1.
Digitization
–
Digitizing or digitization is the representation of an object, image, sound, document or signal by generating a series of numbers that describe a discrete set of its points or samples. The result is called digital representation or, more specifically, an image, for the object. Unlike analog data, which typically suffers some loss of quality each time it is copied or transmitted, digital data can, in theory and this is why it is a favored way of preserving information for many organisations around the world. The term digitization is often used when diverse forms of information, such as text, sound, Digital information exists as one of two digits, either 0 or 1. These are known as bits and the sequences of 0s and 1s that constitute information are called bytes. Analog signals are continuously variable, both in the number of values of the signal at a given time, as well as in the number of points in the signal in a given period of time. Digitization occurs in two parts, Discretization The reading of an analog signal A, and, at time intervals. Each such reading is called a sample and may be considered to have infinite precision at this stage, Quantization Samples are rounded to a set of numbers. In general, these can occur at the time, though they are conceptually distinct. A series of integers can be transformed into an analog output that approximates the original analog signal. Such a transformation is called a DA conversion, the sampling rate and the number of bits used to represent the integers combine to determine how close such an approximation to the analog signal a digitization will be. The term is used to describe the scanning of analog sources into computers for editing. In this last case, as in normal photos, sampling rate refers to the resolution of the image, Digitization is also used to describe the process of populating databases with files or data. Digitizing may also used in the field of apparel, where an image may be recreated with the help of embroidery digitizing software tools and this machine code is fed into an embroidery machine and applied to the fabric. The most supported format is DST file, apparel companies also digitize clothing patterns Analog signals are continuous electrical signals, digital signals are non-continuous. Analog signal can be converted to digital signal by ADC, nearly all recorded music has been digitized. About 12 percent of the 500, 000+ movies listed on the Internet Movie Database are digitized on DVD, handling of analog signal becomes easy when it is digitized because the signal is digitized before modulation and transmission. The conversion process of analog to digital consists of two processes, sampling and quantizing, Digitization of personal multimedia such as home movies, slides, and photographs is a popular method of preserving and sharing older repositories
2.
Culture
–
Culture can be defined in numerous ways. In the words of anthropologist E. B, Tylor, it is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. The Cambridge English Dictionary states that culture is the way of life, especially the customs and beliefs. As a defining aspect of what it means to be human, culture is a concept in anthropology. The word is used in a sense as the evolved ability to categorize and represent experiences with symbols. The level of cultural sophistication has also sometimes seen to distinguish civilizations from less complex societies. Mass culture refers to the mass-produced and mass mediated forms of culture that emerged in the 20th century. When used as a count noun, a culture is the set of customs, traditions, in this sense, multiculturalism is a concept that values the peaceful coexistence and mutual respect between different cultures inhabiting the same planet. Sometimes culture is used to describe specific practices within a subgroup of a society. Samuel Pufendorf took over this metaphor in a context, meaning something similar. His use, and that of many writers after him, refers to all the ways in which human beings overcome their original barbarism, and through artifice, become fully human. To be cultural, to have a culture, is to inhabit a place sufficiently intensive to cultivate it—to be responsible for it, to respond to it, thus a contrast between culture and civilization is usually implied in these authors, even when not expressed as such. Cultural invention has come to any innovation that is new and found to be useful to a group of people and expressed in their behavior. Humanity is in a global accelerating culture change period, driven by the expansion of commerce, the mass media, and above all. Culture repositioning means the reconstruction of the concept of a society. Cultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change, Social conflict and the development of technologies can produce changes within a society by altering social dynamics and promoting new cultural models, and spurring or enabling generative action. These social shifts may accompany ideological shifts and other types of cultural change, for example, the U. S. feminist movement involved new practices that produced a shift in gender relations, altering both gender and economic structures. Environmental conditions may also enter as factors, Cultures are externally affected via contact between societies, which may also produce—or inhibit—social shifts and changes in cultural practices
3.
