1.
Education
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Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits. Educational methods include storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, Education frequently takes place under the guidance of educators, but learners may also educate themselves. Education can take place in formal or informal settings and any experience that has an effect on the way one thinks, feels. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy, in most regions education is compulsory up to a certain age. Etymologically, the education is derived from the Latin ēducātiō from ēducō which is related to the homonym ēdūcō from ē-. Education began in prehistory, as trained the young in the knowledge. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation, story-telling passed knowledge, values, and skills from one generation to the next. As cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond skills that could be learned through imitation. Schools existed in Egypt at the time of the Middle Kingdom, plato founded the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in Europe. The city of Alexandria in Egypt, established in 330 BCE, there, the great Library of Alexandria was built in the 3rd century BCE. European civilizations suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the fall of Rome in CE476, after the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church became the sole preserver of literate scholarship in Western Europe. The church established cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centres of advanced education, some of these establishments ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of many of Europes modern universities. During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous, founded in 1088, the University of Bologne is considered the first, and the oldest continually operating university. The Renaissance in Europe ushered in a new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry and appreciation of ancient Greek, around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg developed a printing press, which allowed works of literature to spread more quickly. The European Age of Empires saw European ideas of education in philosophy, religion, arts, the Enlightenment saw the emergence of a more secular educational outlook in Europe. In most countries today, full-time education, whether at school or otherwise, is compulsory for all children up to a certain age, formal education occurs in a structured environment whose explicit purpose is teaching students. Usually, formal education takes place in a environment with classrooms of multiple students learning together with a trained, certified teacher of the subject. Most school systems are designed around a set of values or ideals that govern all educational choices in that system, such choices include curriculum, organizational models, design of the physical learning spaces, student-teacher interactions, methods of assessment, class size, educational activities, and more
2.
Training
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Training is teaching, or developing in oneself or others, any skills and knowledge that relate to specific useful competencies. Training has specific goals of improving ones capability, capacity, productivity and it forms the core of apprenticeships and provides the backbone of content at institutes of technology. People within many professions and occupations may refer to this sort of training as professional development, Physical training concentrates on mechanistic goals, training-programs in this area develop specific skills or muscles, often with a view of peaking at a particular time. Some physical training programs focus on raising overall physical fitness, in military use, training means gaining the physical ability to perform and survive in combat, and learning the many skills needed in a time of war. These include how to use a variety of weapons, outdoor survival skills, while some studies have indicated relaxation training is useful for some medical conditions, autogenic training has limited results or has been the result of few studies. Some commentators use a term for workplace learning to improve performance, training. There are also additional services available online for those who wish to receive training above, some examples of these services include career counseling, skill assessment, and supportive services. One can generally categorize such training as on-the-job or off-the-job, the on-the-job training method takes place in a normal working situation, using the actual tools, equipment, documents or materials that trainees will use when fully trained. On-the-job training has a reputation as most effective for vocational work. It involves employee training at the place of work while he or she is doing the actual job. Usually a professional trainer serves as the course instructor using hands-on training often supported by formal classroom training, sometimes training can occur by using web based technology or video conferencing tools. Simulation based training is another method which uses technology to assist in trainee development and this is particularly common in the training of skills requiring a very high degree of practice, and in those which include a significant responsibility for life and property. An advantage is that simulation training allows the trainer to find, study, off-the-job training method takes place away from normal work situations — implying that the employee does not count as a directly productive worker while such training takes place. Off-the-job training method also involves employee training at an away from the actual work environment. It often utilizes lectures, case studies, role playing and simulation, having the advantage of allowing people to get away from work and this type of training has proven more effective in inculcating concepts and ideas. Many personnel selection companies offer a service which would help to improve employee competences, the internal personnel training topics can vary from effective problem solving skills to leadership training. A more recent development in job training is the On the Job Training Plan, note for example the institutionalised spiritual training of Threefold Training in Buddhism, Meditation in Hinduism or discipleship in Christianity. These aspects of training can be short term or last a lifetime, depending on the context of the training, instructor Guide, is an important document available to an instructor. Specifically, it is used within a Lesson Plan, as the blueprint that ensures instruction is presented in proper sequence, objectives of a lesson plan, To ensure that instructors have considered all factors necessary to conduct a safe and effective lesson
3.
European Union
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The European Union is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of 4,475,757 km2, the EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished, a monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU operates through a system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community, the community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state has left the EU or its antecedent organisations, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the basis of the EU. The EU as a whole is the largest economy in the world, additionally,27 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7, because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower. After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the nationalism which had devastated the continent. 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, the supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul-Henri Spaak. These men and others are credited as the Founding fathers of the European Union. In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome and they also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958, the EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand, Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power, Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission. In 1973, the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland, Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum
4.
Jusepe de Ribera
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Jusepe de Ribera was a Spanish Tenebrist painter and printmaker, also known as José de Ribera and Josep de Ribera. He also was called Lo Spagnoletto by his contemporaries and early writers, Ribera was a leading painter of the Spanish school, although his mature work was all done in Italy. Ribera was born at Xàtiva, near Valencia, Spain and he was baptized on February 17,1591. His father was a shoemaker, perhaps on a large scale, longing to study art in Italy, he made his way to Rome via Parma, where he is recorded in 1611. According to one source, a cardinal noticed him drawing from the frescoes on a Roman palace facade, Roman artists gave him the nickname Lo Spagnoletto. His early biographers generally rank him among the followers of Caravaggio, very little documentation survives from his early years, with scholars speculating as to the precise time and route by which he came to Italy. Ribera was living in Rome no later than 1612, and is documented as having joined the Academy of Saint Luke by 1613, in 1616, Ribera moved to Naples, in order to avoid his creditors. The Kingdom of Naples was then part of the Spanish Empire, Ribera moved to Naples permanently in the middle of 1616. Ribera began to sign his work as Jusepe de Ribera, español, the period after Osuna was recalled in 1620 seems to have been difficult. Few paintings survive from 1620 to 1626, but this was the period in which most of his best prints were produced and these were at least partly an attempt to attract attention from a wider audience than Naples. His career picked up in the late 1620s, and he was accepted as the painter in Naples thereafter. His influence can be seen in Velázquez, Murillo, and most other Spanish painters of the period, all of them were invited to work in Naples, but found the place inhospitable. The cabal ended at the time of Domenichinos death in 1641, according to the RKD he is listed as a pupil of Ribalta and in turn his own pupils were Enrico Fiammingo, Francesco Fracanzano, Luca Giordano, and Bartolomeo Passante. He was followed by Giuseppe Marullo and he influenced the painters Agostino Beltrano, Hendrick van Someren, Paolo Domenico Finoglio, Giovanni Ricca, about 1644, his daughter married a Spanish nobleman in the administration, who died soon after. From 1644, Ribera seems to have suffered serious ill-health, which reduced his ability to work. In 1647–1648, during the Masaniello rising against Spanish rule, he felt forced for some months to take his family with him into refuge in the palace of the Viceroy. In 1651 he sold the house he had owned for many years. In his earlier style, founded sometimes on Caravaggio and sometimes on the wholly diverse method of Correggio, along with his massive and predominating shadows, he retained from first to last a great strength in local coloring
5.
