1.
The Zap Gun
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The Zap Gun is a 1967 science fiction novel by American author Philip K. Dick. It was written in 1964 and first published under the title Project Plowshare as a serial in the November 1965 and this novel is set in a then-future 2004. There is still a Cold War between the United States and its allies and the Soviet Union and its allies, at the elite governmental level, however, both sides have secretly come to an agreement. This means that these items are transformed into novel but baroque consumer products, most of these weapon designers are mediums, who create their new designs in trance states. Design of weapons are extracted telepathically from a comic book, The Blue Cephalopod Man from Titan. One Wes-Bloc weapons designer, Lars Powderdry is the central character and he is depressed that his industry is little more than a fraud, as none of his weapons are functional, having become fashion items instead. His female Peep-East counterpart is Lilo Topchev, whom he knows nothing about and he also has a mistress, Maren Faine, head of his companys Parisian branch. Apart from the overtones of this deception, there is a subplot related to alien invasion. Sirian aliens invade Earth, and are determined to enslave its populace, the aliens first target is New Orleans, which is enshrouded in a gray curtain of death. Earth has a problem, given the nature of its arms race. Lilo immediately tries to kill Lars, despite the intentions of their blocs otherwise, neither can design functional weapons, however. There is a subplot about a conspiracy theorist, who is elected as an average man to the governing body of Wes-Bloc. The conclusion involves a mixture of time travel, androids, drugs, toys. Official PKDick website review The Zap Gun title listing at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database
2.
Plowshares movement
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The Plowshares movement is an anti-nuclear weapons and Christian pacifist movement that advocates active resistance to war. The group often practices a form of symbolic protest that involves the damaging of weapons, the movement gained notoriety in the early 1980s when several members damaged nuclear warhead nose cones and were subsequently convicted. The name plowshares refers to the text of prophet Isaiah who said that weapons shall be beaten into plowshares, roman Catholicism has deeply influenced the U. S. Plowshares group. — KJV On September 9,1980, Daniel Berrigan, his brother Philip Berrigan and they trespassed onto the General Electric Nuclear Missile facility in King of Prussia, Pennsylvania, where they damaged MK12A nuclear warhead nose cones and poured blood onto documents and files. They were arrested and charged more than ten different felony. On April 10,1990, after 10 years of appeals and their legal battle was re-created in Emile de Antonios 1982 film In the King of Prussia, which starred Martin Sheen and featured appearances by the Plowshares Eight as themselves. As of 2000, some 71 such actions happened on several continents, each actor claimed personal responsibility for her or his actions, never fleeing the scene but rather standing accountable,3. Making some effort, big or small, real or symbolic, there have been several more such actions in the new millennium. The swords have included nuclear weapons, components of the nuclear arsenal. Pouring of blood is a symbolic act to symbolize the recognition of the violence of the government. Symbolically it reminds others what the weapons are designed for, and is used to break through the rationalizations that justify weapons of mass destruction, Plowshares activist Mary Sprunger-Froese explained, War has been sanitized. Because we mostly do it through our technology and satellite surveillance, back when people hand to hand, you would see the blood and gore and you would see the consequences. Now were so far removed and we watch war coverage on TV like its a miniseries, so when we use blood, it has a very powerful effect. The blood is real, very arresting, shocking. It says, This is what were talking about - human life, all this technology is made to destroy it, to spill human blood. Weve found that the people are offended when you pour blood on their weapons because they dont like to think of it as a bloody machine. So its very necessary to try to break through that with a symbol that is shocking and it may not affect people in a positive way but there is the chance that later on, in another moment, people can be affected by it. I met a U. S. marshal who was a fundamentalist Christian and he said that we were wasting the blood and it was a sin
3.
Sedan (nuclear test)
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The radioactive fallout from the test contaminated more US residents than any other nuclear test. The Sedan Crater is the largest man-made crater in the United States, Sedan was a thermonuclear device with a fission yield less than 30% and a fusion yield about 70%. The device had a diameter of 43 cm, length of 96.5 cm, the explosive device was lowered into a shaft drilled into the desert alluvium 194 m deep. The resulting crater is 100 m deep with a diameter of about 390 m, a circular area of the desert floor five miles across was obscured by fast-expanding dust clouds moving out horizontally from the base surge, akin to pyroclastic surge. The blast caused seismic waves equivalent to an earthquake of 4.75 on the Richter scale, the radiation level on the crater lip at 1 hour after burst was 500 R per hour, but it dropped to 500 mR per hour after 27 days. Within 7 months of the excavation, the bottom of the crater could be walked upon with no protective clothing. The Sedan shot resulted in a cloud that separated into two plumes, rising to 3.0 km and 4.9 km. The two plumes headed northeast and then east in parallel paths towards the Atlantic Ocean. Nuclear fallout was dropped along the way, narrowly dispersed in a small number of United States counties. Detected radioactivity was especially high in eight counties in Iowa and one county each in Nebraska, South Dakota and these four counties measured maximum levels higher than 6,000 microcuries per square meter. Of all the tests conducted in the USA, Sedan ranked highest in overall activity of radionuclides in fallout. The test released 880,000 curies of radioactive iodine-131, an agent of thyroid disease, Sedan ranked first in percentages of these particular radionuclides detected in fallout, 198Au, 199Au, 7Be, 99Mo, 147Nd, 203Pb, 181W, 185W and 188W. Sedan ranked second in these radionuclides in fallout, 57Co, 60Co, Sedan ranked third in the detected amount of 24Na in fallout. In countrywide deposition of radionuclides, Sedan was highest in the amount of 7Be, 54Mn, 106Ru and 242Cm, and second highest in the amount of deposited 127mTe. Although not detected in fallout, in part because the explosion was contained, gold was used in the W71 warhead. Sedans fallout contamination contributed a little under 7% to the amount of radiation which fell on the U. S. population during all of the nuclear tests at NTS. Sedans effects were similar to shot George of Operation Tumbler-Snapper, detonated on June 1,1952, if this test was conducted in 1965+, when improvements in device design were realized, a 100-fold reduction in radiation release was considered feasible. The Plowshare project developed the Sedan test in order to determine the feasibility of using nuclear detonations to quickly and economically excavate large amounts of earth and rock
4.
Nuclear explosive
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A nuclear explosive is an explosive device that derives its energy from nuclear reactions. Almost all nuclear explosive devices that have designed and produced are nuclear weapons intended for warfare. Other, non-warfare, applications for nuclear explosives have occasionally been proposed, for example, nuclear pulse propulsion is a form of spacecraft propulsion that would use nuclear explosives to provide impulse to a spacecraft. A similar application is the proposal to use explosives for asteroid deflection. From 1958 to 1965 the United States government ran a project to design a nuclear explosive powered nuclear pulse rocket called Project Orion, never built, this vessel would use repeated nuclear explosions to propel itself and was considered surprisingly practical. It is thought to be a design for interstellar travel. Nuclear explosives were once considered for use in large-scale excavation, a nuclear explosion could be used to create a harbor, or a mountain pass, or possibly large underground cavities for use as storage space. It was thought that detonating an explosive in oil-rich rock could make it possible to extract more from the deposit. S government exploded 28 nuclear test-shots in a called the Operation Plowshare. The purpose of the operation was to use nuclear explosions for moving and lifting enormous amounts of earth. The Soviet Union conducted a more vigorous program of 122 nuclear tests, some with multiple devices. 7-Nuclear Explosions for the National Economy, the 1970s PACER project investigated fusion detonation as a power source
5.
Peaceful nuclear explosion
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Peaceful nuclear explosions are nuclear explosions conducted for non-military purposes, such as activities related to economic development including the creation of canals. During the 1960s and 1970s, both the United States and the Soviet Union conducted a number of PNEs, six of the explosions by the Soviet Union are considered to have been of an applied nature, not just tests. Subsequently the United States and the Soviet Union halted their programs, definitions and limits are covered in the Peaceful Nuclear Explosions Treaty of 1976. The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty of 1996 prohibits all nuclear explosions, regardless of whether they are for purposes or not. The parties also reaffirmed their obligations to comply fully with the Limited Test Ban Treaty of 1963, articles IV and V of the PNE Treaty set forth the agreed verification arrangements. The agreed statement that accompanies the treaty specifies that an application of an underground nuclear explosion would not include the developmental testing of any nuclear explosive. Operation Plowshare was the name of the U. S. program for the development of techniques to use explosives for peaceful purposes. The name was coined in 1961, taken from Micah 4,3, twenty-eight nuclear blasts were detonated between 1961 and 1973. It was never carried out due to concerns for the native populations, there was also talk of using nuclear explosions to excavate a second Panama Canal. The largest excavation experiment took place in 1962 at the Department of Energys Nevada Test Site, three tests were conducted in order to stimulate natural gas production, but the effort was abandoned as impractical because of cost and radioactive contamination of the gas. There were many negative impacts from Project Plowshare’s 27 nuclear explosions, for example, the Gasbuggy site, located 55 miles east of Farmington, New Mexico, still contains nuclear contamination from a single subsurface blast in 1967. Other consequences included blighted land, relocated communities, tritium-contaminated water, radioactivity and these were ignored and downplayed until the program was terminated in 1977, due in large part to public opposition, after $770 million had been spent on the project. Its aims and results were similar to those of the American effort, with the exception that many of the blasts were considered applications, not tests. The best known of these in the West was the Chagan test in January 1965 as radioactivity from the Chagan test was detected over Japan by both the U. S. and Japan, the United States complained to the Soviets, but the matter was dropped. In the 1970s, the Soviet Union started the Deep Seismic Sounding Program, compared to the usage of conventional explosives or mechanical methods, nuclear explosions allow the collection of longer seismic profiles. There are proponents for continuing the PNE programs in modern Russia and they state that the program already paid for itself and saved the USSR billions of rubles and can save even more if continued. They also allege that the PNE is the only way to put out large fountains and fires on natural gas deposits. Their opponents, including the discredited Alexey Yablokov, state that all PNE technologies have non-nuclear alternatives, germany at one time considered manufacturing nuclear explosives for civil engineering purposes
6.
Nuclear Explosions for the National Economy
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Nuclear Explosions for the National Economy was a Soviet program to investigate peaceful nuclear explosions. It was analogous to the US program Operation Plowshare, one of the better-known tests was Chagan of January 15,1965. Radioactivity from the Chagan test was detected over Japan by both the U. S. and Japan in apparent violation of the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty, the United States complained to the Soviets, but the matter was dropped. He said, However the USSR did not immediately follow the U. S. lead in 1958 in establishing a program, presumably, their position in support of a comprehensive nuclear testing ban stalled any efforts to establish such a program until the mid-1960s. When Nuclear Explosions for the National Economy was finally established, Alexander D. Zakharenkov. Initially, the Soviet program was focused on two applications, nuclear excavation and petroleum stimulation, similar to the U. S. program. Once underway the Soviets conducted a more vigorous program than the Americans Operation Plowshare, consisting of some 156 nuclear tests, some with multiple devices. As part of the program,124 tests with 135 devices were conducted, primary objectives of the program were water reservoir development, dam and canal construction, and creation of underground cavities for toxic waste storage. Peaceful Nuclear Explosions for the National Economy, also referred to as Program 7, the Program numbers come from the USSRs classification system of nuclear explosions, the first five programs designating various phases of nuclear weapon development. All together, the Program 7 conducted 115 nuclear explosions, there were two large explosions of 140 kilotons and 105 kilotons, all others were relatively small with an average yield of 12.5 kilotons. The last nuclear explosion by the Program 7, codenamed Rubin-1, was performed in Arkhangelsk Oblast on September 6,1988, the explosion was a part of a seismic program for geological exploration. The Soviets agreed to stop their PNE program at the end of 1988 as a result of then president Mikhail Gorbachevs disarmament initiative, there are proponents for continuing the PNE programs in modern Russia. They state that the program has already paid for itself and saved the USSR billions of rubles and can save even more if it would continue. They also allege that the PNE is the only way to put out large fountains and fires on natural gas deposits. Their opponents, including Alexey Yablokov, state that all PNE technologies have non-nuclear alternatives, among the catastrophes was the Kraton-3 explosion in Vilyuy, Yakutia in 1978, that was supposed to unearth diamond-rich ores. Instead, the amount of diamonds was insignificant but the pollution of water was much higher than predicted. According to Yablokov, the level of plutonium in the water of Vilyuy region 20 years after the explosion is ten thousand times higher than the maximal sanitary norm. Another catastrophe resulted from the Globus-1 explosion near the village of Galkino,40 kilometers from Kineshma city on September 19,1971 and it was a small underground explosion of 2.5 kilotons that was a part of the seismological program for oil and gas exploration
7.
