1.
Kingdom of Ireland
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The Kingdom of Ireland was a client state of the Kingdom of England that existed on Ireland from 1542 until 1800. It came into being when the Parliament of Ireland passed the Crown of Ireland Act 1542, the territory of the Kingdom had previously had the status of a lordship of the Crown. The Parliament of Ireland passed the Acts of Union 1800 by which it abolished itself, the act was also passed by the Parliament of Great Britain. The act also had the effect of establishing the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland on the first day of 1801 by uniting the Crowns of Ireland, in its early years, the Kingdom of Ireland had limited recognition. While some Protestant powers in Europe recognised Henry and his heir Edward as monarch of Ireland, Henrys daughter, Queen Mary I of England, was recognised as Queen of Ireland by Pope Paul IV in 1555. The papal bull Laudabiliter of Pope Adrian IV was issued in 1155 and it granted the Angevin King Henry II of England the title Dominus Hibernae. Laudabiliter authorised the king to invade Ireland, to bring the country into the European sphere, in return, Henry was required to remit a penny per hearth of the tax roll to the Pope. This was reconfirmed by Adrians successor Pope Alexander III in 1172, when Pope Clement VII excommunicated the king of England, Henry VIII, in 1533, the constitutional position of the lordship in Ireland became uncertain. Henry had broken away from the Holy See and declared himself the head of the Church in England and he had petitioned Rome to procure an annulment of his marriage to Queen Catherine. The Treason Act 1537 was passed to counteract this, following the failed revolt of Silken Thomas in 1534–35, Grey, the lord deputy, had some military successes against several clans in the late 1530s, and took their submissions. By 1540 most of Ireland seemed at peace and under the control of the kings Dublin administration, Henry was proclaimed King of Ireland by the Crown of Ireland Act 1542, an Act of the Irish Parliament. The new kingdom was not recognised by the Catholic monarchies in Europe, after the death of King Edward VI, Henrys son, the papal bull of 1555 recognised the Roman Catholic Queen Mary I as Queen of Ireland. The link of personal union of the Crown of Ireland to the Crown of England became enshrined in Catholic canon law, in this fashion, the Kingdom of Ireland was ruled by the reigning King of England. This placed the new Kingdom of Ireland in personal union with the Kingdom of England, in line with its expanded role and self-image, the administration established the Kings Inns for barristers in 1541, and the Ulster King of Arms to regulate heraldry in 1552. Proposals to establish a university in Dublin were delayed until 1592, in 1603 James VI King of Scots became James I of England, uniting the Kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland in a personal union. The political order of the kingdom was interrupted by the Wars of the Three Kingdoms starting in 1639, during the subsequent interregnum period, England, Scotland and Ireland were ruled as a republic until 1660. This period saw the rise of the loyalist Irish Catholic Confederation within the kingdom and, from 1653, the kingdoms order was restored 1660 with the restoration of Charles II. Without any public dissent, Charless reign was backdated to his fathers execution in 1649, Poynings Law was repealed in 1782 in what came to be known as the Constitution of 1782, granting Ireland legislative independence
2.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established as a sovereign state on 1 January 1801 by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. The growing desire for an Irish Republic led to the Irish War of Independence, Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom, and the state was consequently renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Britain financed the European coalition that defeated France in 1815 in the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire thereby became the foremost world power for the next century. The Crimean War with Russia and the Boer wars were relatively small operations in a largely peaceful century, rapid industrialisation that began in the decades prior to the states formation continued up until the mid-19th century. A devastating famine, exacerbated by government inaction in the century, led to demographic collapse in much of Ireland. It was an era of economic modernization and growth of industry, trade and finance. Outward migration was heavy to the colonies and to the United States. Britain also built up a large British Empire in Africa and Asia, India, by far the most important possession, saw a short-lived revolt in 1857. In foreign policy Britain favoured free trade, which enabled its financiers and merchants to operate successfully in many otherwise independent countries, as in South America. Britain formed no permanent military alliances until the early 20th century, when it began to cooperate with Japan, France and Russia, and moved closer to the United States. A brief period of limited independence for Ireland came to an end following the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the British governments fear of an independent Ireland siding against them with the French resulted in the decision to unite the two countries. This was brought about by legislation in the parliaments of both kingdoms and came into effect on 1 January 1801, however, King George III was bitterly opposed to any such Emancipation and succeeded in defeating his governments attempts to introduce it. When the Treaty of Amiens ended the war, Britain agreed to return most of the territories it had seized, in May 1803, war was declared again. In 1806, Napoleon issued the series of Berlin Decrees, which brought into effect the Continental System and this policy aimed to eliminate the threat from the British by closing French-controlled territory to foreign trade. Frances population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of the British Isles, Napoleon expected that cutting Britain off from the European mainland would end its economic hegemony. The Spanish uprising in 1808 at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent, after Napoleons surrender and exile to the island of Elba, peace appeared to have returned. The Allies united and the armies of Wellington and Blucher defeated Napoleon once, simultaneous with the Napoleonic Wars, trade disputes, arming hostile Indians and British impressment of American sailors led to the War of 1812 with the United States. The war was little noticed in Britain, which could devote few resources to the conflict until the fall of Napoleon in 1814, American frigates inflicted a series of defeats on the Royal Navy, which was short on manpower due to the conflict in Europe
3.
Dublin Castle administration
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Dublin Castle was the centre of the government of Ireland under English and later British rule. Dublin Castle is used metonymically to describe British rule in Ireland, the Castle held only the executive branch of government and the Privy Council of Ireland, both appointed by the British government. The Castle did not hold the judicial branch, which was centred on the Four Courts, or the legislature, the head of the administration was variously known as the Justicar, the Lord Deputy, from the seventeenth century the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, and later the Viceroy. Before 1707 he represented the government of the Kingdom of England, then that of the Kingdom of Great Britain and he was also the personal representative in Ireland of the monarch. By the nineteenth century, the Lord Lieutenant was declining in importance by comparison with his chief aide, by the late nineteenth century the Lord Lieutenant was sometimes, but not always, a member of the British cabinet, but the Chief Secretary invariably was a member. The Government of Ireland Act 1920 gave the Lord Lieutenant a new role, however, the Irish War of Independence and subsequent Civil War meant that Southern Irelands institutions never came into operation and Northern Irelands institutions were not established until 1921. All of these posts were abolished in 1922, Dublin Castle in the life of the Irish nation. Dublin Castle, at the heart of Irish History, the Greening of Dublin Castle, the transformation of bureaucratic and judicial personnel in Ireland, 1892-1922. Smyth, Constantine J. Chronicle of the law officers of Ireland, the last days of Dublin Castle, the Mark Sturgis diaries
4.
Privy Council of the United Kingdom
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Her Majestys Most Honourable Privy Council, usually known simply as the Privy Council, is a formal body of advisers to the Sovereign of the United Kingdom. Its membership mainly comprises senior politicians, who are present or former members of either the House of Commons or the House of Lords, the Council also holds the delegated authority to issue Orders of Council, mostly used to regulate certain public institutions. The Council advises the sovereign on the issuing of Royal Charters, which are used to grant special status to incorporated bodies, otherwise, the Privy Councils powers have now been largely replaced by the Cabinet of the United Kingdom. The Judicial Committee consists of judges appointed as Privy Counsellors, predominantly Justices of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. The Privy Council of the United Kingdom was preceded by the Privy Council of Scotland, the key events in the formation of the modern Privy Council are given below, Witenagemot was an early equivalent to the Privy Council of England. During the reigns of the Norman monarchs, the English Crown was advised by a court or curia regis. The body originally concerned itself with advising the sovereign on legislation, administration, later, different bodies assuming distinct functions evolved from the court. The courts of law took over the business of dispensing justice, nevertheless, the Council retained the power to hear legal disputes, either in the first instance or on appeal. Furthermore, laws made by the sovereign on the advice of the Council, powerful sovereigns often used the body to circumvent the Courts and Parliament. During Henry VIIIs reign, the sovereign, on the advice of the Council, was allowed to enact laws by mere proclamation, the legislative pre-eminence of Parliament was not restored until after Henry VIIIs death. Though the royal Council retained legislative and judicial responsibilities, it became an administrative body. The Council consisted of forty members in 1553, but the sovereign relied on a smaller committee, by the end of the English Civil War, the monarchy, House of Lords, and Privy Council had been abolished. The remaining parliamentary chamber, the House of Commons, instituted a Council of State to execute laws, the forty-one members of the Council were elected by the House of Commons, the body was headed by Oliver Cromwell, de facto military dictator of the nation. In 1653, however, Cromwell became Lord Protector, and the Council was reduced to thirteen and twenty-one members, all elected by the Commons. In 1657, the Commons granted Cromwell even greater powers, some of which were reminiscent of those enjoyed by monarchs, the Council became known as the Protectors Privy Council, its members were appointed by the Lord Protector, subject to Parliaments approval. In 1659, shortly before the restoration of the monarchy, the Protectors Council was abolished, Charles II restored the Royal Privy Council, but he, like previous Stuart monarchs, chose to rely on a small group of advisers. Under George I even more power transferred to this committee and it now began to meet in the absence of the sovereign, communicating its decisions to him after the fact. Thus, the British Privy Council, as a whole, ceased to be a body of important confidential advisers to the sovereign and it is closely related to the word private, and derives from the French word privé
5.