Medicine
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Medicine is the science and practice of the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease. The word medicine is derived from Latin medicus, meaning a physician, Medicine encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness. Medicine has existed for thousands of years, during most of which it was an art frequently having connections to the religious and philosophical beliefs of local culture. For example, a man would apply herbs and say prayers for healing, or an ancient philosopher. In recent centuries, since the advent of modern science, most medicine has become a combination of art, while stitching technique for sutures is an art learned through practice, the knowledge of what happens at the cellular and molecular level in the tissues being stitched arises through science. Prescientific forms of medicine are now known as medicine and folk medicine. They remain commonly used with or instead of medicine and are thus called alternative medicine. For example, evidence on the effectiveness of acupuncture is variable and inconsistent for any condition, in contrast, treatments outside the bounds of safety and efficacy are termed quackery. Medical availability and clinical practice varies across the world due to differences in culture. In modern clinical practice, physicians personally assess patients in order to diagnose, treat, the doctor-patient relationship typically begins an interaction with an examination of the patients medical history and medical record, followed by a medical interview and a physical examination. Basic diagnostic medical devices are typically used, after examination for signs and interviewing for symptoms, the doctor may order medical tests, take a biopsy, or prescribe pharmaceutical drugs or other therapies. Differential diagnosis methods help to rule out conditions based on the information provided, during the encounter, properly informing the patient of all relevant facts is an important part of the relationship and the development of trust. The medical encounter is then documented in the record, which is a legal document in many jurisdictions. Follow-ups may be shorter but follow the general procedure. The diagnosis and treatment may take only a few minutes or a few weeks depending upon the complexity of the issue, the components of the medical interview and encounter are, Chief complaint, the reason for the current medical visit. They are in the patients own words and are recorded along with the duration of each one, also called chief concern or presenting complaint. History of present illness, the order of events of symptoms. Distinguishable from history of illness, often called past medical history
6.
Law
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Law is a system of rules that are created and enforced through social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior. Law as a system helps regulate and ensure that a community show respect, private individuals can create legally binding contracts, including arbitration agreements that may elect to accept alternative arbitration to the normal court process. The formation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitution, written or tacit, the law shapes politics, economics, history and society in various ways and serves as a mediator of relations between people. Islamic Sharia law is the worlds most widely used religious law, the adjudication of the law is generally divided into two main areas referred to as Criminal law and Civil law. Criminal law deals with conduct that is considered harmful to social order, Civil law deals with the resolution of lawsuits between individuals or organizations. Law provides a source of scholarly inquiry into legal history, philosophy, economic analysis. Law also raises important and complex issues concerning equality, fairness, there is an old saying that all are equal before the law, although Jonathan Swift argued that Laws are like cobwebs, which may catch small flies, but let wasps and hornets break through. In 1894, the author Anatole France said sarcastically, In its majestic equality, the law forbids rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, beg in the streets, and steal loaves of bread. Writing in 350 BC, the Greek philosopher Aristotle declared, The rule of law is better than the rule of any individual, mikhail Bakunin said, All law has for its object to confirm and exalt into a system the exploitation of the workers by a ruling class. Cicero said more law, less justice, marxist doctrine asserts that law will not be required once the state has withered away. Regardless of ones view of the law, it today a completely central institution. Numerous definitions of law have been put forward over the centuries, at the same time, it plays only one part in the congeries of rules which influence behavior, for social and moral rules of a less institutionalized kind are also of great importance. There have been attempts to produce a universally acceptable definition of law. In 1972, one indicated that no such definition could be produced. McCoubrey and White said that the question what is law, glanville Williams said that the meaning of the word law depends on the context in which that word is used. He said that, for example, early customary law and municipal law were contexts where the law had two different and irreconcilable meanings. Thurman Arnold said that it is obvious that it is impossible to define the word law and it is possible to take the view that there is no need to define the word law. The history of law links closely to the development of civilization, Ancient Egyptian law, dating as far back as 3000 BC, contained a civil code that was probably broken into twelve books
7.
University
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A university is an institution of higher education and research which grants academic degrees in various academic disciplines. Universities typically provide undergraduate education and postgraduate education, the word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, which roughly means community of teachers and scholars. Universities were created in Italy and evolved from Cathedral schools for the clergy during the High Middle Ages, the original Latin word universitas refers in general to a number of persons associated into one body, a society, company, community, guild, corporation, etc. Like other guilds, they were self-regulating and determined the qualifications of their members, an important idea in the definition of a university is the notion of academic freedom. The first documentary evidence of this comes from early in the life of the first university, the University of Bologna adopted an academic charter, the Constitutio Habita, in 1158 or 1155, which guaranteed the right of a traveling scholar to unhindered passage in the interests of education. Today this is claimed as the origin of academic freedom and this is now widely recognised internationally - on 18 September 1988,430 university rectors signed the Magna Charta Universitatum, marking the 900th anniversary of Bolognas foundation. The number of universities signing the Magna Charta Universitatum continues to grow, the university is generally regarded as a formal institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. The earliest universities were developed under the aegis of the Latin Church by papal bull as studia generalia and it is possible, however, that the development of cathedral schools into universities was quite rare, with the University of Paris being an exception. Later they were founded by Kings or municipal administrations. In the early period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries, the first universities in Europe with a form of corporate/guild structure were the University of Bologna, the University of Paris, and the University of Oxford. The students had all the power … and dominated the masters, princes and leaders of city governments perceived the potential benefits of having a scholarly expertise develop with the ability to address difficult problems and achieve desired ends. The emergence of humanism was essential to understanding of the possible utility of universities as well as the revival of interest in knowledge gained from ancient Greek texts. The rediscovery of Aristotles works–more than 3000 pages of it would eventually be translated–fuelled a spirit of inquiry into natural processes that had begun to emerge in the 12th century. Some scholars believe that these represented one of the most important document discoveries in Western intellectual history. Richard Dales, for instance, calls the discovery of Aristotles works a turning point in the history of Western thought and this became the primary mission of lecturers, and the expectation of students. The university culture developed differently in northern Europe than it did in the south, Latin was the language of the university, used for all texts, lectures, disputations and examinations. Professors lectured on the books of Aristotle for logic, natural philosophy, and metaphysics, while Hippocrates, Galen, outside of these commonalities, great differences separated north and south, primarily in subject matter
8.
Professional ethics
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Professional ethics encompass the personal, organizational, and corporate standards of behavior expected by professionals. The term professionalism originally applied to vows of a religious order, by at least the year 1675, the term had seen secular application and was applied to the three learned professions, Divinity, Law, and Medicine. The term professionalism was also used for the military profession around this same time, professionals and those working in acknowledged professions exercise specialist knowledge and skill. How the use of knowledge should be governed when providing a service to the public can be considered a moral issue and is termed professional ethics. One of the earliest examples of professional ethics is the Hippocratic oath to which medical doctors still adhere to this day, some professional organizations may define their ethical approach in terms of a number of discrete components. This is not only for the benefit of the client but also for the benefit of those belonging to that profession and this allows those professionals who act with a conscience to practice in the knowledge that they will not be undermined commercially by those who have fewer ethical qualms. It also maintains the public’s trust in the profession, encouraging the public to continue seeking their services and this is particularly true of professions in which they have almost a complete monopoly on a particular area of knowledge. For example, until recently, the English courts deferred to the consensus on matters relating to their practice that lay outside case law. In many countries there is statutory regulation of professional ethical standards such as the statutory bodies that regulate nursing and midwifery in England. Failure to comply with these standards can thus become a matter for the courts, for example, a lay member of the public should not be held responsible for failing to act to save a car crash victim because they could not give an appropriate emergency treatment. Though, they are responsible for attempting to get help for the victim and this is because they do not have the relevant knowledge and experience. In contrast, a trained doctor would be capable of making the correct diagnosis. Failure of a doctor to not help at all in such a situation would generally be regarded as negligent, though, if a doctor helps and makes a mistake that is considered negligent and unethical, there could be egregious repercussions. A business may approach a professional engineer to certify the safety of a project which is not safe, on a theoretical level, there is debate as to whether an ethical code for a profession should be consistent with the requirements of morality governing the public. Separatists argue that professions should be allowed to go beyond such confines when they judge it necessary and this is because they are trained to produce certain outcomes which may take moral precedence over other functions of society. This would be a disrespect of the autonomy, as it denies the patient information that could have a great impact on his or her life. This would generally be seen as morally wrong, however, if the end of improving and maintaining health is given a moral priority in society, then it may be justifiable to contravene other moral demands in order to meet this goal. As attending college after high school becomes a standard in the lives of young people
9.
