1.
Test (assessment)
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A test or examination is an assessment intended to measure a test-takers knowledge, skill, aptitude, physical fitness, or classification in many other topics. A test may be administered verbally, on paper, on a computer, Tests vary in style, rigor and requirements. A test may be administered formally or informally, an example of an informal test would be a reading test administered by a parent to a child. An example of a formal test would be an examination administered by a teacher in a classroom or an I. Q. test administered by a psychologist in a clinic. Formal testing often results in a grade or a test score, a test score may be interpreted with regards to a norm or criterion, or occasionally both. The norm may be established independently, or by analysis of a large number of participants. An exam is meant to test a childs knowledge or willingness to give time to manipulate that subject, a standardized test is any test that is administered and scored in a consistent manner to ensure legal defensibility. Standardized tests are used in education, professional certification, psychology, the military. A non-standardized test is flexible in scope and format, variable in difficulty. Since these tests are developed by individual instructors, the format. A non-standardized test may be used to determine the level of students, to motivate students to study. Finally, the frequency and setting by which a non-standardized tests are administered are highly variable and are constrained by the duration of the class period. A class instructor may for example, administer a test on a basis or just twice a semester. Depending on the policy of the instructor or institution, the duration of each test itself may last for five minutes to an entire class period. In contrasts to non-standardized tests, standardized tests are used, fixed in terms of scope, difficulty and format. Although there is variability between different copies of the same type of standardized test, there is variability between different types of standardized tests. Any test with important consequences for the individual test taker is referred to as a high-stakes test, a test may be developed and administered by an instructor, a clinician, a governing body, or a test provider. In some instances, the developer of the test may not be responsible for its administration
2.
Dormitory
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A dormitory or hall of residence, is a building primarily providing sleeping and residential quarters for large numbers of people, often boarding school, college or university students. In the United States dorm is the most common term, which comes originally from the Latin word dormitorium, on the other hand, in the United Kingdom the term hall is more usual, especially in a university context. A dormitory can also be a room containing several beds – see Sleeping dormitories. Most colleges and universities provide single or multiple rooms for their students. These buildings consist of such rooms, like an apartment building. The largest dormitory building is Bancroft Hall at the United States Naval Academy, many colleges and universities no longer use the word dormitory and staff are now using the term residence hall or simply hall instead. Outside academia however, the dorm or dormitory is commonly used without negative connotations. Indeed, the words are used regularly in the marketplace as well as routinely in advertising, College and university residential rooms vary in size, shape, facilities and number of occupants. Typically, a United States residence hall holds two students with no toilet. This is usually referred to as a double, often, residence halls have communal bathroom facilities. In the United States, residence halls are segregated by sex, with men living in one group of rooms. Some dormitory complexes are single-sex with varying limits on visits by persons of each sex, for example, the University of Notre Dame in Indiana has a long history of Parietals, or mixed visiting hours. In the early 2000s, dorms that allowed people of opposite sexes to share a room available in some public universities. Some colleges and university coeducational dormitories also feature coeducational bathrooms, most residence halls are much closer to campus than comparable private housing such as apartment buildings. Universities may therefore provide priority to students when allocating this accommodation. Halls located away from university facilities sometimes have extra amenities such as a room or bar. Catered halls may charge for food by the meal or through a termly subscription and they may also contain basic kitchen facilities for student use outside catering hours. Most halls contain a laundry room, as of 2015 there was an expanding market for private luxury off-campus student residences which offered substantial amenities in both the United States and Britain, particularly in London
3.
Church of England
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The Church of England is the state church of England. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the most senior cleric, although the monarch is the supreme governor, the Church of England is also the mother church of the international Anglican Communion. It dates its establishment as a church to the 6th-century Gregorian mission to Kent led by Augustine of Canterbury. The English church renounced papal authority when Henry VIII sought to secure an annulment from Catherine of Aragon in the 1530s, the English Reformation accelerated under Edward VIs regents before a brief restoration of papal authority under Queen Mary I and King Philip. This is expressed in its emphasis on the teachings of the early Church Fathers, as formalised in the Apostles, Nicene, in the earlier phase of the English Reformation there were both Catholic martyrs and radical Protestant martyrs. The later phases saw the Penal Laws punish Roman Catholic and nonconforming Protestants, in the 17th century, political and religious disputes raised the Puritan and Presbyterian faction to control of the church, but this ended with the Restoration. Papal recognition of George III in 1766 led to religious tolerance. Since the English Reformation, the Church of England has used a liturgy in English, the church contains several doctrinal strands, the main three known as Anglo-Catholic, Evangelical and Broad Church. Tensions between theological conservatives and progressives find expression in debates over the ordination of women and homosexuality, the church includes both liberal and conservative clergy and members. The governing structure of the church is based on dioceses, each presided over by a bishop, within each diocese are local parishes. The General Synod of the Church of England is the body for the church and comprises bishops, other clergy. Its measures must be approved by both Houses of Parliament, according to tradition, Christianity arrived in Britain in the 1st or 2nd century, during which time southern Britain became part of the Roman Empire. The earliest historical evidence of Christianity among the native Britons is found in the writings of such early Christian Fathers as Tertullian, three Romano-British bishops, including Restitutus, are known to have been present at the Council of Arles in 314. Others attended the Council of Sardica in 347 and that of Ariminum in 360, Britain was the home of Pelagius, who opposed Augustine of Hippos doctrine of original sin. Consequently, in 597, Pope Gregory I sent the prior of the Abbey of St Andrews from Rome to evangelise the Angles and this event is known as the Gregorian mission and is the date the Church of England generally marks as the beginning of its formal history. A later archbishop, the Greek Theodore of Tarsus, also contributed to the organisation of Christianity in England, the Church of England has been in continuous existence since the days of St Augustine, with the Archbishop of Canterbury as its episcopal head. Despite the various disruptions of the Reformation and the English Civil War, while some Celtic Christian practices were changed at the Synod of Whitby, the Christian Church in the British Isles was under papal authority from earliest times. The Synod of Whitby established the Roman date for Easter and the Roman style of monastic tonsure in Britain and this meeting of the ecclesiastics with Roman customs with local bishops was summoned in 664 at Saint Hildas double monastery of Streonshalh, later called Whitby Abbey
4.
Exam invigilator
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It is the duty of the exam invigilator to watch the examination candidates to prevent cheating during the examination. They are appointed by different educational institutions to prepare and carry out the examination procedures according to their rules. The purpose of exam invigilation is to ensure that all candidates are under surveillance for every moment of the duration of the examination. Invigilators should also try to provide a pleasant and supportive atmosphere for candidates. However, they must also ensure and prevent any kind of communication between candidates and any kind of access to books, papers or electronic media of any kind for the exam duration. Invigilators also need to ensure the security of the hall before, during. From the moment the question papers are given out until all answers are collected, particular emphasis should be given to multiple-choice and short-answer questions. The main goal should be to prevent possible candidate malpractice and administrative failures, the minimum number of invigilators required for different kinds of examinations depends on the type of examinations held. For general written examinations, there should be at least one invigilator present against every 30 students for patrolling, the main duty of an exam invigilator is to support the Chief Invigilator, the Deputy Chief Invigilator, the Examinations Officer and the other invigilators at the examination venue. Implementing the exam rules and regulations and remaining vigilant throughout the examination duration, invigilating carefully, making sure that candidates do not talk inside examination venues and also responding to any examination irregularities immediately. Checking attendance during examinations, recording details of arrivals and ensuring that proper seating plans are followed. Escorting candidates during water breaks or washroom breaks as required and detecting any unauthorized materials inside the examination hall, delivering and collecting scripts carefully at the start and end of the examination in accordance with strict examination procedures. Assisting with the packing of examination scripts, stationery and other equipment from the examination venues, before the start of the examination, exam invigilators must be fully briefed and trained before carrying out the task of invigilation in their respective venues. It is essential that exam invigilators familiarize themselves with the appropriate examination regulations and they must make sure that the time of the clock at the examination venue is set correctly and necessary instructions are clearly displayed at the front of the examination hall for the candidates. During the examination, all exam invigilators must give their attention to the examination process. At this time, they must be vigilant, mobile and attentive, at this time, exam invigilators must respond to queries from candidates immediately and assist the candidates as per their needs. Within the first 30 minutes of the examination, the invigilators should take the attendance of the candidates in the attendance record sheet, while checking the attendance, they must also check the candidates name, candidate number, passport, admit card or examination entrance card etc. Invigilators must not permit candidates to leave the hall room during the first 1-hour
5.
Admiralty court
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Admiralty courts, also known as maritime courts, are courts exercising jurisdiction over all maritime contracts, torts, injuries, and offenses. Englands Admiralty Courts date to at least the 1360s, during the reign of Edward III, at that time there were three such Courts, appointed by Admirals responsible for waters to the north, south and west of England. In 1483 these local courts were amalgamated into a single High Court of Admiralty, the Lord High Admiral directly appointed judges to the court, and could remove them at will. From its inception in 1483 until 1657 the Court sat in a church in Southwark, and from then until 1665 in Montjoy House. In order to escape the Great Plague of London in 1665, the plague threat having subsided by 1666, the Court returned to London and until 1671 was located at Exeter House on The Strand before returning to Montjoy House near St Pauls. During the period after the French and Indian War, Admiralty Courts became an issue that was a part of the tension between the British Parliament and their American Colonies. Starting with the Proclamation of 1763, these courts were given jurisdiction over a number of laws affecting the colonies, the jurisdiction was expanded in later acts of the Parliament, such as the Stamp Act of 1765. The colonists objections were based on several factors, the courts could try a case anywhere in the British Empire. Cases involving New York or Boston merchants were frequently heard in Nova Scotia, the fact that judges were paid based in part on the fines that they levied and naval officers were paid for bringing successful cases led to abuses. There was no trial by jury, and evidence standards were weaker than in criminal courts, the governments objective was to improve the effectiveness of revenue and excise tax laws. In many past instances, smugglers would avoid taxes, even when they were caught and brought to trial, local judges frequently acquitted the popular local merchants whom they perceived as being unfairly accused by an unpopular tax collector. Cases were decided by judges rather than juries, in 1875, the High Court of Admiralty governing England and Wales was absorbed into the new Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division of the High Court. When these judges sat, it became convenient to call the sitting the Admiralty Court, today Admiralty jurisdiction is exercised by the United Kingdoms High Court of Justice. The admiralty laws which are applied in this court is based upon the civil law-based Law of the Sea, with statutory, the Admiralty court is now housed in the Rolls Building. The Scottish Courts earliest records, held in West Register House in Edinburgh, from 1702 the Judge of the court was also authorised to appoint deputies to hear lesser matters or to deputise during his absence. The Scottish Courts workload was small until the mid-eighteenth century, with judges hearing no more than four matters in each sitting, after the 1750s the volume of cases rose until by 1790 it was necessary to maintain a daily log of decisions. Cases reflected Scotlands principal marine industries including the transshipment of sugar and tobacco, a smaller number of cases related to smuggling, principally brandy, and to salvage rights for ships wrecked on Scottish shores. The Court ceased operation in 1832 and its functions were subsumed into the Court of Session and this office is normally held by a High Court Judge who holds the appointment of Admiralty Judge
6.