Drilling and blasting
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Drilling and Blasting is the controlled use of explosives and other methods such as gas pressure blasting pyrotechnics, to break rock for excavation. It is practiced most often in mining, quarrying and civil engineering such as dam or road construction, the result of rock blasting is often known as a rock cut. Drilling and Blasting currently utilizes many different varieties of explosives with different compositions, for instance, an early 20th-century blasting manual compared the effects of black powder to that of a wedge, and dynamite to that of a hammer. The most commonly used explosives in mining today are ANFO based blends due to lower cost than dynamite, before the advent of tunnel boring machines, drilling and blasting was the only economical way of excavating long tunnels through hard rock, where digging is not possible. Even today, the method is used in the construction of tunnels. The decision whether to construct a tunnel using a TBM or using a drill and this means that shorter tunnels tend to be less economical to construct with a TBM and are therefore usually constructed by drill and blast. Managing ground conditions can also have a significant effect on the choice with different methods suited to different hazards in the ground. The use of explosives in mining goes back to the year 1627, the innovation spread quickly throughout Europe and the Americas. In 1990,2.1 million tonnes of explosives were consumed in the United States. Australia had the highest explosives consumption that year at 500 million tonnes, as the name suggests, drilling and blasting works as follows, A number of holes are drilled into the rock, which are then filled with explosives. Detonating the explosive causes the rock to collapse, rubble is removed and the new tunnel surface is reinforced. Repeating these steps until desired excavation is complete, during operation, blasting mats may be used to contain the blast, suppress dust and noise, for fly rock prevention and sometimes to direct the blast. As a tunnel or excavation progresses the roof and side walls of need to be supported to stop the falling into the excavation. Demolition Building implosion Persson, Per-Anders, Roger Holmberg, Jaimin Lee, notes Air Curtain Fences Blast Popular Mechanics, August 1954, pp. 96–97, the delicate controlled blast in 1954 to connect the two reservoirs at a Canadian Niagara Falls power station. This is a survey of techniques used in the early 20th century
8.
Chemical element
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A chemical element or element is a species of atoms having the same number of protons in their atomic nuclei. There are 118 elements that have identified, of which the first 94 occur naturally on Earth with the remaining 24 being synthetic elements. There are 80 elements that have at least one stable isotope and 38 that have exclusively radioactive isotopes, iron is the most abundant element making up Earth, while oxygen is the most common element in the Earths crust. Chemical elements constitute all of the matter of the universe. The two lightest elements, hydrogen and helium, were formed in the Big Bang and are the most common elements in the universe. The next three elements were formed mostly by cosmic ray spallation, and are rarer than those that follow. Formation of elements with from 6 to 26 protons occurred and continues to occur in main sequence stars via stellar nucleosynthesis, the high abundance of oxygen, silicon, and iron on Earth reflects their common production in such stars. The term element is used for atoms with a number of protons as well as for a pure chemical substance consisting of a single element. A single element can form multiple substances differing in their structure, when different elements are chemically combined, with the atoms held together by chemical bonds, they form chemical compounds. Only a minority of elements are found uncombined as relatively pure minerals, among the more common of such native elements are copper, silver, gold, carbon, and sulfur. All but a few of the most inert elements, such as gases and noble metals, are usually found on Earth in chemically combined form. While about 32 of the elements occur on Earth in native uncombined forms. For example, atmospheric air is primarily a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and argon, the history of the discovery and use of the elements began with primitive human societies that found native elements like carbon, sulfur, copper and gold. Later civilizations extracted elemental copper, tin, lead and iron from their ores by smelting, using charcoal, alchemists and chemists subsequently identified many more, almost all of the naturally occurring elements were known by 1900. Save for unstable radioactive elements with short half-lives, all of the elements are available industrially, almost all other elements found in nature were made by various natural methods of nucleosynthesis. On Earth, small amounts of new atoms are produced in nucleogenic reactions, or in cosmogenic processes. Of the 94 naturally occurring elements, those with atomic numbers 1 through 82 each have at least one stable isotope, Isotopes considered stable are those for which no radioactive decay has yet been observed. Elements with atomic numbers 83 through 94 are unstable to the point that radioactive decay of all isotopes can be detected, the very heaviest elements undergo radioactive decay with half-lives so short that they are not found in nature and must be synthesized
9.
Nucleosynthesis
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Nucleosynthesis is the process that creates new atomic nuclei from pre-existing nucleons, primarily protons and neutrons. The first nuclei were formed about three minutes after the Big Bang, through the process called Big Bang nucleosynthesis. It was then that hydrogen and helium formed to become the content of the first stars, with the formation of stars, heavier nuclei were created from hydrogen and helium by stellar nucleosynthesis, a process that continues today. The remains of their ejected mass form the planetary nebulae observable throughout our galaxy, supernova nucleosynthesis within exploding stars by fusing carbon and oxygen is responsible for the abundances of elements between magnesium and nickel. Supernova nucleosynthesis is also thought to be responsible for the creation of elements heavier than iron and nickel. The synthesis of heavier elements absorbs energy as they are created. Some of those elements are created from the absorption of neutrons in the period of a few seconds during the explosion. The elements formed in supernovas include the heaviest elements known, such as the long-lived elements uranium and thorium. In addition to the processes responsible for the growing abundances of elements in the universe. These nuclides contribute little to their abundances, but may account for the presence of new nuclei. These nuclides are produced via radiogenesis of long-lived, heavy, primordial radionuclides such as uranium and thorium, Cosmic ray bombardment of elements on Earth also contribute to the presence of rare, short-lived atomic species called cosmogenic nuclides. It is thought that the nucleons themselves were formed from the quark–gluon plasma during the Big Bang as it cooled below two trillion degrees. A few minutes afterward, starting with only protons and neutrons, nuclei up to lithium and beryllium were formed and that fusion process essentially shut down at about 20 minutes, due to drops in temperature and density as the universe continued to expand. This first process, Big Bang nucleosynthesis, was the first type of nucleogenesis to occur in the universe, the subsequent nucleosynthesis of the heavier elements requires the extreme temperatures and pressures found within stars and supernovas. These processes began as hydrogen and helium from the Big Bang collapsed into the first stars at 500 million years, star formation has occurred continuously in the galaxy since that time. The elements found on Earth, the primordial elements, were created prior to Earths formation by stellar nucleosynthesis. They range in atomic numbers from Z=6 to Z=94, synthesis of these elements occurred either by nuclear fusion or to a lesser degree by nuclear fission followed by beta decay. Interstellar gas therefore contains declining abundances of light elements, which are present only by virtue of their nucleosynthesis during the Big Bang
10.
Reflection seismology
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Reflection seismology is a method of exploration geophysics that uses the principles of seismology to estimate the properties of the Earths subsurface from reflected seismic waves. The method requires a controlled seismic source of energy, such as dynamite/Tovex, Reflection seismology is similar to sonar and echolocation. This article is about surface seismic surveys, for vertical seismic profiles, Seismic waves are mechanical perturbations that travel in the Earth at a speed governed by the acoustic impedance of the medium in which they are travelling. The acoustic impedance, Z, is defined by the equation, Z = V ρ, in common with other geophysical methods, reflection seismology may be seen as a type of inverse problem. In the case of reflection seismology, the data are recorded seismograms. For these reasons, great care must be taken when interpreting the results of a seismic survey. These reflected energy waves are recorded over a time period by receivers that detect the motion of the ground in which they are placed. On land, the receiver used is a small, portable instrument known as a geophone. In water, hydrophones are used, which convert pressure changes into electrical signals, each receiver’s response to a single shot is known as a “trace” and is recorded onto a data storage device, then the shot location is moved along and the process is repeated. In general, the complex the geology of the area under study. Modern seismic reflection surveys contain large amount of data and so large amounts of computer processing. Similarly, the amplitude of the incident wave is multiplied by the coefficient to predict the amplitude of the wave transmitted through the boundary. The formula for the transmission coefficient is T =1 − R =2 Z1. By observing changes in the strength of reflectors, seismologists can infer changes in the seismic impedances, in turn, they use this information to infer changes in the properties of the rocks at the interface, such as density and elastic modulus. The situation becomes more complicated in the case of non-normal incidence. These equations have 4 unknowns and can be solved but they do not give an understanding for how the reflection amplitudes vary with the rock properties involved. The reflection and transmission coefficients, which govern the amplitude of each reflection, vary with angle of incidence, AVO studies attempt with some success to predict the fluid content of potential reservoirs, to lower the risk of drilling unproductive wells and to identify new petroleum reservoirs. The 3-term simplification of the Zoeppritz equations that is most commonly used was developed in 1985 and is known as the Shuey equation and this equation reduces to that of normal incidence at =0
11.
Seismic source
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This article is about artificial seismic sources. For natural seismic sources, see earthquake, volcano, and related articles, a seismic source is a device that generates controlled seismic energy used to perform both reflection and refraction seismic surveys. A seismic source can be simple, such as dynamite, or it can use more sophisticated technology, Seismic sources can provide single pulses or continuous sweeps of energy, generating seismic waves, which travel through a medium such as water or layers of rocks. Some of the waves then reflect and refract and are recorded by receivers, the returning signals from the sources are detected by seismic sensors in known locations relative to the position of the source. The recorded signals are then subjected to specialist processing and interpretation to yield information about the subsurface. The most basic seismic source is a hammer, either striking the ground directly, or more commonly striking a metal plate on the ground, known as hammer. Useful for seismic refraction surveys down to about 20 m below surface, explosives, such as dynamite, can be used as crude but effective sources of seismic energy. For instance, hexanitrostilbene was the main fill in the thumper mortar round canisters used as part of the Apollo Lunar Active Seismic Experiments. Generally, the charges are placed between 6 and 76 metres below ground, in a hole that is drilled with dedicated drilling equipment for this purpose. This type of drilling is often referred to as Shot Hole Drilling. A common drill rig used for Shot Hole Drilling is the ARDCO C-1000 drill mounted on an ARDCO K 4X4 buggy and these drill rigs often use water or air to assist the drilling. An air gun is used for reflection and refraction surveys. It consists of one or more pneumatic chambers that are pressurized with compressed air at pressures from 14 to 21 MPa, air guns are submerged below the water surface, and towed behind a ship. Air guns are made from the highest grades of corrosion resistant stainless steel, large chambers tend to give low frequency signals, and the small chambers give higher frequency signals. A plasma sound source, otherwise called a spark gap sound source, for each firing, electric charge is stored in a large high-voltage bank of capacitors, and then released in an arc across electrodes in the water. The underwater spark discharge produces a plasma and vapor bubble. Most of the sound produced is between 20 and 200 Hz, useful for both seismic and sonar applications, there are also plans to use PSS as a non-lethal weapon against submerged divers. In 1953, the weight dropping Thumper technique was introduced as an alternative to dynamite sources, a thumper truck truck is a vehicle-mounted ground impact system which can be used to provide a seismic source
12.