Surveying
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Surveying or land surveying is the technique, profession, and science of determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional position of points and the distances and angles between them. A land surveying professional is called a land surveyor, Surveyors work with elements of geometry, trigonometry, regression analysis, physics, engineering, metrology, programming languages and the law. Surveying has been an element in the development of the environment since the beginning of recorded history. The planning and execution of most forms of construction require it and it is also used in transport, communications, mapping, and the definition of legal boundaries for land ownership. It is an important tool for research in other scientific disciplines. Basic surveyance has occurred since humans built the first large structures, the prehistoric monument at Stonehenge was set out by prehistoric surveyors using peg and rope geometry. In ancient Egypt, a rope stretcher would use simple geometry to re-establish boundaries after the floods of the Nile River. The almost perfect squareness and north-south orientation of the Great Pyramid of Giza, built c.2700 BC, the Groma instrument originated in Mesopotamia. The mathematician Liu Hui described ways of measuring distant objects in his work Haidao Suanjing or The Sea Island Mathematical Manual, the Romans recognized land surveyors as a profession. They established the basic measurements under which the Roman Empire was divided, Roman surveyors were known as Gromatici. In medieval Europe, beating the bounds maintained the boundaries of a village or parish and this was the practice of gathering a group of residents and walking around the parish or village to establish a communal memory of the boundaries. Young boys were included to ensure the memory lasted as long as possible, in England, William the Conqueror commissioned the Domesday Book in 1086. It recorded the names of all the owners, the area of land they owned, the quality of the land. It did not include maps showing exact locations, abel Foullon described a plane table in 1551, but it is thought that the instrument was in use earlier as his description is of a developed instrument. Gunters chain was introduced in 1620 by English mathematician Edmund Gunter and it enabled plots of land to be accurately surveyed and plotted for legal and commercial purposes. Leonard Digges described a Theodolite that measured horizontal angles in his book A geometric practice named Pantometria, joshua Habermel created a theodolite with a compass and tripod in 1576. Johnathon Sission was the first to incorporate a telescope on a theodolite in 1725, in the 18th century, modern techniques and instruments for surveying began to be used. Jesse Ramsden introduced the first precision theodolite in 1787 and it was an instrument for measuring angles in the horizontal and vertical planes
10.
Actuarial science
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Actuarial science is the discipline that applies mathematical and statistical methods to assess risk in insurance, finance and other industries and professions. Actuaries are professionals who are qualified in this field through intense education, in many countries, actuaries must demonstrate their competence by passing a series of thorough professional examinations. Actuarial science includes a number of interrelated subjects, including mathematics, probability theory, statistics, finance, economics, historically, actuarial science used deterministic models in the construction of tables and premiums. The science has gone through changes during the last 30 years due to the proliferation of high speed computers. Many universities have undergraduate and graduate programs in actuarial science. In 2010, a study published by job search website CareerCast ranked actuary as the #1 job in the United States, the study used five key criteria to rank jobs, environment, income, employment outlook, physical demands, and stress. A similar study by U. S. News & World Report in 2006 included actuaries among the 25 Best Professions that it expects will be in demand in the future. Actuarial science became a mathematical discipline in the late 17th century with the increased demand for long-term insurance coverage such as Burial, Life insurance. These long term coverage required that money be set aside to pay future benefits, such as annuity and this led to the development of an important actuarial concept, referred to as the Present value of a future sum. Certain aspects of the methods for discounting pension funds have come under criticism from modern financial economics. Contemporary life insurance programs have extended to include credit and mortgage insurance, key man insurance for small businesses, long term care insurance. The effects of consumer choice and the distribution of the utilization of medical services and procedures. These factors underlay the development of the Resource-Base Relative Value Scale at Harvard in a multi-disciplined study, actuarial science also aids in the design of benefit structures, reimbursement standards, and the effects of proposed government standards on the cost of healthcare. It is common with mergers and acquisitions that several pension plans have to be combined or at least administered on an equitable basis, benefit plans liabilities have to be properly valued, reflecting both earned benefits for past service, and the benefits for future service. Actuarial science is applied to Property, Casualty, Liability. In these forms of insurance, coverage is provided on a renewable period. Coverage can be cancelled at the end of the period by either party, Property and casualty insurance companies tend to specialize because of the complexity and diversity of risks. One division is to organize around personal and commercial lines of insurance, personal lines of insurance are for individuals and include fire, auto, homeowners, theft and umbrella coverages
11.
Civil engineering
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Civil engineering is traditionally broken into a number of sub-disciplines. It is the second-oldest engineering discipline after military engineering, and it is defined to distinguish non-military engineering from military engineering, Civil engineering takes place in the public sector from municipal through to national governments, and in the private sector from individual homeowners through to international companies. Engineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence, during this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of the wheel and sailing. The construction of pyramids in Egypt were some of the first instances of large structure constructions, the Romans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially aqueducts, insulae, harbors, bridges, dams and roads. In the 18th century, the civil engineering was coined to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to military engineering. The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton, who constructed the Eddystone Lighthouse, in 1771 Smeaton and some of his colleagues formed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, a group of leaders of the profession who met informally over dinner. Though there was evidence of some meetings, it was little more than a social society. In 1818 the Institution of Civil Engineers was founded in London, the institution received a Royal Charter in 1828, formally recognising civil engineering as a profession. The first private college to teach engineering in the United States was Norwich University. The first degree in engineering in the United States was awarded by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835. The first such degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by Cornell University to Nora Stanton Blatch in 1905, throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stonemasons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Knowledge was retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by advances, structures, roads and infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental. Brahmagupta, an Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, Civil engineers typically possess an academic degree in civil engineering. The length of study is three to five years, and the degree is designated as a bachelor of engineering. The curriculum generally includes classes in physics, mathematics, project management, design, after taking basic courses in most sub-disciplines of civil engineering, they move onto specialize in one or more sub-disciplines at advanced levels. In most countries, a degree in engineering represents the first step towards professional certification. After completing a degree program, the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements before being certified. Once certified, the engineer is designated as a engineer, a chartered engineer
12.
Logistics
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Logistics is generally the detailed organization and implementation of a complex operation. In a general sense, logistics is the management of the flow of things between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet requirements of customers or corporations. The resources managed in logistics can include items such as food, materials, animals, equipment. The logistics of physical items usually involves the integration of information flow, material handling, production, packaging, inventory, transportation, warehousing, and often security. In military science, logistics is concerned with maintaining army supply lines while disrupting those of the enemy, since an armed force without resources and transportation is defenseless. Military logistics was already practiced in the ancient world and as modern military have a significant need for logistics solutions, in military logistics, logistics officers manage how and when to move resources to the places they are needed. The complexity of logistics can be modeled, analyzed, visualized, the minimization of the use of resources is a common motivation in all logistics fields. A professional working in the field of management is called a logistician. The prevalent view is that the term comes from the late 19th century. Others attribute a Greek origin to the word, λόγος, meaning reason or speech, λογιστικός, the Oxford English Dictionary defines logistics as the branch of military science relating to procuring, maintaining and transporting material, personnel and facilities. As such, logistics is commonly seen as a branch of engineering that creates people systems rather than machine systems and that being said, from a modeling perspective, there are similarities between operations management and logistics, and companies sometimes use hybrid professionals, with for ex. Director of Operations or Logistics Officer working on similar problems, furthermore, the term supply chain management originally refers to, among other issues, having an integrated vision in of both production and logistics from point of origin to point of production. All these terms may suffer from semantic change as an effect of advertising. Outbound logistics is the related to the storage and movement of the final product. Advance Logistics consists of the required to set up or establish a plan for logistics activities to occur. Distribution logistics has, as main tasks, the delivery of the products to the customer. It consists of processing, warehousing, and transportation. Distribution logistics is necessary because the time, place, and quantity of production differs with the time, place, disposal logistics has as its main function to reduce logistics cost and enhance service related to the disposal of waste produced during the operation of a business
13.