Archbishop of Canterbury
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The current archbishop is Justin Welby. His enthronement took place at Canterbury Cathedral on 21 March 2013, Welby is the 105th in a line which goes back more than 1400 years to Augustine of Canterbury, the Apostle to the English, sent from Rome in the year 597. From the time of Augustine in the 6th until the 16th century, during the English Reformation the Church of England broke away from the authority of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church. In the Middle Ages there was variation in the methods of nomination of the Archbishop of Canterbury. At various times the choice was made by the canons of Canterbury Cathedral, today the archbishop fills four main roles, He is the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of Canterbury, which covers the eastern parts of the County of Kent. Founded in 597, it is the oldest see in the English church and he is the metropolitan archbishop of the Province of Canterbury, which covers the southern two-thirds of England. He is the primate and chief religious figure of the Church of England. The Archbishop of Canterbury plays a part in national ceremonies such as coronations, due to his high public profile. As spiritual leader of the Anglican Communion, the archbishop, although without legal authority outside England, is recognised by convention as primus inter pares of all Anglican primates worldwide, since 1867 he has convened more or less decennial meetings of worldwide Anglican bishops, the Lambeth Conferences. In the last two of these functions he has an important ecumenical and interfaith role, speaking on behalf of Anglicans in England, the archbishops main residence is Lambeth Palace in the London Borough of Lambeth. He also has lodgings in the Old Palace, Canterbury, located beside Canterbury Cathedral, as holder of one of the five great sees, the Archbishop of Canterbury is ex officio one of the Lords Spiritual of the House of Lords. He is one of the men in England and the highest ranking non-royal in the United Kingdoms order of precedence. Since Henry VIII broke with Rome, the Archbishops of Canterbury have been selected by the English monarch, today the choice is made in the name of the monarch by the prime minister, from a shortlist of two selected by an ad-hoc committee called the Crown Nominations Commission. Since the 20th century, the appointment of Archbishops of Canterbury conventionally alternates between more moderate Anglo-Catholics and Evangelicals, the current archbishop, Justin Welby, the 105th Archbishop of Canterbury, was enthroned at Canterbury Cathedral on 4 February 2013. As archbishop he signs himself as + Justin Cantuar and his predecessor, Rowan Williams, 104th Archbishop of Canterbury, was enthroned at Canterbury Cathedral on 27 February 2003. Immediately prior to his appointment to Canterbury, Williams was the Bishop of Monmouth, on 18 March 2012, Williams announced he would be stepping down as Archbishop of Canterbury at the end of 2012 to become Master of Magdalene College, Cambridge. In addition to his office, the archbishop also holds a number of positions, for example, he is Joint President of the Council of Christians. Some positions he formally holds ex officio and others virtually so, geoffrey Fisher, 99th Archbishop of Canterbury, was the first since 1397 to visit Rome, where he held private talks with Pope John XXIII in 1960
7.
Common law
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Common law is the body of law developed from the thirteenth century to the present day, as case law or precedent, by judges, courts, and tribunals. In cases where the parties disagree on what the law is, if a similar dispute has been resolved in the past, the court is usually bound to follow the reasoning used in the prior decision. Resolution of the issue in one case becomes precedent that binds future courts, stare decisis, the principle that cases should be decided according to consistent principled rules so that similar facts will yield similar results, lies at the heart of all common law systems. A common law system is a system that gives great precedential weight to common law. Common law systems originated during the Middle Ages in England, today, one third of the worlds population live in common law jurisdictions or in systems mixed with civil law. The term common law has many connotations, the first three set out here are the most-common usages within the legal community. Other connotations from past centuries are seen, and are sometimes heard in everyday speech. Blacks Law Dictionary, 10th Ed. gives as definition 1,1, the body of law derived from judicial decisions, rather than from statutes or constitutions, CASELAW, STATUTORY LAW. In this connotation, common law distinguishes the authority that promulgated a law. e, examples include most criminal law and procedural law before the 20th century, and even today, most contract law and the law of torts. Interstitial common law decisions that analyze, interpret and determine the fine boundaries. Publication of decisions, and indexing, is essential to the development of common law, while all decisions in common law jurisdictions are precedent, some become leading cases or landmark decisions that are cited especially often. Blacks 10th Ed. definition 2, differentiates common law jurisdictions, by contrast, in civil law jurisdictions, courts lack authority to act if there is no statute. Judicial precedent is given less weight, which means that a judge deciding a given case has more freedom to interpret the text of a statute independently. For example, the Napoleonic code expressly forbade French judges to pronounce general principles of law. As a rule of thumb, common law systems trace their history to England, blacks 10th Ed. definition 4, differentiates common law from equity. This split propagated to many of the colonies, including the United States, for most purposes, most jurisdictions, including the U. S. federal system and most states, have merged the two courts. Additionally, even before the courts were merged, most courts were permitted to apply both law and equity, though under potentially different procedural law. In the United States, determining whether the Seventh Amendments right to a jury trial applies or whether the issue will be decided by a judge, the standard of review and degree of deference given by an appellate tribunal to the decision of the lower tribunal under review
8.
Solicitor
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A solicitor is a legal practitioner who traditionally deals with most of the legal matters in some jurisdictions. A person must have legally-defined qualifications, which vary from one jurisdiction to another, to be described as a solicitor, for example, in England and Wales a solicitor is admitted to practise under the provisions of the Solicitors Act 1974. With some exceptions, practising solicitors must possess a practising certificate, there are many more solicitors than barristers in England, they undertake the general aspects of giving legal advice and conducting legal proceedings. Some legal graduates will start off as one and then qualify as the other. Since the replacement of the aspect of the House of Lords with the Supreme Court the full title of a solicitor is Solicitor of the Senior Courts of England. The term attorney is still used under English law to refer to someone legally appointed or empowered to act for another person. Currently, the term is most commonly used to refer to someone so appointed under a power of attorney, practitioners in specialist professions, notably intellectual property, are also referred to as attorneys, for example Registered Patent Attorney or Registered Trade Mark Attorney. Minor criminal cases are tried in Magistrates Courts, which constitute by far the majority of courts, more serious criminal cases still start in the Magistrates Court and may then be transferred to a higher court. The majority of cases are tried in county courts and are almost always handled by solicitors. In the past, barristers did not deal with the public directly and this rigid separation no longer applies. Solicitor advocates with extended rights of audience may now act as advocates at all levels of the courts, conversely, the public may now hire and interact with a barrister directly in certain types of work without having to go to a solicitor first. Registered Patent Attorneys and Registered Trade Mark Attorneys also have rights of audience in intellectual property matters, Solicitors in England and Wales who wish to practise must pay an annual fee to obtain a Practising Certificate. This fee is paid to the Law Society of England and Wales, the Solicitors Regulation Authority, though funded by these fees, acts independently of the Law Society. Together, the two make up the complete system of professional regulation for solicitors. Complaints about solicitors if not satisfactorily resolved by the firm may be made to the Legal Ombudsman. The training and qualification required to enter the profession by being admitted as a solicitor is regulated by the Solicitors Regulation Authority, there are two graduate routes of entry into the profession. Prospective solicitors holding a law degree proceed to enroll with the Law Society as a student member. Those holding a degree but one which is a qualifying degree must in addition have completed a conversion course prior to enrolling on the Legal Practice Course
9.
Equity (law)
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For much of its history, the English common law was principally developed and administered in the central royal courts, the Court of Kings Bench, the Court of Common Pleas, and the Exchequer. Equity was the given to the law which was administered in the Court of Chancery. The Judicature Reforms in the 1870s effected a procedural fusion of the two bodies of law, ending their institutional separation, the reforms did not effect any substantive fusion, however. Judicial or academic reasoning which assumes the contrary has been described as a fusion fallacy, jurisdictions which have inherited the common law system differ in their current treatment of equity. Over the course of the 20th century some common law began to place less emphasis on the historical or institutional origin of substantive legal rules. In England, Australia, New Zealand and Canada, Equity remains a distinct body of law, the latter part of the 20th century saw increased debate over the utility of treating Equity as a separate body of law. These debates were labelled the fusion wars, after the Norman Conquest of England in the 11th century, royal justice came to be administered in three central courts, the Court of Kings Bench, the Court of Common Pleas, and the Exchequer. The common law developed in royal courts. To commence litigation in these courts, it was necessary to fit ones claim within a form of action. The plaintiff would purchase a writ in the Chancery, the head of which was the Lord Chancellor, where the law provided no remedy, litigants could sometimes appeal directly to the King. Eventually, the King would delegate resolution of these petitions to the Kings Council and these petitions were eventually delegated to the Lord Chancellor himself. Christianity did play a role in creating Common Law, however it does not have any control or power in the court of law, in the early history of the United States, common law was viewed as a birthright. Both the individual states and the government supported common law after the American Revolution. U. S. courts draw on decisions of English courts, individual state courts, Chancellors often had theological and clerical training and were well versed in Roman law and canon law. By the 15th century the power of Chancery was clearly recognised. Equity, as a body of rules, varied from Chancellor to Chancellor, after the end of the 17th century, only lawyers were appointed to the office of Chancellor. Over time, Equity developed a system of precedent much like its common-law cousin, one area in which the Court of Chancery assumed a vital role was the enforcement of uses, a role that the rigid framework of land law could not accommodate. This role gave rise to the distinction between legal and equitable interests
10.
