1.
Hassanal Bolkiah
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Hassanal Bolkiah, GCB GCMG is the 29th and current Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei. He is also the first and incumbent Prime Minister of Brunei, the eldest son of Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien III and Raja Isteri Pengiran Anak Damit, he succeeded to the throne as the Sultan of Brunei, following the abdication of his father on 4 October 1967. The Sultan has been ranked among the wealthiest individuals in the world, the Sultan was born on 15 July 1946 in Brunei Town as Pengiran Muda Hassanal Bolkiah. The Sultan received high school education at Victoria Institution in Kuala Lumpur, after which he attended the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst in the United Kingdom and he became the Sultan of Brunei Darussalam on 5 October 1967, after his father abdicated. His coronation was held on 1 August 1968, and made him the Yang di-Pertuan of Brunei, like his father, he has been knighted by Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom, of which Brunei was a protectorate until 1984. Under Bruneis 1959 constitution, the Sultan is the head of state with full executive authority, on 9 March 2006, the Sultan was reported to have amended Bruneis constitution to make himself infallible under Bruneian law. Bolkiah, as Prime Minister, is also the head of government, in addition, he holds the portfolios both of Minister of Defense and Minister of Finance. He appointed himself as Inspector General of Police of the Royal Brunei Police Force, Bolkiah addressed the United Nations General Assembly on Brunei Darussalams admission to the United Nations in September 1984. In 1991, he introduced a conservative ideology to Brunei called Melayu Islam Beraja and he has recently favoured Brunei government democratisation and declared himself Prime Minister and President. In 2004, the Legislative Council, which had been dissolved since 1962, was reopened and his designated successor is his eldest son, Prince Al-Muhtadee Billah. The Sultans official residence is the Istana Nurul Iman, with 1,788 rooms,257 bathrooms, parts of the Ministry of Defence and Ministry of Finance are also located at the palace. The Crown Prince, who is the Senior Minister, works from offices at the Istana, hyatt Borneo Management Services and HM The Sultans flight maintain offices there. The University of Brunei Darussalam and Sultan Sharif Ali Islamic University were established, Technical and vocational institutions were also built, such as the Brunei Technological University, Sultan Saiful Rijal Technical College, and vocational schools. The religious Institute Tahfiz Al-Quran Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah was established, scholarships for study in the country and abroad were provided. The Royal Brunei Armed Forces were expanded with the establishment of three branches of the Royal Brunei Land Forces, Royal Brunei Navy and Royal Brunei Air Force. Medicines and medical treatment are free of charge to children, policemen and members of the Royal Brunei Armed Forces in hospitals and government clinics, there is one doctor per 949 patients. The life expectancy of the people and the population is 74.2 years for men and 77.3 years for women. Hassanal Bolkiah established the Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Foundation, in January 2013, the Royal College of General Practitioners created the honour of ‘Companion of the College’ to mark its 60th anniversary
2.
Legislative Council of Brunei
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The Legislative Council of Brunei is a national unicameral legislature of Brunei. The Counci holds its sitting annually in March at Legislative Council Building in Bandar Seri Begawan, the Council is established in 1959 by virtue of Article 23 of Bruneis Constitution of 1959. Its first sitting was held at Lapau on 21 October 1959, in 1984, the Council managed to hold 32 meetings, the last one being the 21st Meeting held on 12 February 1984. Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah dissolved the Council on the following day, hence, legislative powers were fully vested in the Sultan. Brunei had no legislature until 25 September 2004, when the Sultan decided to reinstate the Council using the old system, Brunei, once again, had no legislature. The Sultan disestablished the Council on 1 September 2005 and, on the following day, the Council comprises the Sultan, the Crown Prince, cabinet ministers and three types of members, members with titles, members representing districts, and members among outstanding Bruneians. All members, other than the Sultan, are appointed by the Sultan in accordance with Article 24 of Brunei Constitution, since 13 January 2017, the Council has 33 members, including 13 cabinet ministers. The Council follows the practice of other Commonwealth parliaments, all bills presented in the Council go through three readings. All bills, however, must obtain approval from the Cabinet prior to their presentation in the Council. Once a bill is passed, a bill must obtain Royal Assent in order to turn such bill to an Act, politics of Brunei List of legislatures by country
3.
Bandar Seri Begawan
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Bandar Seri Begawan /ˌbɑːndə sᵻˌriː bᵻˈɡaʊ. ən/ or /ˌbæn-/ BAND-ə sə-REE bə-GOW-ən, formerly known as Brunei Town, is the capital and largest city of the Sultanate of Brunei. Bandar Seri Begawan has an population of 50,000, and including the whole Brunei-Muara District. The original name for city was Bandar Brunei or Brunei Town in English. In 1967, Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien III abdicated in favour of his eldest son, Hassanal Bolkiah, Omar was then made the defense minister and on 5 October 1970, the city was renamed to honor him. The word Begawan was also used for Bruneian monarchs who have abdicated, besides that, Seri Begawan was known as blessed one in Sanskrit. Seri comes from the honorific Sanskrit word श्री Sri, and Bandar comes from Persian via Indian languages, in Malay, the word bandar means town or a city. Human settlement in Brunei can be traced back as far as 6th and 7th century with Malay trading centre, in 1899, first oil well was drilled at Ayer Bekunchi near Kampung Kasat, Bandar Seri Begawan. Although the oil well was drilled as deep as 259 metres, oil exploration in Brunei later shifted to Seria and Belait District in 1924. Sultan Muhammad Jamalul Alam II established a new palace on the west bank in 1909 after been persuaded by the British, Mosque and government buildings was also built along the western shores in 1920. In the same year, the new settlement was declared as a new capital of Brunei, However, the city prosperity was almost ended when the city was captured by the Japanese in 1941, before been recaptured by the Allied forces in 1945. During the war, most infrastructure was destroyed by Japanese and Allied bombing, the British began reconstructing most of its possessions in Borneo at the end of 1945 with the restoration of the law and order and the reopening of schools. In 1950, Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien III, upon his ascension to the throne, negotiated with the British for an increase in corporate taxes, growing from 10% to 30% in 1953. A M$1.2 million allotment to Brunei for war damages during the Japanese occupation increased from M$1 million in 1946 to M$100 million in 1952. A five-year development plan with a budget of M$100 million was also implemented in 1953, with infrastructure receiving the largest percentage. On 1 August 2007, Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah gave consent for the expansion of the city from 12.87 km2 to 100.36 km2, Istana Nurul Iman is the seat of the Brunei government and is the largest residential palace in the world according to Guinness World Records. There are two prime minister offices in the city, one is located inside Istana Nurul Iman and another one is located at Jalan Kumbang Pasang. The city is administered by the Bandar Seri Begawan Municipal Department, the city obtained city status in 1920. With an area of 100.36 square kilometres, the city is located in the most populous district of Brunei namely Brunei-Muara District
4.
Politics of Brunei
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The politics of Brunei take place in a framework of an absolute monarchy, where by the Sultan of Brunei is both head of state and head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government, Brunei has a Legislative Council with 36 appointed members, that only has consultative tasks. The Sultans role is enshrined in the philosophy known as Melayu Islam Beraja. The country has been under martial law since a rebellion occurred in the early 1960s and was put down by British troops from Singapore. The Sultan is the head of state and head of government in Brunei and he exercises absolute powers and full executive authority under the framework of the 1959 Constitution. The Sultan is advised by and presides over five councils, which he appoints, the five councils are the Privy Council, Council of Succession, Religious Council, Council of Ministers and the Legislative Council. According to the Constitution, the Privy Council advises the Sultan in matters concerning the exercise of authority of mercy, the council also advises the Sultan on the conferring of Malay customary ranks, titles and honours. It also performs functions such as proclaiming a succession of regency, members of the Privy Council include members of the royal family and senior government officials. The Council of Succession determines succession to the throne should that need arise, the order of succession is determined by the Constitution. The Religious Council, known in full as the Brunei Islamic Religious Council advises the Sultan on all matters pertaining to Islam, the body in charge of Islamic administration policy. Policies determined by the council are executed by the Ministry of Religious Affairs, a Council of Ministers, or cabinet, which currently consists of nine members, perform the day-to-day administrative functions of government. Under the 1959 constitution there was an elected Legislative Council, but only one election has ever been held, soon after that election, the assembly was dissolved following the declaration of a state of emergency, which saw the banning of the Brunei Peoples Party. In 1970 the Council was changed to a body by decree of the Sultan. In 2004 the Sultan announced that for the parliament,15 of the 20 seats would be elected. However, no date for the election has been set, the Legislative Council currently consists of 20 appointed members, and has only consultative powers. The first is the system inherited from the British, similar to the found in India, Malaysia. It is based on the English common law, but with codification of a significant part of it, the common law legal system covers most of the laws in Brunei. The structure of the law courts in Brunei starts with the magistracy
5.