Architecture
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Architecture is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings and other physical structures. Architectural works, in the form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements, Architecture can mean, A general term to describe buildings and other physical structures. The art and science of designing buildings and nonbuilding structures, the style of design and method of construction of buildings and other physical structures. A unifying or coherent form or structure Knowledge of art, science, technology, the design activity of the architect, from the macro-level to the micro-level. The practice of the architect, where architecture means offering or rendering services in connection with the design and construction of buildings. The earliest surviving work on the subject of architecture is De architectura. According to Vitruvius, a building should satisfy the three principles of firmitas, utilitas, venustas, commonly known by the original translation – firmness, commodity. An equivalent in modern English would be, Durability – a building should stand up robustly, utility – it should be suitable for the purposes for which it is used. Beauty – it should be aesthetically pleasing, according to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfill each of these three attributes as well as possible. Leon Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, De Re Aedificatoria, saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, for Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealised human figure, the Golden mean. The most important aspect of beauty was, therefore, an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially, Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only true Christian form of architecture. The 19th-century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his Seven Lamps of Architecture, Architecture was the art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men. That the sight of them contributes to his health, power. For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding significance and his work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way adorned. For Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional building needed string courses or rustication, but suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say, This is beautiful, le Corbusiers contemporary Ludwig Mies van der Rohe said Architecture starts when you carefully put two bricks together. The notable 19th-century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan, promoted an overriding precept to architectural design, function came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural
14.
Accounting
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Accounting or accountancy is the measurement, processing and communication of financial information about economic entities such as businesses and corporations. The modern field was established by the Italian mathematician Luca Pacioli in 1494, practitioners of accounting are known as accountants. The terms accounting and financial reporting are often used as synonyms, Accounting can be divided into several fields including financial accounting, management accounting, external auditing, and tax accounting. Accounting information systems are designed to support accounting functions and related activities, Accounting is facilitated by accounting organizations such as standard-setters, accounting firms and professional bodies. Financial statements are audited by accounting firms, and are prepared in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles. GAAP is set by various standard-setting organizations such as the Financial Accounting Standards Board in the United States, as of 2012, all major economies have plans to converge towards or adopt the International Financial Reporting Standards. The history of accounting is thousands of old and can be traced to ancient civilizations. By the time of the Emperor Augustus, the Roman government had access to detailed financial information, double-entry bookkeeping developed in medieval Europe, and accounting split into financial accounting and management accounting with the development of joint-stock companies. The first work on a double-entry bookkeeping system was published in Italy, both the words accounting and accountancy were in use in Great Britain by the mid-1800s, and are derived from the words accompting and accountantship used in the 18th century. In Middle English the verb to account had the form accounten, which was derived from the Old French word aconter, which is in turn related to the Vulgar Latin word computare, meaning to reckon. The base of computare is putare, which meant to prune, to purify, to correct an account, hence, to count or calculate. The word accountant is derived from the French word compter, which is derived from the Italian. Accountancy refers to the occupation or profession of an accountant, particularly in British English, Accounting has several subfields or subject areas, including financial accounting, management accounting, auditing, taxation and accounting information systems. Financial accounting focuses on the reporting of a financial information to external users of the information, such as investors. It calculates and records business transactions and prepares financial statements for the users in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles. GAAP, in turn, arises from the agreement between accounting theory and practice, and change over time to meet the needs of decision-makers. This branch of accounting is also studied as part of the exams for qualifying as an actuary. It is interesting to note that two professionals, accountants and actuaries, have created a culture of being archrivals
15.
Mechanical engineering
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Mechanical engineering is the discipline that applies the principles of engineering, physics, and materials science for the design, analysis, manufacturing, and maintenance of mechanical systems. It is the branch of engineering that involves the design, production and it is one of the oldest and broadest of the engineering disciplines. The mechanical engineering field requires an understanding of areas including mechanics, kinematics, thermodynamics, materials science, structural analysis. Mechanical engineering emerged as a field during the Industrial Revolution in Europe in the 18th century, however, Mechanical engineering science emerged in the 19th century as a result of developments in the field of physics. The field has evolved to incorporate advancements in technology, and mechanical engineers today are pursuing developments in such fields as composites, mechatronics. Mechanical engineers may work in the field of biomedical engineering, specifically with biomechanics, transport phenomena, biomechatronics, bionanotechnology. Mechanical engineering finds its application in the archives of various ancient, in ancient Greece, the works of Archimedes deeply influenced mechanics in the Western tradition and Heron of Alexandria created the first steam engine. In China, Zhang Heng improved a water clock and invented a seismometer, during the 7th to 15th century, the era called the Islamic Golden Age, there were remarkable contributions from Muslim inventors in the field of mechanical technology. Al-Jazari, who was one of them, wrote his famous Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices in 1206 and he is also considered to be the inventor of such mechanical devices which now form the very basic of mechanisms, such as the crankshaft and camshaft. Newton was reluctant to publish his methods and laws for years, gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz is also credited with creating Calculus during the same time frame. On the European continent, Johann von Zimmermann founded the first factory for grinding machines in Chemnitz, education in mechanical engineering has historically been based on a strong foundation in mathematics and science. Degrees in mechanical engineering are offered at universities worldwide. In Spain, Portugal and most of South America, where neither B. Sc. nor B. Tech, programs have been adopted, the formal name for the degree is Mechanical Engineer, and the course work is based on five or six years of training. In Italy the course work is based on five years of education, and training, in Greece, the coursework is based on a five-year curriculum and the requirement of a Diploma Thesis, which upon completion a Diploma is awarded rather than a B. Sc. In Australia, mechanical engineering degrees are awarded as Bachelor of Engineering or similar nomenclature although there are a number of specialisations. The degree takes four years of study to achieve. To ensure quality in engineering degrees, Engineers Australia accredits engineering degrees awarded by Australian universities in accordance with the global Washington Accord, before the degree can be awarded, the student must complete at least 3 months of on the job work experience in an engineering firm. Similar systems are present in South Africa and are overseen by the Engineering Council of South Africa
16.