Judicature Acts
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The Judicature Acts are a series of Acts of Parliament, beginning in the 1870s, which aimed to fuse the hitherto split system of courts in England and Wales. The first two Acts were the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873 and the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1875, the enactment was bold and revolutionary. By one section, the Queens Bench, the Common Pleas, and the Exchequer, nevertheless, all actions could now for the first time be initiated in a single High Court, and could be tried in any of its divisions. The procedure of the law courts had developed along highly technical. For example, to bring an action in the law courts a litigant had to file a writ chosen from a set of standard forms. The emphasis on adherence to established forms led to substantial injustice. However, by the nineteenth century proceedings before the Court of Chancery often dragged on and on, also, the practice of the court departed from the original principle of the Lord Chancellors conscience, with rules of equity restricting the manner in which the courts of equity would intervene. The solution adopted by the Judicature Acts of 1873 and 1875 was to fuse the administration of the two, pleadings became more relaxed, with the emphasis shifting from the form of action to the cause of action. Writs for action were filled out for a litigant stating facts, the result was that, when the issues arising from the causes of action were decided in favour of one party, that party got relief. There were originally three common law divisions of the High Court corresponding with the three courts of common law. 25, all the jurisdiction of the Chief Baron and the Chief Justice of the Common Pleas was transferred. The High Court, therefore, came to consist of the Chancery division, the law division. To the Queens Bench division was attached, by an order of the Lord Chancellor dated 1 January 1884. The keystone of the created by the Judicature Acts was a strong court of appeal. The authors of the Judicature Act had before them two systems of pleading, both of which were open to criticism, there was some exaggeration in both statements. In a normal case, the plaintiff delivered his statement of claim, in which he was to set forth concisely the facts on which he relied, and the relief which he asked. The defendant then delivered his statement of defence, in which he was to say whether he admitted or denied the plaintiffs facts, the plaintiff might then reply, and the defendant rejoin, and so on until the pleaders had exhausted themselves. In the chancery division there are of course no pleadings in those matters which by the rules can be disposed of by summons in chambers instead of by ordinary suit as formerly
11.
Courts of England and Wales
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The United Kingdom does not have a single unified legal system—England and Wales have one system, Scotland another, and Northern Ireland a third. Additionally, the Military Court Service has jurisdiction over all members of the forces of the United Kingdom in relation to offences against military law. The Supreme Court is the highest appeal court in almost all cases in England, before the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 this role was held by the House of Lords. The Supreme Court is also the highest court of appeal for devolution matters, the Privy Council is the highest court of appeal for a small number of Commonwealth countries, colonies and the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man. There are a number of smaller jurisdictions, such as appeals from ecclesiastical and professional bodies. The judges who sit on the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council are also the members of the Supreme Court, the Senior Courts of England and Wales were originally created by the Judicature Acts as the Supreme Court of Judicature. It was renamed the Supreme Court of England and Wales in 1981 and it consists of the following courts, Court of Appeal High Court of Justice Crown Court The Court of Appeal deals only with appeals from other courts or tribunals. Its decisions are binding on all courts, including itself, apart from the Supreme Court, the High Court of Justice functions both as a civil court of first instance and a criminal and civil appellate court for cases from the subordinate courts. It consists of three divisions, the Queens Bench, the Chancery and the Family divisions, the divisions of the High Court are not separate courts, but have somewhat separate procedures and practices adapted to their purposes. Although particular kinds of cases will be assigned to each depending on their subject matter. However, beginning proceedings in the division may result in a costs penalty. The Crown Court is a court of both original and appellate jurisdiction which in addition handles a limited amount of civil business both at first instance and on appeal. It was established by the Courts Act 1971 and it replaced the assizes whereby High Court judges would periodically travel around the country hearing cases, and quarter sessions which were periodic county courts. The Old Bailey is the name of Londons most famous criminal court. Its official name is the Central Criminal Court, the Crown Court also hears appeals from magistrates courts. The Crown Court is a court in respect of the other work it undertakes, viz. inter alia, appeals from the magistrates’ courts. They hear minor criminal cases, as well as certain licensing appeals, youth courts are run on similar lines to adult magistrates courts but deal with offenders aged between the ages of ten and seventeen inclusive. Youth courts are presided over by a specially trained subset of experienced adult magistrates or a district judge, youth magistrates have a wider catalogue of disposals available to them for dealing with young offenders and often hear more serious cases against youths
12.
Admiralty
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The new Admiralty Board meets only twice a year, and the day-to-day running of the Royal Navy is controlled by a Navy Board. It is common for the authorities now in charge of the Royal Navy to be referred to as simply The Admiralty. The title of Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom was vested in the monarch from 1964 to 2011, the title was awarded to Philip, Duke of Edinburgh by Queen Elizabeth II on his 90th birthday. There also continues to be a Vice-Admiral of the United Kingdom, the office of Admiral of England was created around 1400 although there had already been Admirals of the Northern and Western Seas. In 1546, King Henry VIII established the Council of the Marine, later to become the Navy Board, operational control of the Royal Navy remained the responsibility of the Lord High Admiral, who was one of the nine Great Officers of State. In 1628, Charles I put the office of Lord High Admiral into commission, the office of Lord High Admiral passed a number of times in and out of commission until 1709 after which the office was almost permanently in commission. In 1831, the first Navy Board was abolished as a separate entity, in 1964, the Admiralty along with the War Office and the Air Ministry as separate departments of state were abolished, and re-emerged under one single new Ministry of Defence. Within the expanded Ministry of Defence are the new Admiralty Board which has a separate Navy Board responsible for the running of the Royal Navy. The Army Board and the Air Force Board, each headed by the Secretary of State for Defence, the Board of Admiralty consisted of a number of Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty. The Lords Commissioners were always a mixture of admirals, known as Naval Lords or Sea Lords and Civil Lords, the quorum of the Board was two commissioners and a secretary. The president of the Board was known as the First Lord of the Admiralty, after 1806, the First Lord of the Admiralty was always a civilian while the professional head of the navy came to be known as the First Sea Lord. The first real concerted effort to organise the Admiralty was started by Henry VIII. Between 1860 and 1908 there was no study of strategy and of staff work conducted within the naval service. All the navys talent flowed to the great technical universitys and it was perceived by officials within the Admiralty at this time that the running of war was quite a simple matter for any flag officer who required no formal training. The new War Staff had hardly found its feet and it struggled with the opposition to its existence by senior officers they were categorically opposed to a staff. The deficiencies of the system within this department of state could be seen in the conduct of the Dardanelles campaign, there was no mechanisms in place to answer the big strategic questions in 1914 a Trade Division was created. In 1916, Sir John Jellicoe came to the Admiralty, he organized the staff as following, Chief of War Staff, Operations, Intelligence, Signal Section, Mobilization, Trade. This for the first time gave the naval staff direct representation on the Board, the would direct all operations and movements of the fleet, while the would be responsible for mercantile movements and anti-submarine operations
13.
The Crown
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The Crown is the state in all its aspects within the jurisprudence of the Commonwealth realms and their sub-divisions, although the term is not only a metonym for the State. The Crown is a sole that represents the legal embodiment of executive, legislative. These monarchies are united by the union of their monarch. The concept of the Crown developed first in the Kingdom of England as a separation of the crown and property of the nation state from the person. The concept spread through English and later British colonisation and is now rooted in the lexicon of the other 15 independent realms. In this context it should not be confused with any physical crown, the concept of the Crown took form under the feudal system. Though not used this way in all countries that had this system, in England, all rights, land, for instance, was granted by the Crown to lords in exchange for feudal services and they, in turn, granted the land to lesser lords. One exception to this was common socage—owners of land held as socage held it only to the Crown. The Crown as ultimate owner of all property also owns any property which has become bona vacantia, the monarch is the living embodiment of the Crown and, as such, is regarded as the personification of the state. He office cannot exist without the office-holder, the Crown also represents the legal embodiment of executive, legislative, and judicial governance. While the Crowns legal personality is usually regarded as a sole, it can, at least for some purposes. Historically, the Crown was considered to be indivisible, two judgments—Ex parte Indian Association of Alberta and Ex parte Quark —challenged that view. The Crown in each of the Commonwealth realms is a similar, because both Canada and Australia are federations, there are also crowns in right of each Canadian province and each Australian state. The Succession to the Crown Law 2013 defined the Crown, for the purposes of implementing the Perth Agreement in Jersey law, as the Crown in right of the Bailiwick of Jersey. Legislation in the Isle of Man also defines the Crown in right of the Isle of Man as being separate from the Crown in right of the United Kingdom and this constitutional concept is also worded as the Crown in right of the Bailiwick of Guernsey. The reserve powers of the Crown for each territory are no longer considered to be exercisable on the advice of the UK government, often cases are brought by the Crown according to the complaint of a claimant. The title of the case follows the pattern of R v Y. Thus R v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union is R v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union, where Miller is Gina Miller, in Scotland, criminal prosecutions are undertaken by the Lord Advocate in the name of the Crown
14.
Probate
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Probate is the legal process whereby a will is proved in a court and accepted as a valid public document that is the true last testament of the deceased. The granting of probate is the first step in the process of administering the estate of a deceased person, resolving all claims. A probate court decides the legal validity of a testators will and grants its approval, also known as granting probate, the probated will then becomes a legal instrument that may be enforced by the executor in the law courts if necessary. A probate also officially appoints the executor, generally named in the will, however, through the probate process, a will may be contested. Probate is a process of improvement that proves a will of a person is valid. As with any legal proceeding, there are aspects to probate administration, Creditors must be notified. Executors of the will must be guided in how and when to distribute assets, a Petition to appoint a personal representative may need to be filed and letters of administration issued. A Grant of Letters of Administration can be used as proof that the ‘Administrator is entitled to handle the assets, homestead property, which follows its own set of unique rules in states like Florida, must be dealt with separately from other assets. There are time factors involved in filing and objecting to claims against the estate, there may be a lawsuit pending over the decedents death or there may have been pending suits that are now continuing. There may be separate procedures required in contentious probate cases, real estate or other property may need to be sold to effect correct distribution of assets pursuant to the will or merely to pay debts. Estate taxes, gift taxes or inheritance taxes must be considered if the estate exceeds certain thresholds, costs of the administration including ordinary taxation such as income tax on interest and property taxation is deducted from assets in the estate before distribution by the executors of the will. Other assets may simply need to be transferred from the deceased to his or her beneficiaries, other assets may have pay on death or transfer on death designations, which avoids probate. Local laws governing the process often depend on the value. If the value of the estate is small, the probate process may be avoided. In some jurisdictions and/or at a threshold, probate must be applied for by the Executor/Administrator or a Probate lawyer filing on their behalf. The Probate lawyer is a specialist in law, who makes application representing the Executor/Administrator. In common law jurisdictions, probate is obtained by executors of a will while letters of administration are granted where there are no executors, the main UK source of law is the Wills Act 1837. Probate was originally handled by the Court of Chancery, but after that court was abolished in 1873, an executor is the person appointed by a will to act on the behalf of the estate of the will maker upon his or her death
15.