EBooks
–
An electronic book is a book publication made available in digital form, consisting of text, images, or both, readable on the flat-panel display of computers or other electronic devices. Although sometimes defined as a version of a printed book. Commercially produced and sold e-books are usually intended to be read on dedicated e-reader devices, however, almost any sophisticated computer device that features a controllable viewing screen can also be used to read e-books, including desktop computers, laptops, tablets and smartphones. In the 2000s, there was a trend of print and e-book sales moving to the Internet, where readers buy traditional paper books and e-books on websites using e-commerce systems. With e-books, users can browse through online, and then when they select and order titles. At the start of 2012 in the U. S. more e-books were published online than were distributed in hardcover, the main reasons that people are buying e-books online are possibly lower prices, increased comfort and a larger selection of titles. With e-books, lectronic bookmarks make referencing easier, and e-book readers may allow the user to annotate pages, although fiction and non-fiction books come in e-book formats, technical material is especially suited for e-book delivery because it can be searched for keywords. In addition, for programming books, code examples can be copied, E-book reading is increasing in the U. S. by 2014, 28% of adults had read an e-book, compared to 23% in 2013. This is increasing, because by 2014 50% of American adults had an e-reader or a tablet, E-books are also referred to as ebooks, eBooks, e-Books, e-journals, e-editions or as digital books. The devices that are designed specifically for reading e-books are called e-readers, the idea of an e-reader that would enable a reader to view books on a screen came to Bob Brown after watching his first talkie. In 1930, he wrote a book on this idea and titled it The Readies, although Brown came up with the idea intellectually in the 1930s, early commercial e-readers did not follow his model. Schuessler relates it to a DJ spinning bits of old songs to create a beat or a new song as opposed to just a remix of a familiar song. The inventor of the first e-book is not widely agreed upon and her idea behind the device was to decrease the number of books that her pupils carried to the school. The first e-book may be the Index Thomisticus, a heavily annotated electronic index to the works of Thomas Aquinas, prepared by Roberto Busa beginning in 1949, although originally stored on a single computer, a distributable CD-ROM version appeared in 1989. In 2005, the Index was published online, augment ran on specialized hardware, while FRESS ran on IBM mainframes. All these systems also provided extensive hyperlinking, graphics, and other capabilities, van Dam is generally thought to have coined the term electronic book, and it was established enough to use in an article title by 1985. FRESS was used for reading extensive primary texts online, as well as for annotation and online discussions in several courses, Brown faculty made extensive use of FRESS, for example the philosopher Roderick Chisholm used it to produce several of his books. Thus in the Preface to Person and Object he writes The book would not have been completed without the epoch-making File Retrieval, despite the extensive earlier history, several publications report Michael S. Hart as the inventor of the e-book
4.
Michael S. Hart
–
Michael Stern Hart was an American author, best known as the inventor of the e-book and the founder of Project Gutenberg, the first project to make e-books freely available via the Internet. He published e-books years before the Internet existed via the ARPANET, Hart devoted his life after founding PG in 1971 to digitizing and distributing literature from works in the public domain with free and expired copyrights. The first e-books were typed in plain text format and published as text files, Hart typed most of the early e-books himself, later, volunteers expanded the project. Michael Hart was born on March 8,1947, in Tacoma and his father was an accountant and his mother, a former cryptanalyst during World War II, was a business manager at a retail store. In 1958 his family relocated to Urbana, Illinois, and his father and mother became college professors in Shakespearean studies and mathematics education, Hart attended the University of Illinois, graduating in just two years with a degree in Human-Machine Interfaces. He then attended but did not complete graduate school and he was also, briefly, a street musician. Although the focus of computer use there tended to be data processing, Hart was aware that it was connected to a network and he typed the text into the computer but was told that it would be unacceptable to transmit it to numerous people at once via e-mail. Thus, to crashing the e-mail system, he made the e-text available for people to download. This was the beginning of Project Gutenberg as the first digital library, Hart began posting text copies of such classics as the Bible and the works of Homer, Shakespeare, and Mark Twain. As of 1987 he had typed in a total of 313 books in this fashion, with this the project was able to grow much more rapidly. His initial goal was to make the 10,000 most consulted books available to the public at little or no charge, Hart was an author and his works are available free of charge on the Project Gutenberg server. He was also a member of the RepRap Project, which aims at creating a self-replicating machine, Hart was involved in an early effort in 1993 to develop a free and openly accessible Internet Encyclopedia, called Interpedia. However, the effort did not go beyond the planning stage, Hart cobbled together a living with the money he earned as an adjunct professor and with grants and donations to Project Gutenberg. He supported himself by doing odd jobs and used an unpaid appointment at Illinois Benedictine College to solicit donations for the project, I know that sounds odd to most people, but I just never bought into the money system all that much. I never spent it when I got it and its all a matter of perspective. Harts expenses were minimized by his habits of using home remedies, fixing his own house and car, and building computers, stereos, Hart died on September 6,2011 of a heart attack at his home in Urbana, Illinois. Michael Harts email messages and blog posts had equal line length paragraphs in monospaced font, history of the Internet Harts personal page Harts Online Writings Works by Michael Hart at Project Gutenberg Selected interviews Project Gutenberg’s Founder, the Inventor of the eBook, Fried Beef. Michael Hart and Greg Newby, Pustakam
5.
Public domain
–
The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have been forfeited, or are inapplicable. Examples for works not covered by copyright which are therefore in the domain, are the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes. Examples for works actively dedicated into public domain by their authors are reference implementations of algorithms, NIHs ImageJ. The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, as rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required. Although the term public domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined many things that cannot be privately owned as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight. The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, when the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century, instead of public domain they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The phrase fall in the domain can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain. Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being different sizes at different times in different countries. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the public domain and equates the public domain to public property. However, the usage of the public domain can be more granular. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights, the materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival
6.