Government of the United Kingdom
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Her Majestys Government, commonly referred to as the UK government or British government, is the central government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The government is led by the Prime Minister, who all the remaining ministers. The prime minister and the other most senior ministers belong to the supreme decision-making committee, the government ministers all sit in Parliament, and are accountable to it. After an election, the monarch selects as prime minister the leader of the party most likely to command a majority of MPs in the House of Commons. Under the uncodified British constitution, executive authority lies with the monarch, although this authority is exercised only by, or on the advice of, the prime minister, the Cabinet members advise the monarch as members of the Privy Council. They also exercise power directly as leaders of the Government Departments, the current prime minister is Theresa May, who took office on 13 July 2016. She is the leader of the Conservative Party, which won a majority of seats in the House of Commons in the election on 7 May 2015. Prior to this, Cameron and the Conservatives led a government from 2010 to 2015 with the Liberal Democrats. A key principle of the British Constitution is that the government is responsible to Parliament, Britain is a constitutional monarchy in which the reigning monarch does not make any open political decisions. All political decisions are taken by the government and Parliament and this constitutional state of affairs is the result of a long history of constraining and reducing the political power of the monarch, beginning with the Magna Carta in 1215. Parliament is split into two houses, the House of Lords and the House of Commons, the House of Commons is the lower house and is the more powerful. The House of Lords is the house and although it can vote to amend proposed laws. Parliamentary time is essential for bills to be passed into law, Ministers of the Crown are responsible to the House in which they sit, they make statements in that House and take questions from members of that House. For most senior ministers this is usually the elected House of Commons rather than the House of Lords, since the start of Edward VIIs reign, in 1901, the prime minister has always been an elected member of Parliament and therefore directly accountable to the House of Commons. Under the British system the government is required by convention and for reasons to maintain the confidence of the House of Commons. It requires the support of the House of Commons for the maintenance of supply, by convention if a government loses the confidence of the House of Commons it must either resign or a General Election is held. The support of the Lords, while useful to the government in getting its legislation passed without delay, is not vital, a government is not required to resign even if it loses the confidence of the Lords and is defeated in key votes in that House. The House of Commons is thus the Responsible house, the prime minister is held to account during Prime Ministers Question Time which provides an opportunity for MPs from all parties to question the PM on any subject
6.
Commoner
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The terms common people, common man, commoners, or the masses denote a broad social division referring to ordinary people who are members of neither royalty nor nobility nor the priesthood. Since the 20th century, the common people has been used in a more general sense to refer to typical members of society in contrast to highly privileged. In Europe, a concept analogous to common people arose in the Classical civilization of ancient Rome around the 6th century BC. The division may have been instituted by Servius Tullius, as an alternative to the clan based divisions that had been responsible for internecine conflict. The ancient Greeks generally had no concept of class and their leading social divisions were simply non-Greeks, free-Greeks, with the growth of Christianity in the 4th century AD, a new world view arose that would underpin European thinking on social division until at least early modern times. Saint Augustine postulated that social division was a result of the Fall of Man, the three leading divisions were considered to be the priesthood, the nobility, and the common people. Sometimes this would be expressed as those who prayed, those who fought, the Latin terms for the three classes – oratores, bellatores and laboratores – are often found even in modern textbooks, and have been used in sources since the 9th century. This threefold division was formalised in the system of social stratification. They were the third of the Three Estates of the Realm in medieval Europe, consisting of peasants, social mobility for commoners was limited throughout the Middle Ages. Generally, the serfs were unable to enter the group of the bellatores, commoners could sometimes secure entry for their children into the oratores class, usually they would serve as rural parish priests. There were cases of serfs becoming clerics in the Holy Roman Empire, though from the Carolingian era, of the two thousand bishops serving from the 8th to the 15th century, just five came from the peasantry. Up until the late 15th-century European social order was relatively stable, there were periods where the common people felt oppressed in certain regions, but often they were content with their lot. The social and political order of medieval Europe was shaken by the development of the cannon in the 15th century. Up until that time a noble with a force could hold their castle or walled town for years even against large armies -. Once effective cannons were available, walls were of far less defensive value and this change of orientation among the nobles left the common people less content with their place in society. A similar trend occurred regarding the clergy, where many priests began to abuse the power they had due to the sacrament of contrition. An early major social upheaval driven in part by the common peoples mistrust of both the nobility and clergy occurred in Great Britain with the English Revolution of 1642, after the forces of Oliver Cromwell triumphed, movements like the Levellers rose to prominence demanding equality for all. According to historian Roger Osbourne, the Colonels speech was the first time a prominent person spoke in favour of male suffrage
7.
Irish Free State
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The Irish Free State was an independent state established in 1922 under the Anglo-Irish Treaty of December 1921. That treaty ended the three-year Irish War of Independence between the forces of the self-proclaimed Irish Republic, the Irish Republican Army, and British Crown forces, the Free State was established as a Dominion of the British Commonwealth of Nations. It comprised 26 of the 32 counties of Ireland, Northern Ireland, which comprised the remaining six counties, exercised its right under the Treaty to opt out of the new state. W. T. Cosgrave, who had led both of these governments since August 1922, became the first President of the Executive Council, the legislature consisted of Dáil Éireann and Seanad Éireann, also known as the Senate. Members of the Dáil were required to take an Oath of Allegiance, the oath was a key issue for opponents of the Treaty, who refused to take the oath and therefore did not take their seats. Pro-Treaty members, who formed Cumann na nGaedheal in 1923, held a majority in the Dáil from 1922 to 1927. In the first months of the Free State, the Irish Civil War was waged between the newly established National Army and the anti-Treaty IRA, who refused to recognise the state. The Civil War ended in victory for the government forces, with the anti-Treaty forces dumping its arms in May 1923, the anti-Treaty political party, Sinn Féin, refused to take its seats in the Dáil, leaving the relatively small Labour Party as the only opposition party. In 1926, when Sinn Féin president Éamon de Valera failed to have this policy reversed, he resigned from Sinn Féin, Fianna Fáil entered the Dáil following the 1927 general election, and entered government after the Irish general election,1932, when it became the largest party. De Valera abolished the Oath of Allegiance and embarked on a war with Britain. In 1937 he drafted a new constitution, which was passed by a referendum in July of that year, the Free State came to an end with the coming into force of the new constitution on 29 December 1937. Under the new constitution the Irish state was named Ireland, meanwhile, opposition increased to Irelands participation in World War I in Europe and the Middle East. This came about when the Irish Parliamentary Party supported the Allied cause in World War I in response to the passing of the Third Home Rule Bill in 1914. Many people had begun to doubt whether the Bill, passed by Westminster in September 1914 but suspended for the duration of the war, Sinn Féin, the Irish Party and all other Nationalist elements joined forces in opposition to the idea during the Conscription Crisis of 1918. At the same time the Irish Parliamentary lost in support on account of the crisis, Irish republicans felt further emboldened by successful anti-monarchical revolutions in the Russian Empire, the German Empire, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The Sinn Féin party, founded by Arthur Griffith in 1905, had espoused non-violent separatism, under Éamon de Valeras leadership from 1917, it campaigned aggressively and militantly for an Irish republic. On 21 January 1919, Sinn Féin MPs, refusing to sit at Westminster, assembled in Dublin and it affirmed the formation of an Irish Republic and passed a Declaration of Independence, the irish people is resolved. To promote the common weal, to re-establish justice, with equal rights and equal opportunity for every citizen
8.
Privy Council (Northern Ireland)
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The Privy Council of Northern Ireland is a formal body of advisors to the sovereign and was a vehicle for the monarchs prerogative powers in Northern Ireland. It was modelled on the Privy Council of the United Kingdom, the Council was created in 1922 as a result of the division of Ireland into the Irish Free State and Northern Ireland. The latter remained part of the United Kingdom albeit with its own parliament, the previous Privy Council of Ireland was obsolete although never formally abolished in British law. The Privy Council of Northern Ireland consisted of members of the Northern Ireland government including the Prime Minister of Northern Ireland. The Council rarely met and was largely a ceremonial body with its responsibilities exercised by the cabinet, members are entitled to use the prefix The Right Honourable, whilst peers who are members use the post-nominal letters PC. Four members are living as of May 2014
9.
