1.
Propeller
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A propeller is a type of fan that transmits power by converting rotational motion into thrust. A pressure difference is produced between the forward and rear surfaces of the blade, and a fluid is accelerated behind the blade. Their disadvantages are higher mechanical complexity and higher cost, the principle employed in using a screw propeller is used in sculling. It is part of the skill of propelling a Venetian gondola but was used in a less refined way in parts of Europe. For example, propelling a canoe with a paddle using a pitch stroke or side slipping a canoe with a scull involves a similar technique. In China, sculling, called lu, was used by the 3rd century AD. In sculling, a blade is moved through an arc. The innovation introduced with the propeller was the extension of that arc through more than 360° by attaching the blade to a rotating shaft. Propellers can have a blade, but in practice there are nearly always more than one so as to balance the forces involved. The origin of the screw propeller starts with Archimedes, who used a screw to lift water for irrigation and bailing boats and it was probably an application of spiral movement in space to a hollow segmented water-wheel used for irrigation by Egyptians for centuries. Leonardo da Vinci adopted the principle to drive his theoretical helicopter, in 1784, J. P. Paucton proposed a gyrocopter-like aircraft using similar screws for both lift and propulsion. At about the time, James Watt proposed using screws to propel boats. This was not his own invention, though, Toogood and Hays had patented it a century earlier, by 1827, Czech-Austrian inventor Josef Ressel had invented a screw propeller which had multiple blades fastened around a conical base. He had tested his propeller in February 1826 on a ship that was manually driven. He was successful in using his bronze screw propeller on an adapted steamboat and his ship Civetta with 48 gross register tons, reached a speed of about six knots. This was the first ship successfully driven by an Archimedes screw-type propeller, after a new steam engine had an accident his experiments were banned by the Austro-Hungarian police as dangerous. Josef Ressel was at the time a forestry inspector for the Austrian Empire, but before this he received an Austro-Hungarian patent for his propeller. This new method of propulsion was an improvement over the paddlewheel as it was not so affected by either ship motions or changes in draft as the burned coal
2.
Royal Air Force
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The Royal Air Force is the United Kingdoms aerial warfare force. Formed towards the end of the First World War on 1 April 1918, following victory over the Central Powers in 1918 the RAF emerged as, at the time, the largest air force in the world. The RAF describe its mission statement as, an agile, adaptable and capable Air Force that, person for person, is second to none, and that makes a decisive air power contribution in support of the UK Defence Mission. The mission statement is supported by the RAFs definition of air power, Air power is defined as the ability to project power from the air and space to influence the behaviour of people or the course of events. Today the Royal Air Force maintains a fleet of various types of aircraft. The majority of the RAFs rotary-wing aircraft form part of the tri-service Joint Helicopter Command in support of ground forces, most of the RAFs aircraft and personnel are based in the UK, with many others serving on operations or at long-established overseas bases. It was founded on 1 April 1918, with headquarters located in the former Hotel Cecil, during the First World War, by the amalgamation of the Royal Flying Corps, at that time it was the largest air force in the world. The RAFs naval aviation branch, the Fleet Air Arm, was founded in 1924, the RAF developed the doctrine of strategic bombing which led to the construction of long-range bombers and became its main bombing strategy in the Second World War. The RAF underwent rapid expansion prior to and during the Second World War, under the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan of December 1939, the air forces of British Commonwealth countries trained and formed Article XV squadrons for service with RAF formations. Many individual personnel from countries, and exiles from occupied Europe. By the end of the war the Royal Canadian Air Force had contributed more than 30 squadrons to serve in RAF formations, additionally, the Royal Australian Air Force represented around nine percent of all RAF personnel who served in the European and Mediterranean theatres. In the Battle of Britain in 1940, the RAF defended the skies over Britain against the numerically superior German Luftwaffe, the largest RAF effort during the war was the strategic bombing campaign against Germany by Bomber Command. Following victory in the Second World War, the RAF underwent significant re-organisation, during the early stages of the Cold War, one of the first major operations undertaken by the Royal Air Force was in 1948 and the Berlin Airlift, codenamed Operation Plainfire. Before Britain developed its own nuclear weapons the RAF was provided with American nuclear weapons under Project E and these were initially armed with nuclear gravity bombs, later being equipped with the Blue Steel missile. Following the development of the Royal Navys Polaris submarines, the nuclear deterrent passed to the navys submarines on 30 June 1969. With the introduction of Polaris, the RAFs strategic nuclear role was reduced to a tactical one and this tactical role was continued by the V bombers into the 1980s and until 1998 by Tornado GR1s. For much of the Cold War the primary role of the RAF was the defence of Western Europe against potential attack by the Soviet Union, with many squadrons based in West Germany. With the decline of the British Empire, global operations were scaled back, despite this, the RAF fought in many battles in the Cold War period
3.
Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules
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The Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules is a four-engine turboprop military transport aircraft. The C-130J is an update of the Lockheed C-130 Hercules, with new engines, flight deck. The Hercules family has the longest continuous run of any military aircraft in history. During more than 60 years of service, the family has participated in military, civilian, the Hercules has outlived several planned successor designs, most notably the Advanced Medium STOL Transport contestants. Fifteen nations have placed orders for a total of 300 C-130Js, the C-130J is the newest version of the Hercules and the only model still in production. Externally similar to the classic Hercules in general appearance, the J-model features considerably updated technology and these differences include new Rolls-Royce AE2100 D3 turboprop engines with Dowty R391 composite scimitar propellers, digital avionics, and reduced crew requirements. These changes have improved performance over its C-130E/H predecessors, such as 40% greater range, 21% higher maximum speed, the J-model is available in a standard-length or stretched -30 variant. The U. S. Marine Corps KC-130J uses a crew chief for expeditionary operations, the C-130Js cargo compartment is approximately 41 feet long,9 feet high, and 10 feet wide, and loading is from the rear of the fuselage. The aircraft can also be configured with the cargo handling system. Initially developed for the USAF, this system enables rapid role changes to be carried out, Lockheed Martin received the launch order for the J-model from the RAF, which ordered 25 aircraft, with first deliveries beginning in 1999 as Hercules C4 and Hercules C5. The standard C-130J had a flyaway cost of US$62 million in 2008, in mid-June 2008, the United States Air Force awarded a $470 million contract to Lockheed Martin for six modified KC-130J aircraft for use by the Air Force and Special Operations Command. The contract led to C-130J variants that will replace aging HC-130s and MC-130s, the HC-130J Combat King II personnel recovery aircraft completed developmental testing on 14 March 2011. The final test point was air-to-air refueling, and was the first ever boom refueling of a C-130 where the aircraft’s refueling receiver was installed during aircraft production and this test procedure also applied to the MC-130J Combat Shadow II aircraft in production for Air Force Special Operations Command. This capability, designated as Harvest HAWK, can be used in scenarios where precision is not a requisite, the aircraft retains its original capabilities in refueling and transportation. The entire system can be removed within a day if necessary, the Super Hercules has been used extensively by the USAF and USMC in Iraq and Afghanistan. Canada has also deployed its CC-130J aircraft to Afghanistan, C-130Js from several countries have been deployed in support of the US Operation Odyssey Dawn and NATOs Operation Unified Protector during the 2011 Libyan civil war. From the first flight on 5 April 1996 to 30 April 2013,290 C-130J Super Hercules aircraft operated by 13 nations surpassed 1 million flight hours, in January 2013, it was reported that some of Canadas C-130J transports had counterfeit Chinese microchips in their cockpit displays. These parts are likely to fail and result in failures such as blank instrument screens during flight
4.