Government Legal Department
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The Government Legal Department is the largest in-house legal organisation in the United Kingdoms Government Legal Service. The Department is headed by the Treasury Solicitor and this office goes back several centuries. The office was enshrined in law by the Treasury Solicitor Act 1876, employees of the department exercise legal powers which are vested in the corporation sole. The department is a government department and executive agency. The Treasury Solicitor reports to the Attorney General for England and Wales, the department employs more than six hundred solicitors and barristers to provide advice and legal representation on a huge range of issues to many government departments. The Department was historically known as the Treasury Solicitors Department, the new name reflects a significant period of change, which saw the department double in size to 2,000 staff. The head of the department combines the ancient office of Queens Proctor with that of Treasury Solicitor and he has the formal title of Her Majestys Procurator General and Treasury Solicitor. Currently, the office is held by Jonathan Jones and he is also the Chief Executive of the department as an executive agency. The department is the address for service of proceedings on most government departments. In England, the Treasury Solicitor is the Crowns nominee for the collection and disposition of ownerless property and this typically comprises the assets of dissolved companies and the estates of persons who die intestate and with no known kin. Departments of the United Kingdom Government Government Legal Department Bona Vacantia
16.
Convocation
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A convocation is a group of people formally assembled for a special purpose, mostly ecclesiastical or academic. Their origins date back to the end of the century when Theodore of Tarsus reorganized the structures of the English Church. With the recognition of York as a province in 733. By the fifteenth century, each convocation was divided into an upper house, in 1921, the number of proctors of the diocesan clergy was increased to make them a majority in the lower houses. The Convocation of York was a small part of the Church in England. The legislative powers of the convocations varied considerably over the centuries, under Henry VIII and his successor Edward VI between 1534 and 1553 the Convocations were used as a source of clerical opinion but ecclesiastical legislation was secured by statute from Parliament. Business was resumed in 1701 and by the time Queen Anne died in 1714 draft canons, the resumption of proper business was brought about by the political changes which had taken place some twenty years earlier. The formal address to the Queen was debated for six hours, the driving force behind the campaign to achieve this was the London banker, Henry Hoare, who dedicated himself to the task. The legal basis of the resistance was the claim that convocation could only discuss such business as was specified by the Crown. In 1851, Canterbury received a petition, in 1853 it appointed committees, sumner was convinced of the value of Convocation and those bishops who had opposed the revival were taking part positively in its debates. Musgrave maintained his opposition until his death in 1860—he even locked the room where it was due to meet—and the Northern Convocation remained inactive until his successor took office, the Convocations have always been exclusively clerical assemblies. However, in 1885 the Convocations agreed to the establishment of parallel Houses of Laity elected by the lay members of the diocesan conferences and these were not part of Convocation, they had no constitutional status and were merely advisory. At the beginning of the century, both Convocations together with their respective houses of laity began to meet as a Representative Council which however had no legal authority or position. This was superseded in 1920 by the Church Assembly which was given the right to propose measures to Parliament by the Enabling Act of 1919. In some universities, the term refers specifically to the entirety of the alumni of a college which functions as one of the universitys representative bodies. Due to its size, the Convocation will elect a standing committee. The convocation also, however, can hold meetings, at which any alumnus can attend. The equivalent of the Convocation in the Scottish university system is the General Council, women were admitted to Convocation from 1913
17.
Cathedral chapter
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They can be numbered, in which case they are provided with a fixed prebend, or unnumbered, in which case the bishop indicates the number of canons according to the rents. In some Church of England cathedrals there are two bodies, the lesser and greater chapters, which have different functions. The smaller body usually consists of the members and is included in the larger one. Originally, it referred to a section of a rule that was read out daily during the assembly of a group of canons or other clergy attached to a cathedral or collegiate church. Later it came to be applied to the group of clergy itself, in both cases the chapter was the bishops consilium which he was bound to consult on all important matters and without doing so he could not act. Thus, a decision of a bishop needed the confirmation of the chapter before it could be enforced. In its corporate capacity the chapter takes charge sede vacante of a diocese, in England, however, this custom has never obtained, the two archbishops having, from time immemorial, taken charge of the vacant dioceses in their respective provinces. The normal constitution of the chapter of a cathedral church comprised four officers. These are the dean, the precentor, the chancellor and the treasurer and these four officers, occupying the four corner stalls in the choir, are called in many of the statutes the quatuor majores personae of the church. A dean seems to have derived the designation from the Benedictine deans who had ten monks under their charge, the dean came into existence to supply the place of the provost in the internal management of the church and chapter. In England every secular cathedral church was headed by a dean who was elected by the chapter. The dean is president of the chapter and within the cathedral has charge of the celebration of the services, deans sit in the principal stall in the choir, which is usually the first on the right hand on entering the choir at the west. Next to the dean is the precentor, whose duty is that of regulating the musical portion of the services. The third officer is the chancellor, who must not be confused with the chancellor of the diocese, the chancellor of the cathedral church is charged with the oversight of its schools, ought to read theology lectures and superintend the lections in the choir and correct slovenly readers. Chancellors are often the secretary and librarian of the chapter, in the absence of the dean and precentor the chancellor is president of the chapter. The easternmost stall, on the side of the choir, is usually assigned to the chancellor. The fourth officer is the treasurer and they are guardians of the fabric and all the furniture and ornaments of the church. It was their duty to provide bread and wine for the Eucharist and candles and they also regulated such matters as the ringing of the bells
18.
Province of Canterbury
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The Province of Canterbury, or less formally the Southern Province, is one of two ecclesiastical provinces which constitute the Church of England. The other is the Province of York and it consists of 30 dioceses, covering roughly two-thirds of England, parts of Wales, and the Channel Islands, with the remainder comprising continental Europe. Between the years 787 and 803, a province, Lichfield. In 1871, the Church of Ireland became autonomous, and the Church in Wales was disestablished in 1920, the Provinces metropolitan bishop is the Archbishop of Canterbury who also oversees the Falkland Islands, an extraprovincial parish. Bishops of the southern province meet in chapter, in which the roles are analogous to those within a Cathedral chapter. In the 19th Century, Edward Benson, Archbishop of Canterbury, discussed with the Bishop of Winchester, Benson ruled that the Bishop of Winchester would be Chancellor of the Province and additionally Sub-Dean only during a vacancy in the see of London. Twenty-one other Anglican Bishops form the other Lords Spiritual in the House of Lords
19.
Archdeacon
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In the High Middle Ages it was the most senior diocesan position below a bishop in the Roman Catholic Church. An archdeacon is often responsible for administration within an archdeaconry, which is the subdivision of the diocese. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church has defined an archdeacon as A cleric having a defined administrative authority delegated to him by the bishop in the whole or part of the diocese, the office has often been described metaphorically as that of oculus episcopi, the bishops eye. In the Latin Catholic Church, the post of archdeacon, generally a priest, was one of great importance as a senior official of a diocese. The duties are now performed by such as auxiliary and/or coadjutor bishops, the vicar general. The term archdeacon appears for the first time in Optatus of Mileves history of Donatism of about 370 and these functions included not only financial administration but also the discipline of the clergy, and examination of candidates for priesthood. From the 8th century, there was in the West a further development of the authority of the archdeacon, large dioceses had several archdeaconries, in each of which the archdeacon, had an authority comparable to that of the bishop. Frequently they were appointed not by the bishop but by the chapter or the king. However, from the 13th century, efforts were made to limit their authority and this was effected in part by the institution of the new office of vicar general, who would be a priest rather than a deacon. In 1553, the Council of Trent removed entirely the independent powers of archdeacons and those who had been in charge of different parts of the diocese gradually ceased to be appointed. Only the archdeacon associated with the chapter continued to exist as an empty title. However, Eastern Catholic Churches still utilize archdeacons, recently, this type of dual role has only existed in the Bishop suffragan of Ludlow. An archdeacon is usually styled The Venerable instead of the clerical style of The Reverend. In the Church of England the position of an archdeacon can only be held by a priest who has been ordained for at least six years, in the Church of England, the legal act by which a priest becomes an archdeacon is called a collation. If that archdeaconry is annexed to a canonry of the cathedral, the Anglican ordinal presupposes that the functions of archdeacons include those of examining candidates for ordination and then presenting them to the ordaining bishop. In the Eastern Christian churches, an archdeacon is the senior deacon within a diocese and has responsibility for serving at hierarchical services and he has responsibility for ensuring the smooth running of the service by directing the clergy and servers as appropriate. The archdeacon wears the orarion, which is twice the length of the usual orarion. An archdeacon may come from either the monastic or married clergy, an archdeacon was the prince and head of the Christians of Saint Thomas and had such titles as Archdeacon and Gate of All India, Governor of India
20.
John Samuel Agar
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John Samuel Agar, was an English portrait painter and engraver, who exhibited his works at the Royal Academy from 1796 to 1806 and at the British Institution until 1811. He did not exhibit again until 1836 and he had been declared bankrupt in February of the previous year. He was at one time president of the Society of Engravers and his engravings were chiefly in stipple. They include works after Richard and Maria Cosway, and a series of allegories of the months after Edward Francis Burney, national Portrait Gallery Profile Media related to John Samuel Agar at Wikimedia Commons
21.
Thomas Uwins
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Thomas Uwins was an English portrait, subject, genre and landscape painter, and a book illustrator. Uwins was born at Hermes Hill, Pentonville in London, the youngest of the four children of Thomas Uwins, David Uwins, physician and medical writer, was his elder brother. Thomas showed talent as an artist from an age, and had some instruction from the drawing-master at his sisters school. He was a day scholar at Mr. Croles school in Queens Head Lane, Islington, for 6 years, in 1798, Uwins entered the schools of the Royal Academy, London, and joined Sir Charles Bells anatomical class, supporting himself mainly by painting portrait miniature. He exhibited a portrait of a Mr. G. Meyers at the academy in 1799, one of his drawings exhibited at the academy in 1808 was a portrait of Charles Warrens daughter, Mrs. Luke Clennell, as Belphoebe in Spensers Faerie Queene. In 1809 Uwins joined the Old Watercolour Society as associate exhibitor and he served as secretary of the society in 1813-14 and 1816-17. In 1811 he stayed at Farnham, Surrey, studying the hopfields, and in 1815 visited the Lake District, in 1817, after the Napoleonic wars, he went to France to paint vintage scenes. The result was seen in two drawings sent to the Old Watercolour Societys exhibition of 1818, in 1824 Uwins travelled to Italy for his health. There he settled for the winter in Rome where he met a number of English artists, including Charles Eastlake, the following spring he visited Naples and met Richard Acton who commissioned him to paint a number of Italian scenes. He remained in Naples for several years painting portraits of British, while in Italy he kept up a correspondence with his two brothers Zechariah and David, which was published after his death in A memoir of Thomas Uwins. From 1829–30 Uwins sent his pictures of Italian subjects to the exhibitions of the British Institution, in 1830 he exhibited Neapolitans dancing the Tarantella, and, in 1832, The Neapolitan Saint Manufactury proved a great success in the RA exhibition. At about this time he returned to England and became more involved in arts administration. He was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1833, in 1839 he exhibited one of his best pictures, Le Chapeau de Brigand. The little girl depicted was a daughter of a friend named Joseph, in 1843 he painted a fresco of the lady in John Miltons Comus for the Queens Pavilion in Buckingham Palace Gardens. In 1844 he was librarian of the Royal Academy, and Surveyor of pictures to Queen Victoria. In 1850 he married Sarah Kirby, and though without issue, in 1854 he had a serious illness, and in 1855 gave up his various offices and retired to Staines, in Middlesex, an invalid. He carried on painting, however, until his death on 26 August 1857, a Memoir of Thomas Uwins, Volume 1, Volume 2. Thomas Uwins online An Italian Mother Teaching her Child the Tarantella A Neapolitan boy decorating the head of his inamorata Returning from school Portraits of Thomas Uwins
22.