Book
–
A book is a set of written, printed, illustrated, or blank sheets, made of paper, parchment, or other materials, fastened together to hinge at one side, with text and/or images printed in ink. A single sheet within a book is a leaf, and each side of a leaf is a page, a set of text-filled or illustrated pages produced in electronic format for reading on a computer screen, smartphone or e-reader device is known as an electronic book, or e-book. The term books may refer the body of works of literature. In library and information science, a book is called a monograph, to distinguish it from serial periodicals such as magazines, journals, in novels and sometimes other types of books, a book may be divided into several large sections, also called books. An avid reader or collector of books or a lover is a bibliophile or colloquially. A shop where books are bought and sold is a bookshop or bookstore, Books are also sold in some department stores, drugstores and newspaper vendors. Books can also be borrowed from libraries, google has estimated that as of 2010, approximately 130,000,000 distinct titles had been published. In some wealthier nations, printed books are giving way to the usage of electronic or e-books, the word book comes from Old English bōc, which in turn comes from the Germanic root *bōk-, cognate to beech. Similarly, in Slavic languages буква is cognate with beech, in Russian and in Serbian and Macedonian, the word букварь or буквар refers specifically to a primary school textbook that helps young children master the techniques of reading and writing. It is thus conjectured that the earliest Indo-European writings may have been carved on beech wood, similarly, the Latin word codex, meaning a book in the modern sense, originally meant block of wood. When writing systems were created in ancient civilizations, a variety of objects, such as stone, clay, tree bark, metal sheets, the study of such inscriptions forms a major part of history. The study of inscriptions is known as epigraphy, the Ancient Egyptians would often write on papyrus, a plant grown along the Nile River. At first the words were not separated from other and there was no punctuation. Texts were written right to left, left to right. The technical term for that last type of writing is boustrophedon, a tablet might be defined as a physically robust writing medium, suitable for casual transport and writing. See also stylus, the instrument used to write on a tablet, clay tablets were flattened and mostly dry pieces of clay that could be easily carried, and impressed with a stylus. They were used as a medium, especially for writing in cuneiform, throughout the Bronze Age. Tablets were used by traders to record sales of such as bushels of grain
7.
Text file
–
A text file is a kind of computer file that is structured as a sequence of lines of electronic text. A text file exists within a file system. The end of a file is often denoted by placing one or more special characters. Such markers were required under the CP/M and MS-DOS operating systems, on modern operating systems such as Windows and Unix-like systems, text files do not contain any special EOF character. Text file refers to a type of container, while plain text refers to a type of content, Text files can contain plain text, but they are not limited to such. At a generic level of description, there are two kinds of files, text files and binary files. Because of their simplicity, text files are used for storage of information. They avoid some of the problems encountered with other formats, such as endianness, padding bytes. Further, when data corruption occurs in a file, it is often easier to recover. A disadvantage of text files is that usually have a low entropy. A simple text file needs no additional metadata to assist the reader in interpretation, and therefore may contain no data at all, the ASCII character set is the most common format for English-language text files, and is generally assumed to be the default file format in many situations. For accented and other characters, it is necessary to choose a character encoding. In many systems, this is chosen on the basis of the locale setting on the computer it is read on. Common character encodings include ISO 8859-1 for many European languages, because many encodings have only a limited repertoire of characters, they are often only usable to represent text in a limited subset of human languages. Unicode is an attempt to create a standard for representing all known languages. On most operating systems the name text file refers to file format that only plain text content with very little formatting. Such files can be viewed and edited on text terminals or in text editors. Text files usually have the MIME type text/plain, usually with additional information indicating an encoding, MS-DOS and Windows use a common text file format, with each line of text separated by a two-character combination, carriage return and line feed
8.