Pharmacy
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Pharmacy is the science and technique of preparing and dispensing drugs. It is a profession that links health sciences with chemical sciences and aims to ensure the safe. Pharmacists, therefore, are the experts on drug therapy and are the health professionals who optimize use of medication for the benefit of the patients. An establishment in which pharmacy is practiced is called a pharmacy or a chemists, often, collaborative teams from various disciplines work together toward the introduction of new therapeutics and methods for patient care. However, pharmacy is not a basic or biomedical science in its typical form, medicinal chemistry is also a distinct branch of synthetic chemistry combining pharmacology, organic chemistry, and chemical biology. Pharmacology is sometimes considered as the 4th discipline of pharmacy, although pharmacology is essential to the study of pharmacy, it is not specific to pharmacy. Both disciplines are distinct. Those who wish to practice both pharmacy and pharmacology receive separate training and degrees unique to either discipline, pharmacoinformatics is considered another new discipline, for systematic drug discovery and development with efficiency and safety. The World Health Organization estimates that there are at least 2.6 million pharmacists, pharmacists are healthcare professionals with specialised education and training who perform various roles to ensure optimal health outcomes for their patients through the quality use of medicines. Pharmacists may also be small-business proprietors, owning the pharmacy in which they practice, pharmacists are represented internationally by the International Pharmaceutical Federation. In some cases, the body is also the registering body. The Commission for Certification in Geriatric Pharmacy certifies pharmacists in geriatric pharmacy practice, the American Board of Applied Toxicology certifies pharmacists and other medical professionals in applied toxicology. A Pharmacy Technician in the UK has recently referred to by some as a professional. Legislation requires the supervision of certain pharmacy technicians activities by a pharmacist, the majority of pharmacy technicians work in community pharmacies. In hospital pharmacies, pharmacy technicians may be managed by other senior pharmacy technicians, Pharmacy technicians are registered with the General Pharmaceutical Council. The GPhC is the regulator of pharmacists, pharmacy technicians and pharmacy premises, in the US, pharmacy technicians perform their duties under supervision of pharmacists. The earliest known compilation of medicinal substances was the Sushruta Samhita, however, the earliest text as preserved dates to the 3rd or 4th century AD. Many Sumerian cuneiform clay tablets record prescriptions for medicine, Ancient Egyptian pharmacological knowledge was recorded in various papyri such as the Ebers Papyrus of 1550 BC, and the Edwin Smith Papyrus of the 16th century BC. In Ancient Greece, Diocles of Carystus was one of several men studying the properties of plants
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Veterinary medicine
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Veterinary medicine is the branch of medicine that deals with the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of disease, disorder and injury in non-human animals. The scope of medicine is wide, covering all animal species. Veterinary medicine is practiced, both with and without professional supervision. Professional care is most often led by a physician. This can be augmented by other paraprofessionals with specific specialisms such as animal physiotherapy or dentistry, Veterinary science helps human health through the monitoring and control of zoonotic disease, food safety, and indirectly through human applications from basic medical research. They also help to maintain food supply through livestock health monitoring and treatment, Veterinary scientists often collaborate with epidemiologists, and other health or natural scientists depending on type of work. Ethically, veterinarians are obliged to look after animal welfare. The Egyptian Papyrus of Kahun and Vedic literature in ancient India offer one of the first written records of veterinary medicine, first Buddhist Emperor of India edicts of Asoka reads, Everywhere King Piyadasi made two kinds of medicine available, medicine for people and medicine for animals. Where there were no healing herbs for people and animals, he ordered that they be bought, the first attempts to organize and regulate the practice of treating animals tended to focus on horses because of their economic significance. In the Middle Ages from around 475 CE, farriers combined their work in horseshoeing with the general task of horse doctoring. This ultimately led to the establishment of the Worshipful Company of Farriers in 1674, meanwhile, Carlo Ruinis book Anatomia del Cavallo, was published in 1598. It was the first comprehensive treatise on the anatomy of a non-human species, the first veterinary college was founded in Lyon, France in 1762 by Claude Bourgelat. According to Lupton, after observing the devastation being caused by cattle plague to the French herds, the Odiham Agricultural Society was founded in 1783 in England to promote agriculture and industry, and played an important role in the foundation of the veterinary profession in Britain. A founding member, Thomas Burgess, began to take up the cause of animal welfare and campaign for the more humane treatment of sick animals. A1785 Society meeting resolved to promote the study of Farriery upon rational scientific principles. ”The physician James Clark wrote a treatise entitled Prevention of Disease in which he argued for the professionalization of the trade. The Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons was established by charter in 1844. Veterinary science came of age in the late 19th century, with contributions from Sir John McFadyean. In the United States, the first schools were established in the early 19th century in Boston, New York, in 1879, Iowa Agricultural College became the first land grant college to establish a school of veterinary medicine
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Psychology
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Psychology is the science of behavior and mind, embracing all aspects of conscious and unconscious experience as well as thought. It is a discipline and a social science which seeks to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles. In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a social, behavioral, Psychologists explore behavior and mental processes, including perception, cognition, attention, emotion, intelligence, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, and personality. This extends to interaction between people, such as relationships, including psychological resilience, family resilience, and other areas. Psychologists of diverse orientations also consider the unconscious mind, Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. Psychology has been described as a hub science, with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the sciences, natural sciences, medicine, humanities. By many accounts psychology ultimately aims to benefit society, the majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings. Many do scientific research on a range of topics related to mental processes and behavior. The word psychology derives from Greek roots meaning study of the psyche, the Latin word psychologia was first used by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his book, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae in the late 15th century or early 16th century. In 1890, William James defined psychology as the science of mental life and this definition enjoyed widespread currency for decades. Also since James defined it, the more strongly connotes techniques of scientific experimentation. Folk psychology refers to the understanding of people, as contrasted with that of psychology professionals. The ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, historians note that Greek philosophers, including Thales, Plato, and Aristotle, addressed the workings of the mind. As early as the 4th century BC, Greek physician Hippocrates theorized that mental disorders had physical rather than supernatural causes, in China, psychological understanding grew from the philosophical works of Laozi and Confucius, and later from the doctrines of Buddhism. This body of knowledge involves insights drawn from introspection and observation and it frames the universe as a division of, and interaction between, physical reality and mental reality, with an emphasis on purifying the mind in order to increase virtue and power. Chinese scholarship focused on the advanced in the Qing Dynasty with the work of Western-educated Fang Yizhi, Liu Zhi. Distinctions in types of awareness appear in the ancient thought of India, a central idea of the Upanishads is the distinction between a persons transient mundane self and their eternal unchanging soul. Divergent Hindu doctrines, and Buddhism, have challenged this hierarchy of selves, yoga is a range of techniques used in pursuit of this goal
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Nursing
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Nursing is a profession within the health care sector focused on the care of individuals, families, and communities so they may attain, maintain, or recover optimal health and quality of life. Nurses may be differentiated from other health care providers by their approach to patient care, training, Nurses practice in many specialisms with differing levels of prescriber authority. Many nurses provide care within the scope of physicians. However, nurses are permitted by most jurisdictions to practice independently in a variety of settings depending on training level, Nurses may help coordinate the patient care performed by other members of an interdisciplinary health care team such as therapists, medical practitioners and dietitians. Nurses provide care both interdependently, for example, with physicians, and independently as nursing professionals, Nursing historians face the challenge of determining whether care provided to the sick or injured in antiquity was nursing care. In the fifth century BC, for example, the Hippocratic Collection in places describes skilled care and observation of patients by male attendants, who may have been early nurses. Hence, any one desirous of acquiring a knowledge of anatomy should prepare a dead body and carefully, observe, by dissecting it. Before the foundation of modern nursing, members of religious orders such as nuns, examples exist in Christian, Islamic and Buddhist traditions amongst others. Phoebe, mentioned in Romans 16 has been described in sources as the first visiting nurse. These traditions were influential in the development of the ethos of modern nursing, the religious roots of modern nursing remain in evidence today in many countries. One example in the United Kingdom is the use of the sister to refer to a senior nurse. During the Reformation of the 16th century, Protestant reformers shut down the monasteries and convents and those nuns who had been serving as nurses were given pensions or told to get married and stay home. Nursing care went to the inexperienced as traditional caretakers, rooted in the Roman Catholic Church, were removed from their positions, the nursing profession suffered a major setback for approximately 200 years. Florence Nightingale laid the foundations of professional nursing during the Crimean War and her Notes on Nursing became popular. Agnes Jones, who established a training regime at the Brownlow Hill infirmary, Liverpool. In turn, the modern movement began in Germany in 1836. Within a half century, there were over 5,000 deaconesses in Europe, formal use of nurses in the modern military began in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Nurses saw active duty in the First Boer War, the Egyptian Campaign, hospital-based training came to the fore in the early 1900s, with an emphasis on practical experience