Landing Craft Air Cushion
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The Landing Craft Air Cushion is a class of air-cushion vehicle used as landing craft by the United States Navys Assault Craft Units and the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force. They transport weapons systems, equipment, cargo and personnel of the elements of the Marine Air/Ground Task Force both from ship to shore and across the beach. Concept design of the present day LCAC began in the early 1970s with the full-scale Amphibious Assault Landing Craft test vehicle, during the advanced development stage, two prototypes were built. JEFF A was designed and built by Aerojet General in California, JEFF B was designed and built by Bell Aerospace in New Orleans, Louisiana. JEFF B had two ducted rear propellers similar to the proposed SK-10 which was derived from the previous Bell SK-5 / SR. N5 hovercraft tested in Vietnam and these two craft confirmed the technical feasibility and operational capability that ultimately led to the production of LCAC. JEFF B was selected as the basis for today’s LCAC. The JEFF A was later modified for Arctic use and deployed in Prudhoe Bay to support offshore oil drilling, the first 33 were included in the FY82-86 defense budgets,15 in FY89,12 each in FY90, FY91 and FY92, while seven were included in FY93. The first LCAC was delivered to the Navy in 1984 and Initial Operational Capability was achieved in 1986, approval for full production was granted in 1987. A total of ninety-one LCAC have now been built, the final craft, LCAC91, was delivered to the U. S. Navy in 2001. On June 29,1987, LCAC was granted approval for full production, forty-eight air-cushion landing craft were authorized and appropriated through FY89. Lockheed Shipbuilding Company was competitively selected as a second source, the FY1990 budget request included $219.3 million for nine craft. The FY1991 request included full funding for 12 LCACs and advance procurement in support of the FY1992 program, the remaining 24 were funded in FY92. The LCAC first deployed in 1987 aboard USS Germantown, LCACs are transported in and operate from all the U. S. Navys amphibious-well deck ships including LHA, LHD, LSD and LPD. Ships capable of carrying the LCAC include the Wasp, Tarawa, Anchorage, Austin, Whidbey Island, Harpers Ferry, all of the planned 91 craft have been delivered to the Navy. Eight minesweeping kits were acquired in 1994–1995, a service-life extension program to extend service life from 20 to 30 years for the remaining 72 active LCACs was begun in 2000 and is scheduled to be completed by 2018. The craft operates with a crew of five, in addition to beach landing, LCAC provides personnel transport, evacuation support, lane breaching, mine countermeasure operations, and Marine and Special Warfare equipment delivery. The four main engines are all used for lift and all used for main propulsion, the craft can continue to operate, at reduced capability, with two engines inoperable. A transport model can seat 180 fully equipped troops, cargo capacity is 1,809 sq ft
5.
Hovercraft
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A hovercraft, also known as an air-cushion vehicle or ACV, is a craft capable of travelling over land, water, mud, ice, and other surfaces. Hovercraft are hybrid vessels operated by a pilot as a rather than a captain as a marine vessel. Hovercraft use blowers to produce a volume of air below the hull that is slightly above atmospheric pressure. The pressure difference between the higher pressure air below the hull and lower pressure ambient air above it produces lift, for stability reasons, the air is typically blown through slots or holes around the outside of a disk- or oval-shaped platform, giving most hovercraft a characteristic rounded-rectangle shape. Typically this cushion is contained within a flexible skirt, which allows the vehicle to travel over small obstructions without damage, the first practical design for hovercraft was derived from a British invention in the 1950s to 1960s. They are now used throughout the world as specialised transports in disaster relief, coastguard, military, although now a generic term for the type of craft, the name Hovercraft itself was a trademark owned by Saunders-Roe, hence other manufacturers use of alternative names to describe the vehicles. There have been attempts to understand the principles of high air pressure below hulls. To a great extent, the majority of these can be termed ground effect or water effect vehicles rather than hovercraft, the principal difference is that a hovercraft can lift itself while still, whereas the majority of other designs require forward motion to create lift. These active-motion surface effect vehicles are known in specific cases as ekranoplan, the first mention in the historical record of the concepts behind surface-effect vehicles that used the term hovering was by Swedish scientist Emanuel Swedenborg in 1716. The shipbuilder Sir John Isaac Thornycroft patented a design for an air cushion ship / hovercraft in the 1870s. In 1915, the Austrian Dagobert Müller built the worlds first air cushion boat, only when in motion could the craft trap air under the front, increasing lift. The vessel also required a depth of water to operate and could not transition to land or other surfaces, designed as a fast torpedo boat, the Versuchsgleitboot had a top speed over 32 knots. It was thoroughly tested and even armed with torpedoes and machine guns for operation in the Adriatic. It never saw combat, however, and as the war progressed it was eventually scrapped due to the lack of interest and perceived need. The theoretical grounds for motion over an air layer were constructed by Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovskii in 1926 and 1927, in 1929, Andrew Kucher of Ford began experimenting with the Levapad concept, metal disks with pressurized air blown through a hole in the center. Levapads do not offer stability on their own, several must be used together to support a load above them. Lacking a skirt, the pads had to very close to the running surface. He initially imagined these being used in place of casters and wheels in factories and warehouses, in 1931, Finnish aero engineer Toivo J. Kaario began designing a developed version of a vessel using an air cushion and built a prototype Pintaliitäjä, in 1937
6.
Engine
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An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one form of energy into mechanical energy. Heat engines burn a fuel to heat, which is then used to create a force. Electric motors convert electrical energy into motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air. In biological systems, molecular motors, like myosins in muscles, use energy to create forces. The word engine derives from Old French engin, from the Latin ingenium–the root of the word ingenious. Pre-industrial weapons of war, such as catapults, trebuchets and battering rams, were called siege engines, the word gin, as in cotton gin, is short for engine. Most mechanical devices invented during the revolution were described as engines—the steam engine being a notable example. However, the steam engines, such as those by Thomas Savery, were not mechanical engines. In this manner, an engine in its original form was merely a water pump. Devices converting heat energy into motion are commonly referred to simply as engines, examples of engines which exert a torque include the familiar automobile gasoline and diesel engines, as well as turboshafts. Examples of engines which produce thrust include turbofans and rockets, the term motor derives from the Latin verb moto which means to set in motion, or maintain motion. Thus a motor is a device that imparts motion, motor and engine later came to be used largely interchangeably in casual discourse. However, technically, the two words have different meanings, however, rocketry uses the term rocket motor, even though they consume fuel. A heat engine may also serve as a prime mover—a component that transforms the flow or changes in pressure of a fluid into mechanical energy. An automobile powered by a combustion engine may make use of various motors and pumps. Another way of looking at it is that a motor receives power from an external source, simple machines, such as the club and oar, are prehistoric. More complex engines using human power, animal power, water power, wind power and these were used in cranes and aboard ships in Ancient Greece, as well as in mines, water pumps and siege engines in Ancient Rome. The writers of those times, including Vitruvius, Frontinus and Pliny the Elder, treat these engines as commonplace, by the 1st century AD, cattle and horses were used in mills, driving machines similar to those powered by humans in earlier times
7.
Airfoil
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An airfoil or aerofoil is the shape of a wing, blade, or sail. An airfoil-shaped body moved through a fluid produces an aerodynamic force, the component of this force perpendicular to the direction of motion is called lift. The component parallel to the direction of motion is called drag, subsonic flight airfoils have a characteristic shape with a rounded leading edge, followed by a sharp trailing edge, often with a symmetric curvature of upper and lower surfaces. Foils of similar function designed with water as the fluid are called hydrofoils. The lift on an airfoil is primarily the result of its angle of attack, when oriented at a suitable angle, the airfoil deflects the oncoming air, resulting in a force on the airfoil in the direction opposite to the deflection. This force is known as force and can be resolved into two components, lift and drag. Most foil shapes require an angle of attack to generate lift. This turning of the air in the vicinity of the airfoil creates curved streamlines, resulting in pressure on one side. The lift force can be related directly to the average top/bottom velocity difference without computing the pressure by using the concept of circulation, a fixed-wing aircrafts wings, horizontal, and vertical stabilizers are built with airfoil-shaped cross sections, as are helicopter rotor blades. Airfoils are also found in propellers, fans, compressors and turbines, sails are also airfoils, and the underwater surfaces of sailboats, such as the centerboard and keel, are similar in cross-section and operate on the same principles as airfoils. Swimming and flying creatures and even many plants and sessile organisms employ airfoils/hydrofoils, common examples being bird wings, the bodies of fish, an airfoil-shaped wing can create downforce on an automobile or other motor vehicle, improving traction. Any object with an angle of attack in a fluid, such as a flat plate. Airfoils are more efficient lifting shapes, able to more lift. A lift and drag curve obtained in wind tunnel testing is shown on the right, the curve represents an airfoil with a positive camber so some lift is produced at zero angle of attack. With increased angle of attack, lift increases in a linear relation. At about 18 degrees this airfoil stalls, and lift falls off quickly beyond that, the drop in lift can be explained by the action of the upper-surface boundary layer, which separates and greatly thickens over the upper surface at and past the stall angle. The thicker boundary layer also causes an increase in pressure drag, so that the overall drag increases sharply near. Airfoil design is a facet of aerodynamics
8.
Blade pitch
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Blade pitch or simply pitch refers to turning the angle of attack of the blades of a propeller or helicopter rotor into or out of the wind to control the production or absorption of power. Wind turbines use this to adjust the speed and the generated power. A propeller of a ship uses this effect to control the ships speed without changing the rotation of the shaft, in aircraft, blade pitch is usually described as coarse for a greater horizontal blade angle, and fine for a more vertical blade angle. For an aircraft that is stationary the angle of pitch of each blade of a propeller fitted to that aircraft equates to the angle of attack, blade pitch is normally described in units of distance/rotation assuming no slip. Blade pitch acts much like the gearing of the drive of a car. Low pitch yields good low speed acceleration while high pitch optimizes high speed performance, a propeller blades lift, or its thrust, depends on the angle of attack combined with its speed. This is typical of all but the crudest propellers and it is quite common in aircraft for the propeller to be designed to vary pitch in flight, to give optimum thrust over the maximum amount of the aircrafts speed range, from takeoff and climb to cruise. In helicopters the pitch control changes the angle of attack of the rotor blades and this control is also called collective as distinct from the cyclic control for lateral movement. The collective blade setting is achieved through vertical movement of the swashplate. Feathering the blades of a means to increase their angle of pitch by turning the blades to be parallel to the airflow. This minimizes drag from a stopped propeller following a failure in flight. Blade pitch control is a feature of all large modern horizontal-axis wind turbines. While operating, a wind turbines control system adjusts the blade pitch to keep the speed within operating limits as the wind speed changes. Feathering the blades stops the rotor during emergency shutdowns, or whenever the speed exceeds the maximum rated speed. During construction and maintenance of turbines, the blades are usually feathered to reduce unwanted rotational torque in the event of wind gusts. In boating, blade pitch is measured in the number of inches of forward propulsion through the water for one revolution of the propeller. For example, a propeller with a 12 pitch when rotated once, note that this is the theoretical maximum distance, in reality, due to slip between the propeller and the water, the actual distance propelled will invariably be less. Some composite propellers have interchangeable blades, which enables the pitch to be adjusted
9.
Propeller speed reduction unit
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A propeller speed reduction unit is a gearbox or a belt and pulley device used to reduce the output revolutions per minute from the higher input rpm of the powerplant. This allows the use of small displacement internal combustion engines to turn aircraft propellers within an efficient speed range. The Wright brothers recognised the need for reduction gearing in 1903. Large engines with high speeds and power outputs demanded propeller reduction. The challenge with coupling gearboxes to internal combustion engines is primarily the torsional resonance that can develop at certain speeds, the load of a propeller and reduction unit can alter the resonant frequencies of the crankshaft, allowing torsional vibration to increase rapidly to high levels at certain rotational speeds. Measures taken by the designer to mitigate torsional resonances in the design of the engine can be rendered ineffective if the resonant frequency is altered by the use of a reduction unit. Clutches and/or flexible couplings are used to prevent torsional resonance from reaching damaging levels. The Continental Tiara series engines were designed to drive their propellers directly from the camshaft, the use of a reduction unit is common in the construction of experimental homebuilt aircraft when automotive engines may be used. These engines, in addition to their lower cost, are smaller in cubic inch displacement and develop peak torque at high revolutions per minute. This speed is considered the maximum rpm for a single engine aircraft propeller due to the need to keep the propeller tip speed below the speed of sound. Factory certified aircraft engines have also used reduction units integral to their design, the Cessna 175 used a geared unit which is part of the Continental GO-300 engine while the Helio Courier and several Beechcraft twins, among others, used the geared Lycoming GO-435 and GO-480. Many light sport aircraft use engines from Rotax such as the Rotax 912 which incorporates a geared reducer
10.
Miles per hour
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Miles per hour is an imperial and United States customary unit of speed expressing the number of statute miles covered in one hour. Miles per hour is the also used in the Canadian rail system. In some countries mph may be used to express the speed of delivery of a ball in sporting events such as cricket, tennis, road traffic speeds in other countries are indicated in kilometres per hour, while occasionally both systems are used. For example, in Ireland, a considered a speeding case by examining speeds in both kilometres per hour and miles per hour. The judge was quoted as saying the speed seemed very excessive at 180 km/h but did not look as bad at 112 mph, nautical and aeronautical applications, however, favour the knot as a common unit of speed. 1 Mph =0.000277778 Mps Example, Apollo 11 attained speeds of 25,000 Mph, if Apollo 11 were to travel at 25,000 Mph from New York to Los Angeles it would reach Los Angeles in under 6 minutes
11.
Kilometres per hour
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The kilometre per hour is a unit of speed, expressing the number of kilometres travelled in one hour. Worldwide, it is the most commonly used unit of speed on road signs, the Dutch on the other hand adopted the kilometre in 1817 but gave it the local name of the mijl. The SI representations, classified as symbols, are km/h, km h−1 and km·h−1, the use of abbreviations dates back to antiquity, but abbreviations for kilometres per hour did not appear in the English language until the late nineteenth century. The kilometre, a unit of length, first appeared in English in 1810, kilometres per hour did not begin to be abbreviated in print until many years later, with several different abbreviations existing near-contemporaneously. For example, news organisations such as Reuters and The Economist require kph, in Australian unofficial usage, km/h is sometimes pronounced and written as klicks or clicks. The use of symbols to replace words dates back to at least the medieval era when Johannes Widman, writing in German in 1486. In the early 1800s Berzelius introduced a symbolic notation for the chemical elements derived from the elements Latin names, typically, Na was used for the element sodium and H2O for water. In 1879, four years after the signing of the Treaty of the Metre, among these were the use of the symbol km for kilometre. In 1948, as part of its work for the SI. The SI explicitly states that unit symbols are not abbreviations and are to be using a very specific set of rules. Hence the name of the unit can be replaced by a kind of algebraic symbol and this symbol is not merely an abbreviation but a symbol which, like chemical symbols, must be used in a precise and prescribed manner. SI, and hence the use of km/h has now been adopted around the world in areas related to health and safety. It is also the system of measure in academia and in education. During the early years of the car, each country developed its own system of road signs. In 1968 the Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals was drawn up under the auspices of the United Nations Economic, many countries have since signed the convention and adopted its proposals. The use of SI implicitly required that states use km/h as the shorthand for kilometres per hour on official documents. Examples include, Dutch, kilometer per uur, Portuguese, quilómetro por hora Greek, in 1988 the United States National Highway Traffic Safety Administration promulgated a rule stating that MPH and/or km/h were to be used in speedometer displays. On May 15,2000 this was clarified to read MPH, or MPH, however, the Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard number 101 allows any combination of upper- and lowercase letters to represent the units
12.
Knot (unit)
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The knot is a unit of speed equal to one nautical mile per hour, approximately 1.151 mph. The ISO Standard symbol for the knot is kn, the same symbol is preferred by the IEEE, kt is also common. The knot is a unit that is accepted for use with the SI. Etymologically, the term derives from counting the number of knots in the line that unspooled from the reel of a log in a specific time. 1 international knot =1 nautical mile per hour,1.852 kilometres per hour,0.514 metres per second,1.151 miles per hour,20.254 inches per second,1852 m is the length of the internationally agreed nautical mile. The US adopted the definition in 1954, having previously used the US nautical mile. The UK adopted the international nautical mile definition in 1970, having used the UK Admiralty nautical mile. The speeds of vessels relative to the fluids in which they travel are measured in knots, for consistency, the speeds of navigational fluids are also measured in knots. Thus, speed over the ground and rate of progress towards a distant point are given in knots. Until the mid-19th century, vessel speed at sea was measured using a chip log, the chip log was cast over the stern of the moving vessel and the line allowed to pay out. Knots placed at a distance of 8 fathoms -47 feet 3 inches from each other, passed through a sailors fingers, the knot count would be reported and used in the sailing masters dead reckoning and navigation. This method gives a value for the knot of 20.25 in/s, the difference from the modern definition is less than 0. 02%. On a chart of the North Atlantic, the scale varies by a factor of two from Florida to Greenland, a single graphic scale, of the sort on many maps, would therefore be useless on such a chart. Recent British Admiralty charts have a latitude scale down the middle to make this even easier, speed is sometimes incorrectly expressed as knots per hour, which is in fact a measure of acceleration. Prior to 1969, airworthiness standards for aircraft in the United States Federal Aviation Regulations specified that distances were to be in statute miles. In 1969, these standards were amended to specify that distances were to be in nautical miles. At 11000 m, an airspeed of 300 kn may correspond to a true airspeed of 500 kn in standard conditions. Beaufort scale Hull speed, which deals with theoretical estimates of maximum speed of displacement hulls Knot count Knotted cord Metre per second Orders of magnitude Rope Kemp
13.
ATR 72
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The ATR72 is a twin-engine turboprop short-haul regional airliner manufactured by the French-Italian aircraft manufacturer ATR. It was developed as a variant of the ATR42. It has been employed as a regional airliner, although other roles have been performed by the type such as corporate transport, cargo aircraft. Successive models of the ATR72 have been introduced, an aircraft can seat up to 78 passengers in a single-class configuration. The 72 was announced in 1986, made its flight on 27 October 1988. A tail stand must be installed when passengers are boarding or disembarking in case the nose lifts off the ground, the ATR72 is powered by two Pratt & Whitney Canada PW100-based turboprop engines with four or six-bladed propellers supplied by Hamilton Standard. The aircraft does not have a power unit as normally equipped. The APU is an option and would be placed in the C4 cargo section, at the end of 2014, ATR had received 1000 orders for the type and delivered 754, leaving a backlog of 246 aircraft. Although expressing his satisfaction with the current engine and supplier, Castelbajac noted the designs age, to be worthwhile, any re-engine would require a 15% improvement in fuel-burn and 20-25% reduction of direct maintenance costs. Castelbajac sees the potential re-engine as a bridge to the development of a larger 100-seat aircraft. Two sub-types were marketed as the 100 series, ATR 72–101 Initial production variant with front and rear passenger doors, powered by two PW124B engines and certified in September 1989. ATR 72–102 Initial production variant with a front cargo door and a passenger door. Two sub-types were marketed as the 200 series, the −200 was the original production version, powered by Pratt & Whitney Canada PW124B engines rated at 2,400 shp. ATR 72–201 Higher maximum take-off weight variant of the −101, a PW124B-powered variant certified in September 1989, ATR 72–202 Higher maximum take-off weight variant of the −102, a PW124B-powered variant certified in December 1989. Two sub-types were marketed as the 210 series, the −211, is a −200 with PW127 engines producing 2,750 shp each for improved performance in hot, the sub-types differ in the type of doors and emergency exits ATR 72–211 PW127-powered variant certified in December 1992. ATR 72–212 PW127-powered variant certified in December 1992, certified in January 1997 and fitted with either PW127F or PW127M engines, the −212A is an upgraded version of the −210 using six-bladed propellers on otherwise identical PW127F engines. Other improvements include higher maximum weights and superior performance, as well as automation of power management to ease pilot workload. ATR 72–500 Initial marketing name for the ATR 72-212A, ATR 72–600 Marketing name for ATR 72-212A with different equipment fit
14.
Early flying machines
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Early flying machines include all forms of aircraft studied or constructed before the development of the modern aeroplane by 1910. The story of modern flight begins more than a century before the first successful manned aeroplane, the Greek legend of Daedalus and Icarus is one of the earliest to come down to us. According to Ovid, Daedalus tied feathers together to mimic the wings of a bird, other ancient legends include the Indian Vimana flying palace or chariot, Ezekiels Chariot, various stories about Magic carpets, and mythical British King Bladud, who conjured up flying wings. Eventually some tried to build real flying devices, typically birdlike wings, in the 1st century AD, Chinese Emperor Wang Mang recruited a specialist scout to be bound with bird feathers, he is claimed to have glided about 100 meters. In 559 AD, Yuan Huangtou is said to have landed safely following an enforced tower jump, in 1010 AD, English monk Eilmer of Malmesbury flew from the tower of Malmesbury Abbey in a primitive glider. Eilmer was said to have flown over 200 yards before landing, breaking both his legs, Eilmer later remarked that the only reason he did not fly further was that he forgot to give his machine a tail. This burst of activity was followed by a lull of several centuries, jumping revived in 1496 with Seccio breaking both arms in Nuremberg. In 1507, John Damian strapped on wings covered with feathers and jumped from the walls of Stirling Castle in Scotland, breaking his thigh. Similar attempts continued until the early 19th century, with never more than partial success, francis Willughbys suggestion, published in 1676, that human legs were more comparable to birds wings in strength than arms, had only occasional influence. As late as 1811, Albrecht Berblinger constructed an ornithopter and jumped into the Danube at Ulm, the kite was invented in China, possibly as far back as the 5th century BC by Mozi and Lu Ban. These leaf kites were constructed by stretching silk over a bamboo framework. The earliest known Chinese kites were flat and often rectangular, later, tailless kites incorporated a stabilizing bowline. Designs often emulated flying insects, birds, and other beasts, some were fitted with strings and whistles to make musical sounds while flying. In 549 AD, a made of paper was used as a message for a rescue mission. Ancient and medieval Chinese sources list other uses of kites for measuring distances, testing the wind, lifting men, signalling, after its introduction into India, the kite further evolved into the fighter kite. Traditionally these are small, unstable single line flat kites where line tension alone is used for control, Kites also spread throughout Polynesia, as far as New Zealand. Anthropomorphic kites made from cloth and wood were used in ceremonies to send prayers to the gods. By 1634 kites had reached the West, with an illustration of a kite with a tail appearing in Bates Mysteries of nature
15.
China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
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Bamboo-copter
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The bamboo-copter, also known as the bamboo dragonfly or Chinese top, is a toy helicopter rotor that flies up when its shaft is rapidly spun. This helicopter-like top originated in Warring States period China around 400 BCE, and was the object of experiments by George Cayley. In China, the earliest known flying toys consisted of feathers at the end of a stick, while the Chinese top was no more than a toy, it is perhaps the first tangible device of what we may understand as a helicopter. The Daoist scholar Ge Hongs book Baopuzi mentioned a flying vehicle in what Joseph Needham calls truly an astonishing passage, some have made flying cars with wood from the inner part of the jujube tree, using ox-leather fastened to returning blades so as to set the machine in motion. Others have had the idea of making five snakes, six dragons, there the is extremely hard, so much so that it can overcome human beings. As the Teacher says, The kite flies higher and higher spirally and this is because it starts gliding on the hard wind. Take dragons, for example, when they first rise they go up using the clouds as steps and this account comes from the adepts, and is handed down to ordinary people, but they are not likely to understand it. Other scholars interpret this Baopuzi passage mythologically instead of literally, based on its contexts mentioning fantastic flights through chengqiao and xian techniques. Some build a vehicle from the pith of the jujube tree and have it drawn by a sword with a thong of buffalo hide at the end of its grip. Others let their thoughts dwell on the preparation of a joint rectangle from five serpents, six dragons and this Chinese helicopter toy was introduced into Europe and made its earliest appearances in Renaissance European paintings and in the drawings of Leonardo da Vinci. A c.1560 picture by Pieter Breughel the Elder at the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna depicts a helicopter top with three airscrews. The helicopter top in China led to nothing but amusement and pleasure, early Western scientists developed flying machines based upon the original Chinese model. In 1792, George Cayley began experimenting with helicopter tops, which he later called rotary wafts or elevating fliers and his landmark article On Aerial Navigation pictured and described a flying model with two propellers powered by a whalebone bow drill. In 1835 Cayley remarked that while the toy would rise no more than about 6 or 7.5 metres. This then was the ancestor of the helicopter rotor and the aircraft propeller. Uncle Igor & the Chinese Top, Time Magazine 16 November 1953 The Helicopter, A Hundred Years of Hovering, Wired Magazine 12 November 2007 What is a Taketonbo
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Taoism
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Taoism, also known as Daoism, is a religious or philosophical tradition of Chinese origin which emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao. The Tao is an idea in most Chinese philosophical schools, in Taoism, however. Taoism differs from Confucianism by not emphasizing rigid rituals and social order, the Tao Te Ching, a compact book containing teachings attributed to Laozi, is widely considered the keystone work of the Taoist tradition, together with the later writings of Zhuangzi. By the Han dynasty, the sources of Taoism had coalesced into a coherent tradition of religious organizations. In earlier ancient China, Taoists were thought of as hermits or recluses who did not participate in political life, Zhuangzi was the best known of these, and it is significant that he lived in the south, where he was part of local Chinese shamanic traditions. Women shamans played an important role in this tradition, which was strong in the southern state of Chu. Early Taoist movements developed their own institution in contrast to shamanism, shamans revealed basic texts of Taoism from early times down to at least the 20th century. Institutional orders of Taoism evolved in various strains that in recent times are conventionally grouped into two main branches, Quanzhen Taoism and Zhengyi Taoism. After Laozi and Zhuangzi, the literature of Taoism grew steadily and was compiled in form of a canon—the Daozang—which was published at the behest of the emperor, throughout Chinese history, Taoism was nominated several times as a state religion. After the 17th century, however, it fell from favor, Chinese alchemy, Chinese astrology, Chan Buddhism, several martial arts, traditional Chinese medicine, feng shui, and many styles of qigong have been intertwined with Taoism throughout history. Beyond China, Taoism also had influence on surrounding societies in Asia, Taoism also has a presence in Hong Kong, Macau, and in Southeast Asia. English speakers continue to debate the preferred romanization of the words Daoism and Taoism, the root Chinese word 道 way, path is romanized tao in the older Wade–Giles system and dào in the modern Pinyin system. In linguistic terminology, English Taoism/Daoism is formed from the Chinese loanword tao/dao 道 way, route, principle and the native suffix -ism. The debate over Taoism vs. Daoism involves sinology, phonemes, loanwords, Daoism is pronounced /ˈdaʊ. ɪzəm/, but English speakers disagree whether Taoism should be /ˈdaʊ. ɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊ. ɪzəm/. In theory, both Wade–Giles tao and Pinyin dao are articulated identically, as are Taoism and Daoism, an investment book titled The Tao Jones Averages illustrates this /daʊ/ pronunciations widespread familiarity. In speech, Tao and Taoism are often pronounced /ˈtaʊ/ and ˈtaʊ. ɪzəm/, lexicography shows American and British English differences in pronouncing Taoism. Taoist philosophy or Taology, or the mystical aspect — The philosophical doctrines based on the texts of the I Ching, the Tao Te Ching and these texts were linked together as Taoist philosophy during the early Han Dynasty, but notably not before. It is unlikely that Zhuangzi was familiar with the text of the Daodejing, however, the discussed distinction is rejected by the majority of Western and Japanese scholars
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Baopuzi
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The Baopuzi, written by the Jin dynasty scholar Ge Hong 葛洪, is divided into esoteric Neipian 內篇 Inner Chapters and exoteric Waipian 外篇 Outer Chapters. The Daoist Inner Chapters discuss topics such as techniques for xian 仙 immortality, transcendence, Chinese alchemy, elixirs, the Confucianist Outer Chapters discuss Chinese literature, Legalism, politics, and society. Ge Hongs autobiography explains choosing his pen name Baopuzi and it has been my plan to preserve regularity and not to follow the whims of the world. My speech is frank and sincere, I engage in no banter, if I do not come upon the right person, I can spend the day in silence. This is the reason my neighbors call me Simplex, which name I have used as a sobriquet in my writings. Compare these autobiography translations, people all call me a pao-pu scholar, Wu and Davis noted, This name has been translated Old Sober-Sides, but Dr. Wu considers that it has no satirical intent and would better be translated Solemn-Seeming Philosopher. Fabrizio Pregadio translates Master Who Embraces Spontaneous Nature, compared with many other Daoist texts, the origins of the Baopuzi are well documented. Ge completed the book during the Jianwu 建武 era, when Emperor Yuan of Jin founded the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Ge Hongs autobiography records writing the Baopuzi. In my twenties I planned to compose some little things in order not to waste my time, for it seemed best to create something that would constitute the sayings of one sole thinker. Although constantly on the move, I did not abandon my brush again for a dozen or so years and my Wai pien, giving an account of success and failure in human affairs and of good and evil in public affairs, belongs to the Confucian school. Compare the more literal translation of Davis and Chen, I left off writing for ten and odd years, for I was constantly on the road, ges autobiography mentions his military service fighting rebels against the Jin Dynasty, and successfully defending his hometown of Jurong 句容. In 330, Emperor Cheng of Jin granted Ge the fief of Marquis of Guanzhong with income from 200 Jurong households, scholars believe Ge revised the Baopuzi during this period, sometime around 330 or 332. The Baopuzi consists of 70 pian 篇 chapters, books divided between the 20 Inner Chapters and 50 Outer Chapters, nathan Sivin described it as not one book but two, considerably different in theme. The Neipian and Waipian led entirely separate physical existences, they were not combined under a title until a millennium after Kos time. The Ming Dynasty Daozang Daoist canon first printed the two Baopuzi parts together and this Zhengtong Daozang 正統道藏 Daoist Canon of the Zhengtong Era bibliographically categorized the Baopuzi under the Taiqing 太清 Supreme Clarity section for alchemical texts. Daozang editions encompass six juan, three each for the Inner and Outer Chapters, most received versions of Baopuzi descend from this Ming Daozang text. The Baopuzi Inner and Outer Chapters discuss miscellaneous topics ranging from esotericism to social philosophy, the Inner Chapters discuss techniques of xian 仙 immortality, transcendence, Chinese alchemy, meditation, Daoist yoga, Daoyin, sexual techniques, Chinese herbology, demons, and fu 符 magic talismans. According to Ge Hongs autobiography, he divided the Inner and Outer Chapters on the distinction between Daoism and Confucianism, Ge philosophically described Daoism as the ben 本 root, trunk, origin and Confucianism as the mo 末 tip, branch, end
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Ge Hong
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Ge Hong — courtesy name Zhichuan — was a minor southern official during the Jìn Dynasty of China, best known for his interest in Daoism, alchemy, and techniques of longevity. Yet religious and esoteric writing represents only a portion of Ges considerable literary output, although a prolific writer of many literary styles, most of Ges early work, such as rhapsodies, verse, historical commentary, and biographies, are now lost. Modern scholars have recognized his influence on writers, such as the Tang dynasty poet Li Bai. Nevertheless, Ge’s work was never enshrined in famous collections of essays and poetry, such as the Wenxuan as was Ji Kang’s essay, Yang sheng, whose style Ge freely imitated. Reflecting the complex landscape of the Jin period, Ge is essential reading for an understanding of early medieval Chinese religion, culture. Recent scholarly and popular translations of Ge’s writing into English have ensured his inclusion in the tide of enthusiasm for esoteric. Biographical sources for Ge are varied, but almost all of them are based either in whole or in part upon his autobiographical Postface to the Outer Chapters and it is nearly impossible to judge the veracity of Ge’s account of his early family history as found in the postface. Following literary convention, he claims that his ancestors were of a ruling house that adopted the name of their dynasty as a family name. The sons of ancestor, Pu Lu and Wen, fought together to assist Emperor Guangwu of Han in restoring the Han dynasty. Due to his status in the government army, Pu Lu received rich rewards and a lofty official appointment while Wen. According to Ge, his grandfather, Ge Xi, was a scholar who governed several counties in modern Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces. He eventually rose to the rank of Junior Mentor to the prince of Wu. Ge describes his father, Ge Ti, in similar, laudatory terms as a gentleman of model conduct. Ge Ti served in civil and military positions, and was eventually appointed Governor of Kuaiji prefecture. Around the time of appointment, the Jin dynasty, which had already succeeded in unifying northern China around 265, invaded Wu under the command of the famous literatus and Jin general. Du Yu would return to the north and write a commentary to the Zuo zhuan after the conquest of Wu in 280. The Jin victory changed the fortunes of Ge’s family, because the Jin administration attempted to check the power of the southern gentry by giving them positions of little authority, Ge Ti initially lost prestige and power under Jin rule. He was appointed to posts at the Jin capital of Luoyang
20.
Leonardo da Vinci
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He has been variously called the father of palaeontology, ichnology, and architecture, and is widely considered one of the greatest painters of all time. Sometimes credited with the inventions of the parachute, helicopter and tank, many historians and scholars regard Leonardo as the prime exemplar of the Universal Genius or Renaissance Man, an individual of unquenchable curiosity and feverishly inventive imagination. Much of his working life was spent in the service of Ludovico il Moro in Milan. He later worked in Rome, Bologna and Venice, and he spent his last years in France at the home awarded to him by Francis I of France, Leonardo was, and is, renowned primarily as a painter. Among his works, the Mona Lisa is the most famous and most parodied portrait, Leonardos drawing of the Vitruvian Man is also regarded as a cultural icon, being reproduced on items as varied as the euro coin, textbooks, and T-shirts. Perhaps fifteen of his paintings have survived, Leonardo is revered for his technological ingenuity. He conceptualised flying machines, a type of armoured fighting vehicle, concentrated power, an adding machine. Some of his inventions, however, such as an automated bobbin winder. A number of Leonardos most practical inventions are nowadays displayed as working models at the Museum of Vinci. He made substantial discoveries in anatomy, civil engineering, geology, optics, and hydrodynamics, today, Leonardo is widely considered one of the most diversely talented individuals ever to have lived. Leonardo was born on 15 April 1452 at the hour of the night in the Tuscan hill town of Vinci. He was the son of the wealthy Messer Piero Fruosino di Antonio da Vinci, a Florentine legal notary, and Caterina. Leonardo had no surname in the modern sense – da Vinci simply meaning of Vinci, his birth name was Lionardo di ser Piero da Vinci, meaning Leonardo. The inclusion of the title ser indicated that Leonardos father was a gentleman, little is known about Leonardos early life. He spent his first five years in the hamlet of Anchiano in the home of his mother and his father had married a sixteen-year-old girl named Albiera Amadori, who loved Leonardo but died young in 1465 without children. When Leonardo was sixteen, his father married again to twenty-year-old Francesca Lanfredini, pieros legitimate heirs were born from his third wife Margherita di Guglielmo and his fourth and final wife, Lucrezia Cortigiani. Leonardo received an education in Latin, geometry and mathematics. In later life, Leonardo recorded only two childhood incidents, one, which he regarded as an omen, was when a kite dropped from the sky and hovered over his cradle, its tail feathers brushing his face
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Mikhail Lomonosov
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Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov was a Russian polymath, scientist and writer, who made important contributions to literature, education, and science. Among his discoveries were the atmosphere of Venus and the Law of Mass Conservation in chemical reactions and his spheres of science were natural science, chemistry, physics, mineralogy, history, art, philology, optical devices and others. Lomonosov was also a poet and influenced the formation of the modern Russian literary language, Lomonosov was born in the village of Denisovka in Archangelgorod Governorate, on an island not far from Kholmogory, in the far north of Russia. Lomonosovs mother was Vasilys first wife, a daughter, Elena Ivanovna Sivkova. He remained at Denisovka until he was ten, when his father decided that he was old enough to participate in his business ventures, learning was young Lomonosovs passion, however, not business. The boys thirst for knowledge was insatiable, Lomonosov had been taught to read as a boy by his neighbor Ivan Shubny, and he spent every spare moment with his books. He continued his studies with the deacon, S. N. Sabelnikov, but for years the only books he had access to were religious texts. When he was fourteen, Lomonosov was given copies of Meletius Smotrytskys Modern Church Slavonic, on his religious views, Lomonosov was a deist. In 1724, his father married for the third and final time, Lomonosov and his stepmother Irina had an acrimonious relationship. Unhappy at home and intent on obtaining an education, which Lomonosov could not receive in Denisovka. In 1730, at nineteen, Lomonosov went to Moscow on foot, not long after arriving, Lomonosov obtained admission into the Slavic Greek Latin Academy by falsely claiming to be a priests son. That initial falsehood would nearly get him expelled from the academy a few years later when discovered, Lomonosov lived on three kopecks a day, living off only black bread and kvass, but he made rapid progress scholastically. After three years in Moscow he was sent to Kiev to study for one year at the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy and he quickly became dissatisfied with the education he was receiving there, and returned to Moscow several months ahead of schedule, resuming his studies there. He completed a study course in only five years, graduating at the top of his class. In 1736, Lomonosov was awarded a scholarship to St. Petersburg Academy and he plunged into his studies and was rewarded with a two-year grant to study abroad at the University of Marburg, in Germany. The University of Marburg was among Europes most important universities in the century due to the presence of the philosopher Christian Wolff. Lomonosov became one of Wolffs personal students while at Marburg, both philosophically and as a science administrator, this connection would be the most influential of Lomonosovs life
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Russian Academy of Sciences
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Headquartered in Moscow, the Academy is considered a civil, self-governed, non-commercial organization chartered by the Government of Russia. It combines the members of RAS and scientists employed by institutions, the Academy currently includes around 650 institutions and 55,000 scientific researchers. There are three types of membership in the RAS, full members, corresponding members, and foreign members, Academicians and corresponding members must be citizens of the Russian Federation when elected. However, some academicians and corresponding members were elected before the collapse of the USSR and are now citizens of other countries, Members of RAS are elected based on their scientific contributions – election to membership is considered very prestigious. In the years 2005–2012, the academy had approximately 500 full and 700 corresponding members, but in 2013, after the Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences and the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences became incorporated into the RAS, a number of the RAS members accordingly increased. As of November 2016, after the last elections, there were 944 full members and 1159 corresponding members in the renewed Russian Academy of Sciences, the RAS consists of 13 specialized scientific divisions, three territorial divisions, sometimes called branches, and 15 regional scientific centers. The Academy has numerous councils, committees, and commissions, all organized for different purposes, Siberian Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences The Siberian Division was established in 1957, with Mikhail Lavrentyev as founding chairman. Research centers are in Novosibirsk, Tomsk, Krasnoyarsk, Irkutsk, Yakutsk, Ulan-Ude, Kemerovo, Tyumen, as of 2005, the Division employed over 33,000 employees,58 of whom were members of the Academy. Ural Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences The Ural Division was established in 1932, research centers are in Yekaterinburg, Perm, Cheliabinsk, Izhevsk, Orenburg, Ufa and Syktyvkar. As of 2007, the Division employed 3,600 scientists,590 full professors,31 full members, started with just three members, The RSSI now has 3,100 members, including 57 from the largest research institutions. Russian universities and technical institutes are not under the supervision of the RAS, the Academy is also increasing its presence in the educational area. In 1990 the Higher Chemical College of the Russian Academy of Sciences was founded, the Academy gives out a number of different prizes, medals and awards among which, Lomonosov Gold Medal Lobachevsky Prize Demidov Prize Kurchatov Medal Pushkin Prize S. V. Expeditions to explore parts of the country had Academy scientists as their leaders or most active participants. A separate organization, called the Russian Academy, was created in 1783 to work on the study of the Russian language, presided over by Princess Yekaterina Dashkova, the Russian Academy was engaged in compiling the six-volume Academic Dictionary of the Russian Language. The Russian Academy was merged into the Imperial Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences in 1841, in December 1917, Sergey Fedorovich Oldenburg, a leading ethnographer and political activist in the Kadet party, met with Vladimir Lenin to discuss the future of the Academy. They agreed that the expertise of the Academy would be applied to addressing questions of state construction, in 1925 the Soviet government recognized the Russian Academy of Sciences as the highest all-Union scientific institution and renamed it the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. The Soviet Sciences Academy would be affected like all universities by the rules imposed particularly those pertaining to censorship, the Soviet Science Academy ended up with a leader of the philosophy department who was placed there simply to keep the man out of trouble. The government decided to not execute or send the famous writer to the gulag because he had won the Stalin award, doing this would have discredited the Stalin award and thus Stalin the leader of the Communist party himself
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Meteorology
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Meteorology is a branch of the atmospheric sciences which includes atmospheric chemistry and atmospheric physics, with a major focus on weather forecasting. The study of meteorology dates back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until the 18th century, the 19th century saw modest progress in the field after weather observation networks were formed across broad regions. Prior attempts at prediction of weather depended on historical data, Meteorological phenomena are observable weather events that are explained by the science of meteorology. Different spatial scales are used to describe and predict weather on local, regional, Meteorology, climatology, atmospheric physics, and atmospheric chemistry are sub-disciplines of the atmospheric sciences. Meteorology and hydrology compose the interdisciplinary field of hydrometeorology, the interactions between Earths atmosphere and its oceans are part of a coupled ocean-atmosphere system. Meteorology has application in diverse fields such as the military, energy production, transport, agriculture. The word meteorology is from Greek μετέωρος metéōros lofty, high and -λογία -logia -logy, varāhamihiras classical work Brihatsamhita, written about 500 AD, provides clear evidence that a deep knowledge of atmospheric processes existed even in those times. In 350 BC, Aristotle wrote Meteorology, Aristotle is considered the founder of meteorology. One of the most impressive achievements described in the Meteorology is the description of what is now known as the hydrologic cycle and they are all called swooping bolts because they swoop down upon the Earth. Lightning is sometimes smoky, and is then called smoldering lightning, sometimes it darts quickly along, at other times, it travels in crooked lines, and is called forked lightning. When it swoops down upon some object it is called swooping lightning, the Greek scientist Theophrastus compiled a book on weather forecasting, called the Book of Signs. The work of Theophrastus remained a dominant influence in the study of weather, in 25 AD, Pomponius Mela, a geographer for the Roman Empire, formalized the climatic zone system. According to Toufic Fahd, around the 9th century, Al-Dinawari wrote the Kitab al-Nabat, ptolemy wrote on the atmospheric refraction of light in the context of astronomical observations. St. Roger Bacon was the first to calculate the size of the rainbow. He stated that a rainbow summit can not appear higher than 42 degrees above the horizon, in the late 13th century and early 14th century, Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī and Theodoric of Freiberg were the first to give the correct explanations for the primary rainbow phenomenon. Theoderic went further and also explained the secondary rainbow, in 1716, Edmund Halley suggested that aurorae are caused by magnetic effluvia moving along the Earths magnetic field lines. In 1441, King Sejongs son, Prince Munjong, invented the first standardized rain gauge and these were sent throughout the Joseon Dynasty of Korea as an official tool to assess land taxes based upon a farmers potential harvest. In 1450, Leone Battista Alberti developed a swinging-plate anemometer, and was known as the first anemometer, in 1607, Galileo Galilei constructed a thermoscope
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Mechanic
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A mechanic is a tradesman, craftsman, or technician who uses tools to build or repair machinery. Auto mechanics, for example, have many trades within, some may specialize in the electrical aspects, while others may specialize in the mechanical aspects. Other areas include, brakes and steering, automatic or standard transmission, an auto technician, on the other hand, has a wide variety of topics to learn. A mechanic is typically certified by an association or regional government power. There are different types of mechanics, heavy weight and light weight, heavy weight work is on bigger machines like tractors and trailers, light weight work on smaller items like engines for a car
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