HTML
–
Hypertext Markup Language is the standard markup language for creating web pages and web applications. With Cascading Style Sheets and JavaScript it forms a triad of cornerstone technologies for the World Wide Web, Web browsers receive HTML documents from a webserver or from local storage and render them into multimedia web pages. HTML describes the structure of a web page semantically and originally included cues for the appearance of the document, HTML elements are the building blocks of HTML pages. With HTML constructs, images and other objects, such as interactive forms and it provides a means to create structured documents by denoting structural semantics for text such as headings, paragraphs, lists, links, quotes and other items. HTML elements are delineated by tags, written using angle brackets, tags such as <img /> and <input /> introduce content into the page directly. Include explicit close tags for elements that permit content but are left empty, by carefully following the W3Cs compatibility guidelines, a user agent should be able to interpret the document equally as HTML or XHTML. For documents that are XHTML1.0 and have made compatible in this way. When delivered as XHTML, browsers should use an XML parser, HTML4 defined three different versions of the language, Strict, Transitional and Frameset. The Transitional and Frameset versions allow for presentational markup, which is omitted in the Strict version, instead, cascading style sheets are encouraged to improve the presentation of HTML documents. Because XHTML1 only defines an XML syntax for the language defined by HTML4, as this list demonstrates, the loose versions of the specification are maintained for legacy support. However, contrary to popular misconceptions, the move to XHTML does not imply a removal of this legacy support, rather the X in XML stands for extensible and the W3C is modularizing the entire specification and opening it up to independent extensions. The primary achievement in the move from XHTML1.0 to XHTML1.1 is the modularization of the entire specification, the strict version of HTML is deployed in XHTML1.1 through a set of modular extensions to the base XHTML1.1 specification. Likewise, someone looking for the loose or frameset specifications will find similar extended XHTML1.1 support, the modularization also allows for separate features to develop on their own timetable. So for example, XHTML1.1 will allow quicker migration to emerging XML standards such as MathML, in summary, the HTML4 specification primarily reined in all the various HTML implementations into a single clearly written specification based on SGML. XHTML1.0, ported this specification, as is, next, XHTML1.1 takes advantage of the extensible nature of XML and modularizes the whole specification. XHTML2.0 was intended to be the first step in adding new features to the specification in a standards-body-based approach. The WHATWG considers their work as living standard HTML for what constitutes the state of the art in major browser implementations by Apple, Google, Mozilla, Opera, hTML5 is specified by the HTML Working Group of the W3C following the W3C process. HTML lacks some of the found in earlier hypertext systems, such as source tracking, fat links
9.
Portable Document Format
–
The Portable Document Format is a file format used to present documents in a manner independent of application software, hardware, and operating systems. Each PDF file encapsulates a complete description of a fixed-layout flat document, including the text, fonts, graphics, PDF was developed in the early 1990s as a way to share computer documents, including text formatting and inline images. It was among a number of competing formats such as DjVu, Envoy, Common Ground Digital Paper, Farallon Replica, in those early years before the rise of the World Wide Web and HTML documents, PDF was popular mainly in desktop publishing workflows. Adobe Systems made the PDF specification available free of charge in 1993 and these proprietary technologies are not standardized and their specification is published only on Adobe’s website. Many of them are not supported by popular third-party implementations of PDF. So when organizations publish PDFs which use proprietary technologies, they present accessibility issues for some users. In 2014, ISO TC171 voted to deprecate XFA for ISO 32000-2, on January 9,2017, the final draft for ISO 32000-2 was published, thus reaching the approval stage. The PDF combines three technologies, A subset of the PostScript page description programming language, for generating the layout, a font-embedding/replacement system to allow fonts to travel with the documents. A structured storage system to bundle these elements and any associated content into a single file, PostScript is a page description language run in an interpreter to generate an image, a process requiring many resources. It can handle graphics and standard features of programming such as if. PDF is largely based on PostScript but simplified to remove flow control features like these, often, the PostScript-like PDF code is generated from a source PostScript file. The graphics commands that are output by the PostScript code are collected and tokenized, any files, graphics, or fonts to which the document refers also are collected. Then, everything is compressed to a single file, therefore, the entire PostScript world remains intact. PDF supports graphic transparency, PostScript does not, PostScript is an interpreted programming language with an implicit global state, so instructions accompanying the description of one page can affect the appearance of any following page. Therefore, all preceding pages in a PostScript document must be processed to determine the appearance of a given page. A PDF file is a 7-bit ASCII file, except for elements that may have binary content. A PDF file starts with a header containing the magic number, the format is a subset of a COS format. A COS tree file consists primarily of objects, of which there are eight types, Boolean values, representing true or false Numbers Strings, enclosed within parentheses, objects may be either direct or indirect
10.