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Teacher
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A teacher is a person who helps others to acquire knowledge, competences or values. Informally the role of teacher may be taken on by anyone, in some countries, teaching young people of school age may be carried out in an informal setting, such as within the family, rather than in a formal setting such as a school or college. Some other professions may involve a significant amount of teaching, in most countries, formal teaching is usually carried out by paid professional teachers. This article focuses on those who are employed, as their role, to teach others in a formal education context. A teachers role may vary among cultures, Teachers may provide instruction in literacy and numeracy, craftsmanship or vocational training, the arts, religion, civics, community roles, or life skills. Formal teaching tasks include preparing lessons according to agreed curricula, giving lessons, a teachers professional duties may extend beyond formal teaching. In some education systems, teachers may have responsibility for student discipline, Teaching is a highly complex activity. This is in part because teaching is a practice, that takes place in a specific context. Factors that influence what is expected of teachers include history and tradition, social views about the purpose of education, so the competences required by a teacher are affected by the different ways in which the role is understood around the world. Broadly, there seem to be four models, the teacher as manager of instruction, the teacher as caring person, the teacher as expert learner, some evidence-based international discussions have tried to reach such a common understanding. Scholarly consensus is emerging that what is required of teachers can be grouped under three headings, knowledge craft skills and dispositions and it has been found that teachers who showed enthusiasm towards the course materials and students can create a positive learning experience. These teachers do not teach by rote but attempt to find new invigoration for the materials on a daily basis. One of the challenges facing teachers is that they may have covered a curriculum until they begin to feel bored with the subject. Students who had enthusiastic teachers tend to rate them higher than teachers who didnt show much enthusiasm for the course materials, Teachers that exhibit enthusiasm can lead to students who are more likely to be engaged, interested, energetic, and curious about learning the subject matter. Recent research has found a correlation between teacher enthusiasm and students intrinsic motivation to learn and vitality in the classroom, students who experienced a very enthusiastic teacher were more likely to read lecture material outside of the classroom. There are various mechanisms by which teacher enthusiasm may facilitate higher levels of intrinsic motivation, teacher enthusiasm may contribute to a classroom atmosphere of energy and enthusiasm which feeds student interest and excitement in learning the subject matter. Enthusiastic teachers may also lead to becoming more self-determined in their own learning process. The concept of mere exposure indicates that the teachers enthusiasm may contribute to the expectations about intrinsic motivation in the context of learning
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Library science
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Rather than classifying information based on nature-oriented elements, as was previously done in his Bavarian library, Schrettinger organized books in alphabetical order. The first American school for science was founded by Melvil Dewey at Columbia University in 1887. It is an aspect of the field of librarianship. Historically, library science has also included archival science, LIS should not be confused with information theory, the mathematical study of the concept of information. Library and information science can also be seen as an integration of the two fields of science and information science, which were separate at one point. Library philosophy has been contrasted with science as the study of the aims. The earliest text on library operations, Advice on Establishing a Library was published in 1627 by French librarian, Naudé wrote prolifically, producing works on many subjects including politics, religion, history, and the supernatural. He put into all the ideas put forth in Advice when given the opportunity to build. Martin Schrettinger wrote the textbook on the subject from 1808 to 1829. The Jefferson collection provided the start of what became the Library of Congress, the term library economy was common in the U. S. until 1942, with the library science predominant through much of the 20th century. Later, the term was used in the title of S. R. Ranganathans The Five Laws of Library Science, published in 1931, and in the title of Lee Pierce Butlers 1933 book, An introduction to library science. S. R. Ranganathan conceived the five laws of science and the development of the first major analytico-synthetic classification system. In India, he is considered to be the father of science, documentation. He was one of the first faculty at the University of Chicago Graduate Library School and this research agenda went against the more procedure-based approach of library economy, which was mostly confined to practical problems in the administration of libraries. While Ranganathans approach was philosophical it was tied more to the day-to-day business of running a library. A reworking of Ranganathans laws was published in 1995 which removes the constant references to books, in more recent years, with the growth of digital technology, the field has been greatly influenced by information science concepts. This university was the first in Asia to begin teaching library science, the Punjab Library Primer was the first textbook on library science published in English anywhere in the world. The first textbook in the United States was the Manual of Library Economy and this report had a significant impact on library science training and education
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Social work
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Social work is an academic and practice-based professional discipline that seeks to facilitate the welfare of communities, individuals, families, and groups. Social work tries to promote change and grassroots empowerment of people and aids in socioeconomic development, social cohesion. A practicing professional with a degree in social work is called a social worker, the practice and profession of social work has a relatively modern and scientific origin, and is generally considered to have developed out of three strands. The first was individual casework, a strategy pioneered by the Charity Organization Society in the mid-19th century, the second was social administration, which included various forms of poverty relief – relief of paupers. Statewide poverty relief could be said to have its roots in the English Poor Laws of the 17th century and this approach was developed originally by the Settlement House Movement. This was accompanied by an easily defined movement, the development of institutions to deal with the entire range of social problems. All had their most rapid growth during the century, and laid the foundational basis for modern social work. Because poverty was the focus of early social work, it was intricately linked with the idea of charity work. With the decline of feudalism in 16th century England, the indigent poor came to be seen as a direct threat to the social order. The first complete code of poor relief was made in the Act for the Relief of the Poor 1597 and it created a system administered at parish level, paid for by levying local rates on rate payers. Relief for those too ill or old to work, the impotent poor, was in the form of a payment or items of food or clothing also known as outdoor relief. The Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834 completely overhauled the system in Britain. This included the forming together of small parishes into Poor Law Unions, the 19th century saw a great leap forward in technological and scientific achievement. There was also a migration to urban areas throughout the Western world. This galvanised the socially active, prosperous middle and upper classes to search for ways to ameliorate the physical and spiritual conditions of the poor underclasses. A new philosophy of scientific charity emerged, which stated charity should be secular, rational and empirical as opposed to sectarian, sentimental, COS had its main focus on individual casework. It supported the concept of self-help and limited government intervention to deal with the effects of poverty, the organisation claimed to use scientific principles to root out scroungers and target relief where it was most needed. Octavia Hill is regarded by many as the founder of social work
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Monopoly
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A monopoly exists when a specific person or enterprise is the only supplier of a particular commodity. The verb monopolise or monopolize refers to the process by which a company gains the ability to raise prices or exclude competitors, in economics, a monopoly is a single seller. In law, a monopoly is an entity that has significant market power, that is. Although monopolies may be big businesses, size is not a characteristic of a monopoly, a small business may still have the power to raise prices in a small industry. A monopoly is distinguished from a monopsony, in there is only one buyer of a product or service. Likewise, a monopoly should be distinguished from a cartel, in which several providers act together to coordinate services, prices or sale of goods. Monopolies, monopsonies and oligopolies are all situations in one or a few entities have market power and therefore interact with their customers. Monopolies can be established by a government, form naturally, or form by integration, in many jurisdictions, competition laws restrict monopolies. A government-granted monopoly or legal monopoly, by contrast, is sanctioned by the state, patents, copyrights, and trademarks are sometimes used as examples of government-granted monopolies. The government may also reserve the venture for itself, thus forming a government monopoly, There are four basic types of market structures in traditional economic analysis, perfect competition, monopolistic competition, oligopoly and monopoly. A monopoly is a structure in which a single supplier produces, if there is a single seller in a certain market and there are no close substitutes for the product, then the market structure is that of a pure monopoly. Sometimes, there are many sellers in an industry and/or there exist many close substitutes for the goods being produced and this is termed monopolistic competition, whereas in oligopoly the companies interact strategically. Most economic textbooks follow the practice of explaining the perfect competition model. The boundaries of what constitutes a market and what does not are relevant distinctions to make in economic analysis, in a general equilibrium context, a good is a specific concept including geographical and time-related characteristics. Most studies of market structure relax a little their definition of a good, price Maker, Decides the price of the good or product to be sold, but does so by determining the quantity in order to demand the price desired by the firm. High Barriers, Other sellers are unable to enter the market of the monopoly, single seller, In a monopoly, there is one seller of the good, who produces all the output. Therefore, the market is being served by a single company, and for practical purposes. Price Discrimination, A monopolist can change the price or quantity of the product and he or she sells higher quantities at a lower price in a very elastic market, and sells lower quantities at a higher price in a less elastic market
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Inns of Court
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The Inns of Court in London are the professional associations for barristers in England and Wales. All barristers must belong to one such association and they have supervisory and disciplinary functions over their members. The Inns also provide libraries, dining facilities and professional accommodation, several centuries ago the Inns of Court were any of a sizable number of buildings or precincts where barristers traditionally lodged, trained and carried on their profession. The records of Grays Inn begin in 1569, but teaching is thought to have there in the late fourteenth century. The Inns are near the boundary of the City of London, nearby are the Royal Courts of Justice. Each Inn is a complex with a great hall, chapel, libraries, sets of chambers for many hundreds of barristers, and gardens. The layout is similar to that of an Oxbridge college, the chambers were originally used as residences as well as business premises by many of the barristers, but today, with a small number of exceptions, they serve as offices only. Each of the four Inns of Court has three grades of membership, students, barristers, and Masters of the Bench or benchers. The benchers constitute the body for each Inn and appoint new members from among existing barrister members. As a rule, any member of the Inn is eligible for appointment. Prospective students may choose which Inn to apply to for membership, an applicant may choose a particular Inn because he or she knows someone already a member, or it has a student association at their university. It makes no difference which Inn a barrister joins. The senior bencher of each Inn is the Treasurer, a position which is held for one year only, each Inn usually also has at least one Royal Bencher. They may also appoint Honorary Benchers, from academics, the world of politics, all prospective Bar School students must be a member of one of the four Inns, and must attend twelve qualifying sessions before being eligible to qualify as a barrister. Qualifying sessions traditionally comprise formal dinners followed by law-related talks, the Inns still retain the sole right to call qualified students to the bar, a right currently found in section 207 of the Legal Services Act 2007. The Inns disciplinary functions are carried out by a joint Council of the Inns of Court, barristers are prosecuted by the Bar Standards Board. The four Inns are near one another in central London, middle Temple and Inner Temple are liberties of the City of London, which means they are within the historic boundaries of the City but are not subject to its jurisdiction. They operate as their own local authorities and these two Inns neighbour each other and occupy the core of the Temple area
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Psychotherapy
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Psychotherapy is the use of psychological methods, particularly when based on regular personal interaction, to help a person change and overcome problems in desired ways. Certain psychotherapies are considered evidence-based for treating some diagnosed mental disorders, there are over a thousand different psychotherapy techniques, some being minor variations, while others are based on very different conceptions of psychology, ethics or techniques. Most involve one-to-one sessions, between client and therapist, but some are conducted with groups, including families, the term psychotherapy is derived from Ancient Greek psyche and therapeia. The Oxford English Dictionary defines it now as The treatment of disorders of the mind or personality by psychological methods, the American Psychological Association adopted a resolution on the effectiveness of psychotherapy in 2012 based on a definition developed by John C. Some definitions of counseling overlap with psychotherapy, or counseling may refer to guidance for everyday problems in specific areas, somatotherapy refers to the use of physical methods as treatments, and sociotherapy to the use of a persons social environment to effect therapeutic change. Historically psychotherapy has sometimes meant interpretative methods, namely psychoanalysis, in contrast with other methods to treat disorders such as behavior modification. Psychotherapy is often dubbed talking therapy, particularly for a general audience, children or adults who do not engage in verbal communication are not excluded from psychotherapy, indeed some types are designed for such cases. Psychotherapists may be mental health professionals, professionals from other backgrounds trained in a specific therapy, psychiatrists are first trained as physicians. As such, they may prescribe prescription medication, specialist psychiatric training begins after medical school in psychiatric residencies. Clinical psychologists have specialist doctoral degrees in psychology with clinical and research components, clinical social workers, mental health and intellectual disability nurses may have specialized training and practical experience in psychotherapy. Many of the variety of training programs and institutional settings are multi-professional. In most countries professionals doing specialized psychotherapeutic work also require a program of continuing education after the basic degree, as sensitive and deeply personal topics are often discussed during psychotherapy, therapists are expected, and usually legally bound, to respect client or patient confidentiality. As of 2015 there is much variation between European countries. A few have no regulation of the practice or no protection of the title, which titles are protected also varies. The European Association for Psychotherapy set up after the 1990 Strasbourg Declaration on Psychotherapy attempts to set independent pan-European standards, Social workers may complete the specialist training for child and teenage clients. Similarly in Italy, the practice of psychotherapy is restricted to graduates in psychology or medicine who have completed four years of recognised specialist training, austria and Switzerland have laws that recognize multidifunctional-disciplinary approaches. In the United Kingdom, psychotherapy is voluntarily regulated, there are many smaller professional bodies and associations such as the Association of Child Psychotherapists and the British Psychotherapy Foundation. Licensing and regulation are performed by the various states, presentation of practice as licensed, but without such a license, is generally illegal
26.
Association of Business Psychologists
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The Association of Business Psychologists is the professional representative, deliberative and regulatory institution for business psychologists in the United Kingdom and Ireland. It holds regular conferences, approves university courses in the field, negotiates on behalf of the profession, the first chair was Dr Brian Baxter. The Association was renamed the Association for Business Psychology following a vote in December 2013. The current chair is Clodagh OReilly, the Associations purpose is to champion business psychology. Business Psychology is the study and practice of improving working life and it combines an understanding of the science of human behaviour with experience of the world of work to attain effective and sustainable performance for both individuals and organisations. Examples of how business psychology is applied can be found in a collection of case studies, further examples are published regularly on the ABP website at http, //www. theabp. org. uk/news. aspx
27.
Test (assessment)
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A test or examination is an assessment intended to measure a test-takers knowledge, skill, aptitude, physical fitness, or classification in many other topics. A test may be administered verbally, on paper, on a computer, Tests vary in style, rigor and requirements. A test may be administered formally or informally, an example of an informal test would be a reading test administered by a parent to a child. An example of a formal test would be an examination administered by a teacher in a classroom or an I. Q. test administered by a psychologist in a clinic. Formal testing often results in a grade or a test score, a test score may be interpreted with regards to a norm or criterion, or occasionally both. The norm may be established independently, or by analysis of a large number of participants. An exam is meant to test a childs knowledge or willingness to give time to manipulate that subject, a standardized test is any test that is administered and scored in a consistent manner to ensure legal defensibility. Standardized tests are used in education, professional certification, psychology, the military. A non-standardized test is flexible in scope and format, variable in difficulty. Since these tests are developed by individual instructors, the format. A non-standardized test may be used to determine the level of students, to motivate students to study. Finally, the frequency and setting by which a non-standardized tests are administered are highly variable and are constrained by the duration of the class period. A class instructor may for example, administer a test on a basis or just twice a semester. Depending on the policy of the instructor or institution, the duration of each test itself may last for five minutes to an entire class period. In contrasts to non-standardized tests, standardized tests are used, fixed in terms of scope, difficulty and format. Although there is variability between different copies of the same type of standardized test, there is variability between different types of standardized tests. Any test with important consequences for the individual test taker is referred to as a high-stakes test, a test may be developed and administered by an instructor, a clinician, a governing body, or a test provider. In some instances, the developer of the test may not be responsible for its administration
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Ethical code
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Ethical codes are adopted by organizations to assist members in understanding the difference between right and wrong and in applying that understanding to their decisions. An ethical code generally implies documents at three levels, codes of ethics, codes of conduct for employees, and codes of professional practice. Many companies use the phrases ethical code and code of conduct interchangeably, a code of ethics will start by setting out the values that underpin the code and will describe a companys obligation to its stakeholders. The code is available and addressed to anyone with an interest in the companys activities. It will include details of how the plans to implement its values and vision, as well as guidance to staff on ethical standards. However, a code of conduct is generally addressed to and intended for employees alone and it usually sets out restrictions on behavior, and will be far more compliance or rules focused than value or principle focused. A code of practice is adopted by a profession or by a governmental or non-governmental organization to regulate that profession, in a membership context, failure to comply with a code of practice can result in expulsion from the professional organization. Listed below are a few examples of professional codes from the Society of Professional Journalists, minimize Harm - Public Relations Society of America Code of Ethics – It is possible to get the truth out without having to put someone’s life and reputation in jeopardy. Being patient and being able to listen and make the right make a better PR. Being able to get along with the individual is beneficial to both yourself and the client, show Loyalty - Public Relations Society of America Code of Ethics - be faithful to those we represent, while honoring our obligation to serve the public interest. Act Fairly - Public Relations Society of America Code of Ethics - deal fairly with clients, employers, competitors, peers, vendors, the media, respect all opinions and support the right of free expression. Act Independently - Society of Professional Journalists Code of Ethics – being independent and taking on your own ventures and this means that you take risks to get the job done. Minimize Harm - Society of Professional Journalists Code of Ethics - Balance the public’s need for information against potential harm or discomfort, pursuit of the news is not a license for arrogance or undue intrusiveness. Balance a suspect’s right to a trial with the public’s right to know. Consider the implications of identifying criminal suspects before they face legal charges, act Independently - Society of Professional Journalist Code of Ethics - Avoid conflicts of interest, real or perceived. They are distinct from moral codes that may apply to the culture, education, often, acts that violate ethical codes may also violate a law or regulation and can be punishable at law or by government agency remedies. Even organizations and communities that may be considered criminal in nature may have ethical codes of conduct, examples could include hacker communities, bands of thieves, and street gangs. The Jewish Written Torah and Oral Torah comprise the earliest and best preserved ethical code, adapted to every field of actual day-to-day life for thousands of years, Jewish Halakha is the oldest collective body of religious laws, laws and jurisdictions still in use
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United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
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Association of Chartered Certified Accountants
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Founded in 1904, the Association of Chartered Certified Accountants is the global professional accounting body offering the Chartered Certified Accountant qualification. From June 2016, ACCA recorded that it has 188,000 members and 480,000 students in 178 countries, ACCAs headquarters are in London with principal administrative office in Glasgow. ACCA works through a network of 100 offices and centres and more than 7,100 Approved Employers worldwide, the term Chartered in ACCA qualification refers to the Royal Charter granted in 1974. Chartered Certified Accountant is a protected term. The Association of Authorised Public Accountants, one of the British professional bodies for public accountants, has been a subsidiary of ACCA since 1996, ACCA works in the public interest, assuring that its members are appropriately regulated. ACCA actively seeks to enhance the value of accounting in society through international research and it takes progressive stances on global issues to ensure accountancy as a profession continues to grow in reputation and influence. As of 2006, the goal of ACCA is to become the world’s largest global professional body, key dates in ACCA history include,1930, London Association of Accountants successfully campaigns for the right to audit companies. 1933, London Association of Accountants renamed London Association of Certified Accountants,1939, Corporation of Accountants merges with London Association of Certified Accountants to become the Association of Certified and Corporate Accountants. 1941, Institution of Certified Public Accountants merges with Association of Certified,1971, Association of Certified and Corporate Accountants renamed Association of Certified Accountants. 1974, Royal Charter Queen Elizabeth II,1974, ACCA becomes one of six founding members of the Consultative Committee of Accountancy Bodies. 1977, ACCA becomes a member of the International Federation of Accountants. 1984, Association of Certified Accountants renamed Chartered Association of Certified Accountants,1995, ACCA members vote at an extraordinary general meeting to rename itself Association of Chartered Public Accountants and to introduce the designation Chartered Public Accountant. The Privy Council subsequently rejected this proposal over concerns about the term public and it did however agree that any accountancy body bearing a royal charter could use chartered as part of its designation. 1996, Chartered Association of Certified Accountants renamed Association of Chartered Certified Accountants, members become entitled to use the title Chartered Certified Accountant. The Association of Authorised Public Accountants became a subsidiary of ACCA, ACCA was a participant in the consultative group that devised this global Benchmark. 2001, ACCA received a Queens Award for Enterprise in International Trade, recognising ACCAs growth,2002, ACCA received its second Queens Award for Enterprise in the space of 12 months, in the Sustainable Development category. The award recognized ACCAs continuing work on social and environmental issues,2009, ACCA members allowed to provide probate services as of 1 August under Probate Services Order 2009 Number 1588. 2011 to 2012, ACCA is the first accountancy body to publish an integrated report 2014, ACCA members, the ACCA professional examinations are offered worldwide four times yearly, in March, June, September and December as paper-based exams
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Chartered Accountants Ireland
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Established by Royal Charter on 14 May 1888, Chartered Accountants Ireland is Irelands largest and fastest growing accountancy body. For almost ten years Chartered Accountants Ireland has been the fastest growing accountancy body in the UK and Ireland, Chartered Accountants Ireland represents more than 25,000 members throughout the globe. Chartered Accountants Ireland works with governments and businesses to raise awareness of the importance of financial advice. Fully qualified members of Chartered Accountants Ireland earn the designation ACA, after 10 years membership, members are invited to apply for fellowship of their Institute and earn the designation FCA. In 2007 the Chartered Accountants Regulatory Board was established to develop Standards of Professional Conduct and to supervise the compliance of members, member firms, affiliates and students. They initiated an investigation into the circumstances around the issue of inappropriate directors loans at Anglo Irish Bankand into the performance of Ernst, in 2009, independent Senator Shane Ross said the Institute ranks with the Central Bank of Ireland as the winner of the wooden spoon for watchdogs. The first Chairman of the Regulatory Board, had companies he is a director of, fined a total of €3.35 million by the Central Bank of Ireland, for risk control and reporting failures. In 2009 Chartered Accountants House on Pearse St. was officially opened by President McAleese, with new resources for its members and conferencing facilities. The Irish Times, the newspaper of record, in April 2010 raised questions about the role of Institute Members in relation to the crisis affecting the banking sector. It described the Chartered Accountants Irelands complaints committees behaviour as a substantive failure, the move of the role to an independent, state-run body is seen as a more stringent approach to enforcing audit standards. This follows on from an EU recommendation that member states needed to ‘‘up their game’’ in the monitoring of public interest bodies. The Director of Corporate Enforcement, Paul Appleby, in February 2011 said, there were grounds for questioning the consistency and he had taken issue on numerous occasions with the quality of audit work and audit reports issued by accountants. Occasionally, this has resulted in admissions of lapses, and where appropriate, at the same time, the Revenue Commissioners said that current audits said little about the business model of firms or their liquidity position. The states auditing watchdog warned Irish listed companies that it wants to see better financial reporting in 2011, an April 2011 report into the Irish banking collapse criticised the role of external auditors in failing to identify and warn of the risky lending practices being adopted by Irish banks. It said auditors took a narrow interpretation of their job description and it found the external auditors of the main Irish banks consistently failed to report excesses over prudential sector lending limits to the Central Bank of Ireland. In July 2011, the Chartered Accountants Regulatory Board was fined a record €110,000 by IAASA, the third time the Institute was fined in the space of eight months. Later in the month the Central Bank again put the work of Auditors under the mircoscope following their failure to spot systematic. In July 2012, the Institute was criticised when it was discovered that it charged Trainee Accountants in the Republic €600 more than those in Northern Ireland for doing exactly the same course
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Chartered Institute of Management Accountants
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The Chartered Institute of Management Accountants is a UK based professional body offering training and qualification in management accountancy and related subjects. It is focused on working in industry, and provides ongoing support. CIMA is one of the professional associations for accountants in the UK and its particular emphasis is on developing the management accounting profession. CIMA is the largest management accounting body in the world more than 227,000 members. CIMA is also a member of the International Federation of Accountants, CIMA was founded in 1919 as The Institute of Cost and Works Accountants. It specialised in the development of accounting techniques for use in the control of manufacturing, service. It developed a position as the professional body in the areas of product costing, budgeting, management accounting, investment appraisal. In October 1944, the Institute of Cost and Works Accountants organisation in Ireland was formed and its membership has grown from 15,000 in 1970 to 79,757 members and 92,909 students in 2009. CIMA operates a scheme of qualifying examinations for prospective members. CIMA has been active in recent educational and vocational initiatives in former Eastern bloc countries and it publishes a monthly journal, supplied free to members and registered students, called Financial Management. CIMA is recognised as an accounting body for various statutory purposes by UK. The institute regulates the activities of its members by a code of practice, a discipline committee and its governing body is its council, comprising members elected from regional branches. Each of the branches has a committee and is responsible for much of the grass roots activity, activity such as qualification development is undertaken from the London head office. In July 2009, CIMA added an online community – CIMAsphere – to its website, the community consisted of a range of blogs, discussion boards, groups, community answers, expert Q&A sessions and some social networking features for members, students and the general public. This has since shut down. Members are instead encouraged to join the CIMA LinkedIn group, and students are directed to CIMAconnect, in the Americas outside the U. S. non-U. S. CPAs can obtain the new designation as an AICPA International Associate, in the rest of the world, new designation holders are able to become members of CIMA after the same assessment process. The result of research from across 20 countries in five continents, to become a Fellow, a candidate ACMA must, in addition, have appropriate experience at a senior level