William Combe
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William Combe was a British miscellaneous writer. His early life was that of an adventurer, his later was passed chiefly within the rules of the Kings Bench Prison. He is chiefly remembered as the author of The Three Tours of Doctor Syntax, a poem, illustrated by artist Thomas Rowlandsons color plates. Combe also wrote a series of letters, supposed to have been written by the second. Of a similar kind were his letters between Swift and Stella and he also wrote the letterpress for various illustrated books, and was a general hack. Combes father Robert Combes was a rich London ironmonger who died in 1756, his mother and he was educated at Eton College, but was withdrawn from the school by William Alexander, his guardian, on his fathers death, Alexander died in 1762. He inherited from both his father and guardian, aspired to the status of gentleman, and changed his name to Combe. He spent his fortune, travelled and was nicknamed Count Combe, and in the period 1769–1773 was low in funds, existing in France, Wales, in 1773 Robert Berkeley employed Combe to edit Thomas Falkners Description of Patagonia. Combe then settled to work as a writer and book editor, in 1776 Combe made his first success in London with The Diaboliad, a satire full of bitter personal attacks. Four years later, in 1780, debts brought him into the Kings Bench Prison, in 1790 and 91, the six volumes of a Devil on Two Sticks in England won for Combe the title of the English le Sage. In 1794 he ghost-wrote the Aeneas Anderson memoir of the Lord Macartney embassy to Peking, A Narrative of the British Embassy to China, in the Years 1792,1793, and 1794. In 1794–1796 he wrote the text for Boydells History of the River Thames and it satirised William Gilpin, who toured Britain to describe his theory of the Picturesque. It was collected in form in 1812, and was followed by two similar Tours. in search of Consolation and. in search of a Wife, the first Mrs Syntax having died at the end of the first Tour. The second Tour was collected as an 1820 book, and the tour as an 1821 book. Some reprint editions over the several decades rendered Rowlandsons color plates in black. Combe died in London on 19 June 1823, also, the diabo-lady, or, a match in hell Letters supposed to have been written by Yorick and Eliza. 2 vols Letters of the Late Lord Lyttleton,2 vols – Original letters of the late Reverend Mr. Laurence Sterne, Never Before Published. The devil upon two sticks in England, being a continuation of Le diable boiteux of Le Sage,6 vols An History of the River Thames
23.
Bachelor of Arts
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A Bachelor of Arts is a bachelors degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs take three to four years depending on the country, academic institution, and specific specializations, majors or minors. The word baccalaureus or baccalarium should not be confused with baccalaureatus, degree diplomas generally are printed on high-quality paper or parchment, individual institutions set the preferred abbreviation for their degrees. In Pakistan, the Bachelor of Arts degree can also be attained within two years as an external degree, in colleges and universities in Australia, New Zealand, Nepal and South Africa, the BA degree can be taken over three years of full-time study. Unlike in other countries, students do not receive a grade for their Bachelor of Arts degree with varying levels of honours. Qualified students may be admitted, after they have achieved their Bachelors program with an overall grade point average. Thus, to achieve a Bachelor Honours degree, a postgraduate year. A student who holds a Honours degree is eligible for entry to either a Doctorate or a very high research Master´s degree program. Education in Canada is controlled by the Provinces and can be different depending on the province in Canada. Canadian universities typically offer a 3-year Bachelor of Arts degrees, in many universities and colleges, Bachelor of Arts degrees are differentiated either as Bachelors of Arts or as honours Bachelor of Arts degree. The honours degrees are designated with the abbreviation in brackets of. It should not be confused with the consecutive Bachelor of Arts degree with Honours, Latin Baccalaureatus in Artibus Cum Honore, BA hon. de jure without brackets and with a dot. It is a degree, which is considered to be the equivalent of a corresponding maîtrise degree under the French influenced system. Going back in history, a three-year Bachelor of Arts degree was called a pass degree or general degree. Students may be required to undertake a long high-quality research empirical thesis combined with a selection of courses from the relevant field of studies. The consecutive B. cum Honore degree is essential if students ultimate goal is to study towards a two- or three-year very high research masters´ degree qualification. A student holding a Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree also may choose to complete a Doctor of Philosophy program without the requirement to first complete a masters degree, over the years, in some universities certain Baccalaureatus cum Honore programs have been changed to corresponding master´s degrees. In general, in all four countries, the B. A. degree is the standard required for entry into a masters programme, in science, a BA hons degree is generally a prerequisite for entrance to a Ph. D program or a very-high-research-activity master´s programme
24.
Bachelor of Laws
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The Bachelor of Laws is an undergraduate degree in law originating in England and offered in most common law jurisdictions. The LL. of the abbreviation for the degree is from the genitive plural legum, creating an abbreviation for a plural, especially from Latin, is often done by doubling the first letter, thus LL. B. Stands for Legum Baccalaureus in Latin, today in Canada the predominant first degree in common law is the Juris Doctor degree having replaced the LL. B. Bachelor of Laws is also the name of the first degree in Scots law and South African law awarded by a number of universities in Scotland and South Africa, the first academic degrees were all law degrees in medieval universities, and the first law degrees were doctorates. The foundations of the first universities were the glossators of the 11th century, the first university, that of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 12th century who were students of the glossator school in that city. The University of Bologna served as the model for law schools of the medieval age. The bachelors degree originated at the University of Paris, whose system was implemented at Oxford, the arts designation of the degree traditionally signifies that the student has undertaken a certain amount of study of the classics. On continental Europe the bachelors degree was phased out in the 18th or early 19th century but it continued at Oxford, the teaching of law at Oxford University was for philosophical or scholarly purposes and not meant to prepare one to practise law. The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of moot court-like practice and lecture, as well as court proceedings observation. By the seventeenth century, the Inns obtained a status as a kind of university akin to the University of Oxford, with the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades, the importance of the lawyer role grew tremendously, and the demand for lawyers grew. The apprenticeship programme for solicitors thus emerged, structured and governed by the rules as the apprenticeship programmes for the trades. The training of solicitors by apprenticeship was formally established by an act of parliament in 1729, therefore, formal schools of law were called for, but not finally established until later in the century, and even then the bar did not consider a university degree in admission decisions. When law degrees were required by the English bar and bar associations in other common law countries, historically, law students studied both canon law and civil law. Today, this is less common. In most common law countries, the Bachelor of Laws programme is generally entered directly after completion of secondary school, Masters courses are also offered to university graduates, those who graduate from such courses are entitled to use the initials LL. M. Additionally, of the thirty-six Law Schools thirteen of those universities have started offering the Juris Doctor as a Graduate entry degree. Bangladesh is a common law country, like other Common Law countries, Bachelor of Laws degree is a condition precedent to practise as an Advocate in the Courts of Law of Bangladesh. Both LL. B. and LL. B. degrees are offered in different Public, only seven Public Universities offer LL. B. degree
25.
University of Cambridge
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The University of Cambridge is a collegiate public research university in Cambridge, England, often regarded as one of the most prestigious universities in the world. Founded in 1209 and given royal status by King Henry III in 1231, Cambridge is the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world. The university grew out of an association of scholars who left the University of Oxford after a dispute with the townspeople, the two ancient universities share many common features and are often referred to jointly as Oxbridge. Cambridge is formed from a variety of institutions which include 31 constituent colleges, Cambridge University Press, a department of the university, is the worlds oldest publishing house and the second-largest university press in the world. The university also operates eight cultural and scientific museums, including the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridges libraries hold a total of around 15 million books, eight million of which are in Cambridge University Library, a legal deposit library. In the year ended 31 July 2015, the university had an income of £1.64 billion. The central university and colleges have an endowment of around £5.89 billion. The university is linked with the development of the high-tech business cluster known as Silicon Fen. It is a member of associations and forms part of the golden triangle of leading English universities and Cambridge University Health Partners. As of 2017, Cambridge is ranked the fourth best university by three ranking tables and no other institution in the world ranks in the top 10 for as many subjects. Cambridge is consistently ranked as the top university in the United Kingdom, the university has educated many notable alumni, including eminent mathematicians, scientists, politicians, lawyers, philosophers, writers, actors, and foreign Heads of State. Ninety-five Nobel laureates, fifteen British prime ministers and ten Fields medalists have been affiliated with Cambridge as students, faculty, by the late 12th century, the Cambridge region already had a scholarly and ecclesiastical reputation, due to monks from the nearby bishopric church of Ely. The University of Oxford went into suspension in protest, and most scholars moved to such as Paris, Reading. After the University of Oxford reformed several years later, enough remained in Cambridge to form the nucleus of the new university. A bull in 1233 from Pope Gregory IX gave graduates from Cambridge the right to teach everywhere in Christendom, the colleges at the University of Cambridge were originally an incidental feature of the system. No college is as old as the university itself, the colleges were endowed fellowships of scholars. There were also institutions without endowments, called hostels, the hostels were gradually absorbed by the colleges over the centuries, but they have left some indicators of their time, such as the name of Garret Hostel Lane. Hugh Balsham, Bishop of Ely, founded Peterhouse, Cambridges first college, the most recently established college is Robinson, built in the late 1970s
26.
