was imprisoned several times. Eventually, he was allowed to live quietly in Wales, where he became the chaplain of the Earl of Carbery. At the Restoration, his star was on the rise. He also became vice-chancellor of the University of Dublin, Taylor was born in Cambridge, the son of a barber. He was baptised on 15 August 1613 and his father was educated and taught him grammar and mathematics. He was then educated at the Perse School, Cambridge, before going to Gonville and Caius College at Cambridge University where he gained a B. A. in 1630/1 and an M. A. in 1634. The best evidence of his diligence as a student is the learning of which he showed so easy a command in later years. Archbishop William Laud sent for Taylor to preach in his presence at Lambeth, in November 1635 he had been nominated by Laud to a fellowship at All Souls College, Oxford, where, says Wood, love and admiration still waited on him. He seems, however, to have spent little time there and he became chaplain to his patron the archbishop, and chaplain in ordinary to Charles I. After two years in Oxford, he was presented, in March 1638, by William Juxon, Bishop of London, to the rectory of Uppingham, in Rutland. In the next year he married Phoebe Langsdale, by whom he had six children, more serious consequences followed his attachment to the Royalist cause. Taylor probably accompanied the king to Oxford, in 1643 he was presented to the rectory of Overstone, Northamptonshire, by Charles I. There he would be in connection with his friend and patron Spencer Compton. During the next fifteen years Taylors movements are not easily traced and he had been taken prisoner with other Royalists while besieging Cardigan Castle on 4 February 1645
34.
Joseph Addison
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Joseph Addison was an English essayist, poet, playwright, and politician. He was the eldest son of The Reverend Lancelot Addison and his name is usually remembered alongside that of his long-standing friend, Richard Steele, with whom he founded The Spectator magazine. Addison was born in Millstone, Wiltshire, but soon after his birth his father, Lancelot Addison, was appointed Dean of Lichfield and he was educated at Charterhouse School, where he first met Richard Steele, and at The Queens College, Oxford. He excelled in classics, being noted for his Latin verse. In 1693, he addressed a poem to John Dryden, and his first major work and his translation of Virgils Georgics was published in the same year. While in Switzerland in 1702, he heard of the death of William III and he returned to England at the end of 1703. For more than a year he remained without employment, but the Battle of Blenheim in 1704 gave him an opportunity to distinguish himself. In 1705, with the Whigs in political power, Addison was made Under-Secretary of State, Addisons biographer states, In the field of his foreign responsibilities Addisons views were those of a good Whig. He had always believed that Englands power depended upon her wealth, her wealth upon her commerce, and her commerce upon the freedom of the seas, from 1708 to 1709 he was MP for the rotten borough of Lostwithiel. Addison was shortly afterwards appointed secretary to the new Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Lord Wharton, under the influence of Wharton, he was Member of Parliament in the Irish House of Commons for Cavan Borough from 1709 until 1713. From 1710, he represented Malmesbury, in his county of Wiltshire. He encountered Jonathan Swift in Ireland and remained there for a year, subsequently, he helped found the Kitcat Club and renewed his association with Richard Steele. In 1709 Steele began to bring out Tatler, to which Addison became almost immediately a contributor, thereafter he started The Spectator and this paper, which at first appeared daily, was kept up until 20 December 1714. His last undertaking was The Freeholder, a paper, 1715–16. He wrote the libretto for Thomas Claytons opera Rosamond, which had a premiere in London in 1707. In 1713 Addisons tragedy Cato was produced, and was received with acclamation by both Whigs and Tories and he followed this effort with a comedic play, The Drummer. In 1712, Addison wrote his most famous work of fiction, Cato and it has a prologue written by Alexander Pope and an epilogue by Dr. Garth. The play was a success throughout Britain and its possessions in the New World and it continued to grow in popularity, especially in the American colonies, for several generations
35.
Samuel Johnson
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Johnson was a devout Anglican and committed Tory, and is described by the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography as arguably the most distinguished man of letters in English history. He is also the subject of perhaps the most famous biography in English literature, born in Lichfield, Staffordshire, Johnson attended Pembroke College, Oxford for just over a year, before his lack of funds forced him to leave. After working as a teacher, he moved to London, where he began to write for The Gentlemans Magazine and his early works include the biography Life of Mr Richard Savage, the poems London and The Vanity of Human Wishes, and the play Irene. After nine years of work, Johnsons A Dictionary of the English Language was published in 1755 and it had a far-reaching effect on Modern English and has been described as one of the greatest single achievements of scholarship. This work brought Johnson popularity and success, until the completion of the Oxford English Dictionary 150 years later, Johnsons was viewed as the pre-eminent British dictionary. His later works included essays, an annotated edition of The Plays of William Shakespeare. In 1763, he befriended James Boswell, with whom he travelled to Scotland. Towards the end of his life, he produced the massive and influential Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets, Johnson was a tall and robust man. His odd gestures and tics were disconcerting to some on first meeting him, after a series of illnesses, he died on the evening of 13 December 1784, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Born on 18 September 1709, to Michael Johnson, a bookseller and he did not cry and, with doubts surrounding the newborns health, his aunt exclaimed that she would not have picked such a poor creature up in the street. Since it was feared that the baby die, the vicar of St Marys was summoned to perform a baptism. Two godfathers were chosen, Samuel Swynfen, a physician and graduate of Pembroke College, Oxford, and Richard Wakefield, a lawyer, coroner, Johnsons health improved and he was put to wet-nurse with Joan Marklew. He soon contracted scrofula, known at time as the Kings Evil because it was thought royalty could cure it. Sir John Floyer, former physician to King Charles II, recommended that the young Johnson should receive the royal touch, however, the ritual was ineffective, and an operation was performed that left him with permanent scars across his face and body. Johnson demonstrated signs of intelligence as a child, and his parents, to his later disgust. His education began at the age of three, and was provided by his mother, who had him memorise and recite passages from the Book of Common Prayer. When Samuel turned four, he was sent to a nearby school, a year later, Johnson went to Lichfield Grammar School, where he excelled in Latin. During this time, Johnson started to exhibit the tics that would influence how people viewed him in his years
36.
Frances Burney
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For the playwright Frances Burney, niece of the novelist, see Frances Burney. Frances Burney, also known as Fanny Burney and after her marriage as Madame dArblay, was an English satirical novelist, diarist and playwright. She was born in Lynn Regis, now Kings Lynn, England, on 13 June 1752, to the musician and music historian Dr Charles Burney and his first wife, Esther Sleepe Burney. The third of six children, she was self-educated and began writing what she called her scribblings at the age of ten, in 1793, aged 41, she married a French exile, General Alexandre DArblay. Their only son, Alexander, was born in 1794, after a lengthy writing career, and travels during which she was stranded in France by warfare for more than ten years, she settled in Bath, England, where she died on 6 January 1840. Frances Burney was a novelist, diarist and playwright, in all, she wrote four novels, eight plays, one biography and twenty volumes of journals and letters. She has gained respect in her own right, but also foreshadows such novelists of manners with a satirical bent as Jane Austen. She published her first novel, Evelina, anonymously in 1778, when the books authorship was revealed, it brought her almost immediate fame due to its unique narrative and comic strengths. She followed it with Cecilia in 1782, Camilla in 1796, all Burneys novels explore the lives of English aristocrats, and satirise their social pretensions and personal foibles, with an eye to larger questions such as the politics of female identity. The exception was Edwy and Elgiva, which unfortunately was not well received by the public, today critics are returning to her novels and plays with renewed interest in her outlook on the social lives and struggles of women in a predominantly male-oriented culture. Scholars continue to value Burneys diaries as well for their depictions of English society in her time. Her early novels were read and enjoyed by Jane Austen, whose own title Pride, william Makepeace Thackeray is reported to have drawn on the first-person account of the Battle of Waterloo, recorded in her diaries, while writing Vanity Fair. Frances Burneys early career was affected by her relationship with her father. Many feminist critics thus see her as an author whose natural talent for satire was somewhat stifled by the pressures exerted on female authors of the age. But Burney persisted in writing despite the setbacks, when her comedies were poorly received, she returned to novel writing, and later tried her hand at tragedy. She supported both herself and her family with the proceeds of her novels, Camilla and The Wanderer. Frances was the child in a family of six. Her elder siblings were Esther and James, the younger Susanna Elizabeth, Charles, of her brothers, James became an admiral and sailed with Captain James Cook on his second and third voyages
37.
Cecilia (Burney novel)
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Cecilia, subtitled Memoirs of an Heiress, is the second novel by English author Frances Burney, set in 1779 and published in 1782. A panoramic novel of eighteenth-century London, Cecilia was highly successful with at least 51 editions, Cecilia, or Memoirs of an Heiress was published in July 1782. Frances Burney began working on the novel in 1780, after her father, Dr. Charles Burney and her father had concerns that the play, a comedic satire of bluestocking, would offend real people whom he depended on for artistic patronage, particularly Elizabeth Montagu. It seems that the Cecilia Stanley of The Witlings became the Cecilia Beverley of Cecilia, Cecilia opens with the beautiful 20-year-old heroine, Cecilia Beverley, saying goodbye to her country home to go on a journey to London. A stipulation in her uncles will requires whomever she marries to take her surname, Cecilia goes to live with one of her three guardians, Mr. Harrel, but is invited first to her friend Mr. Monckton’s house for breakfast. Mr. Monckton has married an old, ugly woman for her money, Mr. Monckton wants to marry Cecilia as soon as his own wife dies. Mr. Monckton’s wife and her companion, Miss Bennet. Cecilia notes the sharp behavior of an old man sitting quietly in the corner and she also does not understand why Lady Margaret dislikes her so much. Mr. Harrel is the husband of Cecilias childhood friend, Priscilla, but Cecilia is sad to see that Mrs. Harrel doesn’t care about her, and has become silly, worldly, and profligate. On her arrival, Mrs. Harrel presents her to her “friends, ” and every day is filled with parties, Mr. Monckton visits her, and she greets him with a real happiness which delights him. Cecilia goes to an opera, where she sees the strange, gruff old man and he warns her that she is in danger from the people around her, and admonishes her to help the poor before he leaves. The next morning, she sees a poor but honest woman named Mrs. Hill who begs her to help her starving family, Mr. Harrel has neglected to pay her husband for work. Cecilia tries to him to pay, but he makes excuses. Meanwhile, Mrs. Harrel holds a masquerade party, at the party, Cecilia is tormented by a black demon who keeps close to her, chasing away anyone who comes near. Someone dressed as a domino, along with Mr. Arnott, Mr. Gosport, and Mr. Belfield. Cecilia, delighted and mystified by the white domino is surprised at how well he knows the faults of her guardians, after becoming bored with both solitude and the party atmosphere and frivolities of the Harrels, she decides to join Mrs. Harrel in another outing to the Opera. There, she meets Mr. Belfield who offers to help her out of her seat, furious, he quarrels with Mr. Belfield and they almost duel. Terrified, Cecilia cries out, “Oh stop him. —good God, will nobody stop him. ”—at which a young man rushes up to Sir Robert Floyer and tried to stop him while reassuring Cecilia
38.
Drawing room
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A drawing room is a room in a house where visitors may be entertained. The name is derived from the sixteenth-century terms withdrawing room and withdrawing chamber, which remained in use through the seventeenth century and it was often off the great chamber and usually led to a formal, or state bedroom. During the American Civil War, in the White House of the Confederacy in Richmond, Virginia, president Jefferson Davis greeted his guests. At the conclusion of these greetings, the men remained in the parlor to talk politics and this was common practice in the affluent circles of the Southern United States. If a Morning-room be not provided, it is properly the only Sitting-room of the family, in it in any case the ladies receive calls throughout the day, and the family and their guests assemble before dinner. After dinner the ladies withdraw to it, and are joined by the gentlemen for the evening and it is also the Reception-room for evening parties. In size, a small Drawing-room will be about 16 feet wide by from 18 to 20 feet long,18 by 24 feet is a size,20 by 30 to 26 by 40 is enough for a very superior apartment. Until the mid-twentieth century, after a dinner the ladies of a dinner party withdrew to the room, leaving the gentlemen at table. After an interval of conversation, the gentlemen rejoined the ladies in the drawing room and this term is still widely used in India and Pakistan, probably dating from the colonial days, in the larger urban houses of the cities where there are many rooms. The term parlour initially designated the more modest reception rooms of the middle classes, parlor remained the common usage in North America into the 20th century. An example, named as such, was a Midland Drawing Room Car in 1874 which was a Pullman Import from the USA, in North America, it meant a room which slept three or more persons, with a private washroom. The drawing room, being a room in the house to visitors, gave its name to drawing room plays. Beginning with the forms of drama, the drawing room play has evolved to encompass comedy as well as to include the forms of the dramatic monologue. The play format itself has grown out of the traditional drawing room performance and back into main street theater. While the drawing room itself has fallen out of favor, the format has continued to provide a source of entertainment. Drawing room comedy typically features wit and verbal banter among wealthy, leisured, genteel, Drawing room comedy is also sometimes called the comedy of manners. Oscar Wildes The Importance of Being Earnest and several of the plays of Noël Coward are typical works of the genre, george Bernard Shaws Heartbreak House adds an undercurrent of social criticism to the genre. Cary Grant appeared in a number of filmed drawing-room comedies, ernst Lubitsch was especially known as a director of drawing-room comedies
39.
Small talk
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Small talk is an informal type of discourse that does not cover any functional topics of conversation or any transactions that need to be addressed. Small talk is conversation for its own sake, the phenomenon of small talk was initially studied in 1923 by Bronisław Malinowski, who coined the term phatic communication to describe it. The ability to conduct small talk is a skill, hence. Early publications assume networked work positions as suitable for social communication, in spite of seeming to have little useful purpose, small talk is a bonding ritual and a strategy for managing interpersonal distance. It serves many functions in helping to define the relationships between friends, colleagues, and new acquaintances, in particular, it helps new acquaintances to explore and categorize each others social position. Small talk is related to the need for people to maintain positive face. In a business meeting, it enables people to each others reputation. If there is already a relationship between the two talkers, their small talk serves as an introduction before engaging in more functional topics of conversation. It allows them to signal their own mood and to sense the mood of the other person, at the end of a conversation, suddenly ending an exchange may risk appearing to reject the other person. Small talk can be used to mitigate that rejection, affirm the relationship between the two people, and soften the parting, space filler to avoid silence, in many cultures, silences between two people are usually considered uncomfortable and/or awkward. Tension can be reduced by starting phatic talk until a more substantial subject arises, generally, humans find prolonged silence uncomfortable, and sometimes unbearable. That can be due to evolutionary history as a social species, as in many other social animals. In some conversations, there is no functional or informative element at all. The following example of small talk is between two colleagues who pass each other in a hallway, William, Morning, Paul, Paul, Oh, morning, William, how are you. In that example, the elements of phatic talk at the beginning, the entire short conversation is a space-filler. This type of discourse is often called chatter, the need to use small talk depends upon the nature of the relationship between the people having the conversation. Couples in a relationship can signal their level of closeness by a lack of small talk. They can comfortably accept silence in circumstances that would be uncomfortable for two people who were casual friends
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Moby-Dick
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Moby-Dick, or, The Whale is a novel by American writer Herman Melville, published in 1851 during the period of the American Renaissance. The novel was a failure and out of print at the time of the authors death in 1891. William Faulkner confessed he wished he had written it himself, and D. H. Lawrence called it one of the strangest and most wonderful books in the world, call me Ishmael is among world literatures most famous opening sentences. The product of a year and a half of writing, the draws on Melvilles experience at sea, on his reading in whaling literature, and on literary inspirations such as Shakespeare. The white whale is modeled on the hard to catch actual albino whale Mocha Dick. In addition to prose, Melville uses styles and literary devices ranging from songs, poetry, and catalogs to Shakespearean stage directions, soliloquies. Hundreds of differences, mostly slight and some important, are seen between the two editions, the London publisher censored or changed sensitive passages and Melville made revisions, as well, including the last-minute change in the title for the New York edition. The whale, however, appears in both editions as Moby Dick, with no hyphen, because the British edition lacked the Epilogue, which accounts for Ishmaels survival, it seemed that the story was told by someone who was supposed to have perished. Many reviewers in British magazines recognized a violation of the rules of fiction, other reviewers, however, found the book too fascinating to dismiss it for these reasons. Some of the scornful British reviews were either reprinted or quoted in American periodicals, about 3,200 copies were sold during the authors life. Ishmael travels in December from Manhattan Island to New Bedford with plans to sign up for a whaling voyage, the inn where he arrives is overcrowded, so he must share a bed with the tattooed Polynesian Queequeg, a harpooneer whose father was king of the island of Rokovoko. The next morning, Ishmael and Queequeg attend Father Mapples sermon on Jonah, Ishmael signs up with the Quaker ship-owners Bildad and Peleg for a voyage on their whaler Pequod. Peleg describes Captain Ahab, Hes a grand, ungodly, god-like man who nevertheless has his humanities and they hire Queequeg the following morning. A man named Elijah prophesies a dire fate should Ishmael and Queequeg join Ahab, while provisions are loaded, shadowy figures board the ship. On a cold Christmas Day, the Pequod leaves the harbor, Ishmael discusses cetology, and describes the crew members. Ahab will give the first man to sight Moby Dick a doubloon, a gold coin, Starbuck objects that he has not come for vengeance but for profit. Ahabs purpose exercises a mysterious spell on Ishmael, Ahabs quenchless feud seemed mine, instead of rounding Cape Horn, Ahab heads for the equatorial Pacific Ocean via southern Africa. One afternoon, as Ishmael and Queequeg are weaving a mat — its warp seemed necessity, his free will
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The Scarlet Letter
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The Scarlet Letter, A Romance is an 1850 work of fiction in a historical setting, written by American author Nathaniel Hawthorne. The book is considered to be his masterwork, throughout the book, Hawthorne explores themes of legalism, sin, and guilt. In June 1642, in the Puritan town of Boston, a crowd gathers to witness the punishment of Hester Prynne and she is required to wear a scarlet A on her dress to shame her. She must stand on the scaffold for three hours, to be exposed to public humiliation, as Hester approaches the scaffold, many of the women in the crowd are angered by her beauty and quiet dignity. When demanded and cajoled to name the father of her child, as Hester looks out over the crowd, she notices a small, misshapen man and recognizes him as her long-lost husband, who has been presumed lost at sea. When the husband sees Hesters shame, he asks a man in the crowd about her and is told the story of his wifes adultery and he angrily exclaims that the childs father, the partner in the adulterous act, should also be punished and vows to find the man. He chooses a new name – Roger Chillingworth – to aid him in his plan, the Reverend John Wilson and the minister of Hesters church, Arthur Dimmesdale, question the woman, but she refuses to name her lover. After she returns to her cell, the jailer brings in Roger Chillingworth. He and Hester have a conversation regarding their marriage and the fact that they were both in the wrong. Her lover, however, is matter and he demands to know who it is. He accepts this, stating that he find out anyway. If she ever reveals him, he warns her, he will destroy the childs father, Hester agrees to Chillingworths terms although she suspects she will regret it. Following her release from prison, Hester settles in a cottage at the edge of town and she lives a quiet, sombre life with her daughter, Pearl. She is troubled by her daughters unusual fascination by Hesters scarlet A, as she grows older, Pearl becomes capricious and unruly. Her conduct starts rumours, and, not surprisingly, the members suggest Pearl be taken away from Hester. Hester, hearing rumors that she may lose Pearl, goes to speak to Governor Bellingham, with him are ministers Wilson and Dimmesdale. Hester appeals to Dimmesdale in desperation, and the minister persuades the governor to let Pearl remain in Hesters care, because Dimmesdales health has begun to fail, the townspeople are happy to have Chillingworth, a newly arrived physician, take up lodgings with their beloved minister. Being in such close contact with Dimmesdale, Chillingworth begins to suspect that the illness is the result of some unconfessed guilt
. PMID 20525243.
Media related to Pride and Prejudice at Wikimedia Commons
Pride and Prejudice public domain audiobook at LibriVox