Geologist
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A geologist is a scientist who studies the solid and liquid matter that constitutes the Earth as well as the processes that shape it. Geologists usually study geology, although backgrounds in physics, chemistry, biology, field work is an important component of geology, although many subdisciplines incorporate laboratory work. Some geologists work in the mining business searching for metals, oils and they are also in the forefront of natural hazards and disasters prevention and mitigation, studying natural hazards such as earthquakes, volcanic activity, tsunamis, weather storms. Their studies are used to warn the public of the occurrence of these events. Geologists are also important contributors to climate change discussions, james Hutton is often viewed as the first modern geologist. In 1785 he presented a paper entitled Theory of the Earth to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Hutton published a two-volume version of his ideas in 1795. The first geological map of the U. S. was produced in 1809 by William Maclure, in 1807, Maclure commenced the self-imposed task of making a geological survey of the United States. Almost every state in the Union was traversed and mapped by him and this antedates William Smiths geological map of England by six years, although it was constructed using a different classification of rocks. Sir Charles Lyell first published his famous book, Principles of Geology and this book, which influenced the thought of Charles Darwin, successfully promoted the doctrine of uniformitarianism. This theory states that slow geological processes have occurred throughout the Earths history and are still occurring today, in contrast, catastrophism is the theory that Earths features formed in single, catastrophic events and remained unchanged thereafter. Though Hutton believed in uniformitarianism, the idea was not widely accepted at the time, most geologists also need skills in GIS and other mapping techniques. Geology students often spend portions of the year, especially the summer though sometimes during a January term, geologists may concentrate their studies or research in one or more of the following disciplines, Dendrochronology, the study of dating based on tree ring patterns. Economic geology, the study of ore genesis, and the mechanisms of ore creation, geochemistry, the applied branch deals with the study of the chemical makeup and behaviour of rocks, and the study of the behaviour of their minerals. Geochronology, the study of isotope geology specifically toward determining the date within the past of rock formation, metamorphism, mineralization and geological events. Geomorphology, the study of landforms and the processes that create them Hydrogeology, igneous petrology, the study of igneous processes such as igneous differentiation, fractional crystallization, intrusive and volcanological phenomena. Isotope geology, the case of the composition of rocks to determine the processes of rock. Metamorphic petrology, the study of the effects of metamorphism on minerals, marine geology, the study of the seafloor, involves geophysical, geochemical, sedimentological and paleontological investigations of the ocean floor and coastal margins. Marine geology has strong ties to physical oceanography and plate tectonics, palaeoclimatology, the application of geological science to determine the climatic conditions present in the Earths atmosphere within the Earths history
13.
Prospecting
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Prospecting is the first stage of the geological analysis of a territory. It is the search for minerals, fossils, precious metals or mineral specimens. Prospecting is a form of mineral exploration which is an organised. Prospecting is physical labour, involving traversing, panning, sifting and outcrop investigation, in other areas publicly held lands are open to prospecting without staking a mining claim. In the case of gold, all streams in an area would be panned at the appropriate trap sites looking for a show of colour or gold in the river trail. For most base metal shows, the rock would have been mined by hand and crushed on site, often, these shows were short-lived, exhausted and abandoned quite soon, requiring the prospector to move onwards to the next and hopefully bigger and better show. Occasionally, though, the prospector would strike it rich and be joined by other prospectors, although these are thought of as old prospecting methods, these techniques are still used today but usually coupled with more advanced techniques such as geophysical magnetic or gravity surveys. In most countries in the 19th and early 20th century, it was unlikely that a prospector would retire rich even if he was the one who found the greatest of lodes. For instance Patrick Hannan, who discovered the Golden Mile, Kalgoorlie, the same story repeated at Bendigo, Ballarat, Klondike and California. In the United States and Canada prospectors were lured by the promise of gold, silver and they traveled across the mountains of the American West, carrying picks, shovels and gold pans. The majority of early prospectors had no training and relied mainly on luck to discover deposits, other gold rushes occurred in Papua New Guinea, Australia at least four times, and in South Africa and South America. In all cases, the rush was sparked by idle prospecting for gold and minerals which. Modern prospectors today rely on training, the study of geology, knowledge of previous prospecting in an area helps in determining location of new prospective areas. Prospecting includes geological mapping, rock assay analysis, and sometimes the intuition of the prospector, prospecting pickaxes are used to scrape at rocks and minerals, obtaining small samples that can be tested for trace amounts of ore. Modern prospecting pickaxes are also equipped with magnets, to aid in the gathering of ferromagnetic ores. Prospecting pickaxes are usually equipped with a head, with a very sharp point
14.
Meteor Crater
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Meteor Crater is a meteorite impact crater approximately 37 miles east of Flagstaff and 18 miles west of Winslow in the northern Arizona desert of the United States. The site was known as the Canyon Diablo Crater and fragments of the meteorite are officially called the Canyon Diablo Meteorite. Scientists refer to the crater as Barringer Crater in honor of Daniel Barringer, the crater is privately owned by the Barringer family through their Barringer Crater Company, which proclaims it to be the best preserved meteorite crater on Earth. Despite its importance as a site, the crater is not protected as a national monument. It was designated a National Natural Landmark in November 1967, Meteor Crater lies at an elevation of about 1,740 m above sea level. It is about 1,200 m in diameter, some 170 m deep, the center of the crater is filled with 210–240 m of rubble lying above crater bedrock. One of the features of the crater is its squared-off outline. The crater was created about 50,000 years ago during the Pleistocene epoch, the area was an open grassland dotted with woodlands inhabited by woolly mammoths and giant ground sloths. Since the craters formation, the rim is thought to have lost 15–20 m of height at the rim crest due to natural erosion, similarly, the basin of the crater is thought to have approximately 30 m of additional post-impact sedimentation from lake sediments and of alluvium. These erosion processes are the reason that very few remaining craters are visible on Earth, the relatively young age of Meteor Crater, paired with the Arizona climate, have allowed this crater to remain almost unchanged since its formation. The lack of erosion that preserved the craters shape helped lead to this crater being the first crater recognized as an impact crater from a natural celestial body. The object that excavated the crater was a meteorite about 50 meters across. The speed of the impact has been a subject of some debate, modeling initially suggested that the meteorite struck at up to 20 kilometers per second but more recent research suggests the impact was substantially slower, at 12.8 kilometers per second. It is believed that half of the impactors bulk was vaporized during its descent. Impact energy has been estimated at about 10 megatons, the meteorite was mostly vaporized upon impact, leaving little remains in the crater. The crater came to the attention of scientists following its discovery by American settlers in the 19th century and this was not an unreasonable assumption, as the San Francisco volcanic field lies only about 40 miles to the west. In 1891, the mineralogist Albert E. Foote presented the first scientific paper about the meteorites of Northern Arizona, several years earlier, Foote had received an iron rock for analysis from a railroad executive. Foote immediately recognized the rock as a meteorite and led an expedition to search, the team collected samples ranging from small fragments to over 600 pounds
15.
Impact event
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An impact event is a collision between astronomical objects causing measurable effects. Impact events have physical consequences and have found to regularly occur in planetary systems, though the most frequent involve asteroids. Impact craters and structures are dominant landforms on many of the Solar Systems solid objects and present the strongest empirical evidence for their frequency, Impact events appear to have played a significant role in the evolution of the Solar System since its formation. Notable impact events include the Chicxulub impact,66 million years ago, throughout recorded history, hundreds of Earth impacts have been reported, with some occurrences causing deaths, injuries, property damage, or other significant localised consequences. One of the best-known recorded impacts in modern times was the Tunguska event, the Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 impact provided the first direct observation of an extraterrestrial collision of Solar System objects, when the comet broke apart and collided with Jupiter in July 1994. Impact events have been a plot and background element in science fiction, Impact structures are the result of impact events on solid objects and, as the dominant landforms on many of the Systems solid objects, present the most solid evidence of prehistoric events. Small objects frequently collide with Earth, there is an inverse relationship between the size of the object and the frequency of such events. The lunar cratering record shows that the frequency of impacts decreases as approximately the cube of the craters diameter. Asteroids with a 1 km diameter strike Earth every 500,000 years on average, large collisions – with 5 km objects – happen approximately once every twenty million years. The last known impact of an object of 10 km or more in diameter was at the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 66 million years ago, the energy released by an impactor depends on diameter, density, velocity, and angle. The diameter of most near-Earth asteroids that have not been studied by radar or infrared can generally only be estimated within about a factor of 2 based on the asteroid brightness, the density is generally assumed because the diameter and mass are also generally estimates. The minimum impact velocity on Earth is 11 km/s with asteroid impacts averaging around 17 km/s, the most probable impact angle is 45 degrees. Stony asteroids with a diameter of 4 meters enter Earths atmosphere approximately once per year. Asteroids with a diameter of 7 meters enter the atmosphere about every 5 years with as much energy as the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima. These ordinarily explode in the atmosphere and most or all of the solids are vaporized. However, asteroids with a diameter of 20 m, and which strike Earth approximately twice every century, the 2013 Chelyabinsk meteor was estimated to be about 20 m in diameter with an airburst of around 500 kilotons, an explosion 30 times the one over Hiroshima. Much larger objects may impact the solid earth and create a crater, objects with a diameter less than 1 m are called meteoroids and seldom make it to the ground to become meteorites. Although no human is known to have been killed directly by an impact, in 2005 it was estimated that the chance of a single person born today dying due to an impact is around 1 in 200,000
16.
Nuclear fallout
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It commonly refers to the radioactive dust and ash created when a nuclear weapon explodes, but such dust can also originate from a damaged nuclear plant. Fallout may get entrained with the products of a pyrocumulus cloud and this radioactive dust, usually consisting of fission products mixed with bystanding atoms that are neutron activated by exposure, is a highly dangerous kind of radioactive contamination. An air burst can eventually produce worldwide fallout, a ground burst can produce possibly much more severe, local fallout. These particles may be drawn up into the stratosphere, particularly if the explosive yield exceeds 10 kt. Initially little was known about the dispersion of nuclear fallout on a global scale, the AEC assumed that fallout would be dispersed evenly across the globe by atmospheric winds and gradually settle to the Earths surface after weeks, months, and even years as worldwide fallout. This hazard is less pertinent than local fallout, which is of much greater immediate operational concern, in a land or water surface burst, heat vaporizes large amounts of earth or water, which is drawn up into the radioactive cloud. This material becomes radioactive when it condenses with fission products and other radiocontaminants that have become neutron-activated, the table below summarizes the abilities of common isotopes to form fallout. Some radiation taints large amounts of land and drinking water causing formal mutations throughout animal and human life. The larger particles spill out of the stem and cascade down the outside of the fireball in a downdraft even as the cloud rises, more than half the total bomb debris lands on the ground within about 24 hours as local fallout. Chemical properties of the elements in the control the rate at which they are deposited on the ground. Severe local fallout contamination can extend far beyond the blast and thermal effects, the ground track of fallout from an explosion depends on the weather from the time of detonation onwards. In stronger winds, fallout travels faster but takes the time to descend, so although it covers a larger path. Thus, the width of the pattern for any given dose rate is reduced where the downwind distance is increased by higher winds. The total amount of activity deposited up to any time is the same irrespective of the wind pattern. But thunderstorms can bring down activity as rain more rapidly than dry fallout, particularly if the cloud is low enough to be below, or mixed with. There are two considerations for the location of an explosion, height and surface composition. A nuclear weapon detonated in the air, called an air burst, in case of water surface bursts, the particles tend to be rather lighter and smaller, producing less local fallout but extending over a greater area. The particles contain mostly sea salts with some water, these can have a cloud seeding effect causing local rainout and areas of high local fallout
17.
Nuclear weapon
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A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from small amounts of matter. The first test of a bomb released the same amount of energy as approximately 20,000 tons of TNT. The first thermonuclear bomb test released the same amount of energy as approximately 10 million tons of TNT, a thermonuclear weapon weighing little more than 2,400 pounds can produce an explosive force comparable to the detonation of more than 1.2 million tons of TNT. A nuclear device no larger than traditional bombs can devastate a city by blast, fire. Nuclear weapons are considered weapons of destruction, and their use. Nuclear weapons have been used twice in nuclear warfare, both times by the United States against Japan near the end of World War II, the bombings resulted in the deaths of approximately 200,000 civilians and military personnel from acute injuries sustained from the explosions. The ethics of the bombings and their role in Japans surrender remain the subject of scholarly, since the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, nuclear weapons have been detonated on over two thousand occasions for the purposes of testing and demonstration. Only a few nations possess such weapons or are suspected of seeking them, israel is also believed to possess nuclear weapons, though in a policy of deliberate ambiguity, it does not acknowledge having them. Germany, Italy, Turkey, Belgium and the Netherlands are nuclear weapons sharing states, south Africa is the only country to have independently developed and then renounced and dismantled its nuclear weapons. Modernisation of weapons continues to occur, all existing nuclear weapons derive some of their explosive energy from nuclear fission reactions. Weapons whose explosive output is exclusively from fission reactions are commonly referred to as bombs or atom bombs. This has long noted as something of a misnomer, as their energy comes from the nucleus of the atom. The latter approach is considered more sophisticated than the former and only the approach can be used if the fissile material is plutonium. A major challenge in all nuclear weapon designs is to ensure that a significant fraction of the fuel is consumed before the weapon destroys itself. The amount of energy released by fission bombs can range from the equivalent of just under a ton to upwards of 500,000 tons of TNT, all fission reactions necessarily generate fission products, the radioactive remains of the atomic nuclei split by the fission reactions. Many fission products are highly radioactive or moderately radioactive. Fission products are the radioactive component of nuclear fallout
18.