St Edmund's College, Cambridge
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St Edmunds College is one of the 31 constituent colleges of the University of Cambridge. Over three-quarters of St Edmunds students are studying towards higher degrees, usually the PhD, the college is named after St Edmund of Abingdon who was the first known Oxford Master of Arts and the Archbishop of Canterbury from 1234 to 1240. The college is located about 15 minutes walk northwest of the centre of Cambridge, near Lucy Cavendish and its campus is a garden setting on the edge of Roman Cambridge, with housing for over 250 students. After Catholic Emancipation, in particular after the repeal of Test Acts in 1873, in its early days the college functioned predominantly as a lodging house, or residential hall of residence, for students who were matriculated at other colleges. Most of the students, at time, were ordained Catholic priests who were reading various subjects offered by the university. The college was established in the buildings of Ayerst Hostel, which had set up for non-collegiate students by the Reverend William Ayerst in 1884. In 1896 Ayerst Hostel had to due to lack of funds. These occasions often involved large numbers of MAs congregating in Cambridge to scupper any attempt to uphold what they believed was a papist institution. One of the jokes, referring to an unsuccessful attempt by St Edmunds to get official recognition from the university, ran as follows. One of them asks, Where are you going, answers the other, Im going to bury St Edmunds. Meanwhile, the development of the college continued, the chapel was consecrated in 1916. A new dining hall was constructed in 1939, the membership of the college increased steadily. The college was now a recognized House of Residence of the university, in the 1960s the university decided to establish several colleges catering primarily to postgraduate students. St Edmunds House was accepted as one of the colleges in the university, although today it also admits mature. In 1965 the college was permitted to matriculate its own students, in 1975 it acquired the status of an Approved Foundation, in 1986 the name was changed from St Edmunds House to St Edmunds College and in 1996 it finally received full collegiate status. The college was granted its Royal Charter in 1998, in 2000 a new block of residential buildings housing 50 students was opened, named after Richard Laws, one of the former masters. St Edmunds is among the most international colleges of the university, the full spectrum of academic subjects is represented in the college. The fellowship of the college represents many academic disciplines, spread across arts, humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, medicine, the Von Hügel Institute is another link with the Roman Catholic origins of the college
27.
Trinity Hall, Cambridge
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Trinity Hall is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge, England. It is the fifth-oldest college of the university, having founded in 1350 by William Bateman. Historically, Trinity Hall was known for teaching Law, today, it teaches the sciences, arts and this led the college to be particularly strong in legal studies, a tradition that has continued over the centuries. At first all colleges in Cambridge were known as Halls or Houses, however, when Henry VIII founded Trinity College, Cambridge next door, it became clear that Trinity Hall would continue being known as a Hall. This is also why it is incorrect to call it Trinity Hall College, although Trinity Hall college is, strictly speaking, interestingly a similar situation existed once before in the history of the University, when Henry VI founded Kings College despite the existence of Kings Hall. Kings Hall was later incorporated in the foundation of Trinity College in 1546, the chapel was licensed in 1352 and built in 1366, in the year that Pope Urban V granted the Master and Fellows permission to celebrate Mass in the college. In 1729, Sir Nathaniel Lloyd redecorated the chapel in what, despite subsequent enlargements, remains an intimate style, the painting in the chapel is Maso da San Frianos Salutation or Visitation, depicting Marys visit to Elizabeth, mother of John the Baptist. Like the chapel, the Hall of the college was rebuilt by Sir Nathaniel Lloyd and it also remains one of the smallest and most intimate halls in the University. The college library was built in the sixteenth century, probably during the mastership of Thomas Preston and is now principally used for the storage of manuscripts. The new Jerwood Library overlooking the river was opened by Lord Howe in 1999, the college also owns properties in the centre of Cambridge, on Bateman Street and Thompsons Lane, and on its Wychfield Site next to Fitzwilliam College. The current Master is the Revd Jeremy Morris and he took up the role on 1 October 2014 after Martin Daunton stepped down after ten years in post
28.
Robinson College, Cambridge
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Robinson College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge, England. Robinson later gave his college another £1 million on the occasion of its official opening, the first graduate students and fellows joined the college in 1977. Undergraduates were first admitted in 1979, but significant numbers only began arriving the following year, the college was formally opened by Queen Elizabeth II in May 1981. Robinson is in less formal and traditional than most of the older colleges in the university. The Arms of the College are described as follows, Azure in base two Bars wavy Argent over all a Pegasus rampant Or gorged with a Crown rayonny Gules, the Latin grace is read before the start of formal hall. Latin, Benedic, domine, nobis et donis tuis, per Jesum Christum dominum nostrum, amen. Lord, bless us and your gifts, through Jesus Christ our Lord. Designed by the Scottish architectural firm Gillespie, Kidd & Coia, in November 2008 the College was named in the 50 most inspiring buildings in Britain by The Daily Telegraph. Of particular note are the library and chapel, the latter with stained-glass windows designed by John Piper. The college is located a ten-minute walk west of the city centre, behind the University Library, near the buildings in West Cambridge. It stands on a 12. 5-acre wooded site noted for its historical and horticultural interest, Robinson owns a number of houses on Adams Road and Sylvester Road adjoining the main college site, which it uses for student accommodation. A number of students live in college-owned accommodation elsewhere in Cambridge. The main entrance to the college is via a ramp which is accessible to wheelchair users. The Needham Research Institute is also located within the college grounds, as one of Cambridges most important conference centres, Robinson hosts a number of conferences during the summer vacation when the undergraduate students are absent. Politically, Robinson is generally seen as liberal, Robinson has supplied a large number of Green Officers to the Cambridge University Students Union in recent years and in 2008 was judged the most environmentally friendly college in Cambridge. Like other colleges, Robinson provides its students with facilities such as a JCR, MCR, TV room, art room, cafe. There is also a party room, dedicated to hosting college bops. Musical talents are catered for by a room, CD library. There are also sports teams, covering most major sports, everything from water polo and cricket to rowing
29.
Wolfson College, Cambridge
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Wolfson College /ˈwʊlfsən/ is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge in Cambridge, England. The majority of students at the college are postgraduates, the college also admits mature undergraduates, with around 15% of students studying undergraduate degree courses at the university. The college was founded in 1965 as University College, and changed its name to Wolfson College in 1973 in recognition of the benefaction of the Wolfson Foundation, Wolfson is located to the west of Cambridge city centre, near the University Library. It was the first college of the university to admit men and women as students and Fellows. As one of the more modern colleges in Cambridge, Wolfson does not follow all of the traditions of some of the Universitys older colleges, both Fellows and students at the college have access to all the facilities. With students from over 70 countries, Wolfson claims to be one of Cambridges most cosmopolitan colleges, the current President of Wolfson College is the historian Sir Richard Evans. After the Second World War, the number of graduates of universities who came to Cambridge to do research increased significantly. The university therefore decided to found University College in 1965 to help accommodate these students, the college was based at Bredon House, a property built in the early twentieth century by John Stanley Gardiner, who was a Professor of Zoology at the university from 1909 to 1937. He donated the house, with its long narrow garden running from Barton Road to Selwyn Gardens, the college then purchased further property on its eastern boundary. University College was opened on 30 June 1965 as a college for postgraduate students, at the time, all the undergraduate colleges of the university were single-sex institutions and University College was the first in the university to admit men and women as both students and Fellows. The colleges founding deed required the college to find an endowment within 10 years or face dissolution. In 1972, the Wolfson Foundation agreed to provide an endowment and help to fund the construction of central buildings around Bredon House. In recognition of this, the college was renamed Wolfson College on 1 January 1973, the new buildings were opened by Queen Elizabeth II and the Duke of Edinburgh in 1977. Though most of the buildings are modern, the design of the campus is similar to that of the universitys older colleges. The floor of the hall to the main building is made of thin slices of granite taken from the old London Bridge. Further building and acquisition of neighbouring properties has continued, in the 1980s, the college purchased the house and garden owned by Sir Vivian Fuchs on the western side on the college. Plommer House on the side of the college was also left to the college in his will by Dr Hugh Plommer. The acquisition of property has allowed for the building of a number of new facilities, mainly funded by donations from philanthropic foundations and individuals
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Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge
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Gonville and Caius College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge in Cambridge, England. The college is the fourth-oldest college at the University of Cambridge, the college has been attended by many students who have gone on to significant accomplishment, including fourteen Nobel Prize winners, the second-most of any Oxbridge college. The college has long associations with medical teaching, especially due to its alumni physicians, John Caius. Other famous alumni in the sciences include Francis Crick, James Chadwick, Stephen Hawking, previously Cambridges Lucasian Chair of Mathematics Emeritus, is a current fellow of the college. The college also maintains academic programmes in other disciplines, including economics, English literature. Gonville and Caius is said to own or have rights to much of the land in Cambridge, several streets in the city, such as Harvey Road, Glisson Road and Gresham Road, are named after alumni of the College. The college was first founded, as Gonville Hall, by Edmund Gonville, Rector of Terrington St Clement in Norfolk in 1348, when Gonville died three years later, he left a struggling institution with almost no money. The executor of his will, William Bateman, Bishop of Norwich, stepped in and he leased himself the land close to the river to set up his own college, Trinity Hall, and renamed Gonville Hall The Hall of the Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin Mary. Bateman appointed the first Master of the new college his former chaplain John Colton, by the sixteenth century, the college had fallen into disrepair, and in 1557 it was refounded by Royal Charter as Gonville and Caius College by the physician John Caius. John Caius was master of the college from 1559 until shortly before his death in 1573 and he provided the college with significant funds and greatly extended the buildings. During his time as Master, Caius accepted no payment but insisted on several unusual rules, Caius also built a three-sided court, Caius Court, “lest the air from being confined within a narrow space should become foul”. Caius did, however, found the college as a centre for the study of medicine. By 1630, the college had expanded greatly, having around 25 fellows and 150 students, since then the college has grown considerably and now has one of the largest undergraduate populations in the university. The college first admitted women as fellows and students in 1979 and it now has over 110 Fellows, over 700 students and about 200 staff. Gonville and Caius is one of the wealthiest of all Cambridge colleges with net assets of £180 million in 2014, the college’s present Master, the 42nd, is Alan Fersht. The first buildings to be erected on the current site date from 1353 when Bateman built Gonville Court. The college chapel was added in 1393 with the Old Hall, most of the stone used to build the college came from Ramsey Abbey near Ramsey, Cambridgeshire. Gonville and Caius has the oldest college chapel in either Oxford or Cambridge which has been in use as such
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Darwin College, Cambridge