Term of office
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A term of office is the length of time a person serves in a particular elected office. In many jurisdictions there is a limit on how long terms of office may be before the officeholder must be subject to re-election. Some jurisdictions exercise term limits, setting a number of terms an individual may hold in a particular office. Being the origin of the Westminster system, aspects of the United Kingdoms system of government are replicated in other countries. The monarch serves as head of state until his or her death or abdication, in the United Kingdom Members of Parliament in the House of Commons are elected for the duration of the parliament. Following dissolution of the Parliament, an election is held which consists of simultaneous elections for all seats. For most MPs this means that their terms of office are identical to the duration of the Parliament, an MP elected in a by-election mid-way through a Parliament, regardless of how long they have occupied the seat, is not exempt from facing re-election at the next general election. The Septennial Act 1715 provided that a Parliament expired seven years after it had been summoned, prior to the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 parliaments had no minimum duration. Parliaments could be dissolved early by the monarch at the Prime Ministers request, the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 mandated that Parliaments should last their full five years. Early dissolution is possible, but under much more limited circumstances. Hereditary peers and life peers retain membership of the House of Lords for life, Lords Spiritual hold membership of the House of Lords until the end of their time as bishops, though a senior bishop may be made a life peer upon the end of their bishopric. The devolved administrations in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland are variations on the system of government used at Westminster, the office of the leader of the devolved administrations has no numeric term limit imposed upon it. However, in the case of the Scottish Government and the Welsh Assembly Government there are fixed terms for which the legislatures can sit and this is imposed at four years. Elections may be held before this time but only if no administration can be formed, offices of local government other regional elected officials follow similar rules to the national offices discussed above, with persons elected to fixed terms of a few years. Federal judges have different terms in office, however, the majority of the federal judiciary, Article III judges, such as those of the Supreme Court, courts of appeal, and federal district courts, serve for life. The terms of office for officials in state governments according to the provisions of state constitutions. The term for state governors is four years in all states but Vermont and New Hampshire, the National Conference of State Legislatures reported in January 2007 that among state legislatures,44 states had terms of office for the lower house of the state legislature at two years. Five had terms of office at four years,37 states had terms of office for the upper house of the state legislature at four years
6.
Al-Muhtadee Billah
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Crown Prince Haji Al-Muhtadee Billah Ibni Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Muizzaddin Waddaulah, GCVO, is the Crown Prince of Brunei Darussalam. He is in the first in line of succession to become the next Sultan of Brunei and he holds the position of senior minister of the Prime Ministers Office of Brunei, General of the Royal Brunei Armed Forces and Deputy Inspector General of the Royal Brunei Police Force. Prince Al-Muhtadee Billah was born at Istana Darul Hana, Bandar Seri Begawan on 17 February 1974 and he is the first-born son and heir to the throne of Brunei. He is the son of Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah and Pengiran Anak Saleha and his paternal grandparent was Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien III and Pengiran Anak Damit. His maternal grandparent was Pengiran Pemancha Pengiran Anak Haji Mohammad Alam, Al-Muhtadee Billahs education began early in life, at the Prince-Princess School at the Istana Darul Hana. He also had his education at St. Andrews School, Brunei. He passed the GCE Advanced Level Exam in 1994, Al-Muhtadee Billah attended tutorials at the University of Brunei Darussalam and began his overseas education at the Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies in October 1995. He matriculated for admission to University of Oxfords Foreign Service Programme at Magdalen College, Oxford, while at Oxford, he followed a programme of study specially designed for him involving Islamic studies, trade, diplomacy and international relations. He received his Diploma in diplomatics Studies in a convocation held on 3 August 1998 in Bandar Seri Begawan. In 1988 Al-Muhtadee Billah completed the reading of the Holy Quran, Al-Muhtadee Billah was proclaimed Crown Prince of Brunei on 10 August 1998 at the Istana Nurul Iman. At the ceremony, his father, the Sultan of Brunei and this put him in line to become the 30th Sultan of Brunei. The ceremony was followed by the procession around the capital, Bandar Seri Begawan, in preparing to become the future leader and head of the country, Al-Muhtadee Billah holds several roles in government. He is the Senior Minister at the Prime Ministers Office, a general in the Brunei Armed Forces, as Senior Minister he is also Head of the National Disaster Management Committee. As the Senior Minister in the Prime Ministers Office, he is being groomed in all aspects of governance. When his father is abroad, he is appointed to act as the Deputy Sultan. He also grants audience to arriving and departing foreign Ambassadors and High Commissioners, increasingly he appears at official functions to improve his public speaking abilities in making sabda. He is the Deputy Chancellor of the University of Brunei Darussalam, on 9 September 2004, he married 17-year-old Pengiran Anak Sarah at Nurul Iman Palace in Bandar Seri Begawan. The wedding was attended by heads of state and government from Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia
7.
Brunei
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Brunei, officially the Nation of Brunei, the Abode of Peace, is a sovereign state located on the north coast of the island of Borneo in Southeast Asia. Apart from its coastline with the South China Sea, the country is surrounded by the state of Sarawak. It is separated into two parts by the Sarawak district of Limbang, Brunei is the only sovereign state completely on the island of Borneo, the remainder of the islands territory is divided between the nations of Malaysia and Indonesia. Bruneis population was 408,786 in July 2012, the maritime state was visited by Spains Magellan Expedition in 1521 and fought against Spain in the 1578 Castille War. During the 19th century, the Bruneian Empire began to decline, the Sultanate ceded Sarawak to James Brooke and installed him as the White Rajah, and it ceded Sabah to the British North Borneo Chartered Company. In 1888, Brunei became a British protectorate and was assigned a British resident as colonial manager in 1906, after the Japanese occupation during World War II, in 1959 a new constitution was written. In 1962, an armed rebellion against the monarchy was ended with the help of the British. Brunei gained its independence from the United Kingdom on 1 January 1984, Economic growth during the 1990s and 2000s, with the GDP increasing 56% from 1999 to 2008, transformed Brunei into an industrialised country. It has developed wealth from petroleum and natural gas fields. Brunei has the second-highest Human Development Index among the Southeast Asian nations, after Singapore, according to the International Monetary Fund, Brunei is ranked fifth in the world by gross domestic product per capita at purchasing power parity. The IMF estimated in 2011 that Brunei was one of two countries with a debt at 0% of the national GDP. Forbes also ranks Brunei as the fifth-richest nation out of 182, based on its petroleum, according to legend, Brunei was founded by Awang Alak Betatar, later to be Sultan Muhammad Shah. He moved from Garang, a place in the Temburong District to the Brunei River estuary, according to legend, upon landing he exclaimed, Baru nah, from which the name Brunei was derived. He was the first Muslim ruler of Brunei, before the rise of the Bruneian Empire under the Muslim Bolkiah Dynasty, Brunei is believed to have been under Buddhist rulers. It was renamed Barunai in the 14th century, possibly influenced by the Sanskrit word varuṇ, the word Borneo is of the same origin. In the countrys name, Negara Brunei Darussalam, darussalam means abode of peace. The people are pagans and are men of goodwill and their colour is whiter than that of the other sort. in this island justice is well administered. One of the earliest Chinese records is the 977 AD letter to Chinese emperor from the ruler of Po-ni, which some scholars believe to refer to Borneo
8.
Syariah Court
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Syariah refers to Sharia law in Islamic religious law and deals with exclusively Islamic laws, having jurisdiction upon every Muslim in Malaysia. The Syariah Court system is one of the two system of courts which exists in Malaysian legal system. There is a system of state Syariah Court, which has limited jurisdiction over matters of state Islamic law. Article 145 of the constitution says the Attorney General of Malaysia has no power over matters related to the Sharia courts, there are three levels of the courts, Appeal, High and Subordinate. Unlike the civil courts in Malaysia, which is a court system. Similarly syariah or Islamic law is a matter of law, with the exception of the Federal Territories of Malaysia. Thus syariah law in one state might differ to that of another state, there are 13 state syariah law departments and 1 syariah law department for the Federal Territories. Sharia caning in Malaysia Malaysian Syariah Court Web Portal
9.
Administrative divisions of Brunei
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The administrative divisions of Brunei mainly consist of daerah, mukim and kampong. They are organised hierarchically, with daerah being the first level, there are also a few municipal divisions which comprises of Bandar Seri Begawan and a few district towns. They are considered to be outside of the hierarchy of the administrative division. All the administrative divisions are under direct governance of the government through the Ministry of Home Affairs, generally, the administrative divisions serve for population census. The administrative areas have limited to no autonomy, and is more pronounced towards the lowest administrative level, the major socio-political aspects such as education and law are centralised and managed through separate government ministries or departments. There are four districts in Brunei, Brunei-Muara, Belait, Tutong and Temburong, Brunei-Muara is the smallest district but has the most population. Belait is the largest district and the centre for the production of oil, a district is headed by a Pegawai Daerah or District Officer and assisted by an Assistant District Officer. The administrative level of mukim lies below the district, at present, there are 38 mukims, with 17 in Brunei-Muara,8 in Tutong,8 in Belait and 5 in Temburong District. A mukim is headed by a penghulu, a kampong is the lowest administrative level in Brunei and headed by a ketua kampong or village headman. Its population varies from a few hundreds to units of thousands, Kampong Ayer is not considered a kampong administrative division. It is simply a term in referring to the whole of the cluster of settlements on the Brunei River. However, Kampong Ayer is an area which consists of a few mukim. Also, the municipalities are governed under different section from that which handles the districts and their subdivisions, the municipalities are headed by Pengerusi Lembaga Bandaran or Town Board Chairman. While Bangar is the town of Temburong, it is yet to have a municipal status. Bangar, under the name Pekan Bangar, is at the level of kampong, similarly, Muara, a settlement at the northern edge of Brunei-Muara District, is a kampong-level area, although its official name is Pekan Muara which literally translates as Muara Town
10.
Foreign relations of Brunei
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Brunei joined ASEAN on 7 January 1984, one week after resuming full independence, and gives its ASEAN membership the highest priority in its foreign relations. Brunei joined the United Nations in September 1984 and it also is a member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum and the Commonwealth of Nations. Brunei hosted the APEC Economic Leaders Meeting in November 2000, in 2005 it attended the inaugural East Asia Summit. Brunei has a number of missions abroad and has close relations with Singapore. Brunei has been an independent member state of the Commonwealth of Nations since 1 January 1984. Brunei is, along with Lesotho, Malaysia, Swaziland, and Tonga, a monarchy with its own monarch, bruneians can take an appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London in civil cases only. The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council reports back to the Sultan in cases originating from the courts of Brunei, Australia and Brunei Darussalam enjoy a warm, and increasingly diverse bilateral relationship. Australian servicemen liberated Brunei from Japanese occupation in June 1945, a memorial marking this event can be found at Muara Beach and is the venue for the annual ANZAC Day ceremony organised by the High Commission. Brunei has a commission in Canberra, and Australia has a high commission in Bandar Seri Begawan. Both countries are members of the Commonwealth of Nations. Relations between the two countries were established in 1984 when Australia became one of the first countries to establish relations with Brunei. Bilateral relations are excellent between the two predominantly moderate Muslim nations and they are both members of OIC, the Commonwealth and NAM and share common views on regional and international issues. Brunei has a High Commission located in Dhaka, Brunei actively supports Bangladeshs candidacy for different regional and international organisations. Brunei has an embassy in Yangon, and Burma has an embassy in Gadong, relations were established on 21 September 1993. Brunei has an embassy in Phnom Penh, and Cambodia has an embassy in Bandar Seri Begawan, relations were established on 9 June 1992. Canada established diplomatic relations with Brunei Darussalam on 7 May 1984, Brunei has a High Commission in Ottawa, and Canada has a High Commission in Bandar Seri Begawan. Like Brunei, Canada is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. Brunei has an embassy in Beijing, and China has an embassy in Bandar Seri Begawan, relations can be traced back to over 2,000 years ago as early as the Western Han periods
11.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Brunei)
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The ministrys director is Prince Mohamed Bolkiah, brother of reigning sultan, Hassanal Bolkiah. From 1888 until 1984, Brunei was a protectorate under British rule, after achieving full independence from the United Kingdom in January 1984, Brunei immediately established an independent foreign ministry, then known as the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The ministrys first and only director since its foundation has been Prince Mohamed Bolkiah, in 2005, the government merged the ministry with the former International Relations and Trade Department of the Ministry of Industry and Primary Resources. The addition of Foreign Trade to the official name was made to reflect the full scope of its responsibilities. Foreign relations of Brunei Diplomatic missions of Brunei Official Ministry website
12.
Malay language
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Malay is a major language of the Austronesian family. It has a status in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia. As the Bahasa Kebangsaan or Bahasa Nasional of several states, Standard Malay has various official names, in Singapore and Brunei it is called Bahasa Melayu, in Malaysia, Bahasa Malaysia, and in Indonesia, Bahasa Indonesia and is designated the Bahasa Persatuan/Pemersatu. However, in areas of central to southern Sumatra where the language is indigenous, Indonesians refer to it as Bahasa Melayu and consider it one of their regional languages. There are also several Malay trade and creole languages which are based on a lingua franca derived from Classical Malay, as well as Macassar Malay, Malay historical linguists agree on the likelihood of the Malay homeland being in western Borneo stretching to the Bruneian coast. A form known as Proto-Malay language was spoken in Borneo at least by 1000 BCE and was, it has been argued, the ancestral language of all subsequent Malayan languages. The history of the Malay language can be divided into five periods, Old Malay, the Transitional Period, the Malacca Period, Late Modern Malay and it is not clear that Old Malay was actually the ancestor of Classical Malay, but this is thought to be quite possible. Old Malay was influenced by Sanskrit literary language of Classical India, Sanskrit loanwords can be found in Old Malay vocabulary. Batenburg on November 29,1920 at Kedukan Bukit, South Sumatra, on the banks of the Tatang and it is a small stone of 45 by 80 centimetres. The earliest surviving manuscript in Malay is the Tanjong Tanah Law in post-Pallava letters and this 14th-century pre-Islamic legal text produced in the Adityawarman era of Dharmasraya, a Hindu-Buddhist kingdom that arose after the end of Srivijayan rule in Sumatra. The laws were for the Minangkabau people, who still live in the highlands of Sumatra. The Malay language came into use as the lingua franca of the Malacca Sultanate. During this period, the Malay language developed rapidly under the influence of Islamic literature, the development changed the nature of the language with massive infusion of Arabic, Malayalam and Sanskrit vocabularies, called Classical Malay. Under the Sultanate of Malacca the language evolved into a form recognisable to speakers of modern Malay, however, there is no connection between Malaccan Malay as used on Riau and the Riau vernacular. One of the oldest surviving letters written in Malay is a letter from Sultan Abu Hayat of Ternate, Maluku Islands in present-day Indonesia, the letter is addressed to the king of Portugal, following contact with Portuguese explorer Francisco Serrão. The letters show sign of non-native usage, the Ternateans used the unrelated Ternate language, Malay was used solely as a lingua franca for inter-ethnic communications. Malay is a member of the Austronesian family of languages, which includes languages from Southeast Asia, malagasy, a geographic outlier spoken in Madagascar in the Indian Ocean, is also a member of this language family. Although each language of the family is mutually unintelligible, their similarities are rather striking, many roots have come virtually unchanged from their common ancestor, Proto-Austronesian language
13.
Head of government
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The term head of government is often differentiated from the term head of state, as they may be separate positions, individuals, and/or roles depending on the country. In parliamentary systems, including constitutional monarchies, the head of government is the de facto leader of the government. For example, in the United Kingdom, the prime minister advises the Queen on the appointment of the cabinet, advice she is required to accept. On the other hand, the Queens long service as the head of state enables her to provide the prime minister with information and insight into many matters to better run the government. However, because the United Kingdom is a monarchy, the Prime Minister uses his or her own discretion regarding whether or not to follow the Queens advice. The Queen also is entitled to appoint a new Prime Minister, in presidential republics or in absolute monarchies, the head of state is also usually the head of government. The relationship between that leader and the government, however, can vary greatly, ranging from separation of powers to autocracy, in semi-presidential systems, the head of government may answer to both the head of state and the legislature, with the specifics provided by each countrys constitution. A modern example is the present French government, which originated as the French Fifth Republic in 1958, in France, the president, the head of state, appoints the prime minister, who is the head of government. In some cases, the head of state may represent one political party, in this case, known as cohabitation, the prime minister, along with the cabinet, controls domestic policy, with the presidents influence is largely restricted to foreign affairs. In directorial systems, the executive responsibilities of the head of government are spread among a group of people, a prominent example is the Swiss Federal Council, where each member of the council heads a department and also votes on proposals relating to all departments. A common title for many heads of government is prime minister, various constitutions use different titles, and even the same title can have various multiple meanings, depending on the constitutional order and political system of the state in question. In addition to prime minister, titles used for the democratic model, some of these titles relate to governments below the national level. Have been used by various Empires, Kingdoms and Princely States of India as a title for the Prime Minister, maltese, In Malta, the head of government is Prim Ministru. In this case, the prime minister serves at the pleasure of the monarch, some such titles are diwan, mahamantri, pradhan, wasir or vizier. However, just because the head of state is the de jure dominant position does not mean that he/she will not always be the de facto political leader, in some cases, the head of state is a figurehead whilst the head of the government leads the ruling party. In some cases a head of government may even pass on the title in hereditary fashion, the ability to vote down legislative proposals of the government. Control over or ability to vote down fiscal measures and the budget, all of these requirements directly impact the Head of governments role. Many parliamentary systems require ministers to serve in parliament, while others ban ministers from sitting in parliament, heads of government are typically removed from power in a parliamentary system by Resignation, following, Defeat in a general election
14.
Sultan of Brunei
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The Sultan of Brunei is the head of state and absolute monarch of Brunei. He is also head of government in his capacity as Prime Minister, since independence from the British in 1984, only one Sultan has reigned, though the royal institution dates back to the 14th century. It is not clear when the became known as the House of Bolkiah. The Sultans full title is, His Majesty The Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam, the earliest historical record of the Sultans of Brunei is not clearly known due to the poor early documentation of Bruneis history. Many elder members of the House of Bolkiah claim that their ancestors were the BaHassan and BaAlawi Saadah from Tarim, in addition there has been an effort to Islamise the history, with the official history not matching up with verifiable foreign sources. The Batu Tarsilah, the record of the kings of Brunei, was not started until 1807 CE. Therefore, much of the intepretation on history relied on earlier Chinese sources and it seems that the early Sultanate of Brunei was dependent on Chinese support, and perhaps early Sultans were of Chinese origin. Furthermore the earliest Sultans may have been practising the Hindu or Buddhist religions, House of Bolkiah Line of succession to the Bruneian throne Malay styles and titles
15.
Head of state
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A head of state is the public persona that officially represents the national unity and legitimacy of a sovereign state. In some countries, the head of state is a figurehead with limited or no executive power, while in others. Former French president Charles de Gaulle, while developing the current Constitution of France, some academic writers discuss states and governments in terms of models. An independent nation state normally has a head of state, the non-executive model, in which the head of state has either none or very limited executive powers, and mainly has a ceremonial and symbolic role. In parliamentary systems the head of state may be merely the chief executive officer, heading the executive branch of the state. This accountability and legitimacy requires that someone be chosen who has a majority support in the legislature and it also gives the legislature the right to vote down the head of government and their cabinet, forcing it either to resign or seek a parliamentary dissolution. In parliamentary constitutional monarchies, the legitimacy of the head of state typically derives from the tacit approval of the people via the elected representatives. In reality, numerous variants exist to the position of a head of state within a parliamentary system, usually, the king had the power of declaring war without previous consent of the parliament. For example, under the 1848 constitution of the Kingdom of Italy, the Statuto Albertino—the parliamentary approval to the government appointed by the king—was customary, so, Italy had a de facto parliamentarian system, but a de jure presidential system. These officials are excluded completely from the executive, they do not possess even theoretical executive powers or any role, even formal, hence their states governments are not referred to by the traditional parliamentary model head of state styles of His/Her Majestys Government or His/Her Excellencys Government. Within this general category, variants in terms of powers and functions may exist, the constitution explicitly vests all executive power in the Cabinet, who is chaired by the prime minister and responsible to the Diet. The emperor is defined in the constitution as the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people and he is a ceremonial figurehead with no independent discretionary powers related to the governance of Japan. Today, the Speaker of the Riksdag appoints the prime minister, Cabinet members are appointed and dismissed at the sole discretion of the prime minister. In contrast, the contact the President of Ireland has with the Irish government is through a formal briefing session given by the taoiseach to the president. However, he or she has no access to documentation and all access to ministers goes through the Department of the Taoiseach. The president does, however, hold limited reserve powers, such as referring a bill to the court to test its constitutionality. The most extreme non-executive republican Head of State is the President of Israel, semi-presidential systems combine features of presidential and parliamentary systems, notably a requirement that the government be answerable to both the president and the legislature. The constitution of the Fifth French Republic provides for a minister who is chosen by the president
16.
Prime minister
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A prime minister is the most senior minister of cabinet in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. In many systems, the prime minister selects and may dismiss members of the cabinet. In most systems, the minister is the presiding member. In parliamentary systems fashioned after the Westminster system, the minister is the presiding and actual head of government. In such systems, the head of state or the head of states official representative usually holds a ceremonial position. The prime minister is often, but not always, a member of the Legislature or the Lower House thereof and is expected with other ministers to ensure the passage of bills through the legislature. In some monarchies the monarch may also exercise powers that are constitutionally vested in the crown. The first actual usage of the prime minister or Premier Ministre was used by Cardinal Richelieu when in 1625 he was named to head the royal council as prime minister of France. Louis XIV and his descendants generally attempted to avoid giving this title to their chief ministers, the term prime minister in the sense that we know it originated in the 18th century in the United Kingdom when members of parliament disparagingly used the title in reference to Sir Robert Walpole. Over time, however, the title became honorific and remains so in the 21st century, the monarchs of England and the United Kingdom had ministers in whom they placed special trust and who were regarded as the head of the government. Examples were Thomas Cromwell under Henry VIII, William Cecil, Lord Burghley under Elizabeth I, Clarendon under Charles II and these ministers held a variety of formal posts, but were commonly known as the minister, the chief minister, the first minister and finally the prime minister. The power of ministers depended entirely on the personal favour of the monarch. Although managing the parliament was among the skills of holding high office. Although there was a cabinet, it was appointed entirely by the monarch, when the monarch grew tired of a first minister, he or she could be dismissed, or worse, Cromwell was executed and Clarendon driven into exile when they lost favour. Kings sometimes divided power equally between two or more ministers to prevent one minister from becoming too powerful, late in Annes reign, for example, the Tory ministers Harley and St John shared power. The monarch could no longer any law or impose any tax without its permission. It is at point that a modern style of prime minister begins to emerge. A tipping point in the evolution of the prime ministership came with the death of Anne in 1714, George spoke no English, spent much of his time at his home in Hanover, and had neither knowledge of, nor interest in, the details of English government
17.
Cabinet (government)
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A cabinet is a body of high-ranking state officials, typically consisting of the top leaders of the executive branch. They are usually called ministers, but in some jurisdictions are sometimes called secretaries, in some countries, the cabinet is called Council of Ministers or Government Council or lesser known names such as Federal Council, Inner Council or High Council. These countries may differ in the way that the cabinet is used or established, in some countries, particularly those that use a parliamentary system, the Cabinet collectively decides the governments direction, especially in regard to legislation passed by the parliament. In this way, the President gets opinions and advice in upcoming decisions, instead, it is usually the Head of Government who holds all means of power in his hands and the Cabinet reports to him. In most governments, members of the Cabinet are given the title of minister, in a few governments, as in the case of Mexico, the Philippines, the United Kingdom, and United States, the title of secretary is also used for some Cabinet members. In many countries, a Secretary is a member with an inferior rank to a minister. In some countries attorneys general also sit in the cabinet, while in others this is strictly prohibited as the attorneys general are considered to be part of the judicial branch of government. The size of cabinets varies, although most contain around ten to twenty ministers, researchers have found an inverse correlation between a countrys level of development and cabinet size, on average, the more developed a country is, the smaller is its cabinet. In the United Kingdom and its colonies, cabinets began as smaller sub-groups of the English Privy Council, the term comes from the name for a relatively small and private room used as a study or retreat. The process has repeated itself in recent times, as leaders have felt the need to have a Kitchen Cabinet or sofa government, under the Westminster system, members of the cabinet are Ministers of the Crown who are collectively responsible for all government policy. All ministers, whether senior and in the cabinet or junior ministers, must publicly support the policy of the government, the cabinet may also provide ideas on/if new laws were established, and what they include. Cabinet deliberations are secret and documents dealt with in cabinet are confidential, in theory the prime minister or premier is first among equals. In some countries, the ministers are referred to as spokespersons. A prime ministerial government is a government where the minister is dominant in terms of the executive. As the prime minister is, by definition, a member of a cabinet – this form of government is often a development from cabinet government, in true cabinet government the prime minister is primus inter pares, where prime ministerial government necessitates the crossing of this boundary. An often cited example of ministerial government is the United Kingdom. Thatcher began using bilateral meetings with ministers to determine policy areas using cabinet to simply announce these decisions. Due to the extent of her success, and her control over cabinet positions, despite John Major moving back towards cabinet government, Tony Blair carried on Thatchers approach
18.
British Empire
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The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It originated with the possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the population at the time. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread, during the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, the independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies. British attention soon turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, after the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century. In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain, the British Empire expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. In Britain, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies, during the 19th Century, Britains population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, which caused significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britains economic lead, subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on the military, financial and manpower resources of Britain, although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer the worlds pre-eminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britains colonies in Southeast Asia were occupied by Imperial Japan, despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britains most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence as part of a larger movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire, fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations, a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms, that share a monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was ever heard of his ships again
19.
President of Indonesia
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The President of the Republic of Indonesia is the head of state and head of government of the Republic of Indonesia. The President leads the executive branch of the Indonesian government and is the commander-in-chief of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, on 20 October 2014, Joko Widodo became the 7th and current President of Indonesia. The Indonesian presidency was established during the formulation of the 1945 Constitution by the Committee for Preparatory Work for Indonesian Independence, on 16 October 1945, Vice-President Mohammad Hatta announced a vice-presidential decree which turned the Central National Committee of Indonesia equal status with that of the president. On 11 November 1945, the KNIP made the decision to separate the role of Head of State with that of Head of Government, during the Indonesian National Revolution, both Sukarno and Hatta were captured by the Dutch in Yogyakarta on 18 December 1948. Sukarno then gave a mandate for Sjafruddin Prawiranegara to form an emergency Government and this was done and the Emergency Government of the Republic of Indonesia was formed in Sumatra with Prawiranegara as its Chairman. Prawiranegara handed back his mandate to Sukarno on 13 July 1949, on 17 December 1949, Sukarno was elected president of the Republic of the United States of Indonesia and presidential mandate passed to Assaat. When it became clear that RIS was going to be replaced by a state, Asaat stepped down from the presidency. Indonesia now adopted the constitution that had been intended for RIS, officially known as the Provisional Constitution, the document confirmed the presidents role as the Head of State, but limited him to a mostly ceremonial role. He appointed a Prime Minister on the advice of formateurs, despite his limited constitutional role, Sukarno commanded great moral authority. Nonetheless, he was never content with the role of ceremonial Head of State, the rest of the decade saw a series of unstable governments. Taking advantage of the situation, Sukarno made a speech in April 1959, the People reacted enthusiastically and there was strong pressure on the Constituante, the body responsible for formulating a new constitution, to adopt the 1945 Constitution. When the Constituante did not budge, Sukarno issued a Presidential Decree on 5 July 1959 declaring that Indonesia was returning to the 1945 Constitution and that document made the president head of government as well as head of state. In 1963, Sukarno declared himself president for Life, although Indonesia had re-adopted the 1945 Constitution, it did not mean that it was strictly adhered to. The MPR, which at this stage was still on a basis, was subservient to the president despite its status of the Nations highest Governing Body. It was only in 1966, when the tide began to turn against Sukarno that the MPRS nominally regained its rightful constitutional status. All throughout his rise to power, General Suharto seemed determined to do things constitutionally, Suharto allowed the MPR to execute its constitutional duty of formulating the Broad Outlines of State Policy whilst he as the president would be responsible for implementing GBHN. Suharto also made it an obligation to deliver accountability speeches towards the end of his terms. During the speech, Suharto outlined the achievements that his administration had made, despite the constitutional and democratic façade, Suharto made sure that the MPR was also subservient to him
20.
President of Laos
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The President of the Lao Peoples Democratic Republic is the head of state of Laos. The President appoints the prime minister, vice president, ministers, the head of state is the commander-in-chief of the Lao Peoples Army. The current president is Bounnhang Vorachit, since 20 April 2016 and he is also the General Secretary of the Lao Peoples Revolutionary Party, making him ranked first in the Politburo hierarchy. Political parties List of monarchs of Laos Prime Minister of Laos
21.
Yang di-Pertuan Agong
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The Yang di-Pertuan Agong is the monarch and head of state of Malaysia. The office was established in 1957 when the Federation of Malaya gained independence from the United Kingdom, Malaysia is a constitutional monarchy with an elected monarch as head of state. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong is one of the few elected monarchs in the world and his queen consort is called Raja Permaisuri Agong. The couple are styled in English as His Majesty and Her Majesty, in Malaysias constitutional monarchy, Yang di-Pertuan Agong has extensive powers within the constitution. The constitution specifies that the power of the Federal government is vested in the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and is exercised by him on the advice of the federal Council of Ministers. The latter is headed by the Prime Minister, appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong from among the members of Parliament. Among them, Yang di-Pertuan Agong has discretionary powers to choose who he wants as the Prime Minister and is not bound by the decision of the outgoing PM if no party has won a majority vote. It, however, does not afford him the right and authority to dismiss the PM and he also can dismiss or withhold consent to a request for the dissolution of Parliament. He may discontinue or dissolve Parliament but he can only dissolve Parliament at the request of the PM and he can reject any new laws or amendments to existing laws but if he still withholds permission, it will automatically become law after 30 days from the initial submission to him. The 15th and current Yang di-Pertuan Agong is Sultan Muhammad V of Kelantan and his reign began on 13 December 2016, after his election on 14 October 2016 at the 243rd Conference of Rulers. The ceremonial installation of the 15th Yang di-Pertuan Agong will be held on 24 April 2017, common English terms used in the media and by the general public include King, Paramount Ruler, Head of State, Head of the Federation, and Head of State of the Federation. In Malaysian passports prior to the 2010 redesign, the title The Supreme Head of Malaysia was used in the English version of the passport note, since the issuance of ICAO compliant e-passports in 2010, the untranslated title His Majesty the Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia is used. In August 1957, having rejected the title of Yang di-Pertuan Besar in favour of Yang di-Pertuan Agong. By seniority, the 84-year-old major general Ibrahim of Johor, Sultan of Johor since 1895, was first in line, but he declined due to old age. The next in line, Abu Bakar of Pahang, Sultan of Pahang since 1932, was rejected five times by his fellow electors, abdul Rahman of Negeri Sembilan, having been elected to his state throne in 1933, was elected by eight votes to one. After a ruler had served as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, he may not stand for election until all rulers of the states have also stood for election. In the event of a vacancy of the office, the Conference of Rulers elects a new Yang di-Pertuan Agong as if the term had expired. The new Yang di-Pertuan Agong is elected for a full five-year term, after his term expires, the Conference holds a new election, in which the incumbent would not be re-elected
22.
President of Myanmar
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The president is elected by members of parliament, not by the general population. The Presidential Electoral College, a three committee body, elects the president, each of the three committees, made up of Amyotha Hluttaw, Pyithu Hluttaw members of parliament, or military-appointed lawmakers, nominates a candidate for presidency. The candidate with the highest number of votes from the Electoral College is elected president, the incumbent president is Htin Kyaw, who has held the post since 30 March 2016. Moreover, upon taking oath in office, the President is constitutionally forbidden from taking part in any political party activities. The President is not directly elected by Burmese voters, instead, he is elected by the Presidential Electoral College. Each of the three committees nominates a presidential candidate, afterward, all the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw MPs vote for one of three candidates—the candidate with the highest number of votes is elected President, while the other two are elected as Vice-Presidents. This process is similar to the one proscribed by the 1947 Constitution, in which MPs from the Parliaments Chamber of Nationalities, the President was then responsible for appointing a Prime Minister, who was constitutionally recognised as the head of government and led the Cabinet. Prior to 1863, different regions of modern-day Burma were governed separately, from 31 January 1862 to 1 May 1897, British Burma was headed by a Chief Commissioner. Consequently, from 1 May 1897 to 2 January 1923, the province was led by a Lieutenant Governor. From 2 January 1923 to 4 January 1948, British Burma was led by a Governor, who led the cabinet and was responsible for the defence, foreign relations, finance. From 1 January 1944 to 31 August 1946, a British Military Governor governed the colony, during the Japanese occupation of Burma from 1942 to 1945, a Japanese military commander headed the government, while the British-appointed Governor headed the colony in exile. There was a President from 1948 to 1962, and then 1974 and 1988, between 1962 and 1974 and between 1988 and 2011, Burma was headed by military regimes. The office of the President was restored in 2011, on 15 March 2016, the Assembly of the Union elected Htin Kyaw as the 9th President of Myanmar. Myanmar Politics of Myanmar List of colonial governors of Burma List of Presidents of Myanmar Vice President of Myanmar Prime Minister of Myanmar State Counsellor of Myanmar Lists of office-holders
23.
President of the Philippines
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The President of the Philippines is the head of state and head of government of the Philippines. The President leads the executive branch of the Philippine government and is the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, Filipinos refer to their President as Pangulo or Presidente. The President serves a single, fixed, six-year term without possibility of re-election, in Filipino, one of the two official languages of the Philippines, the President is referred to as Pangulo. In the other languages of the Philippines such as the Visayan languages. Depending on the chosen for these terms, a number of persons could alternatively be considered the inaugural holder of the office. Andrés Bonifacio could be considered the first President of a united Philippines since he was the third Supreme President of the Katipunan and its Supreme Council, led by the Supreme President, coordinated provincial and district councils. When the Katipunan started a revolt against the Spanish colonial government in August 1896. While the term Katipunan remained, Bonifacios government was known as the Tagalog Republic. Bonifacios revolutionary government never controlled territory for any significant period. Some historians contend that including Bonifacio as a past president would imply that Macario Sacay, in March 1897, during the Philippine Revolution against Spain Emilio Aguinaldo was elected president of the revolutionary government at the Tejeros Convention. The new government was meant to replace the Katipunan, though the latter was not formally abolished until 1899, Aguinaldo was again elected President at Biak-na-Bato in November, leading the Republic of Biak-na-Bato. Aguinaldo therefore signed the Pact of Biak-na-Bato and went into exile in Hong Kong at the end of 1897, in April 1898, the Spanish–American War broke out, and the Asiatic Squadron of the United States Navy sailed for the Philippines. At the Battle of Manila Bay on May 1,1898 the American Navy decisively defeated the Spanish Navy effectively ending Spanish rule in the Philippines, aquinaldo subsequently returned to the Philippines aboard a U. S. Navy vessel and renewed the revolution. He formed a government on May 24,1898 and issued the Philippine Declaration of Independence on June 12,1898. On June 23,1898, Aguinaldo transformed his government into a revolutionary government. On January 23,1899, he was then elected President of the First Philippine Republic, consequently, this government is also called the Malolos Republic. The First Philippine Republic was short-lived and never internationally recognized, the Philippines was transferred from Spanish to American control by the Treaty of Paris of 1898, signed in December of that year. The Philippine–American War broke out between the United States and Aguinaldos government and his government effectively ceased to exist on April 1,1901, after he pledged allegiance to the United States following his capture by U. S. forces in March
24.
President of Singapore
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The President of the Republic of Singapore is Singapores head of state. Before 1993, the President of Singapore was chosen by Parliament, in November 2016, further amendments provide for reserved elections for a particular racial group - if that community has not been represented for five presidential terms. The first President elected by the majority of the people was Ong Teng Cheong, the current President of Singapore is Tony Tan Keng Yam. The Presidents official residence is the Istana, the office of President was created in 1965 after Singapore became a republic upon its secession from the Federation of Malaysia that year. It replaced the office of Yang di-Pertuan Negara, which had created when Singapore attained self-government in 1959. The last Yang di-Pertuan Negara, Yusof Ishak, became the first President, after his death he was replaced by Benjamin Sheares, who served until his death in 1981, when he was succeeded by Chengara Veetil Devan Nair. Owing to personal problems, Nair stepped down in 1985 and was replaced by Wee Kim Wee, in January 1991, the Constitution was amended to provide for the popular election of the President, a major constitutional and political change in Singapores history. Under the revision, the President is empowered to veto the use of the countrys past reserves and he or she can also examine the administrations enforcement of the Internal Security Act and Maintenance of Religious Harmony Act, and authorise corruption investigations. The first popularly elected President was Ong Teng Cheong, a cabinet minister. He served as President from 1 September 1993 to 31 August 1999, the sixth President was S. R. Nathan. He was not elected by the people in a vote, and his first term of office was from 18 August 1999 to 31 August 2005. He was re-elected after a walkover on 17 August 2005 and stepped down in August 2011, Tony Tan won the 27 August 2011 presidential election by a narrow 0. 34% margin. He was sworn in as the seventh President of Singapore on 1 September 2011, the President is the head of state of Singapore. The executive authority of the nation is vested in the President, as a component of the legislature together with Parliament, the President is also jointly vested with the legislative power of Singapore. The Presidents primary role in the exercise of power to make laws is assenting to bills passed by Parliament. The words of enactment in Singapore statutes are, Be it enacted by the President with the advice and consent of the Parliament of Singapore, as follows. The President usually opens each Parliamentary session with an address drafted by the Cabinet setting out the Governments agenda for the session, the President has been called Singapores No.1 diplomat. Ambassadors and high commissioners accredited to Singapore present their credentials to him, in addition, he or she contributes to the nations external relations by undertaking overseas trips on Cabinets advice
25.
Monarchy of Thailand
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The monarchy of Thailand refers to the constitutional monarchy and monarch of the Kingdom of Thailand. The King of Thailand is the head of state and head of the ruling Royal House of Chakri, the institution was transformed into a constitutional monarchy in 1932 after the bloodless Siamese Revolution of 1932. The King of Thailands titles include Head of State, Head of the Royal Thai Armed Forces, Adherent of Buddhism, the current concept of Thai kingship evolved through 800 years of absolute rule. The first king of a unified Thailand was the founder of the Kingdom of Sukhothai, King Sri Indraditya, the idea of this early kingship is said to be based on two concepts derived from Hinduism and Theravada Buddhist beliefs. The first concept is based on the Vedic-Hindu caste of Kshatriya, or warrior-ruler, the second is based on the Theravada Buddhist concept of Dhammaraja, Buddhism having been introduced to Thailand around the 6th century CE. The idea of the Dhammaraja, is that the king should rule his people in accordance with Dharma and these ideas were briefly replaced in 1279, when King Ramkhamhaeng came to the throne. Ramkhamhaeng departed from tradition and created instead a concept of paternal rule and this idea is reinforced in the title and name of the king, as he is still known today, Pho Khun Ramkhamhaeng meaning Father Ruler Ramkhamhaeng. By the end of the kingdom, the two old concepts returned as symbolized by the change in the style of the kings, Pho was changed to Phaya or Lord. The Kingdom of Sukhothai was supplanted by the Kingdom of Ayutthaya, during the Ayutthayan period, the idea of kingship changed. Due to ancient Khmer tradition in the region, the Hindu concept of kingship was applied to the status of the leader, Brahmins took charge in the royal coronation. The king was treated as a reincarnation of Hindu gods, Ayutthaya historical documents show the official titles of the kings in great variation, Indra, Shiva and Vishnu, or Rama. Seemingly, Rama was the most popular, as in Ramathibodhi, however, Buddhist influence was also evident, as many times the kings title and unofficial name Dhammaraja, an abbreviation of the Buddhist Dharmaraja. The two former concepts were re-established, with a third, older concept taking hold and this concept was called Devaraja, which was an idea borrowed by the Khmer Empire from the Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms of Java, especially the idea of a scholar class based on Hindu Brahmins. The king, portrayed by state interests as a figure, then became—through a rigid cultural implementation—an object of worship. From then on the monarchy was largely removed from the people, living in palaces designed after Mount Meru, the kings turned themselves into a Chakravartin, where the king became an absolute and universal lord of his realm. Kings demanded that the universe be envisioned as resolving around them, for four centuries these kings ruled Ayutthaya, presiding over some of the greatest period of cultural, economic, and military growth in Thai History. Whereas feudalism developed in the European Middle Ages, Ayutthayan King Trailokanat instituted Sakdina and this comported with the names of two kingdoms further north, Lanna Million Fields and Sip Song Phan Na Twelve Thousand Fields. Rachasap is required by court etiquette as an honorific register consisting of a special vocabulary used exclusively for addressing the king, the king was chief administrator, chief legislator, and chief judge, with all laws, orders, verdict and punishments theoretically originating from his person
26.
President of Vietnam
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The President of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam is, according to the constitution of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, the head of state of Vietnam. In addition, the president appoints the head of government, the Prime Minister, the President appoints the Vice President, Prime Minister, Ministers and other officials with the consent of the National Assembly. The President is furthermore the commander-in-chief of the Vietnam Peoples Armed Forces, Chairman of the Council for Defense, moreover, Standing Member of the Central Military Commission and the Central Police Party Committee. Since September 2011, the President is also the Head of the Central Steering Committee for Judicial Reform, the tenure of the President is five years, and a president can only serve three terms. The powers and prestige of the office of President have varied over the years, the current president is Trần Đại Quang, since 2 April 2016. He is ranked second in the Politburo hierarchy, after General Secretary Nguyễn Phú Trọng, Hồ Chí Minh was appointed Vietnams first president in 1946 by the National Assembly. Both the 1946 and 1959 Constitutions stated that the National Assembly had the power to appoint, the President represented Vietnam both internally and externally. The powers and responsibilities of the President remained unchanged in the 1959 constitution, the 1980 constitution transformed the office of head of state dramatically. The office of President was abolished and replaced with the office of Chairman of the Council of State, the CC chairmanship was modelled after the Soviet office of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet. The Council of State, as with the Council of Ministers, was a collective decision-making body, both the Council of State and the Council of Ministers were part of the executive branch, the strengthening of these institutions weakened the role of the legislative branch. The duties, powers and responsibilities of the Council of State were taken from the Standing Committee of the National Assembly, the members of the Council of State were elected by the National Assembly and consisted of a chairman, deputy chairmen, a General Secretary and other members. Council of State members could not concurrently be members of the Council of Ministers, the Chairman of the Council of State was concurrently Chairman of the National Defense Council and commander-in-chief of the Vietnam Peoples Armed Forces. The Council of State supervised the works of other institutions, most notably the Council of Ministers, the Supreme Peoples Organ for Control and it also presided over the elections of the National Assembly. The office of Chairman of the Council of State, the head of state, was abolished in the 1992 Constitution, the importance of the President has not remained constant throughout Vietnamese history. For instance, while Hồ Chí Minh was ranked as first member of the Politburo, the office of President retained the second highest rank in the Politburo order of precedence until Nguyễn Minh Triết was appointed in 2006, he ranked fourth in the Politburo hierarchy. The Politburo elected in the aftermath of the 11th National Party Congress by the Central Committee elected Trương Tấn Sang, the current President, the first-ranking member of the Politburo. This was the first time in Vietnamese history where the member of the Politburo does not hold post of either General Secretary or Chairman of the party. Since Trương Tấn Sang is first-ranked member of the Politburo, he is the unofficial head
27.
Prime Minister of Cambodia
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The Prime Minister of Cambodia is the head of government of Cambodia. The prime minister is also the chairman of the Cabinet and leads the executive branch of the Royal Cambodian Government, the prime minister is required to be a member of parliament, and is appointed by the monarch for a term of five years. Since 1945, there have been 36 prime ministers, the incumbent prime minister, since 1985, is Hun Sen of the Cambodian Peoples Party. He previously served from 1985 to 1993 and was prime minister from 1993 to 1998. He was elected as minister in his own right in 1998. He is the longest serving minister in Cambodian history. The position was first held by King Norodom Sihanouk in March 1945, cambodias first parliamentary elections were held on 1 September 1946. The Democratic Party remained the dominant-party in Cambodian politics throughout the 1940s until the formation of the Sangkum Reastr Niyum in 1955, Sangkum was the dominant-party in Cambodia from 1955 to 1970 following a military coup by General Lon Nol. Until 1993, it was not an elected position, merely few prime ministers were elected including Sisowath Youtevong, Norodom Sihanouk, and Lon Nol. In 1993, constitutional monarchy was restored in Cambodia, the role of the prime minister was officially recognized in the constitution. Norodom Ranariddh became the first democratically elected prime minister, the prime minister is required to be a member of parliament. He first needs to be elected by a majority of parliament before a ceremony can take place. The inauguration of the prime minister takes place at the Royal Palace, the prime minister-designate takes an oath of office in front of the monarch and the two heads of the Thammayut and Mohanikay order. A cabinet will then be unveiled, the formation of a new government takes place no more than 60 days after the election, as defined in the constitution. The prime minister is assisted by deputy prime ministers, article 125 of the Constitution states that should the prime minister resign or die in office, an acting prime minister is appointed. The Peace Palace serves as the workplace of the prime minister. It was inaugurated on 19 October 2010 by the King, however, the prime minister resides at his own private residence. The powers of the Prime Minister are established by the current Constitution of Cambodia, adopted on 24 September 1993, article 13, Within seven days at most - after the vacancy of the throne - the new King of Cambodia is selected by the Throne Council
28.
Prime Minister of Laos
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The Prime Minister of the Lao Peoples Democratic Republic is the head of government of Laos. It is the highest office within the Central Government, throughout its history the office of Prime Minister has been responsible, at least in theory but not always in practice, for handling Laoss internal policies. The current prime minister is Thongloun Sisoulith, since 20 April 2016 and he is second-ranked in the Political Bureau. The Prime Minister is elected by the proposal of the President of Laos to the National Assembly and is responsible to the National Assembly, finally, the deputies of the National Assembly have the right to question the Prime Minister and other members of government. The Office of the Prime Minister of the Peoples Democratic Republic traces its lineage back to Kaysone Phomvihane, the predecessor office to the Prime Minister of the Peoples Democratic Republic was the Prime Minister of the former Kingdom of Laos. There have been 7 prime ministers of the Peoples Democratic Republic, Political parties Other factions Trivia Between December 1959 to December 1960, Laos had six different Prime Ministers, who were ousted by six successive political coups. List of monarchs of Laos President of Laos
29.
Prime Minister of Malaysia
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It is in practice, the most powerful political position in Malaysia. The Prime Minister has always been from the United Malays National Organisation part of Barisan Nasional since independence, Tunku Abdul Rahman was the Chief Minister of the Federation of Malaya, restyled to Prime Minister of Malaysia on 16 September 1963 after the formation of Malaysia. Federation of Malaya became independent on 31 August 1957, the 6th and current prime minister is Najib Razak, who took office on 3 April 2009. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong on the Prime Ministers advice shall appoint other Ministers from either Dewan Rakyat or Dewan Negara, the Cabinet shall be collectively responsible to Parliament of Malaysia. The members of the Cabinet shall not hold any office of profit and engage in any trade, the Prime Ministers Department is the body and ministry in which the Prime Minister exercises its functions and powers. The Yang di-Pertuan Agongs choice of replacement prime minister will be dictated by the circumstances, the power of the prime minister is subject to a number of limitations. Conventionally, between the dissolution of one Parliament and the convening of the next, the prime minister, from time to time prime ministers are required to leave the country on business and a deputy is appointed to take their place during that time. In the days before jet aeroplanes, such absences could be for extended periods, ismail Abdul Rahman occasionally acted as Acting Prime Minister when Tunku Abdul Rahman and Abdul Razak Hussein was on leave for going abroad. In 1988, when UMNO as the member of the Barisan Nasional coalition was declared unlawful and illegal political party. Ling Liong Sik became the new Chairman of the Barisan Nasional and served as an Acting Prime Minister for a couple of days until the new party, anwar Ibrahim acted as an Acting Prime Minister for two months started from 19 May 1997 as Mahathir Mohamad was on vacation. Colour key, Alliance Party Barisan Nasional Note Prime ministers are granted certain privileges after leaving office at government expense. Former prime ministers continue to be important national figures, the most recently deceased prime minister was Tunku Abdul Rahman, who died on 6 December 1990. Air transports of heads of state and government Official state car Spouse of the Prime Minister of Malaysia Leader of the Opposition Chief Ministers in Malaysia
30.
Prime Minister of Singapore
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The Prime Minister of the Republic of Singapore is the head of the government of the Republic of Singapore. The President of Singapore appoints as Prime Minister a Member of Parliament who, the late Mr Lee Kuan Yew was the first prime minister of Singapore from 1959 to 1990. Lee was succeeded by Goh Chok Tong and was conferred the title of Senior Minister in the Prime Ministers Office, Goh retired on 12 August 2004 and was succeeded by Lee Kuan Yews son Lee Hsien Loong. Goh was appointed Senior Minister, and the elder Lee Minister Mentor, Lee and Goh resigned in 2011. The role of Deputy Prime Minister is the second highest post, the holder will sometimes assume the role of Acting Prime Minister when the PM is temporarily absent. Since the mid-1980s, Singapore has usually had two Deputy Prime Ministers at a time, only Ong Teng Cheong and Tony Tan served under more than one Prime Minister during their time as Deputy Prime Minister. In the cabinet of Goh Chok Tong in the 1990s to 2004, President Tony Tan, currently, the deputy prime ministers in office are Mr Teo Chee Hean and Mr Tharman Shanmugaratnam. Prime Ministers Office Cabinet of Singapore Spouse of the Prime Minister of Singapore Prime Ministers Office
31.
Prime Minister of Thailand
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The Prime Minister of Thailand is the head of government of Thailand. The prime minister is also the chair of the Cabinet of Thailand, the post has existed since the Revolution of 1932, when the country became a constitutional monarchy. The prime minister is appointed by a vote in the Thai House of Representatives by a simple majority, and is then sworn-in by the King of Thailand. The houses selection is based on the fact that either the prime minister is the leader of the largest political party in the lower house or the leader of the largest coalition of parties. In accordance with the constitution, the prime minister can only be appointed twice and is limited to a maximum of two consecutive terms. The post of Prime Minister is currently held by Retired General Prayut Chan-o-cha, the office of the President of the Peoples Committee, later changed to Prime Minister of Siam, was first created in the Temporary Constitution of 1932. The office was modeled after the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, however the idea of a separate head of government in Thailand is not new. Prior to 1932 Thailand was ruled by monarchs, who acted as both the head of state and the government. However, during the middle and latter reigns of the Chakri Dynasty, during the reign of King Mongkut, Somdet Chao Phraya Si Suriyawongse had a very significant role in an otherwise absolutist system. During the reign of King Chulalongkorn, Prince Damrong Rajanubhab took over this role, the first Prime Minister of Siam was Phraya Manopakorn Nititada, a judge. The title of the office was changed from Prime Minister of Siam to Prime Minister of Thailand in 1945, for most of its existence the office has been occupied by Army leaders, sixteen out of twenty-nine, including the incumbent General Prayut Chan-o-cha. Military dominance began with the countrys second Prime Minister, Phot Phahonyothin, the longest serving Prime Minister was Field Marshal Plaek Pibulsonggram at 14 years,11 months and 18 days. The shortest was Tawee Boonyaket at just 18 days, nine were removed by coups détat, three were disqualified by court order, and eleven resigned from office. The youngest ever to occupy office was M. R. Seni Pramoj at 40 years old, Thailand received its first female prime minister, Yingluck Shinawatra, in 2011. Every prime minister since Manopakorn Nititada has been Buddhist, the Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Thailand must be a member of the House of Representatives. Therefore, the qualifications for the office of minister are the same as the qualifications for membership in the house. To be appointed, the nominee for the office must have the support of one-fifth of the members of the House of Representatives. Then after a simple-majority vote in the house, a resolution will be passed and submitted to the king and this must take place within thirty days after the beginning of the first session of the House of Representatives after an election
32.
Prime Minister of Vietnam
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The prime minister directs the work of government members, and may propose deputy prime ministers to the National Assembly. The head of government is responsible to the National Assembly and serves as the Deputy Chairman of the Council for Defence, moreover, prime minister is also Chairman of the Coucil for National Education. The tenure of a minister is five years, and the term is renewable once. The current prime minister Nguyễn Xuân Phúc has served since 2016, in case of incapacity, a deputy prime minister assumes the office of acting prime minister until the prime minister resumes duty, or until the appointment of a new prime minister. The powers and prestige of the prime minister have varied through the years, Pham Van Dong, Vietnams second prime minister, often lamented that in practice he had little power. Since the death of Pham Hung in 1988, the minister has been ranked 3rd in the order of precedence of the Communist Partys Politburo. Both the 1946 and 1959 Constitutions state that the National Assembly had the power to appoint, the prime minister presided over the Council of Ministers, the highest executive body of state, from 1981 until it was renamed to Government in the 1992 constitution. The office of minister was renamed in the 1980 constitution to that of Chairman of the Council of Ministers. At his resignation, he was the prime minister in Vietnamese history. He often lamented that he was one of the worlds weakest prime ministers, on one occasion saying, when I say something, nobody listens. If I propose changing a deputy minister, it out to be impossible. I cannot even choose my own ministers, since the death of Pham Hung in 1988, the prime minister has been ranked Number 3 in the order of precedence of the Communist Partys Politburo. The National Assembly by a proposal of the President of Vietnam elects the prime minister, the prime minister is responsible to the National Assembly, and the Assembly elects all ministers to government. Finally, the deputies of the National Assembly have the right to question the prime minister and other members of government, the prime minister is the only member of government who must be a member of the National Assembly. This is because the minister is accountable to the National Assembly, and he reports to it, or to its Standing Committee. The prime minister issues directives and supervises the implementation of orders given by the president. Cabinet members and members of the Central Government in general are responsible to the prime minister, when the prime minister is absent, he must choose one of his deputy prime ministers to direct the work of the government. The prime minister serves concurrently as the secretary of the CPV Government Caucus Commission, the National Assembly chairman serves as the commissions deputy
33.
Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies
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The Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies represented Dutch rule in the Dutch East Indies between 1610 and Dutch recognition of the independence of Indonesia in 1949. The first Governors-General were appointed by the Dutch East India Company, after the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, the territorial possessions of the VOC were nationalised under the Dutch Government as the Dutch East Indies, a colony of the Netherlands. Governors-General were now appointed by either the Dutch monarch or the Dutch government, during the Dutch East Indies era most Governors-General were expatriate Dutchmen, while during the earlier VOC era most Governors-General became settlers who stayed and died in the East Indies. Under the period of British control, the equivalent position was the Lieutenant-Governor, between 1942 and 1945, while Hubertus Johannes van Mook was the nominal Governor-General, the area was under Japanese control, and was governed by a two sequence of governors, in Java and Sumatra. After 1948 in negotiations for independence, the equivalent position was named High Commissioner of the Crown in the Dutch East Indies, since the VOC era, the highest Dutch authority in the colonial possessions of the East Indies resided with the Office of the Governor-General. During the Dutch East Indies era the Governor-General functioned as chief executive, president of colonial government. A Governor-General represented the Dutch Empire and Monarch and was the most influential party in the colony, until 1815 the Governor-General had the absolute right to ban, censor or restrict any publication in the colony. The so-called Exorbitant powers of the Governor-General allowed him to exile anyone regarded as subversive and dangerous to peace and order, until 1848 the Governor-General was directly appointed by the Dutch monarch, and in later years via the Crown on advice of the Dutch metropolitan cabinet. During two periods the Governor-General ruled jointly with a board called the Raad van Indie. Overall colonial policy and strategy were the responsibility of the Ministry of Colonies based in The Hague, often headed by a former Governor-General. From 1815 to 1848 the Ministry was under authority of the Dutch King. In 1922 the colony came on equal footing with the Netherlands in the Dutch constitution, during the tenure of Governors-General who were proponents of the Ethical policy a Peoples Council called the Volksraad for the Dutch East Indies was installed in 1918. The Volksraad, an infant form of council, was limited to an advisory role. The Council comprised 30 indigenous members,25 European and 5 from Chinese and other populations, in 1925 the Volksraad was made a semilegislative body, and the Governor-General was expected to consult the Volksraad on major issues. List of Governors-General of the Dutch East Indies Media related to Governor-Generals of the Dutch East Indies at Wikimedia Commons
34.
Prime Minister of Indonesia
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Indonesia, in its various incarnations, had the position of Prime Minister from 1945 until 1966. During this period, the Prime Minister was in charge of the Cabinet of Indonesia, following his 1959 decree, President Sukarno assumed the role and powers of Prime Minister until his resignation in 1966. The 1945 Constitution of Indonesia states that Indonesia is built around a system, as such. Nevertheless, beginning in 1945 a Prime Minister was chosen to head the Cabinet, the position of Prime Minister was subsequently guaranteed by Article 52 of the Provisional Constitution of 1950. The Prime Minister, chosen by the President, was tasked with handling routine government business and being in charge of the Cabinet, responsible to the President and Vice President. In practice, the Prime Minister was responsible to the Working Body of the Central Indonesian National Committee and had to consult the President before making any major decisions, if the Prime Minister came into conflict with the KNIP or President, another could be chosen. Due to the instability of the coalition Cabinets, Prime Ministers often faced votes of no confidence, every major policy change had a chance to be opposed, either by the government or opposition. As such, some Cabinets lasted only a few months, List of Presidents of Indonesia List of Vice Presidents of Indonesia Elections in Indonesia Politics of Indonesia Footnotes Bibliography