Atomic Age
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The Atomic Age, also known as the Atomic Era, is the period of history following the detonation of the first nuclear bomb, Trinity, on July 16,1945, during World War II. Since 1973, reactor orders declined sharply as electricity demand fell, many orders and partially completed plants were cancelled. In 1901, Frederick Soddy and Ernest Rutherford discovered that radioactivity was part of the process by which atoms changed from one kind to another, involving the release of energy. ”The promise of an age, ” with nuclear energy as the global. But Soddy also saw that atomic energy could possibly be used to create new weapons. The concept of a chain reaction was hypothesized in 1933. Only a few later, in December 1938 nuclear fission was discovered by Otto Hahn and his assistant Fritz Strassmann. The first artificial self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction took place in December 1942 under the leadership of Enrico Fermi, in 1945, the pocketbook The Atomic Age heralded the untapped atomic power in everyday objects and depicted a future where fossil fuels would go unused. One science writer, David Dietz, wrote that instead of filling the gas tank of your car two or three times a week, you travel for a year on a pellet of atomic energy the size of a vitamin pill. The phrase Atomic Age was coined by William L. Laurence and he witnessed both the Trinity test and the bombing of Nagasaki and went on to write a series of articles extolling the virtues of the new weapon. The Soviet Union would go on to test its first nuclear weapon in 1949, the phrase gained popularity as a feeling of nuclear optimism emerged in the 1950s in which it was believed that all power generators in the future would be atomic in nature. The atomic bomb would render all conventional explosives obsolete and nuclear plants would do the same for power sources such as coal. This use would render the Atomic Age as significant a step in progress as the first smelting of Bronze, of Iron. This included even cars, leading Ford to display the Ford Nucleon concept car to the public in 1958, there was also the promise of golf balls which could always be found and nuclear-powered aircraft, which the US federal government even spent US $1.5 billion researching. As soon as someone said – in an even mildly credible way – that these things could be done, the reality was that the Shippingport reactor went online in 1957 producing electricity at a cost roughly ten times that of coal-fired generation. Scientists at the AECs own Brookhaven Laboratory wrote a 1958 report describing accident scenarios in which 3,000 people would die immediately, fear of possible atomic attack from the Soviet Union caused U. S. school children to participate in duck and cover civil defense drills. In the late 1950s, there was a north of Las Vegas. At the peak of the Atomic Age, the United States government initiated Operation Plowshare, other proposals involved blasting underground caverns for water, natural gas, and petroleum storage. It was proposed to plant underground atomic bombs to extract shale oil in eastern Utah, serious consideration was also given to using these explosives for various mining operations
19.
United States Atomic Energy Commission
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President Harry S. Truman signed the McMahon/Atomic Energy Act on August 1,1946, transferring the control of atomic energy from military to civilian hands, effective from January 1,1947. This shift gave the first members of the AEC complete control of the plants, laboratories, equipment, during its initial establishment and subsequent operationalization, the AEC played a key role in the institutional development of Ecosystem ecology. Specifically, it provided financial resources, allowing for ecological research to take place. Perhaps even more importantly, it enabled ecologists with a range of groundbreaking techniques for the completion of their research. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the AEC also approved funding for numerous projects in the Arctic and near-Arctic. These projects were designed to examine the effects of energy upon the environment and were a part of the Commission’s attempt at creating peaceful applications of atomic energy. By 1974, the AECs regulatory programs had come under strong attack that Congress decided to abolish the agency. On August 4,1977, President Jimmy Carter signed into law The Department of Energy Organization Act of 1977, at the same time, the McMahon Act which created the AEC also gave it unprecedented powers of regulation over the entire field of nuclear science and technology. President Truman appointed David Lilienthal as the first Chairman of the AEC, Congress gave the new civilian Commission extraordinary power and considerable independence to carry out its mission. To provide the Commission exceptional freedom in hiring scientists and professionals, the National Laboratory system was established from the facilities created under the Manhattan Project. Argonne National Laboratory was one of the first laboratories authorized under this legislation as a facility dedicated to fulfilling the new Commissions mission. The Commissions first order of business was to inspect the scattered empire of plants, the AEC was furthermore in charge of developing the United States nuclear arsenal, taking over these responsibilities from the wartime Manhattan Project. It also implemented the program to develop the hydrogen bomb. It began a program of nuclear testing both in the Pacific Proving Grounds and at the continental Nevada Test Site. While it also supported much basic research, the vast majority of its budget was devoted to atomic weapons development. Within the AEC, high-level scientific and technical advice was provided by the General Advisory Committee, in its early years, the GAC provided a number of controversial decisions, notably its decision against building the hydrogen bomb in 1949. As a result, Senator Brien McMahon influenced the decision not to reappoint J. Robert Oppenheimer to the GAC in 1952 after his six-year statutory term expired. David Lilienthal, then AEC Chair, agreed with Oppenheimer and opposed a program to build the hydrogen bomb ahead of any other nation
20.
Lewis Strauss
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Lewis Lichtenstein Strauss was a Jewish American businessman, philanthropist, public official, and naval officer. He was a figure in the development of nuclear weapons. Strauss was the force in the hearings, held in April 1954 before a U. S. Atomic Energy Commission Personnel Security Board, in which J. Robert Oppenheimers security clearance was revoked, President Dwight D. Eisenhowers nomination of Strauss to become U. S. Secretary of Commerce in 1959 was not confirmed by the Senate. Strauss was born in Charleston, West Virginia, the son of Rosa and Lewis Strauss, at the age of 10, he permanently lost the vision in his right eye in a rock fight. This injury later disqualified him from military service. His family relocated to Richmond, Virginia and he was valedictorian of his high school class, though due to typhoid fever in his senior year, he was unable to graduate with his class. Strauss had planned to study physics at the University of Virginia, but when he finally graduated high school, his familys business had had a downturn, and they could not afford to send him. For the next three years Strauss worked as a shoe salesman for his fathers company. He was the top salesman, and saved enough money for college tuition. However, Strauss mother had encouraged him to perform some kind of public or humanitarian service. World War I was raging in Europe, and Herbert Hoover was head of the United States Food Administration, Strauss volunteered to serve without pay as Hoovers assistant. Strauss worked hard and well, and soon was promoted to Hoovers private secretary and his service with the USFA lasted until 1919. Strauss himself became a man of influence, acting on behalf of a representative of Finland, the poor treatment of Polish and Russian Jews that Strauss witnessed instilled in him a powerful anti-Communist sentiment. At the JJDC, Strauss came to the attention of Felix M. Warburg, Warburg brought Strauss to Kuhn Loeb, where he became a full partner in 1929 and was active in the firm until 1941. During this period Strauss became wealthy, Strauss also became a leader in Jewish causes and organizations. For instance, in 1933 he was a member of the Executive Committee of the American Jewish Committee, however, he was not a Zionist and opposed the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine. He instead supported assimilation of Jews as equal citizens of the nations where they lived, despite his disqualification for regular military duty, Strauss applied to join the Navy Reserve in 1925, and received an officers commission as an intelligence officer
21.
Panama Canal
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The Panama Canal is an artificial 48-mile waterway in Panama that connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean. The canal cuts across the Isthmus of Panama and is a key conduit for maritime trade. The original locks are 33.5 metres wide, a third, wider lane of locks was constructed between September 2007 and May 2016. The expanded canal began operation on June 26,2016. The new locks allow transit of larger, Post-Panamax ships, capable of handling more cargo, France began work on the canal in 1881 but stopped due to engineering problems and a high worker mortality rate. The United States took over the project in 1904 and opened the canal on August 15,1914, Colombia, France, and later the United States controlled the territory surrounding the canal during construction. The U. S. continued to control the canal and surrounding Panama Canal Zone until the 1977 Torrijos–Carter Treaties provided for handover to Panama. After a period of joint American–Panamanian control, in 1999 the canal was taken over by the Panamanian government and is now managed and operated by the government-owned Panama Canal Authority. Annual traffic has risen from about 1,000 ships in 1914, by 2012, more than 815,000 vessels had passed through the canal. It takes six to eight hours to pass through the Panama Canal, the American Society of Civil Engineers has called the Panama Canal one of the seven wonders of the modern world. Such a route would have given the Spanish a military advantage over the Portuguese, during an expedition from 1788 to 1793, Alessandro Malaspina outlined plans for its construction. Given the strategic location of Panama and the potential offered by its narrow isthmus separating two great oceans, other links in the area were attempted over the years. The ill-fated Darien scheme was launched by the Kingdom of Scotland in 1698 to set up a trade route. Generally inhospitable conditions thwarted the effort, and it was abandoned in April 1700, another effort was made in 1843. They referred to it as the Atlantic and Pacific Canal and it was a wholly British endeavor and it was expected to be completed in five years, but the plan was never carried out. At nearly the same time, other ideas were floated, including a canal across Mexicos Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Nothing came of that plan either. )In 1846 the Mallarino–Bidlack Treaty, negotiated between the U. S. and New Granada, granted the United States transit rights and the right to intervene militarily in the isthmus. In 1849, the discovery of gold in California created great interest in a crossing between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, the Panama Railway was built by the United States to cross the isthmus and opened in 1855
22.
Nicaragua
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Nicaragua, officially the Republic of Nicaragua, is the largest country in the Central American isthmus. Nicaraguas capital, Managua, is the countrys largest city and the third-largest city in Central America, the multi-ethnic population of six million includes indigenous peoples, Europeans, Africans, and Asians. Native tribes on the eastern coast speak their own languages, the Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century. Nicaragua gained independence from Spain in 1821, since its independence, Nicaragua has undergone periods of political unrest, dictatorship, and fiscal crisis—the most notable causes that led to the Nicaraguan Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s. Nicaragua is a democratic republic. The biological diversity, warm climate and active volcanoes make Nicaragua an increasingly popular tourist destination. The name Nicaragua was coined by Spanish colonists based on the name Nicarao, when Spaniard Gil González Dávila came to Nicaragua in 1521 he found in the areas between Rivas and San Jorge the first pre-Columbian natives of Nicaragua. At the time the city was called Quauhcapolca and the cacique leaders name was Macuilmiquiztli. The Pipil migrated to Nicaragua from central Mexico after 500 BC, meanwhile, the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua was inhabited by other peoples, mostly Chibcha language groups. They had coalesced in Central America and migrated also to present-day northern Colombia and they lived a life based primarily on hunting and gathering. In 1502, Christopher Columbus became the first European known to have reached what is now Nicaragua as he sailed southeast toward the Isthmus of Panama, on his fourth voyage, Columbus explored the Miskito Coast on the Atlantic side of Nicaragua. The Spanish attempted to convert all three tribes to Christianity, Nicaragua and Nicarao and their people converted, but Dirangen, however, did not, the first attempt to conquer what is now known as Nicaragua was by Gil González Dávila, who arrived in Panama in January 1520. The first Spanish permanent settlements were founded in 1524, conquistador Francisco Hernández de Córdoba founded two of Nicaraguas principal towns in 1524, Granada on Lake Nicaragua was the first settlement, followed by León at a location west of Lake Managua. Córdoba soon built defenses for the cities and fought against incursions by other conquistadors, Córdoba was later publicly beheaded following a power struggle with Pedro Arias Dávila. His tomb and remains were discovered in 2000 in the ruins of León Viejo, the clashes among Spanish forces did not impede their destruction of the indigenous people and their culture. The series of battles came to be known as the War of the Captains, Pedro Arias Dávila was a winner, although he had lost control of Panama, he moved to Nicaragua and successfully established his base in León. Through adroit diplomatic machinations, he became the first governor of the colony, many indigenous people died as a result of new infectious diseases, compounded by neglect by the Spaniards, who controlled their subsistence. In 1610, the Momotombo volcano erupted, destroying the capital and it was rebuilt northwest of what is now known as the ruins of Old León
23.