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Darwin College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge. Founded on 28 July 1964, Darwin was Cambridge Universitys first graduate-only college, the college is named after one of the universitys most famous families, that of Charles Darwin. The Darwin family previously owned some of the land, Newnham Grange, the college has between 600 and 700 students, mostly studying for PhD or MPhil degrees. About half the students come from outside the United Kingdom, representing 80 nationalities as of 2016, Darwin is the largest graduate college of Cambridge. A significant increase in the number of students at Cambridge University in the post-war period led to a growing realisation that a graduate college was becoming a necessity. In 1963, three of the older colleges – Trinity College, St Johns College, and Gonville and Caius College – announced their intention to jointly form a new. The college was established in 1964, located on the bank of the River Cam, on 29 January 1965, the Privy Council gave formal approval to the college as an Approved Foundation. It received its Royal Charter as an independent college within the university in 1976, the college is named after the Darwin family, Charles Darwins second son, George Darwin, having owned some of the property which the college now occupies. He bought Newnham Grange, the oldest part of the college, in 1885, together with the adjacent building known as the Old Granary, and Small Island. Following the death of Georges son, Sir Charles Galton Darwin, in 1962, katherine, Lady Darwin, and her family were very receptive to the idea of their home becoming the nucleus of a new college, and to the suggestion that it should bear the familys name. Family portraits of the Darwin family are on loan to the college from the Darwin Heirloom Trust, in the book Period Piece, A Cambridge Childhood, the granddaughter of Charles Darwin, Gwen Raverat describes how she grew up at Newnham Grange. In 1966, the college acquired the Hermitage from St Johns College. Work to convert and extend the buildings was funded by the founding colleges. In 1994, Darwin College completed construction of a new library, the centre is built on a narrow strip of land alongside the millpond in Cambridge, and uses a structure of green oak and lime mortar brickwork. The building uses high-level automatically opening windows and a chimney to control natural ventilation, the building has also been designed with special connections which could be tightened to account for the shrinkage. The long boundary returns to Queens Bridge and is formed by the two islands in the middle of the river, as of 2016, Darwin remains to be by far the most popular graduate college, ranking fourth among all Cambridge colleges in graduate students first and second choices. The lectures have been hosted for over years and form one of the key events in the Cambridge calendar. Most of the series of lectures have been published as books, the club plays throughout the year in and out of term
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Newnham College, Cambridge
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Newnham College is a women-only constituent college of the University of Cambridge. The college was founded in 1871 by Henry Sidgwick, and was the second Cambridge college to admit women after Girton College, the co-founder of the college was Millicent Garrett Fawcett. The history of Newnham begins with the formation of the Association for Promoting the Higher Education of Women in Cambridge in 1869, the progress of women at Cambridge University owes much to the pioneering work undertaken by the philosopher Henry Sidgwick, fellow of Trinity. He persuaded Anne Jemima Clough, who had run a school in the Lake District. The following year, this moved to Merton House on Queens Road, demand continued to increase and the supporters of the enterprise formed a limited company to raise funds, lease land and build on it. In 1875 the first building for Newnham College was built on the site off Sidgwick Avenue where the college remains, in 1876 Henry Sidgwick married Elizabeth Balfour who was already a supporter of womens education. They lived at Newnham from 1893, the college formally came into existence in 1880 with the amalgamation of the Association and the Company. Women were admitted to titles of degrees from 1881, the demand from prospective students remained buoyant and the Newnham Hall Company built steadily, providing three more halls, a laboratory and a library, in the years up to the First World War. The architect Basil Champneys was employed throughout this period and designed the buildings in the Queen Anne style to much acclaim, so Newnhams founders allowed the young women to work at and to a level which suited their attainments and abilities. Some of them, with a years preparation, did indeed go on to degree-level work. In 1890 the Newnham student Philippa Fawcett was ranked above the Senior Wrangler, by the First World War the vast majority of Newnham students were going straight into degree-level courses. In tailoring the curriculum to the students, Newnham found itself at odds with the other Cambridge college for women, Girton, emily Davies, Girtons founder, believed passionately that equality could only be expressed by women doing the same courses as the men, on the same time-table. This meant that Girton attracted a much smaller population in its early years, in 1948 Newnham, like Girton, attained the full status of a college of the university. The university as an institution at first took no notice of these women, in 1868 Cambridges Local Examinations Board allowed women to take exams for the first time. By 1881, however, a permission to sit examinations was negotiated. Undergraduates demonstrating against the women and their supporters did hundreds of pounds worth of damage in the market square, the First World War brought a catastrophic collapse of fee income for the mens colleges and Cambridge and Oxford both sought state financial help for the first time. In Oxford this was secured in 1920 but in Cambridge the women went down to again in 1921, having to settle for the titles - the much-joked-about BA tit -. This time the male undergraduates celebrating victory over the women used a handcart as a ram to destroy the lower half of the bronze gates at Newnham
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Elizabeth I of England
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Elizabeth I was Queen of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, his second wife, who was executed two and a half years after Elizabeths birth. Annes marriage to Henry VIII was annulled, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate, edwards will was set aside and Mary became queen, deposing Lady Jane Grey. During Marys reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels, in 1558, Elizabeth succeeded her half-sister to the throne and set out to rule by good counsel. She depended heavily on a group of trusted advisers, led by William Cecil, one of her first actions as queen was the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the Supreme Governor. This Elizabethan Religious Settlement was to evolve into the Church of England and it was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce an heir to continue the Tudor line. She never did, despite numerous courtships, as she grew older, Elizabeth became famous for her virginity. A cult grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, in government, Elizabeth was more moderate than her father and half-siblings had been. One of her mottoes was video et taceo, in religion, she was relatively tolerant and avoided systematic persecution. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign affairs, manoeuvring between the powers of France and Spain. She only half-heartedly supported a number of ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France, by the mid-1580s, England could no longer avoid war with Spain. Englands defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 associated Elizabeth with one of the greatest military victories in English history, Elizabeths reign is known as the Elizabethan era. Some historians depict Elizabeth as a short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler, towards the end of her reign, a series of economic and military problems weakened her popularity. Such was the case with Elizabeths rival, Mary, Queen of Scots, after the short reigns of Elizabeths half-siblings, her 44 years on the throne provided welcome stability for the kingdom and helped forge a sense of national identity. Elizabeth was born at Greenwich Palace and was named after both her grandmothers, Elizabeth of York and Elizabeth Howard and she was the second child of Henry VIII of England born in wedlock to survive infancy. Her mother was Henrys second wife, Anne Boleyn, at birth, Elizabeth was the heir presumptive to the throne of England. She was baptised on 10 September, Archbishop Thomas Cranmer, the Marquess of Exeter, the Duchess of Norfolk, Elizabeth was two years and eight months old when her mother was beheaded on 19 May 1536, four months after Catherine of Aragons death from natural causes. Elizabeth was declared illegitimate and deprived of her place in the royal succession, eleven days after Anne Boleyns execution, Henry married Jane Seymour, who died shortly after the birth of their son, Prince Edward, in 1537
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James VI and I
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James VI and I was King of Scotland as James VI from 24 July 1567 and King of England and Ireland as James I from the union of the Scottish and English crowns on 24 March 1603 until his death. The kingdoms of Scotland and England were individual sovereign states, with their own parliaments, judiciary, and laws, though both were ruled by James in personal union. James was the son of Mary, Queen of Scots, James succeeded to the Scottish throne at the age of thirteen months, after his mother Mary was compelled to abdicate in his favour. Four different regents governed during his minority, which ended officially in 1578, in 1603, he succeeded the last Tudor monarch of England and Ireland, Elizabeth I, who died without issue. He continued to reign in all three kingdoms for 22 years, a period known after him as the Jacobean era, until his death in 1625 at the age of 58. After the Union of the Crowns, he based himself in England from 1603, only returning to Scotland once in 1617 and he was a major advocate of a single parliament for England and Scotland. In his reign, the Plantation of Ulster and British colonization of the Americas began, at 57 years and 246 days, Jamess reign in Scotland was longer than those of any of his predecessors. He achieved most of his aims in Scotland but faced difficulties in England, including the Gunpowder Plot in 1605. James himself was a scholar, the author of works such as Daemonologie, The True Law of Free Monarchies. He sponsored the translation of the Bible that would later be named after him, Sir Anthony Weldon claimed that James had been termed the wisest fool in Christendom, an epithet associated with his character ever since. Since the latter half of the 20th century, historians have tended to revise Jamess reputation and treat him as a serious, James was the only son of Mary, Queen of Scots, and her second husband, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. Both Mary and Darnley were great-grandchildren of Henry VII of England through Margaret Tudor, Marys rule over Scotland was insecure, and she and her husband, being Roman Catholics, faced a rebellion by Protestant noblemen. James was born on 19 June 1566 at Edinburgh Castle, and as the eldest son and heir apparent of the monarch automatically became Duke of Rothesay and Prince and he was baptised Charles James or James Charles on 17 December 1566 in a Catholic ceremony held at Stirling Castle. His godparents were Charles IX of France, Elizabeth I of England, Mary refused to let the Archbishop of St Andrews, whom she referred to as a pocky priest, spit in the childs mouth, as was then the custom. The subsequent entertainment, devised by Frenchman Bastian Pagez, featured men dressed as satyrs and sporting tails, Jamess father, Darnley, was murdered on 10 February 1567 at Kirk o Field, Edinburgh, perhaps in revenge for Rizzios death. James inherited his fathers titles of Duke of Albany and Earl of Ross, Mary was already unpopular, and her marriage on 15 May 1567 to James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, who was widely suspected of murdering Darnley, heightened widespread bad feeling towards her. In June 1567, Protestant rebels arrested Mary and imprisoned her in Loch Leven Castle and she was forced to abdicate on 24 July 1567 in favour of the infant James and to appoint her illegitimate half-brother, James Stewart, Earl of Moray, as regent. The care of James was entrusted to the Earl and Countess of Mar, to be conserved, nursed, and upbrought in the security of Stirling Castle
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Thomas Hobson
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Thomas Hobson, was an English carrier, best known as the origin of the expression Hobsons choice. The term Hobsons choice originated in the century, after Hobsons death. The poet John Milton made Hobson, and the phrase, well known, when his horses were not needed to deliver mail, he rented them to students and academic staff of the University of Cambridge. Hobson soon discovered that his fastest horses were the most popular, so as not to exhaust them, he established a strict rotation system, allowing customers to rent only the next horse in line. This policy, this one or none, has come to be known as Hobsons choice and it is not an absence of choice, rather choosing one thing or nothing. In legal jargon, Hobsons Choice is known to barristers as the Cab-rank rule and this may come from Hobsons choice of renting out hackney horses strictly by rote. Hobson is best remembered in the English vernacular as something of a miser and he funded the construction of Hobsons Conduit, a man-made watercourse built in 1614 to provide clean drinking water to the population of Cambridge. The conduit channelled water from Vicars Brook, a tributary of the River Cam fed by springs at Nine Wells five miles south of Cambridge. Hobson is commemorated at Nine Wells on a nineteenth century obelisk, the fountain was moved there in 1856 from its original location in the Market Square after a fire in 1849, when it was replaced by a cast iron drinking fountain. Upstream the conduit is flanked by gardens adjoining Brookside and by the Cambridge University Botanic Garden, Hobson bought Anglesey Priory in 1625 and converted it into a country house, which, under the name Anglesey Abbey, now belongs to the English National Trust. Hobson had acquired lands around Chesterton, Cambridgeshire by the late 1590s, Hobson lived at Chesterton Hall in 1627, four years before his death in 1631. In Cambridge city centre, two streets named Hobsons Passage and Hobson Street conjoin very near to his old coaching inn, at the junction of Jesus Lane. The inn is now part of the King Street Run, and has had changes of name but is today called the Cambridge Brewhouse