Lordship of Ireland
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The Lordship of Ireland, sometimes referred to retroactively as Norman Ireland, was a period of feudal rule in Ireland between 1177 and 1542 under the King of England, styled as Lord of Ireland. The lordship was created as a Papal possession following the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169–71, as the lord of Ireland was also the king of England, he was represented locally by a governor, styled between 1660–1922 as the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. Ostensibly, the lordship extended throughout all of Ireland, however, in reality, the kings rule only ever extended to parts of the island. Areas under English rule expanded and retreated over time, many areas remained separate and outside English rule until the 16th century. The period was brought to a close by the creation of the Kingdom of Ireland in 1542, further, the former Irish church had never sent its dues to Rome. Henrys primary motivation for invading Ireland 1171 was to control Strongbow, in 1175 the Treaty of Windsor was agreed by Henry and Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair, High King of Ireland. The popes asserted the right to grant sovereignty over islands to different monarchs on the basis of the Donation of Constantine, doubts were cast by eminent scholars on Laudabiliter itself in the 19th century, but it was confirmed by the letters of Pope Alexander III. The Papal power to grant also fell within the remit of Dictatus papae, while Laudabiliter had referred to the kingdom of Ireland, the Papacy was ambiguous about continuing to describe it as a kingdom as early as 1185. Having captured a part of Ireland on the east coast. For he had divided his territories between his sons, with the youngest being nicknamed Johan sanz Terre as he was left without lands to rule, Henry had wanted John to be crowned King of Ireland on his first visit in 1185, but Pope Lucius III specifically refused permission. Dominus was the title of a king who had not yet been crowned. Lucius then died while John was in Ireland, and Henry obtained consent from Pope Urban III and ordered a crown of gold, in late 1185 the crown was ready, but Johns visit had by then proved a complete failure, so Henry cancelled the coronation. The Lordship thrived in the 13th century during the Medieval Warm Period, the feudal system was introduced, and the Parliament of Ireland first sat in 1297. Some counties were created by shiring, while walled towns and castles became a feature of the landscape, but little of this engagement with mainstream European life was of benefit to those the Normans called the mere Irish. Mere derived from the Latin merus, meaning pure, environmental decay and deforestation continued unabated throughout this period, being greatly exacerbated by the English newcomers and an increase in population. The Norman élite and churchmen spoke Norman French and Latin, many poorer settlers spoke English, Welsh and Flemish. The Gaelic areas spoke Irish dialects, the Yola language of County Wexford was a survivor of the early English dialects. The Lordship suffered invasion from Scotland by Edward Bruce in 1315–18, the earldom of Ulster ended in 1333, and the Black Death of 1348–50 impacted more on the town-dwelling Normans than on the remaining Gaelic clans
10.
British Empire
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The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It originated with the possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the population at the time. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread, during the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, the independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies. British attention soon turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, after the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century. In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain, the British Empire expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. In Britain, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies, during the 19th Century, Britains population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, which caused significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britains economic lead, subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on the military, financial and manpower resources of Britain, although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer the worlds pre-eminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britains colonies in Southeast Asia were occupied by Imperial Japan, despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britains most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence as part of a larger movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire, fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations, a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms, that share a monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was ever heard of his ships again
11.
Tudor conquest of Ireland
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The Tudor conquest of Ireland took place under the Tudor dynasty, which held the Kingdom of England during the 16th century. By conciliation and repression the conquest continued for sixty years, until 1603 and this control was increased after the Flight of the Earls in 1607. The conquest was complicated by the imposition of English law, language and culture, upon completion of the conquest, the polity of Gaelic Ireland had been largely destroyed and the Spanish were no longer willing to intervene directly. This left the way clear for extensive confiscation of land by English, Scots, Ireland in 1500 was shaped by the Norman conquest, initiated by Anglo-Norman barons in the 12th century. Many of the native Gaelic Irish had been expelled from various parts of the country and replaced with English peasants, a large area on the east coast, extending from the Wicklow Mountains in the south to Dundalk in the north, became known as the Pale. The Gaelic Irish were, for the most part, outside English jurisdiction, maintaining their own language, social system, customs, the English referred to them as His Majestys Irish enemies. In legal terms, they had never admitted as subjects of the Crown. Ireland was not formally a realm, but rather a lordship, the rise of Gaelic influence resulted in the passing in 1366 of the Statutes of Kilkenny, which outlawed many social practices that had been developing apace. In the 15th century the Dublin government remained weak, owing principally to the Wars of the Roses, beyond the Pale, the authority of the Dublin government was tenuous. The Hiberno-Norman lords had been able to carve out fiefdoms for themselves, the Butlers, Fitzgeralds and Burkes raised their own armed forces, enforced their own law, and adopted Gaelic language and culture. Beyond those territories large areas of previously held by authority of the English crown were taken by the resurgent Gaelic Irish, particularly in the north. By 1500, English monarchs had delegated government of Ireland to the most powerful of the Hiberno-Norman dynasties to keep the costs of running Ireland down and to protect the Pale. The Kings Lord Deputy of Ireland was chief of the administration, based in Dublin Castle, in 1495 laws were passed during Poynings parliament that imposed English statute law wholesale upon the lordship and compromised the independence of the Irish parliament. The head of the Kildare FitzGeralds held the position of lord deputy until 1534, the Reformation also led to growing tension between England and Ireland as Protestantism gained sway within England. Thomas, Earl of Kildare, a fervent Catholic, offered control of Ireland to both the Pope and Emperor Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire. Henry put down the rebellion by executing the leader, along several of his uncles, and imprisoned Gearoid Og. But now the king had to find a replacement for the FitzGeralds to keep Ireland quiet, what was needed was a cost-effective new policy that protected the Pale and guaranteed the safety of Englands vulnerable west flank from foreign invasion. With the assistance of Thomas Cromwell, the king implemented the policy of surrender, the keystone to the reform was in a statute passed by the Irish parliament in 1541, whereby the lordship was converted to the Kingdom of Ireland
12.
Anglo-Irish people
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Many became eminent as administrators in the British Empire and as senior army and naval officers. The term is not usually applied to Presbyterians in the province of Ulster, whose ancestry is mostly Scottish, rather than English or Irish, the Anglo-Irish held a wide range of political views, with many of them being outspoken Irish Nationalists. And while many of the Anglo-Irish were part of the English diaspora in Ireland, in the course of the 17th century, this Anglo-Irish landed class replaced the Gaelic Irish and Old English aristocracies as the ruling class in Ireland. They were also referred to as New English to distinguish them from the Old English who descended from the medieval Hiberno-Norman settlers and those who converted to the Church of Ireland were usually able to keep or regain their lost property, as the issue was primarily one of allegiance. In the late 18th century the Parliament of Ireland in Dublin won legislative independence, the Anglo-Irish social class was usually of mixed English and Irish or Welsh ancestry. Members of this class commonly identified themselves as Irish, while retaining English habits in politics, commerce. They participated in the popular English sports of the day, particularly racing and fox hunting, many of the more successful of them spent much of their careers either in Great Britain or in some part of the British Empire. Many constructed large houses, which became known in Ireland as Big Houses. The Dublin working class playwright Brendan Behan, a staunch Irish Republican, saw the Anglo-Irish as Irelands leisure class, the Anglo-Irish novelist and short story writer Elizabeth Bowen memorably described her experience as feeling English in Ireland, Irish in England and not accepted fully as belonging to either. Due to their prominence in the military and their conservative politics and they also controlled financial companies such as the Bank of Ireland and Goodbody Stockbrokers. Prominent Anglo-Irish poets, writers, and playwrights include Jonathan Swift, George Berkeley, Oliver Goldsmith, Bram Stoker, Oscar Wilde, J. M. Synge, W. B. Yeats, Cecil Day-Lewis, Bernard Shaw, Augusta, Lady Gregory, Samuel Beckett, Giles Cooper, C. S. Lewis, Lord Longford, the polar explorer Sir Ernest Shackleton was also an Anglo-Irishman. Medical experts included Sir William Wilde, Robert Graves, Thomas Wrigley Grimshaw, William Stokes, Robert Collis, Sir John Lumsden, William Desmond Taylor was an early and prolific maker of silent films in Hollywood. Philanthropists included Thomas Barnardo and The 1st Earl of Iveagh, the Anglo-Irish, as a class, were mostly opposed to the notions of Irish independence and Home Rule. Most were supporters of continued political union with Great Britain, which existed between 1800 and 1922, however, Protestants in Ireland, and the Anglo-Irish class in particular, were by no means universally attached to the cause of continued political union with Great Britain. For instance, author Jonathan Swift, a clergyman in the Church of Ireland, the Irish Rebellion of 1798 was led by members of the Anglo-Irish and Ulster Scots class, some of whom feared the political implications of the impending union with Great Britain. By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, however, Irish nationalism became increasingly tied to a Roman Catholic identity, by the beginning of the twentieth century, many Anglo-Irishmen in southern Ireland had become convinced of the need for a political settlement with Irish nationalists. Anglo-Irish politicians such as Sir Horace Plunkett and Lord Monteagle became leading figures in finding a solution to the Irish question
13.
Reformation in Ireland
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The Reformation in Ireland was a movement for the reform of religious life and institutions that was introduced into Ireland by the English administration at the behest of King Henry VIII of England. His desire for an annulment of his marriage was known as the Kings Great Matter, in passing the Acts of Supremacy in 1534, the English Parliament confirmed the Kings supremacy over the Church in the Kingdom of England. This challenge to Papal supremacy resulted in a breach with the Catholic Church, by 1541, the Irish Parliament had agreed to the change in status of the country from that of a Lordship to that of Kingdom of Ireland. In Ireland, however, the policy was not embraced by public opinion. Norman and English monarchs used the title Lord of Ireland to refer to their Irish conquests dating from the Norman invasion of Ireland, in passing the Crown of Ireland Act 1542, the Irish Parliament granted Henry, by his command, a new title – King of Ireland. The state was renamed the Kingdom of Ireland, the King desired this innovation because the Lordship of Ireland had been granted by the Papacy, technically, he held the Lordship in fief from the Pope. As Henry had been excommunicated, he worried that his title could be withdrawn by his overlord – the Pope, Henry also arranged for the Irish Parliament to declare him the head of the Church in Ireland. The main instrument of power in the establishment of the state church in the new Kingdom of Ireland was the Archbishop of Dublin. He was appointed by the King upon the death of the incumbent, the Archbishop arrived in Ireland in 1536. The reforms were continued by Henrys successor – Edward VI of England, the dissolutions in Ireland followed a very different course from those in England and Wales. There were around 400 religious houses in Ireland in 1530—many more, relative to population and material wealth than in England and they constituted around half of the total number of religious houses. Henrys direct authority, as Lord of Ireland, and from 1541 as King of Ireland, from the late 1530s his administrators temporarily succeeded in persuading some clan chiefs to adopt his policy of surrender and regrant, including the adoption of his state religion. Nevertheless, Henry was determined to carry through a policy of dissolution in Ireland –, the process faced considerable opposition, and only sixteen houses were suppressed. Henry remained resolute however, and from 1541 as part of the Tudor conquest of Ireland, by the time of Henrys death around half of the Irish houses had been suppressed, but many houses of friars continued to resist dissolution until well into the reign of Elizabeth I. Bishopricks, colleges, glebes and tithes were divided without mercy amongst the men of the time, or leased out on small rents for ever to the friends. Many Irish bishopricks never recovered this devastation, as Aghadoe, Kilfenora, the Bishoprick of Ferns was left not worth one shilling. Killala, the best in Ireland, was worth only 300l. per annum, Clonfert, 8d. and the rest at even a lower rate. Henrys son Edward VI of England formally established Protestantism as the state religion and his reign only lasted for six years and his principal reform, the Act of Uniformity 1549, had much less impact in Ireland than in England
14.
Desmond Rebellions
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The Desmond Rebellions occurred in 1569–1573 and 1579–1583 in the Irish province of Munster. They culminated in the destruction of the Desmond dynasty and the plantation or colonisation of Munster with English Protestant settlers, Desmond is the Anglicisation of the Irish Deasmumhain, meaning South Munster. The south of Ireland was dominated, as it had been for two centuries, by the Old English Butlers of Ormonde and the FitzGeralds of Desmond. Both families raised their own armed forces and imposed their own law, beginning in the 1530s, successive English administrations tried to expand English control over Ireland. His solution was the formation of lord presidencies—provincial military governors who would replace the local lords as military powers and keepers of the peace, the dynasties saw the presidencies as intrusions into their sphere of influence. Their interfamilial competition had seen the Butlers and FitzGeralds fight a battle against each other at Affane in County Waterford in 1565. in defiance of English law. Elizabeth I summoned the heads of houses to London to explain their actions. However, the treatment of the dynasties was not even-handed and this decapitated the natural leadership of the Munster Geraldines and left the Desmond earldom in the hands of a soldier, James FitzMaurice FitzGerald, the captain general of the Desmond military. FitzMaurice had little stake in a new demilitarised order in Munster and this ensured FitzMaurice the support of important Munster clans, notably MacCarthy Mór, OSullivan Beare and OKeefe, and two prominent Butlers, brothers of the Earl. Fitzmaurice himself had lost the land he had held at Kerricurrihy in County Cork and he was a devout Catholic, influenced by the counter-reformation, and saw the Protestant Elizabethan governors as his enemies. FitzMaurice had wider aims than simply the recovery of FitzGerald supremacy within the context of the English Kingdom of Ireland, before the rebellion, he secretly sent Maurice MacGibbon, Catholic Archbishop of Cashel, to seek military aid from Philip II of Spain. FitzMaurice first attacked the English colony at Kerrycurihy south of Cork city in June 1569, before attacking Cork itself, FitzMaurices force of 4,500 men went on to besiege Kilkenny, seat of the Earls of Ormonde, in July. In response, Sidney mobilised 600 English troops, who marched south from Dublin, thomas Butler, Earl of Ormonde, returned from London, where he had been at court, brought the Butlers out of the rebellion and mobilised Gaelic Irish clans antagonistic to the Geraldines. Together, Ormonde, Sidney and Humphrey Gilbert, appointed as governor of Munster, FitzMaurices forces broke up, as individual lords had to retire to defend their own territories. Gilbert, a half-brother of Sir Walter Raleigh, was the most notorious for terror tactics, killing civilians at random, Sidney forced FitzMaurice into the mountains of Kerry, from where he launched guerrilla attacks on the English and their allies. By 1570, most of FitzMaurices allies had submitted to Sidney, the most important, Donal MacCarthy Mór, surrendered in November 1569. Nevertheless, the campaign continued for three more years. In February 1571, John Perrot was made Lord President of Munster and he pursued FitzMaurice with 700 troops for over a year without success
15.
Plantations of Ireland
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Plantations in 16th- and 17th-century Ireland involved the confiscation of land by the English crown and the colonisation of this land with settlers from the island of Great Britain. They followed smaller-scale immigration to Ireland as far back as the 12th century, unofficial plantations carried out privately by landlords also took place such as that of Antrim and Down. The Crown granted these lands to colonists from England and this process began during the reign of Henry VIII and continued under Mary I and Elizabeth I. It was accelerated under James I, Charles I and Oliver Cromwell, in their time, the early plantations in the 16th century tended to be based on small exemplary colonies. The later plantations were based on mass confiscations of land from Irish landowners and the subsequent importation of numerous settlers and labourers from England and Wales, and later from Scotland. The final official plantations were established under the English Commonwealth and Cromwells Protectorate during the 1650s, apart from the plantations, significant immigration into Ireland continued well into the 18th century, from both Great Britain and continental Europe. The plantations changed the demography of Ireland by creating large communities with a British, the elite of these communities replaced the older Catholic ruling class, which had shared with the general population a common Irish identity and set of political attitudes. The new elite represented both English and Scottish interests in Ireland, the physical and economic nature of Irish society was also changed, as new concepts of ownership, trade and credit were introduced. These changes led to the creation of a Protestant ruling class, the early Plantations of Ireland occurred during the Tudor conquest of Ireland. The Crown government at Dublin intended to pacify and Anglicise the country under English rule, the government intended to develop Ireland as a peaceful and reliable possession, without risk of rebellion or foreign invasion. Wherever the policy of surrender and regrant failed, land was confiscated, to this end, two forms of plantation were adopted in the second half of the 16th century. The first was the plantation, in which small colonies of English would provide model farming communities that the Irish could emulate. One such colony was planted in the late 1560s, at Kerrycurrihy near Cork city, the second form set the trend for future English policy in Ireland. It was punitive in nature, as it provided for the plantation of English settlers on lands confiscated following the suppression of rebellions, the first such scheme was the Plantation of Kings County and Queens County in 1556, naming them after the new Catholic monarchs Philip and Mary respectively. The new county towns were named Philipstown and Maryborough, the OMoore and OConnor clans, which occupied the area, had traditionally raided the English-ruled Pale around Dublin. The Lord Deputy of Ireland, the Earl of Sussex, ordered that they be dispossessed and replaced with an English settlement, however, the plantation was not a great success. The OMoores and OConnors retreated to the hills and bogs and fought an insurgency against the settlement for much of the following 40 years. In 1578, the English finally subdued the displaced OMoore clan by massacring most of their fine at Mullaghmast in Laois, rory Óg Ó Moore, the leader of rebellion in the area, was hunted down and killed later that year
16.
Plantation of Ulster
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The Plantation of Ulster was the organised colonisation of Ulster – a province of Ireland – by people from Great Britain during the reign of King James I. Most of the came from Scotland and England. Small private plantation by wealthy landowners began in 1606, while the plantation began in 1609. Most of counties Antrim and Down were privately colonised, colonising Ulster with loyal settlers was seen as a way to prevent further rebellion, as it had been the region most resistant to English control during the preceding century. King James wanted the Plantation to be an enterprise that would settle Protestants in Ulster. The Lord Deputy of Ireland, Arthur Chichester, also saw the Plantation as a scheme to anglicise the Irish, accordingly, the colonists were required to be English-speaking and Protestant. Some of the undertakers and colonists however were Catholic and it has suggested that a significant number of the Scots spoke Gaelic. The Scottish colonists were mostly Presbyterian and the English mostly members of the Church of England, the Plantation of Ulster was the biggest of the Plantations of Ireland. Prior to its conquest in the Nine Years War of the 1590s, Ulster had been the most Gaelic part of Ireland, the area was underdeveloped by mainland European standards of the time, and it possessed few towns or villages. Throughout the 16th century, Ulster was viewed by the English as being underpopulated and undeveloped, an early attempt at plantation of the north of Ireland in the 1570s on the east coast of Ulster by Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex, had failed. Many of the Gaelic Irish lived by creaghting and, as a result, the wars fought among Gaelic clans and between the Gaelic and English undoubtedly contributed to depopulation. By 1600 Ulsters total adult population according to Perceval-Maxwell was only 25,000 to 40,000 people. The 16th century English conquest of Ireland was made piece by piece starting in the reign of Henry VIII, during these wars the force of the semi-independent chieftains was broken. The Nine Years War of 1594–1603 provided the background to the Plantation. A confederation of northern Gaelic Chieftains, led by Hugh ONeill, the terms of surrender granted to the rebels were generous, with the principal condition that lands formerly contested by feudal right and Brehon law be held under English law. This would have included grants of land to native Irish lords who had sided with the English during the war. However, the plan was interrupted by the rebellion in 1608 of Sir Cahir ODoherty of Inishowen, the brief rebellion was suppressed by Sir Richard Wingfield at the Battle of Kilmacrennan. After ODohertys death his lands in Inishowen were granted out by the state and this episode prompted Chichester to expand his plans to expropriate the legal titles of all native landowners in the province
17.
Nine Years' War (Ireland)
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The Nine Years War or Tyrones Rebellion took place in Ireland from 1594 to 1603. It was fought between the forces of Gaelic Irish chieftains Hugh ONeill of Tír Eoghain, Hugh Roe ODonnell of Tír Chonaill and their allies, the war was fought in all parts of the country, but mainly in the northern province of Ulster. It ended in defeat for the Irish chieftains, which led to their exile in the Flight of the Earls, the war against ONeill and his allies was the largest conflict fought by England in the Elizabethan era. At the height of the more than 18,000 soldiers were fighting in the English army in Ireland. By contrast, the English army assisting the Dutch during the Eighty Years War was never more than 12,000 strong at any one time. The Nine Years War was caused by the clashes between the Gaelic Irish chieftain Hugh ONeill and the advance of the English state in Ireland, from control over the Pale to ruling the whole island. In resisting this advance, ONeill managed to rally other Irish septs who were dissatisfied with English government, Hugh ONeill came from the powerful Ó Néill clan of Tyrone, which dominated the centre of the northern province of Ulster3. His father, Matthew ONeill, Baron Dungannon, was the son of Conn ONeill the Lame. Matthew ONeill was killed, and Seán An Díomais Ó Néill banished the child Hugh ONeill from Ulster, the Hovenden family brought Hugh up in the Pale, and the English authorities sponsored him as a reliable lord. In 1587 Hugh ONeill persuaded Queen Elizabeth I to make him Earl of Tyrone, the English title his grandfather had held. However, the power in Ulster lay not in the legal title of Earl of Tyrone. This position commanded the obedience of all the ONeills and their dependents in central Ulster, in 1595, after much bloodshed, from Hugh Roe ODonnell, his ally, Hugh ONeill enlisted Scottish mercenaries. Within his own territories, ONeill was entitled to limited service from his sub-lords or uirithe. He also pressed his tenants and dependants into military service and tied the peasantry to the land to increase food production, in addition, he hired large contingents of Irish mercenaries under leaders such as Richard Tyrell. To arm his soldiers, ONeill bought muskets, ammunition and pikes from Scotland and England, from 1591, ODonnell, on ONeills behalf, had been in contact with Philip II of Spain, appealing for military aid against their common enemy and citing also their shared Catholicism. With the aid of Spain, ONeill could arm and feed over 8,000 men, unprecedented for a Gaelic lord, and so was well prepared to resist any further English attempts to govern Ulster. By the early 1590s, the north of Ireland was attracting the attention of Lord Deputy Fitzwilliam, there was an outcry, with several sources alleging corruption against Fitzwilliam, but the same policy was soon applied in Longford and East Breifne. Any attempt to further the same in the ONeill and ODonnell territories was bound to be resisted by force of arms, the most significant difficulty for English forces in confronting ONeill lay in the natural defences that Ulster enjoyed
18.
Flight of the Earls
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They retained their lands and titles, although with much diminished extent and authority. However, the countryside was laid bare in a campaign of destruction in 1602, ONeill was pardoned under the terms of the Treaty of Mellifont in March 1603 and submitted to the crown. When King James I took the throne in 1603 he quickly proceeded to issue pardons for the Irish lords, as king of Scotland he had a better understanding of the advantages from working with local chiefs in the Scottish Highlands. This was not a new policy but was a well-understood and longstanding practice in the Tudor conquest of Ireland, on 10 September 1602 the Prince of Tyrconnell had already died, allegedly assassinated, in Spain, and his brother succeeded him as 25th Chieftain of the ODonnell clan. He was later granted the Earldom of Tyrconnell by King James I on 4 September 1603, the Ó Catháins had formerly been important subjects of the ONeills and required protection, in turn, Chichester wanted to reduce ONeills authority. An option was to charge ONeill with treason if he did not comply with the new arrangements, the discovery of the Gunpowder Plot in the same year made it harder for Catholics to appear loyal to both the crown and the papacy. As the Dublin administration sided with O Cathain, ONeill was invited by King James to make his case in 1607 to the Privy Council in London, by 1607 ONeills allies The Maguire and the Earl of Tyrconnell were finding it hard to maintain their prestige on lower incomes. They planned to seek Spanish support before news of the Battle of Gibraltar arrived, when their ship dropped anchor, ONeill seems to have joined them on impulse. Fearing arrest, they chose to flee to the Continent, where they hoped to recruit an army for the invasion of Ireland with Spanish help, however, earlier in 1607 a Spanish fleet had been destroyed by the Dutch in the Battle of Gibraltar. Also as the Anglo-Spanish War had ended in 1604, King Philip III of Spain wanted to preserve the recent peace with England under its new Stuart dynasty, as a part of the peace proposals, a Spanish princess was to marry James son Henry, though this never transpired. Tyrone ignored all these realities, remained in Italy, and persisted with his plan until his death in exile in 1616. The earls left from the town of Rathmullan with some of the leading Gaelic families in Ulster and their departure was the end of the old Gaelic order, in the sense that the earls were descended from Gaelic clan dynasties that had ruled their parts of Ulster for centuries. The Flight of the Earls was a watershed in Irish history, the Earls set sail from Rathmullan, a village on the shore of Lough Swilly in County Donegal, accompanied by ninety followers, many of them Ulster noblemen, and some members of their families. Several left their wives behind, hoping either to return or retrieve them later and they finally reached the Continent on 4 October 1607. The act was significant as the date of the exile from Rathmullan was the Feast of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross. This supposed relic of the True Cross was probably a relic taken from that kept at Holy Cross Abbey. Their destination was Spain, but they disembarked in France, the party proceeded overland to Spanish Flanders, some remaining in Leuven, while the main party continued to Italy. They planned to return to Ireland and campaign for the recovery of their lands, with the support of Spain, tadhg Ó Cianáin subsequently described the journey in great detail
19.
Irish Rebellion of 1641
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The Irish Rebellion of 1641 began as an attempted coup détat by Irish Catholic gentry, who tried to seize control of the English administration in Ireland to force concessions for Catholics. The coup failed and the rebellion developed into a conflict between native Irish Catholics on one side, and English and Scottish Protestant settlers on the other. This began a conflict known as the Irish Confederate Wars, in turn, the rebels suspected association with Charles helped start the English Civil War. The English and Scottish Parliaments refused to raise an army to put down the rebellion unless it was under their command rather than the Kings. The Confederation became a de facto government of most of Ireland, free from the control of the English administration, the subsequent Irish Confederate Wars continued in Ireland until the 1650s, when Oliver Cromwells New Model Army decisively defeated the Irish Catholics and Royalists, and re-conquered the country. The roots of the 1641 rebellion lay in the failure of the English State in Ireland to assimilate the native Irish elite in the wake of the Elizabethan conquest and plantation of the country. The pre-Elizabethan Irish population is divided into the Old Irish. These groups were historically antagonistic, with English settled areas such as the Pale around Dublin, south Wexford, by the seventeenth century, the cultural divide between these groups, especially at elite social levels, was declining. Many English lords not only spoke the Irish language, but extensively patronised Irish poetry and music, the 16th and early 17th century English conquest of Ireland was marked by large scale confiscation and colonisation of land, known as the Plantations, notably in Ulster and Munster. These were mass dispossessions of Irish landowners who had rebelled against the crown, and sometimes their workers, and the granting of their land to colonists from England and Scotland. The main effect of this was the dispossession of formerly powerful Irish clan leaders, such as the ONeills and the ODonnells, other Catholic lords, such as the Magennis clan in County Down, sold much of their land to new settlers by the 1630s. Many of the exiles found service as mercenaries in the Catholic armies of Spain, in Ireland itself, though the resentment caused by the plantations was one of the principal causes for the outbreak and spread of the rebellion. In 1641 60% of land belonged to Catholics. This was prevented by two factors, firstly their religious dissidence, and secondly the threat posed to them by the extension of the Plantations, the failed Gunpowder Plot of 1605 curtailed the rights of wealthy Irish Catholics, who had not been involved in the plot. Anglicanism was the only approved form of worship of the Three Kingdoms, non-attendance at Protestant church services was punishable by recusant fines and the public practice of unapproved faiths by arrest. Catholics could not hold senior offices of state, or serve above a rank in the army. The Irish privy council was dominated by English Protestants, the constituencies of the Irish House of Commons were increased, giving Protestants a majority of 108–102 in it, from the session of 1613. The Irish House of Lords still had a considerable Catholic majority that enabled it to block most, moreover, the Irish Parliaments legislation had to be approved by the English Parliament under a 15th-century ordinance known as Poynings Law
20.
Irish Confederate Wars
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The Irish Confederate Wars, also called the Eleven Years War, took place in Ireland between 1641 and 1653. It was the Irish theatre of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms – a series of wars in the kingdoms of Ireland, England and Scotland. It was the most destructive conflict in Irish history, the war in Ireland began with the Rebellion of 1641 in Ulster in October, during which many Scots and English Protestant settlers were killed. The rebellion spread throughout the country and at Kilkenny in 1642 the Association of The Confederate Catholics of Ireland was formed to organise the Catholic war effort. The Confederation was essentially an independent state and was a coalition of all shades of Irish Catholic society, the Irish Confederates professed to side with the English Cavaliers during the ensuing civil wars, but mostly fought their own war in defence of the Catholic landed class interests. The Confederates ruled much of Ireland as a de facto sovereign state until 1649, from 1641 to 1649, the Confederates fought against Scottish Covenanter and English Parliamentarian armies in Ireland. The Confederates, in the context of the English Civil War, were allied with the English Royalists. Ultimately, they never sent troops to England, but did send an expedition to help the Scottish Royalists, the wars produced an extremely fractured array of forces in Ireland. The Protestant forces were split into three factions as a result of the civil wars in England and Scotland. The Catholic Confederates themselves split on more than one occasion over the issue of whether their first loyalty was to the Catholic religion or to King Charles I, the wars ended in the defeat of the Confederates. They and their English Royalist allies were defeated during the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland by the New Model Army under Oliver Cromwell in 1649–53. The wars following the 1641 revolt caused massive loss of life in Ireland, the ultimate winner, the English parliament, arranged for the mass confiscation of land owned by Irish Catholics as punishment for the rebellion and to pay for the war. Although some of this land was returned after 1660 on the Restoration of the monarchy in England, the rebellion was intended to be a swift and mainly bloodless seizure of power in Ireland by a small group of conspirators led by Phelim O’Neill. Small bands of the kin and dependents were mobilised in Dublin, Wicklow and Ulster. Since there were only a number of English soldiers stationed in Ireland. However, the plot was betrayed at the last minute and as a result, following the outbreak of hostilities, the resentment of the native Irish Catholic population against the British Protestant settlers exploded into violence. Shortly after the outbreak of the rebellion, ONeill issued the Proclamation of Dungannon which offered justification for the rising and he claimed that he was acting on the orders of Charles I. From 1641 to early 1642, the fighting in Ireland was characterised by bands, raised by local lords or among local people, attacking civilians of opposing ethnic
21.
Wars of the Three Kingdoms
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The Wars of the Three Kingdoms, sometimes known as the British Civil Wars, formed an intertwined series of conflicts that took place in England, Ireland and Scotland between 1639 and 1651. The English Civil War proper has become the best-known of these conflicts and included the execution of the monarch, Charles I. The wars were the outcome of tensions over religious and civil issues, religious disputes centered on whether religion was to be dictated by the monarch or the choice of the individual, with many people feeling that they ought to have freedom of religion. The related civil questions were to what extent the kings rule was constrained by parliaments—in particular his right to raise taxes, furthermore, the wars also had an element of national conflict, as Ireland and Scotland rebelled against Englands primacy within the Three Kingdoms. Since 1541, monarchs of England had also styled their Irish territory as a Kingdom, Scotland, the third separate kingdom, was governed by the House of Stuart. With the English Reformation, King Henry VIII made himself head of the Protestant Church of England and outlawed Catholicism in England and Wales. However, Catholicism remained the religion of most people in Ireland and was for many a symbol of resistance to the Tudor conquest of Ireland in the 16th century. In the Kingdom of Scotland the Protestant Reformation was a movement led by John Knox. In 1584, he introduced bishops, but met opposition and had to concede that the General Assembly running the church should continue to do so. The personal union of the three kingdoms under one monarch came about when King James VI of Scotland succeeded Elizabeth to the English throne in 1603 and he showed little interest in his other two kingdoms, Scotland and Ireland. James VI remained Protestant, taking care to maintain his hopes of succession to the English throne and he duly also became James I of England in 1603 and moved to London. In 1625, he was succeeded by his son Charles I who was less skillful or restrained and was crowned in St Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh, opposition to his attempts to enforce Anglican practices reached a flashpoint when he introduced a Book of Common Prayer. Charles confrontation with the Scots came to a head in 1639, see also the English Civil War. Charles shared his fathers belief in the Divine Right of Kings, while the Church of England remained dominant, a powerful Puritan minority, represented by around one third of the members of Parliament, had much in common with the Presbyterian Scots. The English Parliament also had repeated disputes with the king over such subjects as taxation, military expenditure, while James I had held the same opinions as his son with regard to royal prerogatives, he had enough charisma to persuade the Parliament to accept his policies. Charles did not have this skill in human management and so, meanwhile, in the Kingdom of Ireland, tensions had also begun to mount. Charles Is Lord Deputy there, Thomas Wentworth, had antagonised the native Irish Catholics by repeated initiatives to confiscate their lands and he had also angered Roman Catholics by enforcing new taxes but denying them full rights as subjects. Modern historians have emphasised the lack of the inevitability of the wars, pointing out that all sides resorted to violence in a situation marked by mutual distrust
22.
Cromwellian conquest of Ireland
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Cromwell invaded Ireland with his New Model Army on behalf of Englands Rump Parliament in August 1649. Following the Irish Rebellion of 1641, most of Ireland came under the control of the Irish Catholic Confederation, in early 1649, the Confederates allied with the English Royalists, who had been defeated by the Parliamentarians in the English Civil War. By May 1652, Cromwells Parliamentarian army had defeated the Confederate and Royalist coalition in Ireland, however, guerrilla warfare continued for a further year. Cromwell passed a series of Penal Laws against Roman Catholics and confiscated large amounts of their land, the Parliamentarian reconquest of Ireland was brutal, and Cromwell is still a hated figure in Ireland. The extent to which Cromwell, who was in command for the first year of the campaign, was responsible for the atrocities is debated to this day. Some historians argue that the actions of Cromwell were within the rules of war, or were exaggerated or distorted by later propagandists. The impact of the war on the Irish population was unquestionably severe, the war resulted in famine, which was worsened by an outbreak of bubonic plague. Estimates of the drop in the Irish population resulting from the Parliamentarian campaign range from 15 to 83 percent, the Parliamentarians also transported about 50,000 people as indentured labourers. The English Rump Parliament, victorious in the English Civil War, an alliance was signed in 1649 between the Irish Confederate Catholics, Charles II and the English Royalists. This allowed for Royalist troops to be sent to Ireland and put the Irish Confederate Catholic troops under the command of Royalist officers led by James Butler and their aim was to invade England and restore the monarchy there. This was a threat which the new English Commonwealth could not afford to ignore, even if the Confederates had not allied themselves with the Royalists, it is likely that the English Parliament would have eventually tried to reconquer Ireland. They had sent Parliamentary forces to Ireland throughout the Wars of the Three Kingdoms and they viewed Ireland as part of the territory governed by right by the Kingdom of England and only temporarily out of its control since the Irish Rebellion of 1641. In addition many Parliamentarians wished to punish the Irish for atrocities against English Protestant settlers during the 1641 Uprising, some Irish towns had acted as bases from which privateers had attacked English shipping during the 1640s. Parliament had raised loans of £10 million under the Adventurers Act to subdue Ireland since 1642, to repay these creditors, it would be necessary to conquer Ireland and confiscate such land. Army mutinies at Banbury and Bishopsgate in April and May 1649 were unsettling, Cromwell and many of his army were Puritans who considered all Roman Catholics to be heretics, and so for them the conquest was partly a crusade. The Irish Confederates had been supplied with arms and money by the Papacy and had welcomed the papal legate Pierfrancesco Scarampi and later the Papal Nuncio Giovanni Battista Rinuccini in 1643–49. By the end of the period, known as Confederate Ireland, in 1649 the only remaining Parliamentarian outpost in Ireland was in Dublin, under the command of Colonel Michael Jones. A combined Royalist and Confederate force under the Marquess of Ormonde gathered at Rathmines, south of Dublin, to take the city, Jones, however, launched a surprise attack on the Royalists while they were deploying on 2 August, putting them to flight
23.
Williamite War in Ireland
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It is also called the Jacobite War in Ireland or the Williamite–Jacobite War in Ireland. The cause of the war was the deposition of James as King of the Three Kingdoms in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, James was supported by the mostly Catholic Jacobites in Ireland and hoped to use the country as a base to regain his Three Kingdoms. He was given support by France to this end. For this reason, the war part of a wider European conflict known as the Nine Years War. Some Protestants of the established Church in Ireland also fought on the side of King James, James was opposed in Ireland by the mostly Protestant Williamites, who were concentrated in the north of the country. William landed a force in Ireland, composed of English, Scottish, Dutch, Danish and other troops. James left Ireland after a reverse at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690, William defeated Jacobitism in Ireland and subsequent Jacobite risings were confined to Scotland and England. However, the War was to have an effect on Ireland, confirming British. The iconic Williamite victories of the Siege of Derry and the Battle of the Boyne are still celebrated by unionists in Ireland today, the war in Ireland began as a direct consequence of the Glorious Revolution in England. James II of England and Ireland, VII of Scotland, who was a Roman Catholic, attempted to introduce freedom of religion for Catholics and bypass the English Parliament to introduce unpopular laws. For many in England, this was an unpleasant reminder of the rule of Charles I, whose conflict with the Parliament led to the outbreak of the English Civil War. The breaking point in James relationship with the English political class came in June 1688 when his wife gave birth to a son. This fear led some political figures to conspire to invite William III, stadtholder of the provinces of the Dutch Republic. William had indicated that such an invitation would be a condition for a military intervention, the Dutch Republic was at the brink of war with the France of Louis XIV, then the greatest military power in Europe. William invaded England in November 1688, Williams invasion fleet was aided by favourable weather that gave him weather gage over the British fleet, allowing him to outmaneuver them and land unopposed. William landed at Brixham on 5 November 1688 with 18,000 troops, James fled to France after putting up only a token resistance. In 1689, Prince William and his wife Princess Mary Stuart became co-regents as King William III, however, while James II was unpopular in England, he had widespread popular support in Ireland. They had been defeated by 1652 and were punished by the English Commonwealth regime with land confiscations and they were largely disappointed with the failure of King Charles II to completely reverse this situation in the Act of Settlement 1662
24.
Flight of the Wild Geese
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More broadly, the term Wild Geese is used in Irish history to refer to Irish soldiers who left to serve in continental European armies in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. The first Irish troops to serve as a unit for a continental power formed an Irish regiment in the Spanish Army of Flanders in the Eighty Years War in the 1580s. The regiment had raised by an English Catholic, William Stanley, in Ireland from native Irish soldiers and mercenaries. Stanley was given a commission by Elizabeth I and was intended to lead his regiment on the English side, however, in 1585, motivated by religious factors and bribes offered by the Spaniards, Stanley defected to the Spanish side with the regiment. The unit fought in the Netherlands until 1600 when it was disbanded due to heavy wastage through combat, following the defeat of the Gaelic armies of the Nine Years War, the Flight of the Earls took place in 1607. They hoped to get Spanish help in order to restart their rebellion in Ireland, nevertheless, their arrival led to the formation of a new Irish regiment in Flanders, officered by Gaelic Irish nobles and recruited from their followers and dependents in Ireland. This regiment was more political than its predecessor in Spanish service and was militantly hostile to English Protestant rule of Ireland. The regiment was led by Hugh ONeills son John, prominent officers included Owen Roe ONeill and Hugh Dubh ONeill. A fresh source of recruits came in the early 17th century, as a result, the Irish units in the Spanish service began attracting Catholic Old English officers such as Thomas Preston and Garret Barry. These men had more views than their Gaelic counterparts and animosity was created over plans to use the Irish regiment to invade Ireland in 1627. Many of the Irish troops in Spanish service returned to Ireland after the Irish Rebellion of 1641, when the Confederates were defeated and Ireland occupied after the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland, around 34,000 Irish Confederate troops fled the country to seek service in Spain. Some of them later deserted or defected to French service, where the conditions were deemed better, during the 18th century, Spains Irish regiments saw service not only in Europe but also in the Americas. As examples, the Irlanda Regiment was stationed in Havana from 1770 to 1771, the Ultonia Regiment in Mexico from 1768 to 1771, at the time of the Napoleonic Wars all three of these Irish infantry regiments still formed part of the Spanish army. Heavy losses and recruiting difficulties diluted the Irish element in these units, the Hibernia Regiment had to be reconstituted with Galician recruits in 1811 and ended the war as an entirely Spanish corps. All three regiments were disbanded in 1818 on the grounds that insufficient recruits, whether Irish or other foreigners, were forthcoming. Main article, Irish Regiments in French Service, from the mid-17th century or so, France overtook Spain as the destination for Catholic Irishmen seeking a military career. The principal reason for this was that France was an ascendant power, rapidly expanding its armed forces, France recruited many foreign soldiers, Germans, Italians, Walloons and Swiss. André Corvisier, the authority on French military archives, estimates that foreigners accounted for around 12% of all French troops in peacetime, in common with the other foreign troops the Irish regiments were paid more than their French counterparts
25.
Irish Rebellion of 1798
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The Irish Rebellion of 1798, also known as the United Irishmen Rebellion, was an uprising against British rule in Ireland lasting from May to September 1798. The United Irishmen, a revolutionary group influenced by the ideas of the American. It governed through a form of institutionalised sectarianism codified in the Penal Laws which discriminated against both the majority Irish Catholic population and non-Anglican Protestants. As in England, the majority of Protestants, as well as all Catholics, were barred from voting because they did not pass a property threshold. When France joined the Americans in support of their Revolutionary War, many thousands joined the Irish Volunteers. In 1782 they used their powerful position to force the Crown to grant the landed Ascendancy self-rule. The Irish Patriot Party, led by Henry Grattan, pushed for greater enfranchisement, in 1793 parliament passed laws allowing Catholics with some property to vote, but they could neither be elected nor appointed as state officials. The prospect of reform inspired a group of Protestant liberals in Belfast to found the Society of United Irishmen in 1791. The organisation crossed the divide with a membership comprising Roman Catholics, Presbyterians, Methodists, other Protestant dissenters groups. The Society openly put forward policies of democratic reforms and Catholic emancipation. The outbreak of war with France earlier in 1793, following the execution of Louis XVI, forced the Society underground and toward armed insurrection with French aid. The avowed intent of the United Irishmen was to break the connection with England and it linked up with Catholic agrarian resistance groups, known as the Defenders, who had started raiding houses for arms in early 1793. To augment their strength, the United Irish leadership decided to seek military help from the French revolutionary government. Theobald Wolfe Tone, leader of the United Irishmen, travelled in exile from the United States to France to press the case for intervention, the despairing Wolfe Tone remarked, England has had its luckiest escape since the Armada. The French fleet was forced to return home and the army intended to spearhead the invasion of Ireland split up and was sent to fight in other theatres of the French Revolutionary Wars. The Establishment responded to widespread disorder by launching a counter-campaign of martial law from 2 March 1798, in May 1797 the military in Belfast also violently suppressed the newspaper of the United Irishmen, the Northern Star. Brigadier-General C. E. Knox wrote to General Lake, I have arranged, to increase the animosity between the Orangemen and the United Irishmen, or liberty men as they call themselves. Upon that animosity depends the safety of the counties of the North
26.
Acts of Union 1800
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The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland with effect from 1 January 1801. Both Acts, though amended, still remain in force in the United Kingdom. Since the 12th century, the King of England had been technical overlord of the Lordship of Ireland, both the Kingdoms of Ireland and England later came into personal union with that of Scotland upon the Union of the Crowns in 1603. In 1707, the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland were united into a single kingdom, each Act had to be passed in both the Parliament of Great Britain and the Parliament of Ireland. The Parliament of Ireland had recently gained a measure of legislative independence under the Constitution of 1782. Many members of the Irish Parliament jealously guarded this autonomy and a motion for union was rejected in 1799. Only Anglicans were permitted to become members of the Parliament of Ireland, though the majority of the Irish population were Roman Catholic. In 1793 Roman Catholics regained the right to vote if they owned or rented property worth £2 p. a. The Catholic hierarchy was strongly in favour of union, hoping for rapid emancipation, also the Irish and British parliaments, when creating a regency during King George IIIs madness, gave the Prince Regent different powers. These considerations led Great Britain to decide to attempt merger of the two kingdoms and their parliaments, whereas the first attempt had been defeated in the Irish House of Commons by 109 votes against to 104 for, the second vote in 1800 produced a result of 158 to 115. The Acts of Union were two complementary Acts, namely, The Union with Ireland Act 1800, an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain, and The Act of Union 1800, an Act of the Parliament of Ireland. They were passed on 2 July 1800 and 1 August 1800 respectively and they ratified eight articles which had been previously agreed by the British and Irish Parliaments, Articles I–IV dealt with the political aspects of the Union. The other 84 Irish parliamentary boroughs were disfranchised, all were pocket boroughs, article VI created a customs union, with the exception that customs duties on certain British and Irish goods passing between the two countries would remain for 10 years. Article VII stated that Ireland would have to contribute two-seventeenths towards the expenditure of the United Kingdom, the figure was a ratio of Irish to British foreign trade. Article VIII formalised the legal and judicial aspects of the Union, part of the attraction of the Union for many Irish Catholics was the promise of Catholic Emancipation, allowing Roman Catholic MPs, who had not been allowed in the Irish Parliament. This was however blocked by King George III who argued that emancipating Roman Catholics would breach his Coronation Oath, in the first Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the members of the House of Commons were not elected afresh. The flag, created as a consequence of the union of the Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1800, called the Union Flag, it combined the flags of St Georges Cross and the St Andrews Saltire of Scotland with the St Patricks Saltire to represent Ireland. The Irish Constitutional Tradition, Responsible Government and Modern Ireland 1782–1992, gill & Macmillan, Dublin, Ireland,2003
27.
Thomond
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Thomond was a kingdom of Gaelic Ireland, associated geographically with present-day County Clare and County Limerick, as well as parts of County Tipperary. The kingdom represented the core homeland of the Dál gCais people and although they ruled and it existed from the collapse of the Kingdom of Munster in the 12th century as competition between the Ó Briain and the Mac Cárthaigh led to the schism between Thomond and Desmond. It continued to exist outside of the Anglo-Norman controlled Lordship of Ireland until the 16th century, the exact origin of Thomond, originally as an internal part of Munster, is debated. It is generally held that the Déisi Muman pushed north-west starting from the 5th to the early 8th century, eventually, the Dál gCais rose to power in all of Munster, to the detriment of the Eóganachta. The person most famously associated with this is Brian Bóruma, High King of Ireland, four generations down the line and after providing three more High Kings, the Dál gCais were unable to hold onto all of Munster and so Thomond came into being as a separate entity. For over 400 years, when much of Gaeldom fell or was reduced, the Kings of Thomond. They contended with the de Clare, Butler and FitzGerald families among others, a Gaelic resurgence following the Battle of Dysert ODea saw the rise of men such as Brian Sreamhach Ó Briain and Tadhg an Chomhaid Ó Briain who earned Ireland-wide renown. Thomond only joined the Tudor Kingdom of Ireland in the 16th century, County Clare was sometimes known as County Thomond in the period immediately after its creation from the District of Thomond. The entire Province of Munster was under the control of the OBrien clan under the leadership of Toirrdelbach Ua Briain and their capital was located in Limerick. In a bid to secure the High Kingship of Ireland for the clan and their claim to the High Kingship was countered by the ONeill clan in Ulster under the leadership of Domnall MacLochlainn of Ailech. Though Muirchertach campaigned hard in the north, he was unable to obtain the submission of Ailech, when he fell ill in 1114 he was deposed by his brother Diarmait. Muirchertach did briefly regain power, but after his death in 1119 his brothers took control of the clan. MacLochlainns plans to restore the High Kingship to the north was thwarted by his ally Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair of Connacht who formed an alliance with the OBriens, in 1118 Conchobair partitioned Munster between the sons of Diarmait and Tagh Mac Carthaig. The northern section of the province became the OBrien Kingdom of Thomond, from the 12th to the 14th centuries, the Norman invasion and their multiple attempts to take Thomond from the Gaels was the main challenge to the realm. The picture was complicated by rival branches of the Ó Briain trying to ally with various different Normans to enforce their own line as reigning over Thomond, at the time of the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169, Domhnall Mór Ó Briain was king of Thomond. Domhnall even acknowledged Henry II as Lord of Ireland at Cashel in 1171, the Dál gCais defeated a Norman army at the Battle of Thurles in 1174, where over 700 were killed. The following year when Raymond le Gros captured Limerick through an invasion, Domhnall re-took it. The twenty years after that for the Gaels of Thomond were more secure, after the death of Domhnall Mór a period of destructive feuding among his offspring caused a great territorial decline in Thomond
28.
Iveagh
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Iveagh is the name of several different historical territorial divisions located in modern-day County Down, Northern Ireland. It is the name of an ancient Irish district, ruled by the Uí Echach Cobo, as well as the name of a former barony. Iveagh derives its name from the Cruithin tribe Uí Echach, or descendants of Echu and it is also known more fully as Uí Echach Cobo, and equivalent with Uí Echach Uladh. The Uí Echach were one of the tribes made up the ancient kingdom of Ulaid in eastern Ulster. They shared the kingship of Ulaid with the Dál Fiatach and their kin the Dál nAraidi, the Uí Echach were the most prominent sept of the Cruthin. The name Magh Cobha, meaning plain of Cobo, appears to have been a name for Iveagh. The name survived as Moycove, the earliest recorded name in the parish of Drumballyroney. The highest point in the parish is the hills of Knock Iveagh, the last mention is in the Annals of Ulster under the year 882AD, after which the term is replaced with chief/lord of Uí Echach. Uí Echach Cobo is mentioned in the Irish annals from AD551 to AD1136, with the last entry stating that Echri Ua-h-Aitteidh, the ancestor of the Uí Echach Cobo, Eochaid mac Condlai, descends from Fiachu Araide, eponymous founder of Dál nAraidi. Rawlinsons Genealogies gives, The Genelach Dál Araide section, Echdach, son of Condlae, son of Cóelbad, the Genelach Úa n-Echach and Genelach Úa n-Echach Coba sections give, the Uíbh Eachach Cobha are listed as following from Eocho/Echach Coba, son of Cruind Ba Druí. The Laud Genealogies and Tribal Histories gives, The Síl Fergusa section, Echach, son of Condlai, son of Cóelbad Coba, son of Cruind ba Drái, son of Echach Coba, son of Lugdhach. De genelach hÚa nEchach Coba section, Echach, son of Cruind ba drui, is given as the progenitor of the hÍ Echach, however also mentions an Echach Coba, son of Aililla, the Ua hAitidhe are claimed to have ruled Iveagh for two centuries. The first to be mentioned in the annals is Aodh Ua hAitidhe, king of Uí Echach Cobo, the last mention is under AD1136 where Echri Ua hAitidhe, lord of Uí Echach Cobo was killed, likewise by his own people. From then on the name and its variant spellings disappear from the records, one of the septs under the Ui hAitidhe was the Mac Aonghusa, who ruled Clann Aodha, and were descended from Sárán, a descendant of Echach Cobo. By the 12th-century the Magennises had become the chiefs of Iveagh, one early mention is in 1153 with the granting of the charter to the abbey of Newry which was witnessed by Aedh Mor Magennis, chief of Clann Aodha, of Iveagh. The Mac Aonghusa are also mentioned in letters by King Edward II, the MacCartan descended from Artáin, a great-grandson of Mongán Mac Aonghusa. Iveagh however was far from secure as rivalry between the four branches of the Mac Aonghusa clan—Castlewellan, Corgary, Kilwarlin, and Rathfriland—threatened its cohesion. In 1539 a cattle raid into County Meath was intercepted by Lord Deputy Grey, in 1543 the then chief Art MacAonghusa of Rathfriland accepted the new policy of Surrender and regrant and travelled to Greenwich Palace to be knighted as Sir Arthur Guinez by King Henry VIII
29.
Clandeboye
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Clandeboye is in modern times an area of Bangor, County Down, Northern Ireland. It is named after the Clandeboye family, a branch of the ONeill dynasty and they settled in the 1330s after the death of the Earl of Ulster in what is now south Antrim and north Down, giving their name to the territory. The spelling of the name has varied over the years, and had been written variously as Clandeboye, Claneboye, Clandyboy, Clannaboy, Clandeboye has also been adopted as the name of an electoral ward of North Down Borough Council. Hugh Buidhe ONeill, King of Tír Eóghain