EPUB
–
EPUB is an e-book file format with the extension. epub that can be downloaded and read on devices like smartphones, tablets, computers, or e-readers. It is a standard published by the International Digital Publishing Forum. The term is short for electronic publication and is sometimes styled ePub, EPUB became an official standard of the IDPF in September 2007, superseding the older Open eBook standard. The Book Industry Study Group endorses EPUB3 as the format of choice for packaging content and has stated that the book publishing industry should rally around a single standard. EPUB is the most widely supported vendor-independent XML-based e-book format, that is, EPUB2.0 was approved in October 2007, with a maintenance update approved in September 2010. The EPUB3.0 specification became effective in October 2011, new major features include support for precise layout or specialized formatting, such as for comic books, and MathML support. The current version of EPUB is 3.1, effective January 5,2017, the format specification underwent reorganization and clean-up, format supports remotely-hosted resources and new font formats and uses more pure HTML and CSS. In May 2016 IDPF Members approved World Wide Web Consortium merger, to align the publishing industry. Like an HTML web site, the format supports inline raster and vector images, metadata and this could affect the level of support for various DRM systems on devices and the portability of purchased e-books. Consequently, such DRM incompatibility may segment the EPUB format along the lines of DRM systems, undermining the advantages of a standard format. It is also used on many software readers such as iBooks on iOS and Google Books on Android. IBooks also supports the proprietary format, which is based on the EPUB format. As final product As in the eBook market PDF format is not generally sold at sites that sell eBooks, the main EPUB producers are suppliers of public domain and open licensed content, as Project Gutenberg, PubMed Central, SciELO and many others. In that context is growing and replacing the PDF format, data interchange EPUB is a popular way to feed ebook creation process, because is an open format and is based in HTML, while Amazons format is proprietary. EPUB is the first step content format in many production process, an EPUB file is a ZIP archive that contains, in effect, a website—including HTML files, images, CSS style sheets, and other assets. EPUB3 is the latest version, by using HTML5, publications can contain video, audio, and interactivity, just like websites in web browsers. An ePub publication is delivered as a single file and this file is an unencrypted zipped archive containing a set of interrelated resources. An OCF Abstract Container defines a system model for the contents of the container
11.
Mobipocket
–
On October 31,2016, Amazon permanently shut down the Mobipocket website and servers. Mobipocket. com was bought by Amazon. com in 2005, Amazons acquisition was believed to be a result of Adobe Systems’ announcement that it would no longer sell its eBook packaging and serving software. An alpha release of the Java-based version of the Mobipocket reader was available for cellphones on June 30,2008. There is also a reader for desktop computers running Microsoft Windows and it has been widely reported that since Amazons acquisition of Mobipocket, software support, user support, and platform growth was ended. In December 2011, it was reported that Amazon officially notified the book publishers that it was ending support for Mobipocket, the status of Mobipocket Digital Rights Management content previously purchased by users continues to be unclear since no other ebook reader supports its proprietary DRM method. The software provides, A personalized press review using the Mobipocket Web Companion, eBooks, including for each book a biography of the writer. Each downloaded eBook is registered in the My Mobipocket personal virtual library, a secure reading system, as a result of the encryption of eBooks using DRM and unique signature, a timestamp added to each book at the time of purchase. Depending on the device, different functions are available, when transferring documents to other device types, functions that are not supported on the device will be ignored, but the information one is reading will not be altered or deleted. Each book has one or two language attribute, in the case it is meant to be a dictionary. As a typical example, reading a book in Fr language, dictionaries are always unidirectional so Fr → En dictionary cannot be used in reverse - a separate En → Fr dictionary is needed for that. There is a reader for personal computers that works with either encrypted or unencrypted Mobipocket books. Unencrypted Mobipocket books can be read on the Amazon Kindle natively, as well as in Amazon Kindle programs on Mac OS X, iOS devices, Android devices, Windows, and Windows Phone devices. By using third-party programs such as Lexcycle Stanza, calibre or Okular, unencrypted Mobipocket books can also be read on Mac OS X, iOS, Android devices and Linux. Third party tools exist to decrypt encrypted Mobipocket books, allowing them to be read using software that does not support encryption, a user can thus create documents in the Mobipocket format. mobi and use personal comments, bookmarks, and more on all devices supporting those features. Mobipocket has not released a version for Android, long term plans for the Mobipocket platform are in question in the wake of Amazons announcement of the Kindle Format 8, which moves in the direction of HTML5 and CSS3. As one of the most popular e-readers, the Kindle has great sway in the popularity of e-reader formats, comparison of e-book formats List of e-book readers Microsoft Reader TomeRaider Official website
12.
Plucker
–
Plucker is an offline Web and free e-book reader for Palm OS based handheld devices, Windows Mobile devices, and other PDAs. Plucker contains POSIX tools, scripts, and conduits which work on Linux, Mac OS X, Microsoft Windows, Web pages can be processed, compressed, and transferred to the PDA for viewing by the Plucker viewer. Plucker is licensed under the GNU General Public License and is free software, Wikipedia, Snapshots - Subset of 2000 Wikipedia articles available in Plucker format FBReader - a free software FictionBook ebook reader which can also view Plucker and HTML files. Official website Source code SourceForge Google Project Hosting Sample Plucker documents for dozens of different ebooks, Plucker Projects, aka Plucker Workshop Vade-Mecum, Plucker viewer for Pocket PC
13.
Distributed Proofreaders
–
Distributed Proofreaders is a web-based project that supports the development of e-texts for Project Gutenberg by allowing many people to work together in proofreading drafts of e-texts for errors. By July 2015, over 30,000 texts had been digitized, Distributed Proofreaders was founded by Charles Franks in 2000 as an independent site to assist Project Gutenberg. Distributed Proofreaders became an official Project Gutenberg site in 2002, dP-contributed e-texts comprised more than half of works in Project Gutenberg, as of July 2015. On 31 July 2006, the Distributed Proofreaders Foundation was formed to provide Distributed Proofreaders with its own legal entity, IRS approval of section 501 status was granted retroactive to 7 April 2006. Public domain works, typically books with expired copyright, are scanned by volunteers or sourced from digitization projects, since OCR software is far from perfect, often a large number of errors appear in the resulting text. To correct them, pages are available to volunteers via the Internet, the original page image. This process thereby distributes the time-consuming error-correction process, akin to distributed computing, each page is proofread and formatted several times, and then a post-processor combines the pages and prepares the text for uploading to Project Gutenberg. Besides custom software created to support the project, DP also runs a forum, in January 2004, Distributed Proofreaders Europe started, hosted by Project Rastko, Serbia. This site had the ability to text in Unicode UTF-8 encoding. Books proofread centered mainly on European culture, with a proportion of non-English texts including Hebrew, Arabic, Urdu. As of October 2013, DP Europe had produced 787 e-texts, the original DP is sometimes referred to as DP International by members of DP Europe. In December 2007, Distributed Proofreaders Canada launched to support the production of e-books for Project Gutenberg Canada, although it was established by members of the original Distributed Proofreaders site, it is a separate entity. All of its projects are posted to Faded Page, their book archive website, in addition, it supplies books to Project Gutenberg Canada and to the original Project Gutenberg. In addition to preserving Canadiana, DP Canada is notable because it is the first major effort to take advantage of Canadas copyright laws which may allow more works to be preserved, unlike copyright law in some other countries, Canada has a life plus 50 copyright term. On 9 March 2007, Distributed Proofreaders announced completing more than 10,000 titles, in celebration, a block of 15 titles was published, Slave Narratives, Oklahoma by the U. S. Work Projects Administration Eighth annual report of the Bureau of ethnology, graded literature readers - Fourth book, editors, Harry Pratt Judson and Ida C. net Project Madurai Lebert, Marie. Project Gutenberg, from 1971 to 2005
14.
United States Declaration of Independence
–
Instead they formed a new nation—the United States of America. John Adams was a leader in pushing for independence, which was passed on July 2 with no opposing vote cast, a committee of five had already drafted the formal declaration, to be ready when Congress voted on independence. The term Declaration of Independence is not used in the document itself, John Adams persuaded the committee to select Thomas Jefferson to compose the original draft of the document, which Congress would edit to produce the final version. The next day, John Adams wrote to his wife Abigail, The Second Day of July 1776, will be the most memorable Epocha, but Independence Day is actually celebrated on July 4, the date that the Declaration of Independence was approved. After ratifying the text on July 4, Congress issued the Declaration of Independence in several forms and it was initially published as the printed Dunlap broadside that was widely distributed and read to the public. The source copy used for printing has been lost. Jeffersons original draft, complete with changes made by John Adams and Benjamin Franklin, the best known version of the Declaration, a signed copy that is popularly regarded as the official document, is displayed at the National Archives in Washington, D. C. This engrossed copy was ordered by Congress on July 19, the sources and interpretation of the Declaration have been the subject of much scholarly inquiry. Having served its purpose in announcing independence, references to the text of the Declaration were few in the following years. Abraham Lincoln made it the centerpiece of his rhetoric, and his policies and this has been called one of the best-known sentences in the English language, containing the most potent and consequential words in American history. The passage came to represent a standard to which the United States should strive. Believe me, dear Sir, there is not in the British empire a man who more cordially loves a union with Great Britain than I do. But, by the God that made me, I will cease to exist before I yield to a connection on such terms as the British Parliament propose, and in this, I think I speak the sentiments of America. By the time that the Declaration of Independence was adopted in July 1776, relations had been deteriorating between the colonies and the mother country since 1763. Parliament enacted a series of measures to increase revenue from the colonies, such as the Stamp Act of 1765, Parliament believed that these acts were a legitimate means of having the colonies pay their fair share of the costs to keep them in the British Empire. Many colonists, however, had developed a different conception of the empire, the colonies were not directly represented in Parliament, and colonists argued that Parliament had no right to levy taxes upon them. This tax dispute was part of a divergence between British and American interpretations of the British Constitution and the extent of Parliaments authority in the colonies. In the colonies, however, the idea had developed that the British Constitution recognized certain fundamental rights that no government could violate, after the Townshend Acts, some essayists even began to question whether Parliament had any legitimate jurisdiction in the colonies at all
15.
SDS Sigma series
–
The SDS Sigma series is a series of computers that were introduced by Scientific Data Systems in 1966. The first machines in the series are the 16-bit Sigma 2 and the 32-bit Sigma 7, at the time the only competition for the Sigma 7 was the IBM360. Memory size increments for all SDS/XDS/Xerox computers are stated in kWords, for example, the Sigma 5 base memory is 16K 32-Bit words. Maximum memory is limited by the length of the address field of 17 bits. Although this is an amount of memory in todays technology, Sigma systems performed their tasks exceptionally well, and few were deployed with, or needed. The Xerox 500 series computers, introduced starting in 1973, are compatible upgrades to the Sigma systems using newer technology, in 1975 Xerox sold its computer business to Honeywell, Inc. which continued support for the Sigma line for a time. The Sigma 9 may hold the record for the longest lifetime of a machine selling near the retail price. Sigmas 9s were still in service in 1993, in 2011 the Living Computer Museum in Seattle, Washington acquired a Sigma 9 from a service bureau and has made it operational. That Sigma 9 CPU was at the University of Southern Mississippi until Nov.1985 when Andrews University purchased it, in Feb.1990 Andrews University via Keith Calkins sold and delivered it to Applied Esoterics in Flagstaff. Keith Calkins made the Sigma 9 functional for the museum in 2012/13, the various other system components came from various other user sites, such as Marquette, Samford, Xerox/Dallas. Bits 1-7 contain the operation code Bits 8-11 encode a register operand Bits 12-14 encode an index register, Bits 16-31 encode the address of a memory word. Sigma systems provided a range of performance, roughly doubling from Sigma 5, the slowest, to Sigma 9 Model 3, the fastest. For example, 32-bit fixed point multiply times ranged from 7.2 to 3.8 μs, most Sigma systems included two or more blocks of 16 general-purpose registers. Switching blocks is accomplished by an instruction, providing fast context switching. Memory in the Sigma systems can be addressed as individual bytes, halfwords, words, all 32-bit Sigma systems except the Sigma 5 and Sigma 8 used a memory map to implement virtual memory. The following description applies to the Sigma 9, other models have minor differences, the effective virtual address of a word is 17 bits wide. Virtual addresses 0 thru 15 are reserved to reference the general purpose register. Otherwise, in virtual memory mode the high-order eight bits of an address, the thirteen bits from the map register plus the remaining nine bits of the virtual address form the address used to access real memory
16.
Mainframe computer
–
The term originally referred to the large cabinets called main frames that housed the central processing unit and main memory of early computers. Later, the term was used to distinguish high-end commercial machines from less powerful units, most large-scale computer system architectures were established in the 1960s, but continue to evolve. Their high stability and reliability enable these machines to run uninterrupted for decades, Mainframes are defined by high availability, one of the main reasons for their longevity, since they are typically used in applications where downtime would be costly or catastrophic. The term reliability, availability and serviceability is a characteristic of mainframe computers. Proper planning and implementation is required to exploit these features, and if improperly implemented, in the late 1950s, most mainframes had no explicitly interactive interface, but only accepted sets of punched cards, paper tape, or magnetic tape to transfer data and programs. In cases where interactive terminals were supported, these were used almost exclusively for applications rather than program development, typewriter and Teletype devices were also common control consoles for system operators through the 1970s, although ultimately supplanted by keyboard/display devices. By the early 1970s, many mainframes acquired interactive user interfaces and operated as timesharing computers, users gained access through specialized terminals or, later, from personal computers equipped with terminal emulation software. By the 1980s, many mainframes supported graphical terminals, and terminal emulation and this format of end-user computing reached mainstream obsolescence in the 1990s due to the advent of personal computers provided with GUIs. After 2000, most modern mainframes have partially or entirely phased out classic green screen terminal access for end-users in favour of Web-style user interfaces, the infrastructure requirements were drastically reduced during the mid-1990s, when CMOS mainframe designs replaced the older bipolar technology. IBM claimed that its newer mainframes could reduce data center energy costs for power and cooling, modern mainframes can run multiple different instances of operating systems at the same time. This technique of virtual machines allows applications to run as if they were on physically distinct computers, in this role, a single mainframe can replace higher-functioning hardware services available to conventional servers. While mainframes pioneered this capability, virtualization is now available on most families of computer systems, Mainframes can add or hot swap system capacity without disrupting system function, with specificity and granularity to a level of sophistication not usually available with most server solutions. Modern mainframes, notably the IBM zSeries, System z9 and System z10 servers, such a two-mainframe installation can support continuous business service, avoiding both planned and unplanned outages. In practice many customers use multiple mainframes linked either by Parallel Sysplex and shared DASD, or with shared, Mainframes are designed to handle very high volume input and output and emphasize throughput computing. Since the late-1950s, mainframe designs have included subsidiary hardware which manage the I/O devices and it is common in mainframe shops to deal with massive databases and files. Gigabyte to terabyte-size record files are not unusual, compared to a typical PC, mainframes commonly have hundreds to thousands of times as much data storage online, and can access it reasonably quickly. Other server families also offload I/O processing and emphasize throughput computing, Mainframes also have execution integrity characteristics for fault tolerant computing. This hardware-level feature, also found in HPs NonStop systems, is known as lock-stepping, not all applications absolutely need the assured integrity that these systems provide, but many do, such as financial transaction processing
17.
ARPANET
–
The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network was an early packet switching network and the first network to implement the protocol suite TCP/IP. Both technologies became the foundation of the Internet. ARPANET was initially funded by the Advanced Research Projects Agency of the United States Department of Defense, the packet switching methodology employed in the ARPANET was based on concepts and designs by Americans Leonard Kleinrock and Paul Baran, British scientist Donald Davies, and Lawrence Roberts. The TCP/IP communications protocols were developed for ARPANET by computer scientists Robert Kahn and Vint Cerf, as the project progressed, protocols for internetworking were developed by which multiple separate networks could be joined into a network of networks. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation funded the Computer Science Network, in 1982, the Internet protocol suite was introduced as the standard networking protocol on the ARPANET. Packet switching—today the dominant basis for data communications worldwide—was a new concept at the time of the conception of the ARPANET, such stations might be telephones or computers. The dedicated line typically comprises many intermediary lines which are assembled into a chain that stretches all the way from the station to the destination station. Thus, not only can the link be shared, much as a single post box can be used to post letters to different destinations and those ideas encompassed many of the features of the contemporary Internet. In October 1963, Licklider was appointed head of the Behavioral Sciences and Command and he convinced Ivan Sutherland and Bob Taylor that this network concept was very important and merited development, although Licklider left ARPA before any contracts were assigned for development. Taylor recalls the circumstance, For each of three terminals, I had three different sets of user commands. So, if I was talking online with someone at S. D. C. and I wanted to talk to someone I knew at Berkeley, or M. I. T. about this, I had to get up from the S. D. C. Terminal, go over and log into the terminal and get in touch with them. Its obvious what to do, If you have three terminals, there ought to be one terminal that goes anywhere you want to go. Donald Davies at the United Kingdoms National Physical Laboratory independently invented the concept in 1965. His work, presented by a colleague, initially caught the attention of ARPANET developers at a conference in Gatlinburg, Tennessee and he gave the first public demonstration, having coined the term packet switching, on 5 August 1968 and incorporated it into the NPL network in England. Larry Roberts at ARPA applied Davies concepts of packet switching for the ARPANET, the NPL network followed by ARPANET were the first two networks in the world to use packet switching, and were themselves connected together in 1973. The NPL network was using line speeds of 768 kbit/s, by mid-1968, Taylor had prepared a complete plan for a computer network, and, after ARPAs approval, a Request for Quotation was issued for 140 potential bidders. Most computer science companies regarded the ARPA–Taylor proposal as outlandish, and only twelve submitted bids to build a network, of the twelve, at years end, ARPA considered only two contractors, and awarded the contract to build the network to BBN Technologies on 7 April 1969
18.
Internet
–
The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite to link devices worldwide. The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the United States federal government in the 1960s to build robust, the primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. Although the Internet was widely used by academia since the 1980s, Internet use grew rapidly in the West from the mid-1990s and from the late 1990s in the developing world. In the two decades since then, Internet use has grown 100-times, measured for the period of one year, newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The entertainment industry was initially the fastest growing segment on the Internet, the Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries, the Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage, each constituent network sets its own policies. The term Internet, when used to refer to the global system of interconnected Internet Protocol networks, is a proper noun. In common use and the media, it is not capitalized. Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized when used as a noun, the Internet is also often referred to as the Net, as a short form of network. Historically, as early as 1849, the word internetted was used uncapitalized as an adjective, the designers of early computer networks used internet both as a noun and as a verb in shorthand form of internetwork or internetworking, meaning interconnecting computer networks. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably in everyday speech, however, the World Wide Web or the Web is only one of a large number of Internet services. The Web is a collection of interconnected documents and other web resources, linked by hyperlinks, the term Interweb is a portmanteau of Internet and World Wide Web typically used sarcastically to parody a technically unsavvy user. The ARPANET project led to the development of protocols for internetworking, the third site was the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center at the University of California, Santa Barbara, followed by the University of Utah Graphics Department. In an early sign of growth, fifteen sites were connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971. These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks, early international collaborations on the ARPANET were rare. European developers were concerned with developing the X.25 networks, in December 1974, RFC675, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, used the term internet as a shorthand for internetworking and later RFCs repeated this use. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation funded the Computer Science Network, in 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite was standardized, which permitted worldwide proliferation of interconnected networks.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s. Commercial Internet service providers emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990