Aquifer
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An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock, rock fractures or unconsolidated materials from which groundwater can be extracted using a water well. The study of flow in aquifers and the characterization of aquifers is called hydrogeology. Related terms include aquitard, which is a bed of low permeability along an aquifer, and aquiclude, if the impermeable area overlies the aquifer, pressure could cause it to become a confined aquifer. Aquifers may occur at various depths and those closer to the surface are not only more likely to be used for water supply and irrigation, but are also more likely to be topped up by the local rainfall. Many desert areas have limestone hills or mountains within them or close to them that can be exploited as groundwater resources, overexploitation can lead to the exceeding of the practical sustained yield, i. e. more water is taken out than can be replenished. The beach provides a model to help visualize an aquifer, if a hole is dug into the sand, very wet or saturated sand will be located at a shallow depth. This hole is a well, the wet sand represents an aquifer. In 2013 large freshwater aquifers were discovered under continental shelves off Australia, China, North America and they contain an estimated half a million cubic kilometers of “low salinity” water that could be economically processed into potable water. The reserves formed when ocean levels were lower and rainwater made its way into the ground in areas that were not submerged until the ice age ended 20,000 years ago. The volume is estimated to be 100x the amount of extracted from other aquifers since 1900. The above diagram indicates typical flow directions in a view of a simple confined or unconfined aquifer system. The system shows two aquifers with one aquitard between them, surrounded by the bedrock aquiclude, which is in contact with a gaining stream, the water table and unsaturated zone are also illustrated. An aquitard is a zone within the earth that restricts the flow of groundwater from one aquifer to another, an aquitard can sometimes, if completely impermeable, be called an aquiclude or aquifuge. Aquitards are composed of layers of clay or non-porous rock with low hydraulic conductivity. Groundwater can be found at every point in the Earths shallow subsurface to some degree. Saturated means the head of the water is greater than atmospheric pressure. The definition of the table is the surface where the pressure head is equal to atmospheric pressure. Unsaturated conditions occur above the table where the pressure head is negative
24.
Arizona
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Arizona is a state in the southwestern region of the United States. It is also part of the Western United States and the Mountain West states and it is the sixth largest and the 14th most populous of the 50 states. Its capital and largest city is Phoenix, Arizona is one of the Four Corners states. It has borders with New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, California, and Mexico, Arizonas border with Mexico is 389 miles long, on the northern border of the Mexican states of Sonora and Baja California. Arizona is the 48th state and last of the states to be admitted to the Union. Historically part of the territory of Alta California in New Spain, after being defeated in the Mexican–American War, Mexico ceded much of this territory to the United States in 1848. The southernmost portion of the state was acquired in 1853 through the Gadsden Purchase, Southern Arizona is known for its desert climate, with very hot summers and mild winters. There are ski resorts in the areas of Flagstaff, Alpine, in addition to the Grand Canyon National Park, there are several national forests, national parks, and national monuments. To the European settlers, their pronunciation sounded like Arissona, the area is still known as alĭ ṣonak in the Oodham language. Another possible origin is the Basque phrase haritz ona, as there were numerous Basque sheepherders in the area, There is a misconception that the states name originated from the Spanish term Árida Zona. See also lists of counties, islands, rivers, lakes, state parks, national parks, Arizona is in the Southwestern United States as one of the Four Corners states. Arizona is the sixth largest state by area, ranked after New Mexico, of the states 113,998 square miles, approximately 15% is privately owned. The remaining area is public forest and park land, state trust land, Arizona is well known for its desert Basin and Range region in the states southern portions, which is rich in a landscape of xerophyte plants such as the cactus. This regions topography was shaped by volcanism, followed by the cooling-off. Its climate has hot summers and mild winters. The state is well known for its pine-covered north-central portion of the high country of the Colorado Plateau. Like other states of the Southwest United States, Arizona has an abundance of mountains, despite the states aridity, 27% of Arizona is forest, a percentage comparable to modern-day France or Germany. The worlds largest stand of pine trees is in Arizona
25.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
26.
Project Chariot
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The project originated as part of Operation Plowshare, a research project to find peaceful uses for nuclear explosives. The plan was championed by Edward Teller, who traveled throughout the state touting the harbor as an important economic development for Americas newest state, Alaskan political leaders, newspaper editors, the state universitys president, even church groups all rallied in support of the massive detonation. Congress had passed the Alaskan Statehood Act just a few weeks before, an editorial in the 24 July 1960 Fairbanks News-Miner said, We think the holding of a huge nuclear blast in Alaska would be a fitting overture to the new era which is opening for our state. Opposition came from the tiny Inupiat Eskimo village of Point Hope, a few scientists engaged in environmental studies under AEC contract, and a handful of conservationists. The grassroots protest soon was picked up by organizations with national reach, such as The Wilderness Society, the Sierra Club, and Barry Commoners Committee for Nuclear Information. In 1962, facing increased public uneasiness over the risk and the potential to disrupt the lives of the Eskimos. It has never been formally canceled, in addition to the objections of the local population, no practical use of such a harbor was ever identified. The investigations noted that radiation from world-wide fallout was moving with unusual efficiency up the chain in the Arctic, from lichen, to caribou. Material from a 1962 nuclear explosion at the Nevada Test Site was transported to the Chariot site in August 1962, used in several experiments, thirty years later, the disposal was discovered in archival documents by a University of Alaska researcher. State officials immediately traveled to the site and found low levels of radioactivity at a depth of two feet in the burial mound, outraged residents of the Inupiat village of Point Hope demanded the removal of the contaminated soil, which the government did at considerable expense. Sun in a Bottle, The Strange History of Fusion and the Science of Wishful Thinking, vandegraft, Douglas L Project Chariot, Nuclear Legacy of Cape Thompson. Proceedings of the U. S. William, and Charles Diters, bureau of Indian Affairs, Alaska Region regional archaeology report under the National Historic Preservation Act. Project Chariot, The Nuclear Legacy of Cape Thompson, Alaska
27.
Thermonuclear weapon
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A thermonuclear weapon is a nuclear weapon that uses the energy from a primary nuclear fission reaction to compress and ignite a secondary nuclear fusion reaction. The result is greatly increased power when compared to single-stage fission weapons. It is colloquially referred to as a bomb or an H-bomb because it employs the fusion of isotopes of hydrogen. The first full scale thermonuclear test was carried out by the United States in 1952, similar devices were developed by the Soviet Union, United Kingdom, China, and France. The radiation implosion mechanism is an engine that exploits the temperature difference between the secondary stages hot, surrounding radiation channel and its relatively cool interior. This temperature difference is maintained by a massive heat barrier called the pusher. If made of uranium, as is almost always the case, it can capture neutrons produced by the reaction and undergo fission itself. In many Teller–Ulam weapons, fission of the pusher dominates the explosion, detailed knowledge of fission and fusion weapons is classified to some degree in virtually every industrialized nation. Born secret is rarely invoked for cases of private speculation, in a small number of prior cases, the U. S. government has attempted to censor weapons information in the public press, with limited success. According to the New York Times, physicist Kenneth Ford defied government orders to remove classified information from his new book, Building the H Bomb, the state of public knowledge about the Teller–Ulam design has been mostly shaped from a few specific incidents outlined in a section below. At a bare minimum, this implies a primary section consists of an implosion-type fission bomb. The energy released by the primary compresses the secondary through a process called radiation implosion, at which point it is heated, surrounding the other components is a hohlraum or radiation case, a container that traps the first stage or primarys energy inside temporarily. The outside of this case, which is also normally the outside casing of the bomb, is the only direct visual evidence publicly available of any thermonuclear bomb components configuration. Numerous photographs of various thermonuclear bomb exteriors have been declassified, generally, a research program with the capacity to create a thermonuclear bomb has already mastered the ability to engineer boosted fission. The secondary is usually shown as a column of fusion fuel, around the column is first a pusher-tamper, a heavy layer of uranium-238 or lead that serves to help compress the fusion fuel. Inside this is the fuel itself, usually a form of lithium deuteride. This dry fuel, when bombarded by neutrons, produces tritium, inside the layer of fuel is the spark plug, a hollow column of fissile material that, when compressed, can itself undergo nuclear fission. The tertiary, if one is present, would be set below the secondary, separating the secondary from the primary is the interstage
28.
Caltrans
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The California Department of Transportation is an executive department within the U. S. state of California. Caltrans manages the highway system and is actively involved with public transportation systems throughout the state. It supports Amtrak California and the Capitol Corridor, the department is part of the state cabinet-level California State Transportation Agency. Like the majority of government agencies, Caltrans is headquartered in Sacramento. In 2015, Caltrans released a new statement, Provide a safe, sustainable, integrated and efficient transportation system to enhance California’s economy. The earliest predecessor of Caltrans was the Bureau of Highways, which was created by the California Legislature and this agency consisted of three commissioners who were charged with analyzing the state road system and making recommendations. At the time, there was no highway system, since roads were purely a local responsibility. After the commissioners submitted their report to the governor on November 25,1896, voters approved an $18 million bond issue for the construction of a state highway system in 1910, and the first Highway Commission was convened in 1911. On August 7,1912, the department broke ground on its first construction project, the year 1912 also saw the founding of the Transportation Laboratory and the creation of seven administrative divisions. In 1913, the legislature started requiring vehicle registration and allocated the funds to support regular highway maintenance. In 1921, the legislature turned the Department of Engineering into the Department of Public Works, the history of Caltrans and its predecessor agencies during the 20th century was marked by many firsts. In late 1972, the legislature approved a reorganization in which the Department of Public Works was merged with the Department of Aeronautics to become the modern Department of Transportation, for administrative purposes, Caltrans divides the State of California into 12 districts, supervised by district offices. Most districts cover multiple counties, District 12 is the district with one county. The largest districts by population are District 4 and District 7, like most state agencies, Caltrans maintains its headquarters in Sacramento, which is covered by District 3. Official California Department of Transportation website Named Highways, Freeways, Structures, and Other Appurtenances in California
29.
Santa Fe Railway
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The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway, often abbreviated as Santa Fe or AT&SF, was one of the larger railroads in the United States. Chartered in February 1859, the reached the Kansas-Colorado border in 1873 and Pueblo, Colorado. To create a demand for its services, the set up real estate offices. Despite the name, its main line never served Santa Fe, New Mexico, as the terrain was too difficult, the Santa Fe was a pioneer in intermodal freight transport, an enterprise that included a tugboat fleet and an airline. Its bus line extended passenger transportation to areas not accessible by rail, the AT&SF was the subject of a popular song, Harry Warren & Johnny Mercers On the Atchison, Topeka and the Santa Fe, written for the film, The Harvey Girls. The railroad officially ceased operations on December 31,1996, when it merged with the Burlington Northern Railroad to form the Burlington Northern & Santa Fe Railway. The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway was chartered on February 11,1859, to join Atchison and Topeka, Kansas, with Santa Fe, in its early years, the railroad opened Kansas to settlement. Much of its revenue came from wheat grown there and from cattle driven north from Texas to Wichita, rather than turn its survey southward at Dodge City, AT&SF headed southwest over Raton Pass because of coal deposits near Trinidad, Colorado and Raton, New Mexico. D&RG paid an estimated $1.4 million to Santa Fe for its work within the Gorge and agreed not to extend its line to Santa Fe, while Santa Fe agreed to forego its planned routes to Denver and Leadville. Building across Kansas and eastern Colorado was simple, with few natural obstacles and it set up real estate offices in the area and promoted settlement across Kansas on the land that was granted to it by Congress in 1863. It offered discounted fares to anyone who traveled west to land, if the land was purchased. AT&SF reached Albuquerque in 1880, Santa Fe, the destination of the railroad, found itself on a short branch from Lamy. In March 1881 AT&SF connected with the Southern Pacific at Deming, New Mexico, the railroad then built southwest from Benson, Arizona, to Nogales on the Mexican border where it connected with the Sonora Railway, which the AT&SF had built north from the Mexican port of Guaymas. The Atlantic & Pacific Railroad was chartered in 1866 to build west from Springfield, Missouri, the infant A&P had no rail connections. The line that was to become the St. Louis–San Francisco Railway would not reach Springfield for another four years, A&P started construction in 1868, built southwest into what would become Oklahoma, and promptly entered receivership. In 1879 A&P struck a deal with the Santa Fe and Frisco railroads to construct a line for each. The railroads would jointly build and own the A&P railroad west of Albuquerque, in 1883 A&P reached Needles, California, where it connected with an SP line. A&P also built a line between Tulsa, Oklahoma and St. Louis, Missouri for the Frisco, but the Tulsa-Albuquerque portion remained unbuilt, by January 1890, the entire system consisted of some 7,500 miles of track
30.
Bristol Mountains
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The Bristol Mountains are found in the Mojave Desert of California, USA, just west of Mojave National Preserve. The range, which reaches an elevation of 3,874 feet, is located in San Bernardino County, at the southern end of the range lies the town of Amboy, the Amboy Crater, and Bristol Dry Lake. Most of the Bristol Mountains is in a Federally designated Wilderness, the remainder of the range is designated for Wilderness status in the proposed California Desert Protection Act of 2010. This project would have part of Operation Plowshare if not for public opposition
31.
Mojave Desert
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The Mojave Desert is an arid rain-shadow desert and the driest desert in North America. It is located in the southwestern United States, primarily within southeastern California and southern Nevada, very small areas also extend into Utah and Arizona. The central part of the desert is sparsely populated, while its peripheries support large communities such as Las Vegas, Lancaster, Palmdale, Victorville, the Mojave Desert is bordered by the Great Basin Desert to its north and the Sonoran Desert to its south and east. Topographical boundaries include the Tehachapi Mountains to the west, and the San Gabriel Mountains, the mountain boundaries are distinct because they are outlined by the two largest faults in California – the San Andreas and Garlock faults. The Mojave Desert displays typical basin and range topography and it occupies less than 50,000 sq mi, making it the smallest of the North American deserts. The Mojave Desert is often referred to as the desert, in contrast to the low desert. However, the Mojave Desert is generally lower than the Great Basin Desert to the north, the spelling Mojave originates from the Spanish language while the spelling Mohave comes from modern English. The Mojave Desert receives less than 13 in of rain a year and is generally between 2,000 and 5,000 feet in elevation, zion National Park in Utah lies at the junction of the Mojave, the Great Basin Desert, and the Colorado Plateau. Despite its aridity, the Mojave has long been a center of production, fed by irrigation coming from groundwater. The Mojave is a desert of temperature extremes and two distinct seasons, winter months bring comfortable daytime temperatures, which dip precipitously to around 20 °F on valley floors, and below 0 °F at higher elevations. Storms moving from the Pacific Northwest can bring rain and in places even snow. More often, the shadow created by the Sierra Nevada as well as mountain ranges within the desert such as the Spring Mountains, bring only clouds. By early June, it is rare for another Pacific storm to have a significant impact on the regions weather, summer weather is dominated by heat. Temperatures on valley floors can soar above 120 °F and above 130 °F at the lowest elevations, low humidity, high temperatures, and low pressure, draw in moisture from the Gulf of Mexico creating thunderstorms across the desert southwest known as the North American monsoon. Autumn is generally pleasant, with one to two Pacific storm systems creating regional rain events, october is one of the driest and sunniest months in the Mojave, and temperatures usually remain between 70 °F and 90 °F on the valley floors. After temperature, wind is the most significant weather phenomenon in the Mojave, during the June Gloom, cooler air can be pushed out into the desert from Southern California. In Santa Ana wind events, hot air from the desert blows out into the Los Angeles basin, wind farms in these areas generate power from these winds. The other major factor in the region is elevation
32.
Interstate 40
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Interstate 40 is a major east-west Interstate Highway running through the south-central portion of the United States generally north of Interstate 10 and Interstate 20 but south of Interstate 70. The western end is at Interstate 15 in Barstow, California, its end is at a concurrency of U. S. Route 117 and North Carolina Highway 132 in Wilmington. It is the third longest interstate in the United States, behind Interstate 80 and Interstate 90. Much of the part of I-40, from Oklahoma City to Barstow, parallels or overlays the historic U. S. Route 66, east of Oklahoma City the route generally parallels U. S. Route 64. Interstate 40 is a major east–west route of the Interstate Highway System and its western end is in Barstow, California. Known as the Needles Freeway, it heads east from Barstow across the Mojave Desert in San Bernardino County to Needles, I-40 covers 155 miles in California. A sign in California showing the distance to Wilmington, North Carolina has been several times. Interstate 40 is a route to the South Rim of the Grand Canyon, with the exits leading into Grand Canyon National Park in Williams. I-40 covers 359 miles in Arizona, just west of exit 190, west of Flagstaff, is its highest elevation along I-40 in the US, as the road crosses just over 7,320 feet. I-40 also passes through the Navajo Nation, the largest Indian reservation in the US, I-40 covers 374 miles in New Mexico. Notable cities along I-40 include Albuquerque, Santa Rosa, Tucumcari, Grants, I-40 also travels through several different Indian reservations in the western half of the state. It reaches its highest point of 7,275 feet at the Continental Divide in western New Mexico between Gallup and Grants. Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas are the three states where I-40 has a speed limit of 75 mph instead of 70 mph which happens in California, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Tennessee. In the west Texas panhandle area, there are several ranch roads connected directly to the interstate, one of the marked at-grade crossings is shown to the right. The only major city in Texas that is served by I-40 is Amarillo. I-40 has only one center in the state that Is located in Amarillo at the exit for Rick Husband Amarillo International Airport. I-40 covers 331 miles in Oklahoma, Interstate 40 enters the west-central part of the state and runs for 284 miles in Arkansas. The route passes through Van Buren, where it intersects the southbound Interstate 540/US71 to Fort Smith, the route continues east to Alma to intersect Interstate 49 north to Fayetteville, Arkansas
33.
Shale oil extraction
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Shale oil extraction is an industrial process for unconventional oil production. This process converts kerogen in oil shale into shale oil by pyrolysis, hydrogenation, the resultant shale oil is used as fuel oil or upgraded to meet refinery feedstock specifications by adding hydrogen and removing sulfur and nitrogen impurities. Shale oil extraction is usually performed above ground by mining the oil shale, other modern technologies perform the processing underground by applying heat and extracting the oil via oil wells. The earliest description of the dates to the 10th century. In 1684, Great Britain granted the first formal extraction process patent, Extraction industries and innovations became widespread during the 19th century. As of 2010, major long-standing extraction industries are operating in Estonia, Brazil and its economic viability usually requires a lack of locally available crude oil. National energy security issues have also played a role in its development, critics of shale oil extraction pose questions about environmental management issues, such as waste disposal, extensive water use, waste water management, and air pollution. In the 10th century, the Arabian physician Masawaih al-Mardini wrote of his experiments in extracting oil from some kind of bituminous shale, during the late 19th century, plants were built in Australia, Brazil, Canada, and the United States. The 1894 invention of the Pumpherston retort, which was less reliant on coal heat than its predecessors. China, Estonia, New Zealand, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, however, crude oil discoveries in Texas during the 1920s and in the Middle East in the mid 20th century brought most oil shale industries to a halt. In 1944, the US recommenced shale oil extraction as part of its Synthetic Liquid Fuels Program and these industries continued until oil prices fell sharply in the 1980s. The last oil shale retort in the US, operated by Unocal Corporation, as of 2010, shale oil extraction is in operation in Estonia, Brazil, and China. In 2008, their industries produced about 930,000 metric tonnes of shale oil, only four processes are in commercial use, Kiviter, Galoter, Fushun, and Petrosix. Shale oil extraction process decomposes oil shale and converts its kerogen into shale oil—a petroleum-like synthetic crude oil, the process is conducted by pyrolysis, hydrogenation, or thermal dissolution. The efficiencies of extraction processes are often evaluated by comparing their yields to the results of a Fischer Assay performed on a sample of the shale, the oldest and the most common extraction method involves pyrolysis. In this process, oil shale is heated in the absence of oxygen until its kerogen decomposes into condensable shale oil vapors, Oil vapors and oil shale gas are then collected and cooled, causing the shale oil to condense. In addition, oil shale processing produces spent oil shale, which is a solid residue, spent shale consists of inorganic compounds and char—a carbonaceous residue formed from kerogen. Burning the char off the spent shale produces oil shale ash, spent shale and shale ash can be used as ingredients in cement or brick manufacture
34.
Rubble
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Rubble is broken stone, of irregular size, shape and texture, undressed especially as a filling-in. Rubble naturally found in the soil is also as brash. Where present, it more noticeable when the land is ploughed or worked. Rubble-work is a name applied to types of masonry. One kind, where the stones are thrown together in a wall between boards and grouted with mortar almost like concrete, is called in Italian muraglia di getto. In Pakistan, walls made of rubble and concrete, cast in a formwork, are called situ, work executed with more or less large stones put together without any attempt at courses is called rubble walling. Where similar work is laid in courses, it is known as coursed rubble, dry-stone walling is somewhat similar work done without the use of mortar. It is bound together by the fit of the stones and the placement of stones which extend through the thickness of the wall. A rubble wall built with mortar will be stronger if assembled in this way, rubble walls are found all over the island of Malta. Similar walls are frequently found in Sicily and the Arab countries. The various shapes and sizes of the used to build these walls look like stones that were found in the area lying on the ground or in the soil. The Maltese farmer found that the technique of walls was very useful especially during an era where resources were limited. Rubble walls are used to serve as borders between the property of one farm from the other, a great advantage that rubble walls offered is that when heavy rain falls, their structure would allow excessive water to pass through and therefore, excess water will not ruin the products. Soil erosion is minimised as the structure allows the water to pass through but it traps the soil. One can see many rubble walls on the side of the hills and in valleys where the slopes down
35.
Oil shale geology
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Oil shale formation takes place in a number of depositional settings and has considerable compositional variation. Oil shales can be classified by their composition or by their depositional environment, much of the organic matter in oil shale is of algal origin, but may also include remains of vascular land plants. Three major type of matter in oil shale are telalginite, lamalginite. Some oil-shale deposits also contain metals which include vanadium, zinc, copper, the largest deposits are found in the remains of large lakes such as the deposits of the Green River Formation of Wyoming and Utah, USA. Oil-shale deposits formed in the seas of continental shelves generally are much thinner than large lake basin deposits. Oil shale belongs to the group of sapropel fuels and it does not have a definite geological definition nor a specific chemical formula, and its seams do not always have discrete boundaries. Their common feature is low solubility in low-boiling organic solvents and generation of liquid organic products on thermal decomposition, there are varying classifications of oil shales depending on their mineral content, type of kerogen, age, depositional history, and organisms from which they are derived. The age of the oil shale deposits ranges from Cambrian to Tertiary age, lithologies range from shales to marl and carbonate rocks, all of which form a mixture of tightly bound organic and inorganic materials. Oil shales have been divided into three based on mineral composition – carbonate-rich shale, siliceous shale and cannel shale. Carbonate-rich shales derive their name from the amount of carbonate minerals such as calcite and dolomite. As many as twenty carbonate minerals have been found in oil shale, carbonate-rich oil shales, particularly that of lacustrine-sourced deposits, have usually the organic-rich layers sandwiched between carbonate-rich layers. These deposits are hard formations that are resistant to weathering and they are difficult to process using ex-situ methods, siliceous oil shales are usually dark brown or black shales. They are not rich in carbonates but rather in siliceous minerals such as quartz, feldspar, clay, chert, siliceous shales are not as hard and weather-resistant as carbonate-rich shales, and may be better suited for extraction via ex-situ methods. Cannel shales are dark brown or black shales, which consist of organic matter that completely encloses other mineral grains. They are suitable for extraction via ex-situ methods, another classification according to the type of kerogen, is based on the hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen content of oil shales original organic matter. This classification is known as the van Krevelen diagram, the most used classification of oil shales was developed between 1987 and 1991 by Adrian C. Hutton of the University of Wollongong, adapting petrographic terms from coal terminology. According to this classification, oil shales are designated as terrestrial, lacustrine, or marine, huttons classification scheme has proven useful in estimating the yield and composition of the extracted oil. Lacustrine shales consist of Lamosite and Torbanite, Lamosite is a pale-brown and grayish-brown to dark-gray to black oil shale whose chief organic constituent is lamalginite derived from lacustrine planktonic algae
36.
Project Gnome
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Project Gnome was the first nuclear test of Operation Plowshare and was the first continental nuclear weapon test since Trinity to be conducted outside of the Nevada Test Site. It was tested in southeastern New Mexico, approximately 40 km southeast of Carlsbad, the site selected for Gnome is located roughly 40 km southeast of Carlsbad, New Mexico, in an area of salt and potash mines along with oil and gas wells. Explore the feasibility of recovering radioisotopes for scientific and industrial applications, for this reason, it was decided that Gnome would be detonated in bedded rock salt. The plan was to pipe water through the molten salt. The hardened salt could be dissolved in water in order to extract the radioisotopes. Gnome was considered important to the future of nuclear science because it could show that nuclear weapons might be used in peaceful applications. The Atomic Energy Commission invited representatives from nations, the U. N. the media, interested scientists. Vela Uniform was the phase of the program concerned with underground testing, everything from seismic signals, radiation, ground wave patterns, electromagnetic pulse, and acoustic measurements were studied at Gnome under Vela Uniform. Gnome was placed 361 m underground at the end of a 340 m tunnel that was supposed to be self-sealing upon detonation, Gnome was detonated on 10 December 1961, with a yield of 3.1 kilotons. Even though the Gnome shot was supposed to seal itself, the plan did not quite work, two to three minutes after detonation, smoke and steam began to rise from the shaft. Consequently, some radiation was released and detected off site, the cavity volume was calculated to be 28,000 ±2,800 cubic meters with an average radius of 17.4 m in the lower portion measured. The Gnome detonation created a cavity about 170 ft wide and almost 90 ft high with a floor of melted rock, a new shaft was drilled near the original and, on 17 May 1962, crews entered the Gnome Cavity. The intense radiation of the detonation colored the salt multiple shades of blue, green, today, all that exists on the surface to show what occurred below is a small concrete monument with two weathered and slightly vandalized plaques. Waste Isolation Pilot Plant DOE, Project Gnome Declassified U. S, nuclear Test Film #34, Project Gnome, Film #0800034, circa 1962
37.
Carlsbad, New Mexico
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Carlsbad is a city in and the county seat of Eddy County, New Mexico, United States. As of the 2010 census, the city population was 26,138, Carlsbad is centered at the intersection of U. S. Routes 62/180 and 285, and is the city of the Carlsbad-Artesia Micropolitan Statistical Area. Located in the part of New Mexico, Carlsbad straddles the Pecos River. Carlsbad is a hub for mining, petroleum production. Carlsbad Caverns National Park is located 20 miles southwest of the city, the Lincoln National Forest is to the northwest of town. Development of southeastern New Mexico in the late 19th century was fueled by the arrival of colonies of immigrants from England, Switzerland, France, Eddy, co-owner of the Eddy-Bissell Livestock Company. With the commercial development of mineral springs near the flume for medicinal qualities. On March 25,1918, the town surpassed a population of 2,000. Most of Carlsbads development was due to irrigation water, local cattleman recognized the value of diverting water from the Pecos River to the grazing lands on Eddys Halagueno Ranch. Many construction projects were undertaken to establish a system within the town. The Avalon Dam was constructed upstream of town, and canals diverted the water into town, conflict arose when the canals met the river downstream, as a result, the Pecos River Flume was built, first out of wood and later concrete. Key to the growth of the area were special trains that brought visitors from the East at reduced fares. Most of the construction in Carlsbad was completed with locally manufactured bricks. The bricks were quite soft and of poor quality, the former First National Bank building at the corner of Canal and Fox streets is one of the few remaining buildings constructed with the local brick. The re-discovery of Carlsbad Caverns by local cowboys in 1901 and the subsequent establishment of Carlsbad Caverns National Park on May 14,1930, in 1925, potash was discovered near Carlsbad, and for many years Carlsbad dominated the American potash market. Congress authorized the WIPP project in 1979, and construction began in 1980, the DOE Carlsbad Area Office opened in 1993, and the first waste shipment arrived in 1999. Currently, Carlsbad has experienced a boom, the city is leading in the production of oil and natural gases across the entire area, causing an increase in the employment rate
38.
Steam
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Steam is water in the gas phase, which is formed when water boils. Steam is invisible, however, steam often refers to wet steam, at lower pressures, such as in the upper atmosphere or at the top of high mountains, water boils at a lower temperature than the nominal 100 °C at standard pressure. If heated further it becomes superheated steam, piston type steam engines played a central role to the Industrial Revolution and modern steam turbines are used to generate more than 80% of the worlds electricity. If liquid water comes in contact with a hot surface or depressurizes quickly below its vapor pressure. Steam explosions have been responsible for many accidents, and may also have been responsible for much of the damage to the plant in the Chernobyl disaster. Steam is traditionally created by heating a boiler via burning coal and other fuels, water vapor that includes water droplets is described as wet steam. As wet steam is heated further, the droplets evaporate, and at a high temperature all of the water evaporates. Superheated steam is steam at a higher than its boiling point for the pressure. Steam tables contain thermodynamic data for water/steam and are used by engineers and scientists in design. Additionally, thermodynamic phase diagrams for water/steam, such as a diagram or a Mollier diagram shown in this article. Steam charts are used for analysing thermodynamic cycles. In agriculture, steam is used for sterilization to avoid the use of harmful chemical agents. Steams capacity to transfer heat is used in the home, for cooking vegetables, steam cleaning of fabric, carpets and flooring. In each case, water is heated in a boiler, steam is also used in ironing clothes to add enough humidity with the heat to take wrinkles out and put intentional creases into the clothing. About 90% of all electricity is generated using steam as the working fluid, in electric generation, steam is typically condensed at the end of its expansion cycle, and returned to the boiler for re-use. However, in cogeneration, steam is piped into buildings through a heating system to provide heat energy after its use in the electric generation cycle. The worlds biggest steam generation system is the New York City steam system, in other industrial applications steam is used for energy storage, which is introduced and extracted by heat transfer, usually through pipes. Steam is a reservoir for thermal energy because of waters high heat of vaporization
39.
Radionuclide
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A radionuclide is an atom that has excess nuclear energy, making it unstable. During those processes, the radionuclide is said to undergo radioactive decay, the unstable nucleus is more stable following the emission, but will sometimes undergo further decay. Radioactive decay is a process at the level of single atoms. However, for a collection of atoms of an element the decay rate. The range of the half-lives of radioactive atoms have no known limits, Radionuclides occur naturally and are artificially produced in nuclear reactors, cyclotrons, particle accelerators or radionuclide generators. There are about 730 radionuclides with half-lives longer than 60 minutes, with the longest half lives are the 32 primordial radionuclides that have survived from the creation of the Solar System. Over 60 further radionuclides are detectable in nature, either as daughters of these, more than 2400 radionuclides have half-lives less than 60 minutes. Most of those are produced artificially, and have very short half-lives. For comparison, there are about 254 stable nuclides, even the lightest element, hydrogen, has a well-known radionuclide, tritium. Elements heavier than lead, and the elements technetium and promethium, unplanned exposure to radionuclides generally has a harmful effect on living organisms including humans, although low levels of exposure occur naturally without harm. However, radionuclides with suitable properties are used in medicine for both diagnosis and treatment. An imaging tracer made with radionuclides is called a radioactive tracer, a pharmaceutical drug made with radionuclides is called a radiopharmaceutical. On Earth, naturally occurring radionuclides fall into three categories, primordial radionuclides, secondary radionuclides, and cosmogenic radionuclides, Radionuclides are produced in stellar nucleosynthesis and supernova explosions along with stable nuclides. Most decay quickly but can still be observed astronomically and can play a part in understanding astronomic processes, primordial radionuclides, such as uranium and thorium, exist in the present time because their half-lives are so long they have not yet completely decayed. It is possible decay may be observed in other nuclides adding to this list of primordial radionuclides, secondary radionuclides are radiogenic isotopes derived from the decay of primordial radionuclides. They have shorter half-lives than primordial radionuclides and they arise in the decay chain of the primordial isotopes thorium-232, uranium-238 and uranium-235. Examples include the natural isotopes of polonium and radium, cosmogenic isotopes, such as carbon-14, are present because they are continually being formed in the atmosphere due to cosmic rays. Many of these radionuclides exist only in trace amounts in nature, secondary radionuclides will occur in proportion to their half-lives, so short-lived ones will be very rare
40.
Neutron
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The neutron is a subatomic particle, symbol n or n0, with no net electric charge and a mass slightly larger than that of a proton. Protons and neutrons, each with approximately one atomic mass unit, constitute the nucleus of an atom. Their properties and interactions are described by nuclear physics, the nucleus consists of Z protons, where Z is called the atomic number, and N neutrons, where N is the neutron number. The atomic number defines the properties of the atom. The terms isotope and nuclide are often used synonymously, but they are chemical and nuclear concepts, the atomic mass number, symbol A, equals Z+N. For example, carbon has atomic number 6, and its abundant carbon-12 isotope has 6 neutrons, some elements occur in nature with only one stable isotope, such as fluorine. Other elements occur with many stable isotopes, such as tin with ten stable isotopes, even though it is not a chemical element, the neutron is included in the table of nuclides. Within the nucleus, protons and neutrons are bound together through the nuclear force, neutrons are produced copiously in nuclear fission and fusion. They are a contributor to the nucleosynthesis of chemical elements within stars through fission, fusion. The neutron is essential to the production of nuclear power, in the decade after the neutron was discovered in 1932, neutrons were used to induce many different types of nuclear transmutations. These events and findings led to the first self-sustaining nuclear reactor, free neutrons, or individual neutrons free of the nucleus, are effectively a form of ionizing radiation, and as such, are a biological hazard, depending upon dose. A small natural background flux of free neutrons exists on Earth, caused by cosmic ray showers. Dedicated neutron sources like neutron generators, research reactors and spallation sources produce free neutrons for use in irradiation, neutrons and protons are both nucleons, which are attracted and bound together by the nuclear force to form atomic nuclei. The nucleus of the most common isotope of the atom is a lone proton. The nuclei of the hydrogen isotopes deuterium and tritium contain one proton bound to one. All other types of nuclei are composed of two or more protons and various numbers of neutrons. The most common nuclide of the chemical element lead, 208Pb has 82 protons and 126 neutrons. The free neutron has a mass of about 1. 675×10−27 kg, the neutron has a mean square radius of about 0. 8×10−15 m, or 0.8 fm, and it is a spin-½ fermion
41.
Time of flight
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Time of flight describes a variety of methods that measure the time that it takes for an object, particle or acoustic, electromagnetic or other wave to travel a distance through a medium. This measurement can be used for a standard, as a way to measure velocity or path length through a given medium. The traveling object may be detected directly or indirectly, in electronics, the TOF method is used to estimate the electron mobility. Originally, it was designed for measurement of low-conductive thin films and this experimental technique is used for metal-dielectric-metal structures as well as organic field-effect transistors. The excess charges are generated by application of the laser or voltage pulse, in time-of-flight mass spectrometry, ions are accelerated by an electrical field to the same kinetic energy with the velocity of the ion depending on the mass-to-charge ratio. Thus the time-of-flight is used to measure velocity, from which the ratio can be determined. The time-of-flight of electrons is used to measure their kinetic energy, in ultrasonic flow meter measurement, TOF is used to measure speed of signal propagation upstream and downstream of flow of a media, in order to estimate total flow velocity. This measurement is made in a direction with the flow. In planar Doppler velocimetry, TOF measurements are made perpendicular to the flow by timing when individual particles cross two or more locations along the flow, such methods are used in laser radar and laser tracker systems for medium-long range distance measurement. In Neutron time-of-flight scattering, a monochromatic neutron beam is scattered by a sample. The energy spectrum of the neutrons is measured via time of flight. In kinematics, TOF is the duration in which a projectile is traveling through the air, time-of-flight mass spectrometry is a method of mass spectrometry in which ions are accelerated by an electric field of known strength. This acceleration results in an ion having the same energy as any other ion that has the same charge. The velocity of the ion depends on the mass-to-charge ratio, the time that it subsequently takes for the particle to reach a detector at a known distance is measured. This time will depend on the ratio of the particle. From this time and the experimental parameters one can find the mass-to-charge ratio of the ion. The elapsed time from the instant a particle leaves a source to the instant it reaches a detector, an ultrasonic flow meter measures the velocity of a liquid or gas through a pipe using acoustic sensors. This has some advantages over other measurement techniques, the results are slightly affected by temperature, density or conductivity
42.
Particle physics
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Particle physics is the branch of physics that studies the nature of the particles that constitute matter and radiation. By our current understanding, these particles are excitations of the quantum fields that also govern their interactions. The currently dominant theory explaining these fundamental particles and fields, along with their dynamics, is called the Standard Model, in more technical terms, they are described by quantum state vectors in a Hilbert space, which is also treated in quantum field theory. All particles and their interactions observed to date can be described almost entirely by a field theory called the Standard Model. The Standard Model, as formulated, has 61 elementary particles. Those elementary particles can combine to form composite particles, accounting for the hundreds of species of particles that have been discovered since the 1960s. The Standard Model has been found to agree with almost all the tests conducted to date. However, most particle physicists believe that it is a description of nature. In recent years, measurements of mass have provided the first experimental deviations from the Standard Model. The idea that all matter is composed of elementary particles dates from at least the 6th century BC, in the 19th century, John Dalton, through his work on stoichiometry, concluded that each element of nature was composed of a single, unique type of particle. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, a variety of particles were found in collisions of particles from increasingly high-energy beams. It was referred to informally as the particle zoo, the current state of the classification of all elementary particles is explained by the Standard Model. It describes the strong, weak, and electromagnetic fundamental interactions, the species of gauge bosons are the gluons, W−, W+ and Z bosons, and the photons. The Standard Model also contains 24 fundamental particles, which are the constituents of all matter, finally, the Standard Model also predicted the existence of a type of boson known as the Higgs boson. Early in the morning on 4 July 2012, physicists with the Large Hadron Collider at CERN announced they had found a new particle that behaves similarly to what is expected from the Higgs boson, the worlds major particle physics laboratories are, Brookhaven National Laboratory. Its main facility is the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider, which collides heavy ions such as gold ions and it is the worlds first heavy ion collider, and the worlds only polarized proton collider. Its main projects are now the electron-positron colliders VEPP-2000, operated since 2006 and its main project is now the Large Hadron Collider, which had its first beam circulation on 10 September 2008, and is now the worlds most energetic collider of protons. It also became the most energetic collider of heavy ions after it began colliding lead ions and its main facility is the Hadron Elektron Ring Anlage, which collides electrons and positrons with protons
43.
Proof of concept
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A proof of concept is usually small and may or may not be complete. The appearance of the terms in news archives suggests it might have been in use as long ago as 1967. In 1969 Committee on Science and Astronautics, the column also provided definitions for the related but distinct terms breadboard, prototype, engineering prototype, and brassboard. Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow,300, and Sin City were all shot in front of a greenscreen with almost all backgrounds, all three used proof-of-concept short films. In the case of Sin City, the film became the prologue of the final film. Pixar sometimes creates short animated films use a difficult or untested technique. Their short film Geris Game used techniques for animation of cloth, in engineering and technology, a rough prototype of a new idea is often constructed as a proof of concept. For example, a concept of an electrical device may be constructed using a breadboard. A patent application often requires a demonstration of functionality prior to being filed, some universities have proof of concept centers to fill the funding gap for seed-stage investing and accelerate the commercialization of university innovations. Proof of concept centers provide seed funding to novel, early stage research that most often would not be funded by any other conventional source, in the field of business development and sales, a vendor may allow a prospect customer to trial a product. In these cases, the proof of concept may mean the use of specialized sales engineers to ensure that the vendor makes a best-possible effort. Winzapper was a proof of concept which possessed the bare minimum of capabilities needed to remove an item from the Windows Security Log. Once a vendor is satisfied, a prototype is developed which is used to seek funding or to demonstrate to prospective customers. A steel thread is technical proof of concept that all of the technologies in a solution. By contrast, a proof of technology aims to determine the solution to some problem or to demonstrate that a given configuration can achieve a certain throughput. No business users need be involved in a proof of technology, a pilot project refers to an initial roll-out of a system into production, targeting a limited scope of the intended final solution. The scope may be limited by the number of users who can access the system, the business processes affected, the purpose of a pilot project is to test, often in a production environment. Although not suggested by natural language, and in contrast to usage in other areas, Proof of Principle, a third term, Proof of Mechanism, is closely related and is also described here
44.
TNT equivalent
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TNT equivalent is a convention for expressing energy, typically used to describe the energy released in an explosion. The ton of TNT is a unit of energy defined by convention to be 4.184 gigajoules. The convention intends to compare the destructiveness of an event with that of conventional explosives, the kiloton is a unit of energy equal to 4.184 terajoules. The megaton is a unit of equal to 4.184 petajoules. The kiloton and megaton of TNT have traditionally used to describe the energy output. The TNT equivalent appears in various nuclear weapon control treaties, and has used to characterize the energy released in such other highly destructive events as an asteroid impact. A gram of TNT releases 2673–6702 J upon explosion, the energy liberated by one gram of TNT was arbitrarily defined as a matter of convention to be 4184 J, which is exactly one kilocalorie. The measured, pure heat output of a gram of TNT is only 2724 J, alternative TNT equivalency can be calculated as a function of when in the detonation the value is measured and which property is being compared. A kiloton of TNT can be visualized as a cube of TNT8.46 metres on a side, the RE factor is the relative mass of TNT to which an explosive is equivalent, the greater the RE, the more powerful the explosive. This enables engineers to determine the proper masses of different explosives when applying blasting formulas developed specifically for TNT. For example, if a timber-cutting formula calls for a charge of 1 kg of TNT, then based on octanitrocubanes RE factor of 2.38, using PETN, engineers would need 1. 0/1.66 kg to obtain the same effects as 1 kg of TNT. With ANFO or ammonium nitrate, they would require 1. 0/0.74 kg or 1. 0/0.42 kg, *, TBX or EBX, in a small, confined space, may have over twice the power of destruction. The total power of aluminized mixtures strictly depends on the condition of explosions, guide for the Use of the International System of Units. National Institute of Standards and Technology, nuclear Weapons FAQ Part 1.3 Rhodes, Richard. The Making of the Atomic Bomb, cooper, Paul W. Explosives Engineering, New York, Wiley-VCH, ISBN 0-471-18636-8 HQ Department of the Army, Field Manual 5-25, Explosives and Demolitions, Washington, D. C. Pentagon Publishing, pp. 83–84, ISBN 0-9759009-5-1 Explosives - Compositions, Alexandria, VA, thermobaric Explosives, Advanced Energetic Materials,2004. THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS, nap. edu, retrieved September 2004
45.
Terajoule
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The joule, symbol J, is a derived unit of energy in the International System of Units. It is equal to the transferred to an object when a force of one newton acts on that object in the direction of its motion through a distance of one metre. It is also the energy dissipated as heat when a current of one ampere passes through a resistance of one ohm for one second. It is named after the English physicist James Prescott Joule, one joule can also be defined as, The work required to move an electric charge of one coulomb through an electrical potential difference of one volt, or one coulomb volt. This relationship can be used to define the volt, the work required to produce one watt of power for one second, or one watt second. This relationship can be used to define the watt and this SI unit is named after James Prescott Joule. As with every International System of Units unit named for a person, note that degree Celsius conforms to this rule because the d is lowercase. — Based on The International System of Units, section 5.2. The CGPM has given the unit of energy the name Joule, the use of newton metres for torque and joules for energy is helpful to avoid misunderstandings and miscommunications. The distinction may be also in the fact that energy is a scalar – the dot product of a vector force. By contrast, torque is a vector – the cross product of a distance vector, torque and energy are related to one another by the equation E = τ θ, where E is energy, τ is torque, and θ is the angle swept. Since radians are dimensionless, it follows that torque and energy have the same dimensions, one joule in everyday life represents approximately, The energy required to lift a medium-size tomato 1 m vertically from the surface of the Earth. The energy released when that same tomato falls back down to the ground, the energy required to accelerate a 1 kg mass at 1 m·s−2 through a 1 m distance in space. The heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 0.24 °C, the typical energy released as heat by a person at rest every 1/60 s. The kinetic energy of a 50 kg human moving very slowly, the kinetic energy of a 56 g tennis ball moving at 6 m/s. The kinetic energy of an object with mass 1 kg moving at √2 ≈1.4 m/s, the amount of electricity required to light a 1 W LED for 1 s. Since the joule is also a watt-second and the unit for electricity sales to homes is the kW·h. For additional examples, see, Orders of magnitude The zeptojoule is equal to one sextillionth of one joule,160 zeptojoules is equivalent to one electronvolt. The nanojoule is equal to one billionth of one joule, one nanojoule is about 1/160 of the kinetic energy of a flying mosquito
46.
Yucca Flat
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Yucca Flat is a closed desert drainage basin, one of four major nuclear test regions within the Nevada Test Site, and is divided into nine test sections, Areas 1 through 4 and 6 through 10. Yucca Flat is located at the edge of NTS, about ten miles north of Frenchman Flat. Yucca Flat was the site for 739 nuclear tests – nearly four of five tests carried out at the NTS. Yucca Flat has been called the most irradiated, nuclear-blasted spot on the face of the earth, in March 2009, TIME identified the 1970 Yucca Flat Baneberry Test, where 86 workers were exposed to radiation, as one of the worlds worst nuclear disasters. The open, sandy geology of Yucca Flat in the Tonopah Basin made for straightforward visual documentation of atmospheric nuclear tests, when testing went underground, deep layers of sedimentary soil from the erosion of the surrounding mountains allowed for relatively easy drilling of test holes. Hundreds of subsidence craters dot the desert floor, a crater could develop when an underground nuclear explosion vaporized surrounding bedrock and sediment. The vapor cooled to liquid lava and pooled at the bottom of the cavity created by the explosion, cracked rock and sediment layers above the explosion often settled into the cavity to form a crater. At the south end of Yucca Flat is Yucca Lake, also called Yucca Dry Lake, the dry, alkaline lake bed holds a restricted runway which was built by the Army Corps of Engineers before nuclear testing began in the area. To the west of the dry lake bed is News Nob, cP-1 overlooks both Yucca and Frenchman Flats. Today, Control Point is the center for support of all activity at the NTS, a subsidence crater in nearby Area 5 is home to a number of storage containers holding contaminated scrap metal and debris, and is subject to periodic monitoring of radioactivity levels. Yucca Flat saw 739 nuclear tests, including 827 separate detonations, the higher number of detonations is from single tests that included multiple nuclear explosions occurring within a 0.1 second time window and inside a 2 km diameter circle. 62 such tests took place at NTS, No test at Yucca Flat ever exceeded 500 kilotons of expected yield. Tests of larger explosions were carried out at Rainier Mesa and Pahute Mesa, the first test explosion at Yucca Flat came after five prior atmospheric tests at nearby Area 5 as part of Operation Ranger. On October 22,1951, the Able test of Operation Buster was detonated at the top of a tower in Area 7, resulting in a nuclear yield less than an equivalent kilogram of TNT and it was the worlds first failure of a nuclear device. Over the next two weeks, four successful tests were conducted via airdrop, with bomber aircraft releasing nuclear weapons over Area 7, the first underground test at NTS was the Uncle shot of Operation Jangle. Uncle detonated on November 29,1951 within a shaft sunk into Area 10, a balloon carried Hood up to 460 meters above the ground where it was detonated. Over 2,000 troops took part in the test in order to them in conducting operations on the nuclear battlefield. 11 megacuries of iodine-131 were released into the air, with a relatively brief half-life of eight days, 131I is useful as a determinant in tracking specific nuclear contamination events
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