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Queen's Bench
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The Queens Bench is the superior court in a number of jurisdictions within some of the Commonwealth realms. The original Kings Bench, founded in 1215 in England, was one of the ancient courts of the land and is now a division of the High Court of Justice of England and Wales. The Court of Queens Bench is the court in several Canadian provinces, including, Alberta, Manitoba, New Brunswick. There was formerly a Court of Kings Bench created in the British colony of Quebec in 1764 and it was then abolished and re-established in 1777, following the Quebec Act. Following the separation of Upper and Lower Canada in 1791, the court was replaced by several courts of Kings bench of each region of the two new provinces. In 1849, the districts in were reunited once again, in England and Wales, the Court of Kings Bench was the name of two courts. Each was a court of common law, with civil and criminal jurisdiction. The English Court of Queens Bench was abolished in 1875 by the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873, the Courts jurisdiction passed in each case to a new High Court of Justice and specifically to the Queens Bench Division of that court. The Irish Court of Queens Bench was abolished by the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1877, the Queens Bench jurisdiction is now vested in the Queens Bench Division of the High Court in Northern Ireland. There is a Queens Bench Division as a division of the High Court of England and Wales, in England and Wales, the Queens Bench Division is part of the High Court of Justice. It was created by the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873, in 1880 the former Common Pleas and Exchequer Divisions were merged into the Queens Bench Division. Since 1882 the High Court has sat in the Royal Courts of Justice in the Strand, in Northern Ireland the Queens Bench Division is part of the High Court of Justice in Northern Ireland, first created by Section 40 of the Government of Ireland Act 1920. The Division has similar jurisdiction to its counterpart in England and Wales and it sits in the Royal Courts of Justice, Belfast. Other sub-divisions include the Commercial Court, the Admiralty Court and the Administrative Court, the abbreviation QB in legal citation is used in the Law Reports to denote cases heard in the Queens Bench Division. There are masters in the Queens Bench Division, unlike the masters in the Chancery Division, the Queens Bench masters have original jurisdiction and they hear applications in chambers, act as taxing masters and occasionally as referees to conduct inquiries, take accounts, and assess damages. The Court of Queens Bench grew out of the Kings Court, or Curia Regis, at an unknown point, another court, independent of the Kings personal presence, grew out of the Curia Regis, and consisted of a number of royal judges who would hear cases themselves. In practice pleas of the Crown were heard only in the Kings Bench, the Lord Chief Justice of the Kings Bench was also styled Lord Chief Justice of England, being the highest permanent judge of the Crown. The Kings Bench became a court sitting in Westminster Hall
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Habeas corpus
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Habeas corpus is a recourse in law whereby a person can report an unlawful detention or imprisonment before a court, usually through a prison official. The writ of habeas corpus is known as the great and efficacious writ in all manner of illegal confinement, if the custodian is acting beyond his or her authority, then the prisoner must be released. Any prisoner, or another person acting on his or her behalf, may petition the court, or a judge, One reason for the writ to be sought by a person other than the prisoner is that the detainee might be held incommunicado. Most civil law jurisdictions provide a remedy for those unlawfully detained. For example, in some Spanish-speaking nations, the equivalent remedy for unlawful imprisonment is the amparo de libertad, though a writ of right, it is not a writ of course. So if an imposition such as internment without trial is permitted by the law, in some countries, the writ has been temporarily or permanently suspended under the pretext of war or state of emergency. The right to petition for a writ of habeas corpus has nonetheless long been celebrated as the most efficient safeguard of the liberty of the subject, the most common of the other such prerogative writs are quo warranto, prohibito, mandamus, procedendo, and certiorari. The due process for such petitions is not simply civil or criminal, the official who is the respondent must prove his authority to do or not do something. Failing this, the court must decide for the petitioner, who may be any person and this differs from a motion in a civil process in which the movant must have standing, and bears the burden of proof. From Latin habeas, 2nd person singular present subjunctive active of habere, to have, to hold, in reference to more than one person, habeas corpora. Literally, the means you may have the body. The complete phrase habeas corpus ad subjiciendum means you may have the person for the purpose of subjecting him/her to. These are the words of writs in 14th century Anglo-French documents requiring a person to be brought before a court or judge. The full name of the writ is often used to distinguish it from similar ancient writs, Habeas corpus ad prosequendum, a writ ordering return with a prisoner for the purpose of prosecuting him before the court. Habeas corpus ad respondendum, a writ ordering return to allow the prisoner to answer to new proceedings before the court, Habeas corpus ad testificandum, a writ ordering return with the body of a prisoner for the purposes of testifying. Habeas Corpus originally stems from the Assize of Clarendon, a re-issuance of rights during the reign of Henry II of England, in the 17th century the foundations for habeas corpus were wrongly thought to have originated in Magna Carta. William Blackstone cites the first recorded usage of habeas corpus ad subjiciendum in 1305, however, other writs were issued with the same effect as early as the reign of Henry II in the 12th century. The procedure for issuing a writ of habeas corpus was first codified by the Habeas Corpus Act 1679, a previous law had been passed forty years earlier to overturn a ruling that the command of the King was a sufficient answer to a petition of habeas corpus
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Church of St Mary the Great, Cambridge
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St Mary the Great is a Church of England parish and university church at the north end of Kings Parade in central Cambridge, England. It is known locally as Great St Marys or simply GSM to distinguish it from Little St Marys and it is one of the Greater Churches. It is designated by Historic England as a Grade I listed building, in addition to being a parish church in the Diocese of Ely, it is the university church for the University of Cambridge. As such it has a role in the universitys legislation, for example, university officers must live within 20 miles of Great St Marys. The church also hosts the University Sermons and houses the University Organ, the latter chimes the Cambridge Chimes which were later used by the clock tower of the Houses of Parliament. The first mention of the church is a record of King John presenting Thomas de Chimeleye to the rectory in 1205, the first church on the site of the current one was built in 1205, but this was mostly destroyed by fire 9 July 1290 and then rebuilt. At the time, this fire was attributed to the Jewish population of the city, prior to 1352, it was known as The Church of St Mary the Virgin, but since that year has become known by its modern name. During its early years, the church was the property of the crown, but on 15 July 1342, ownership then passed to Trinity College, where it has rested since. The orders for the consecration of the new church were sent out on 17 May 1346, in the Middle Ages it became an official gathering place for meetings and debates for Cambridge University, but this ceased in 1730 when the Universitys Senate House was built across the street. The present building was constructed between 1478 and 1519, with the tower finished later, in 1608, the cost of construction was covered largely by Richard III and Henry VII. The church was restored by James Essex in 1766, in 1850–51 a restoration was carried out by George Gilbert Scott, followed by further work by Anthony Salvin in 1857. The south porch was rebuilt in 1888, there has been some more restoration work during the 20th century. Various leading philosophers of the English Reformation preached there, notably Erasmus, Martin Bucer, who influenced Thomas Cranmers writing of the Book of Common Prayer, was buried there. The Tractarian movement in the 19th century prompted the removal of the north and south galleries, originally, bells were hung in a wooden structure in the churchyard. In 1515 the bells were moved to the tower and the structure was dismantled, the bells were replaced in 1722 and in 1724, the Society of Cambridge Youths was formed to formalise the responsibility for ringing them. This society lays claim to being the oldest bellringing society in Britain, in 2009 the old ring of bells was replaced with a new ring cast by Taylors Eayre and Smith Ltd, made possible by a donation from Dr Martin C Faulkes. The new ring of 13 bells in the key of D has a tenor weighing 24cwt, some of the original bells have been retained to continue sounding the Cambridge Chimes. The University Organ was originally purchased in 1698, constructed by the organ builder Father Bernard Smith
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University of Oxford
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The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university located in Oxford, England. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris, after disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two ancient universities are frequently referred to as Oxbridge. The university is made up of a variety of institutions, including 38 constituent colleges, All the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university, each controlling its own membership and with its own internal structure and activities. Being a city university, it not have a main campus, instead, its buildings. Oxford is the home of the Rhodes Scholarship, one of the worlds oldest and most prestigious scholarships, the university operates the worlds oldest university museum, as well as the largest university press in the world and the largest academic library system in Britain. Oxford has educated many notable alumni, including 28 Nobel laureates,27 Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford has no known foundation date. Teaching at Oxford existed in form as early as 1096. It grew quickly in 1167 when English students returned from the University of Paris, the historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188 and the first known foreign scholar, Emo of Friesland, arrived in 1190. The head of the university had the title of chancellor from at least 1201, the university was granted a royal charter in 1248 during the reign of King Henry III. After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge, the students associated together on the basis of geographical origins, into two nations, representing the North and the South. In later centuries, geographical origins continued to many students affiliations when membership of a college or hall became customary in Oxford. At about the time, private benefactors established colleges as self-contained scholarly communities. Among the earliest such founders were William of Durham, who in 1249 endowed University College, thereafter, an increasing number of students lived in colleges rather than in halls and religious houses. In 1333–34, an attempt by some dissatisfied Oxford scholars to found a new university at Stamford, Lincolnshire was blocked by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge petitioning King Edward III. Thereafter, until the 1820s, no new universities were allowed to be founded in England, even in London, thus, Oxford and Cambridge had a duopoly, the new learning of the Renaissance greatly influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards. Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn, who contributed to the revival of Greek language studies, and John Colet, the noted biblical scholar. With the English Reformation and the breaking of communion with the Roman Catholic Church, recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe, as a centre of learning and scholarship, Oxfords reputation declined in the Age of Enlightenment, enrolments fell and teaching was neglected
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Oxford University Police
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The Oxford University Police, or Oxford University Constables, was the private police force of the University of Oxford between 1829 and 2003. They carried warrant cards and were empowered to act as police officers within the University precincts, as of 2001 the force existed as a private constabulary with 40 sworn constables. They were abolished by the University Council in 2003, the power of the university to attest constables was granted by the Universities Act 1825, making the University Police among the oldest police forces in the United Kingdom. They were supervised by the University Proctors, and had powers over students. They argued that the Constables were not accountable to any public authority, the circa 40 members of the force were redesignated Proctors Officers. According to the Chancellors 2003 annual report, these members can carry out 95% of the duties without constabulary powers. Thames Valley Police form the current general police force in the Oxfordshire area, proctor Policing in the United Kingdom Cambridge University Constabulary List of former police forces in the United Kingdom Campus police Images of Oxford University Police on Flickr
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Proctor". Encyclopædia Britannica. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 421–422.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "