1.
Boise greenbelt
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The Boise River Greenbelt is a recreational and alternate transportation trail along the banks of the Boise River through Boise, Idaho, United States. The Boise Greenbelt is more of a greenway than a green belt since its character is linear and it extends more than 20 miles beginning at Lucky Peak Dam in the east to a short distance beyond Eagle Road in the west in Eagle, Idaho. Taking into account both sides of the river and other trails and spurs, the total Greenbelt trail system measures more than 30 miles. The Greenbelt connects Boises riverside parks and connects Boise with neighboring municipalities, the majority of the Greenbelt is paved with asphalt or concrete on both sides of the river. However some sections are unpaved and bicycles may be prohibited on some unpaved sections, where this occurs, bicycles have alternate routes on residential streets or dedicated bike paths. Motorized vehicles are prohibited on all parts of the Greenbelt, segways are allowed on the Greenbelt in the City of Boise providing a special permit has been obtained. In 1962, the City of Boise hired a consultant, Atkinson & Associates, the plan suggested the city should acquire land along the Boise River to create a continuous green belt of public lands stretching the entire length of the community. A local grassroots effort to clean up the waterway and create public access to the corridor began to take hold. This vision caught on, and by 1967 three small parcels of land were donated to the city to launch the green belt, however, two pedestrian bridges carry traffic to the south bank trail via an area known as Plantation Island. The north bank trail resumes at the Glenwood Street bridge approximately 1-mile west of the first Plantation Island pedestrian bridge, also on the north bank, approximately 1/4 mile west of Glenwood Bridge the greenbelt becomes a bicycle dismount zone at the Riverside Village residential development. The bicycle dismount zone continues approximately 1.5 miles westward, as of April 2008 Garden City has made it a misdemeanor to ride a bicycle on the greenbelt through Riverside Village. Barber Park Bown Crossing, A New Urbanism style district Parkcenter Blvd, bicyclists are routed on a circuitous route on residential neighborhood streets. A more significant gap in the south bank trail is at the west end of Ann Morrison Park where there is a 1⁄2-mile gap from the Americana Boulevard bridge westward to the Main Street bridge. At the downstream side of the Main Street bridge the south bank trail resumes to approximately 1⁄4-mile east of the Western Idaho Fairgrounds at East 52nd Street. A brief detour via East 52nd Street, Alworth Street and Remington Street returns users to the south bank Greenbelt, DOTS is an acronym for Distance & Orientation Trail System. Serving as mileposts, there are over 100 white dots 18 inches in diameter painted on the greenbelt, the purpose of the DOTS is to aid people in locating their position on the greenbelt relative to the downtown Boise central point. The central point, mile 0, is located near the intersection of 8th Street, the DOTS are spaced at 1⁄10-mile increments. For example, if one is on the north bank 1-mile west of the point one would see a DOT with the inscription NW1.0
2.
Rust
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Rust is an iron oxide, usually red oxide formed by the redox reaction of iron and oxygen in the presence of water or air moisture. Several forms of rust are distinguishable both visually and by spectroscopy, and form under different circumstances, Rust consists of hydrated iron oxides Fe2O3·nH2O and iron oxide-hydroxide. Given sufficient time, oxygen, and water, any iron mass will eventually convert entirely to rust, surface rust is flaky and friable, and it provides no protection to the underlying iron, unlike the formation of patina on copper surfaces. Rusting is the term for corrosion of iron and its alloys. Many other metals undergo similar corrosion, but the resulting oxides are not commonly called rust, other forms of rust exist, like the result of reactions between iron and chloride in an environment deprived of oxygen. Rebar used in concrete pillars, which generates green rust, is an example. Rust is another name for iron oxide, which occurs when iron or an alloy that contains iron, like steel, is exposed to oxygen and moisture for a long period of time. Over time, the oxygen combines with the metal at a level, forming a new compound called an oxide. Although some people refer to rust generally as oxidation, that term is more general, although rust forms when iron undergoes oxidation. Only iron or alloys that contain iron can rust, but other metals can corrode in similar ways, the main catalyst for the rusting process is water. Iron or steel structures might appear to be solid, but water molecules can penetrate the microscopic pits, the hydrogen atoms present in water molecules can combine with other elements to form acids, which will eventually cause more metal to be exposed. If chloride ions are present, as is the case with saltwater, meanwhile, the oxygen atoms combine with metallic atoms to form the destructive oxide compound. As the atoms combine, they weaken the metal, making the structure brittle, when impure iron is in contact with water, oxygen, other strong oxidants, or acids, it rusts. If salt is present, for example in seawater or salt spray, iron metal is relatively unaffected by pure water or by dry oxygen. As with other metals, like aluminium, a tightly adhering oxide coating, the conversion of the passivating ferrous oxide layer to rust results from the combined action of two agents, usually oxygen and water. Other degrading solutions are sulfur dioxide in water and carbon dioxide in water, under these corrosive conditions, iron hydroxide species are formed. Unlike ferrous oxides, the hydroxides do not adhere to the bulk metal, when iron rusts, the oxides take up more volume than the original metal, this expansion can generate enormous forces, damaging structures made with iron. See Economic effect for more details, the rusting of iron is an electrochemical process that begins with the transfer of electrons from iron to oxygen
3.
Paint
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Paint is any liquid, liquefiable, or mastic composition that, after application to a substrate in a thin layer, converts to a solid film. It is most commonly used to protect, color, or provide texture to objects, Paint can be made or purchased in many colors—and in many different types, such as watercolor, synthetic, etc. Paint is typically stored, sold, and applied as a liquid, in 2001 and 2004, South African archeologists reported finds in Blombos Cave of a 100, 000-year-old human-made ochre-based mixture that could have been used like paint. Further excavation in the cave resulted in the 2011 report of a complete toolkit for grinding pigments. Cave paintings drawn with red or yellow ochre, hematite, manganese oxide, ancient colored walls at Dendera, Egypt, which were exposed for years to the elements, still possess their brilliant color, as vivid as when they were painted about 2,000 years ago. The Egyptians mixed their colors with a substance, and applied them separately from each other without any blending or mixture. They appear to have used six colors, white, black, blue, red, yellow and they first covered the area entirely with white, then traced the design in black, leaving out the lights of the ground color. They used minium for red, and generally of a dark tinge, pliny mentions some painted ceilings in his day in the town of Ardea, which had been done prior to the foundation of Rome. He expresses great surprise and admiration at their freshness, after the lapse of so many centuries, Paint was made with the yolk of eggs and therefore, the substance would harden and adhere to the surface it was applied to. Pigment was made from plants, sand, and different soils, Most paints used either oil or water as a base. The process was done by hand by the painters and exposed them to lead poisoning due to the white-lead powder, in 1718, Marshall Smith invented a Machine or Engine for the Grinding of Colours in England. It is not known precisely how it operated, but it was a device that increased the efficiency of pigment grinding dramatically. By the proper onset of the Industrial Revolution, paint was being ground in steam-powered mills, interior house painting increasingly became the norm as the 19th century progressed, both for decorative reasons and because the paint was effective in preventing the walls rotting from damp. Linseed oil was also used as an inexpensive binder. In 1866, Sherwin-Williams in the United States opened as a large paint-maker and it was not until the stimulus of World War II created a shortage of linseed oil in the supply market that artificial resins, or alkyds, were invented. Cheap and easy to make, they held the color well. The vehicle is composed of the binder, or, if it is necessary to thin the binder with a diluent like solvent or water, it is the combination of binder + diluent. In this case, once the paint has dried or cured very nearly all of the diluent has evaporated, thus, an important quantity in coatings formulation is the vehicle solids, sometimes called the resin solids of the formula
4.
Design
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Design is the creation of a plan or convention for the construction of an object, system or measurable human interaction. Design has different connotations in different fields, in some cases, the direct construction of an object is also considered to use design thinking. Designing often necessitates considering the aesthetic, functional, economic, and it may involve considerable research, thought, modeling, interactive adjustment, and re-design. Meanwhile, diverse kinds of objects may be designed, including clothing, graphical user interfaces, skyscrapers, corporate identities, business processes, and even methods or processes of designing. Thus design may be a substantive referring to an abstraction of a created thing or things. It is an act of creativity and innovation, here, a specification can be manifested as either a plan or a finished product, and primitives are the elements from which the design object is composed. With such a broad denotation, there is no language or unifying institution for designers of all disciplines. This allows for many differing philosophies and approaches toward the subject, the person designing is called a designer, which is also a term used for people who work professionally in one of the various design areas usually specifying which area is being dealt with. A designers sequence of activities is called a process while the scientific study of design is called design science. Another definition of design is planning to manufacture an object, system, thus the word design can be used as a noun or a verb. In a broader sense, the design is an applied art, while the definition of design is fairly broad, design has a myriad of specifications that professionals utilize in their fields. Substantial disagreement exists concerning how designers in many fields, whether amateur or professional, alone or in teams, the prevailing view has been called The Rational Model, Technical Problem Solving and The Reason-Centric Perspective. The alternative view has been called Reflection-in-Action, Evolutionary Design, co-evolution, the Rational Model was independently developed by Herbert A. Simon, an American scientist, and Gerhard Pahl and Wolfgang Beitz, two German engineering design theorists. The Rational Model is based on a rationalist philosophy and underlies the waterfall model, systems development life cycle, according to the rationalist philosophy, design is informed by research and knowledge in a predictable and controlled manner. Technical rationality is at the center of the process, each stage has many associated best practices. Unrealistic assumptions – goals are often unknown when a design project begins, the Action-Centric Perspective is a label given to a collection of interrelated concepts, which are antithetical to The Rational Model. Substantial empirical evidence supports the veracity of this perspective in describing the actions of real designers, like the Rational Model, the Action-Centric model sees design as informed by research and knowledge. Designers context-dependent experience and professional judgment take center stage more than technical rationality, at least two views of design activity are consistent with the Action-Centric Perspective
5.
Electronics
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Electronics is the science of controlling electrical energy electrically, in which the electrons have a fundamental role. Commonly, electronic devices contain circuitry consisting primarily or exclusively of active semiconductors supplemented with passive elements, the science of electronics is also considered to be a branch of physics and electrical engineering. The ability of electronic devices to act as switches makes digital information processing possible, until 1950 this field was called radio technology because its principal application was the design and theory of radio transmitters, receivers, and vacuum tubes. Today, most electronic devices use semiconductor components to perform electron control and this article focuses on engineering aspects of electronics. Components are generally intended to be connected together, usually by being soldered to a circuit board. Components may be packaged singly, or in more complex groups as integrated circuits, some common electronic components are capacitors, inductors, resistors, diodes, transistors, etc. Components are often categorized as active or passive, vacuum tubes were among the earliest electronic components. They were almost solely responsible for the revolution of the first half of the Twentieth Century. They took electronics from parlor tricks and gave us radio, television, phonographs, radar, long distance telephony and they played a leading role in the field of microwave and high power transmission as well as television receivers until the middle of the 1980s. Since that time, solid state devices have all but completely taken over, vacuum tubes are still used in some specialist applications such as high power RF amplifiers, cathode ray tubes, specialist audio equipment, guitar amplifiers and some microwave devices. The 608 contained more than 3,000 germanium transistors, thomas J. Watson Jr. ordered all future IBM products to use transistors in their design. From that time on transistors were almost exclusively used for computer logic, circuits and components can be divided into two groups, analog and digital. A particular device may consist of circuitry that has one or the other or a mix of the two types, most analog electronic appliances, such as radio receivers, are constructed from combinations of a few types of basic circuits. Analog circuits use a range of voltage or current as opposed to discrete levels as in digital circuits. The number of different analog circuits so far devised is huge, especially because a circuit can be defined as anything from a single component, analog circuits are sometimes called linear circuits although many non-linear effects are used in analog circuits such as mixers, modulators, etc. Good examples of analog circuits include vacuum tube and transistor amplifiers, one rarely finds modern circuits that are entirely analog. These days analog circuitry may use digital or even microprocessor techniques to improve performance and this type of circuit is usually called mixed signal rather than analog or digital. Sometimes it may be difficult to differentiate between analog and digital circuits as they have elements of both linear and non-linear operation, an example is the comparator which takes in a continuous range of voltage but only outputs one of two levels as in a digital circuit
6.
Greek language
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Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
7.
Paper prototype
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It is throwaway prototyping and involves creating rough, even hand-sketched, drawings of an interface to use as prototypes, or models, of a design. While paper prototyping seems simple, this method of usability testing can provide a great deal of feedback which will result in the design of better products. This is supported by many usability professionals, today, paper prototyping is used widely in user centered design by usability professionals. More recently, digital paper prototyping has been advocated by companies like Pidoco due to advantages in terms of collaboration, flexibility, Paper prototyping saves time and money since it enables developers to test product interfaces before they write code or begin development. This also allows for easy and inexpensive modification to existing designs which makes this method useful in the phases of design. Using paper prototyping allows the creative team to be involved in the process. Another benefit of paper prototyping is that users feel comfortable being critical of the mock up because it doesnt have a polished look. Prototyping forces a more complete design of the interface to be captured. In team meetings they provide a base between the team members. Testing prototypes at a stage in development helps to identify software usability problems even before any code is written. The costs and annoyances of later changes are reduced, the burden is lowered. Paper prototypes should be considered when the following is true, When the tools the designer wants to use in creating a prototype are not available. When the designer wants to make an effort to allow all members of a team, including those with limited software skills. When tests of a lead to a great deal of drawings. The interface is built up step by step, meeting the expectations of all team members, to probe the applicability of the software design, typical use cases are played through and possible pitfalls are identified. The prototype can then be used as a specification of the software. Usability Testing Paper prototypes can be used for usability testing with real users, in such a test, the user performs realistic tasks by interacting with the paper prototype. The prototype is manipulated by another person reflecting the softwares reactions to the input actions
8.
Poland
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Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe, situated between the Baltic Sea in the north and two mountain ranges in the south. Bordered by Germany to the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, the total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres, making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. With a population of over 38.5 million people, Poland is the 34th most populous country in the world, the 8th most populous country in Europe, Poland is a unitary state divided into 16 administrative subdivisions, and its capital and largest city is Warsaw. Other metropolises include Kraków, Wrocław, Poznań, Gdańsk and Szczecin, the establishment of a Polish state can be traced back to 966, when Mieszko I, ruler of a territory roughly coextensive with that of present-day Poland, converted to Christianity. The Kingdom of Poland was founded in 1025, and in 1569 it cemented a political association with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by signing the Union of Lublin. This union formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, one of the largest and most populous countries of 16th and 17th century Europe, Poland regained its independence in 1918 at the end of World War I, reconstituting much of its historical territory as the Second Polish Republic. In September 1939, World War II started with the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany, followed thereafter by invasion by the Soviet Union. More than six million Polish citizens died in the war, after the war, Polands borders were shifted westwards under the terms of the Potsdam Conference. With the backing of the Soviet Union, a communist puppet government was formed, and after a referendum in 1946. During the Revolutions of 1989 Polands Communist government was overthrown and Poland adopted a new constitution establishing itself as a democracy, informally called the Third Polish Republic. Since the early 1990s, when the transition to a primarily market-based economy began, Poland has achieved a high ranking on the Human Development Index. Poland is a country, which was categorised by the World Bank as having a high-income economy. Furthermore, it is visited by approximately 16 million tourists every year, Poland is the eighth largest economy in the European Union and was the 6th fastest growing economy on the continent between 2010 and 2015. According to the Global Peace Index for 2014, Poland is ranked 19th in the list of the safest countries in the world to live in. The origin of the name Poland derives from a West Slavic tribe of Polans that inhabited the Warta River basin of the historic Greater Poland region in the 8th century, the origin of the name Polanie itself derives from the western Slavic word pole. In some foreign languages such as Hungarian, Lithuanian, Persian and Turkish the exonym for Poland is Lechites, historians have postulated that throughout Late Antiquity, many distinct ethnic groups populated the regions of what is now Poland. The most famous archaeological find from the prehistory and protohistory of Poland is the Biskupin fortified settlement, dating from the Lusatian culture of the early Iron Age, the Slavic groups who would form Poland migrated to these areas in the second half of the 5th century AD. With the Baptism of Poland the Polish rulers accepted Christianity and the authority of the Roman Church
9.
Hatchback
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A hatchback is a car body configuration with a rear door that swings upward to provide access to a cargo area. Hatchbacks may feature fold-down second row seating, where the interior can be reconfigured to prioritize passenger vs. cargo volume. Hatchbacks may feature two- or three-box design, while early examples of the body configuration can be traced to the 1930s, the Merriam-Webster dictionary dates the term itself to 1970. The hatchback body style has been marketed worldwide on cars ranging in size from superminis to small family cars, Hatchbacks may be described as three-door or five-door cars. A model range may include multiple configurations, as with the 2001–2007 Ford Focus which offered sedan, wagon, the models typically share a platform, drivetrain and bodywork forward of the A-pillar. Hatchbacks may have a rigid parcel shelf, liftable with the tailgate. Both station wagons and hatchbacks typically feature a two-box design configuration, with one shared, flexible, interior volume for passengers, further distinctions are highly variable, Pillars, Both configurations typically feature A, B & C pillars, station wagons more likely also feature a D pillar. Cargo volume, Station wagons prioritize passenger and cargo volume, with alongside the cargo volume. Cargo floor contour, Favoring cargo capacity, a station wagon may prioritize a fold-flat floor, seating, Station wagons have two or three rows of seats while hatchbacks have one or two rows of seats. Rear suspension, A station wagon may include reconfigured rear suspension for additional load capacity, Station wagons also have numerous tailgate configurations. Typically, a hatch or liftgate does not extend down to the bumper. You could have a 90-degree break in the back and have a station wagon, a liftback is a broad marketing term for a hatchback where the rear cargo door is more horizontal than vertical, with a sharply raked or fastback profile. In comparison with the hatchback the back opening area is sloped and longer and is lifted up to open. Liftback and fastback are often misused, a fastback is described as a hatchback where the rear cargo door flows down continuously from the roof of the car and most of the time is not as raked as the liftback. In 1946, DeSoto marketed the Suburban as a station wagon, in 1949, Kaiser-Frazer introduced the Vagabond and Traveler hatchbacks. Although these were styled much like the typical 1940s sedan, they incorporated an innovative split rear tailgate, folding rear seats, the design was neither fully a sedan nor a station wagon, but the folding rear seat provided for a large, 8-foot long interior cargo area. These Kaiser-Frazer models have described as America’s First Hatchback. In 1953, Aston Martin marketed the DB2 with a rear tailgate
10.
Car
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A car is a wheeled, self-powered motor vehicle used for transportation and a product of the automotive industry. The year 1886 is regarded as the year of the modern car. In that year, German inventor Karl Benz built the Benz Patent-Motorwagen, cars did not become widely available until the early 20th century. One of the first cars that was accessible to the masses was the 1908 Model T, an American car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company. Cars were rapidly adopted in the United States of America, where they replaced animal-drawn carriages and carts, cars are equipped with controls used for driving, parking, passenger comfort and safety, and controlling a variety of lights. Over the decades, additional features and controls have been added to vehicles, examples include rear reversing cameras, air conditioning, navigation systems, and in car entertainment. Most cars in use in the 2010s are propelled by a combustion engine. Both fuels cause air pollution and are blamed for contributing to climate change. Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries, electric cars, which were invented early in the history of the car, began to become commercially available in 2008. There are costs and benefits to car use, the costs of car usage include the cost of, acquiring the vehicle, interest payments, repairs and auto maintenance, fuel, depreciation, driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance. The costs to society of car use include, maintaining roads, land use, road congestion, air pollution, public health, health care, road traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. The benefits may include transportation, mobility, independence. The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies and it was estimated in 2010 that the number of cars had risen to over 1 billion vehicles, up from the 500 million of 1986. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China, India, the word car is believed to originate from the Latin word carrus or carrum, or the Middle English word carre. In turn, these originated from the Gaulish word karros, the Gaulish language was a branch of the Brythoic language which also used the word Karr, the Brythonig language evolved into Welsh where Car llusg and car rhyfel still survive. It originally referred to any wheeled vehicle, such as a cart, carriage. Motor car is attested from 1895, and is the formal name for cars in British English. Autocar is a variant that is attested from 1895
11.
FSM Beskid
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Beskid was a series of economy hatchback car prototypes in Poland designed by BOSMAL Automotive Research and Development Center during 1982-1986. The car never went into production, political reasons are cited. However, it is suggested that Beskid was in fact a back-up measure if license talks were unsuccessful. All seven Beskid prototypes were to be destroyed, but six managed to be saved, the body style was patented, but BOSMAL lacked funds for the extension of the patent. More than 10 years later the French Renault Twingo used very similar although the Renault officials deny any direct influence. Renault profited off of roughly 2,400,000 Twingos, the cars body had a drag coefficient of 0.29, which resulted in a fuel economy of circa 3,9 l /100 km at a speed of about 90 km/h. The name comes from the Beskids mountains
12.
Rapid prototyping
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Rapid prototyping is a group of techniques used to quickly fabricate a scale model of a physical part or assembly using three-dimensional computer aided design data. Construction of the part or assembly is usually done using 3D printing or additive layer manufacturing technology, the first methods for rapid prototyping became available in the late 1980s and were used to produce models and prototype parts. Today, they are used for a range of applications and are used to manufacture production-quality parts in relatively small numbers if desired without the typical unfavorable short-run economics. This economy has encouraged online service bureaus, historical surveys of RP technology start with discussions of simulacra production techniques used by 19th-century sculptors. Some modern sculptors use the technology to produce exhibitions. The ability to reproduce designs from a dataset has given rise to issues of rights, as it is now possible to interpolate volumetric data from one-dimensional images. For RP this data must represent a geometric model, namely, one whose boundary surfaces enclose a finite volume, contain no holes exposing the interior. In other words, the object must have an “inside. ”The model is valid if for each point in 3D space the computer can determine whether that point lies inside, on. Electric cars can be built and tested in one year with 3D production systems, Rapid prototyping is commonly applied in software engineering to try out new business models and application architectures. Numerous projects sought to counter these trends in the traditional CNC CAM area and these were all proposed but it is unknown if working machines were built. Hideo Kodama of Nagoya Municipal Industrial Research Institute was the first to publish an account of a solid model fabricated using a rapid prototyping system. Even at that date the technology was seen as having a place in manufacturing practice. A low resolution, low strength output had value in design verification, mould making, production jigs, outputs have steadily advanced toward higher specification uses. Innovations are constantly being sought, to speed and the ability to cope with mass production applications. A dramatic development which RP shares with related CNC areas is the freeware open-sourcing of high level applications which constitute an entire CAD-CAM toolchain and this has created a community of low res device manufacturers. Hobbyists have even made forays into more demanding laser-effected device designs, Rapid tooling Rapid prototyping websites at DMOZ
13.
Rapid application development
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In general, RAD approaches to software development put less emphasis on planning and more emphasis on process. Prototypes are often used in addition to or sometimes even in place of design specifications, RAD is especially well suited developing software that is driven by user interface requirements. Graphical user interface builders are often called rapid application development tools, other approaches to rapid development include Agile methods and the spiral model. Rapid application development is a response to developed in the 1970s and 1980s, such as the Structured Systems Analysis and Design Method. One of the problems with these methods is that they were based on an engineering model used to design and build things like bridges. Software is a different kind of artifact. Software can radically change the process used to solve a problem. As a result, knowledge gained from the development process itself can feed back to the requirements, the waterfall solution to this was to try and rigidly define the requirements and the plan to implement them and have a process that discouraged changes to either. The first such RAD alternative was developed by Barry Boehm and was known as the spiral model, Boehm and other subsequent RAD approaches emphasized developing prototypes as well as or instead of rigorous design specifications. Prototypes had several advantages over traditional specifications, Risk reduction, a prototype could test some of the most difficult potential parts of the system early on in the life-cycle. This can provide information as to the feasibility of a design. This benefit of finding problems earlier in the rather than later was a key benefit of the RAD approach. The earlier a problem can be found the cheaper it is to address, users are better at using and reacting than at creating specifications. In general most users give much more useful feedback when they can experience a prototype of the system rather than abstractly define what that system should be. Prototypes can be usable and can evolve into the completed product, one approach used in some RAD methods was to build the system as a series of prototypes that evolve from minimal functionality to moderately useful to the final completed system. The advantage of this besides the two advantages above was that the users could get useful business functionality much earlier in the process and this has resulted in some confusion over the term RAD even among IT professionals. It is important to distinguish between RAD as an alternative to the waterfall model and RAD as the specific method created by Martin. The Martin method was tailored toward knowledge intensive and UI intensive business systems and these practitioners, and those like them, helped RAD gain popularity as an alternative to traditional systems project life cycle approaches
14.
Scaffolding
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Bamboo scaffolding is a type of scaffolding made from bamboo and widely used in construction work for centuries. Many famous landmarks, notably The Great Wall of China, were built using bamboo scaffolding and it was first introduced into the building industry in Hong Kong immediately after colonization in the 1800s. It was widely used in the building of houses and multi-story buildings prior to the development of metal scaffolding and it was also useful for short-term construction projects, such as framework for temporary sheds for Cantonese Opera performances. There is three types of scaffolding in Hong Kong,1, in 2013, there were 1,751 registered bamboo scaffolders and roughly 200 scaffolding companies in Hong Kong. The use of scaffolding is diminishing due to shortages in labor. Despite the lack of force and material, recently the safety problem has become another serious concern. The labor shortage may be due to the reluctance of younger generations to become scaffolders, “They even think that it’s a dirty and dangerous job. “They refuse to step in, although we give them high pay. Young generations do not like jobs that involve hard work. ”Another reason fewer people are becoming scaffolders is that new recruits need to undergo training with the Hong Kong Construction Industry Council in order to acquire a license. Older scaffolders generally learned in apprenticeships, and may have been able to gather more hands-on experience, material shortages are also a contributing factor to the decline. The bamboo scaffolding material was imported from mainland China, bamboo—which matures after three years to the wide diameter and thick skin perfect for scaffolding—came from the Shaoxing area in Guangdong. Over the past two decades, firms have had to look to Guangxi instead, the industrys fear is that one day supplies will be blocked due to export embargoes and environmental concerns. Attempts to import bamboo from Thailand, or switch to synthetic or plastic bamboo, have so far proved unsuccessful, in many African countries, notably Nigeria, bamboo scaffolding is still used in small scale construction in urban areas. In rural areas, the use of scaffolding for construction is common. Some of the structures in relaxation and recreation centres both in urban and rural areas of Nigeria are put in place using bamboo materials and this is not for reasons of poverty but to add more aesthetics to these centres. Bamboo materials are used in the construction of some bukas in rural areas. Content about specifications Double-row Scaffold Only double-row bamboo scaffold is allowed to use for working at height, nylon Mesh The perimeter of bamboo scaffold shall be covered by nylon mesh against falling objects. The lapping of nylon mesh should be at least 100mm wide, access and Egress Suitable means of access shall be provided from the building or ground level to the scaffold such as gangway, stairs and ladder etc
15.
Proof-of-concept
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A proof of concept is usually small and may or may not be complete. The appearance of the terms in news archives suggests it might have been in use as long ago as 1967. In 1969 Committee on Science and Astronautics, the column also provided definitions for the related but distinct terms breadboard, prototype, engineering prototype, and brassboard. Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow,300, and Sin City were all shot in front of a greenscreen with almost all backgrounds, all three used proof-of-concept short films. In the case of Sin City, the film became the prologue of the final film. Pixar sometimes creates short animated films use a difficult or untested technique. Their short film Geris Game used techniques for animation of cloth, in engineering and technology, a rough prototype of a new idea is often constructed as a proof of concept. For example, a concept of an electrical device may be constructed using a breadboard. A patent application often requires a demonstration of functionality prior to being filed, some universities have proof of concept centers to fill the funding gap for seed-stage investing and accelerate the commercialization of university innovations. Proof of concept centers provide seed funding to novel, early stage research that most often would not be funded by any other conventional source, in the field of business development and sales, a vendor may allow a prospect customer to trial a product. In these cases, the proof of concept may mean the use of specialized sales engineers to ensure that the vendor makes a best-possible effort. Winzapper was a proof of concept which possessed the bare minimum of capabilities needed to remove an item from the Windows Security Log. Once a vendor is satisfied, a prototype is developed which is used to seek funding or to demonstrate to prospective customers. A steel thread is technical proof of concept that all of the technologies in a solution. By contrast, a proof of technology aims to determine the solution to some problem or to demonstrate that a given configuration can achieve a certain throughput. No business users need be involved in a proof of technology, a pilot project refers to an initial roll-out of a system into production, targeting a limited scope of the intended final solution. The scope may be limited by the number of users who can access the system, the business processes affected, the purpose of a pilot project is to test, often in a production environment. Although not suggested by natural language, and in contrast to usage in other areas, Proof of Principle, a third term, Proof of Mechanism, is closely related and is also described here
16.
Computer simulation
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Computer simulations reproduce the behavior of a system using a model. Simulation of a system is represented as the running of the systems model and it can be used to explore and gain new insights into new technology and to estimate the performance of systems too complex for analytical solutions. The scale of events being simulated by computer simulations has far exceeded anything possible using traditional paper-and-pencil mathematical modeling, other examples include a 1-billion-atom model of material deformation, a 2. Because of the computational cost of simulation, computer experiments are used to perform such as uncertainty quantification. A computer model is the algorithms and equations used to capture the behavior of the system being modeled, by contrast, computer simulation is the actual running of the program that contains these equations or algorithms. Simulation, therefore, is the process of running a model, thus one would not build a simulation, instead, one would build a model, and then either run the model or equivalently run a simulation. It was a simulation of 12 hard spheres using a Monte Carlo algorithm, Computer simulation is often used as an adjunct to, or substitute for, modeling systems for which simple closed form analytic solutions are not possible. The external data requirements of simulations and models vary widely, for some, the input might be just a few numbers, while others might require terabytes of information. Because of this variety, and because diverse simulation systems have common elements. Systems that accept data from external sources must be careful in knowing what they are receiving. While it is easy for computers to read in values from text or binary files, often they are expressed as error bars, a minimum and maximum deviation from the value range within which the true value lie. Even small errors in the data can accumulate into substantial error later in the simulation. While all computer analysis is subject to the GIGO restriction, this is true of digital simulation. Indeed, observation of this inherent, cumulative error in digital systems was the main catalyst for the development of chaos theory, another way of categorizing models is to look at the underlying data structures. For time-stepped simulations, there are two classes, Simulations which store their data in regular grids and require only next-neighbor access are called stencil codes. Many CFD applications belong to this category, if the underlying graph is not a regular grid, the model may belong to the meshfree method class. Equations define the relationships between elements of the system and attempt to find a state in which the system is in equilibrium. Such models are used in simulating physical systems, as a simpler modeling case before dynamic simulation is attempted
17.
Boeing 787 Dreamliner
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The Boeing 787 Dreamliner is an American long-haul, mid-size widebody, twin-engine jet airliner made by Boeing Commercial Airplanes. Its variants seat 242 to 335 passengers in typical three-class seating configurations and it is Boeings most fuel-efficient airliner and is a pioneering airliner with the use of composite materials as the primary material in the construction of its airframe. The 787 was designed to be 20% more fuel efficient than the Boeing 767, the 787 Dreamliners distinguishing features include mostly electrical flight systems, raked wingtips, and noise-reducing chevrons on its engine nacelles. It shares a type rating with the larger Boeing 777 to allow qualified pilots to operate both models. The aircrafts initial designation was the 7E7, prior to its renaming in January 2005, the first 787 was unveiled in a roll-out ceremony on July 8,2007 at Boeings Everett factory. Development and production of the 787 has involved a collaboration with numerous suppliers worldwide. Final assembly takes place at the Boeing Everett Factory in Everett, Washington, originally planned to enter service in May 2008, the project experienced multiple delays. The airliners maiden flight took place on December 15,2009, Boeing has reportedly spent $32 billion on the 787 program. Final US Federal Aviation Administration and European Aviation Safety Agency type certification was received in August 2011 and it entered commercial service on October 26,2011 with launch customer All Nippon Airways. The stretched 787-9 variant, which is 20 feet longer and can fly 450 nautical miles farther than the -8, first flew in September 2013. Deliveries of the 787-9 began in July 2014, it entered service on August 7,2014 with All Nippon Airways. As of February 2017, the 787 had orders for 1,207 aircraft from 64 customers, the aircraft has suffered from several in-service problems, including fires on board related to its lithium-ion batteries. These systems were reviewed by both the FAA and the Japan Civil Aviation Bureau, the FAA issued a directive in January 2013 that grounded all 787s in the US and other civil aviation authorities followed suit. After Boeing completed tests on a revised design, the FAA approved the revised design and lifted the grounding in April 2013. During the late 1990s, Boeing considered replacement aircraft programs as sales of the 767, the global airline market was disrupted by the September 11,2001 attacks and increased petroleum prices, making airlines more interested in efficiency than speed. The worst-affected airlines, those in the United States, had considered the most likely customers of the Sonic Cruiser. On January 29,2003 Boeing announced a product, the 7E7. The replacement for the Sonic Cruiser project was named 7E7, Technology from the Sonic Cruiser and 7E7 was to be used as part of Boeings project to replace its entire airliner product line, an endeavor called the Yellowstone Project
18.
Automotive design
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Automotive design is the profession involved in the development of the appearance, and to some extent the ergonomics, of motor vehicles or more specifically road vehicles. This most commonly refers to automobiles but also refers to motorcycles, trucks, buses, coaches, the functional design and development of a modern motor vehicle is typically done by a large team from many different disciplines included within automotive engineering. Automotive design in context is primarily concerned with developing the visual appearance or aesthetics of the vehicle. Automotive design is practiced by designers who usually have an art background, the task of the design team is usually split into three main aspects, exterior design, interior design, and color and trim design. Graphic design is also an aspect of design, this is generally shared amongst the design team as the lead designer sees fit. Design focuses not only on the outer shape of automobile parts. The aesthetic value will need to correspond to ergonomic functionality and utility features as well, though not all the new vehicular gadgets are to be designated as factory standard items, some of them may be integral to determining the future course of any specific vehicular models. The stylist responsible for the design of the exterior of the vehicle develops the proportions, shape, Exterior design is first done by a series of digital or manual drawings. Progressively, drawings that are more detailed are executed and approved by appropriate layers of management, Clay and or digital models are developed from, and along with the drawings. The data from these models are used to create a full sized mock-up of the final design. With three- and five-axis CNC milling machines, the model is first designed in a computer program and then carved using the machine. Even in times of high-class 3d software and virtual models on power walls, here the emphasis is on ergonomics and the comfort of the passengers. The procedure here is the same as with exterior design, the color and trim designer is responsible for the research, design, and development of all interior and exterior colors and materials used on a vehicle. These include paints, plastics, fabric designs, leather, grains, carpet, headliner, wood trim, Color, contrast, texture, and pattern must be carefully combined to give the vehicle a unique interior environment experience. Designers work closely with the exterior and interior designers, designers draw inspiration from other design disciplines such as, industrial design, fashion, home furnishing, architecture, and sometimes product design. Specific research is done into global trends to design for two to three model years in the future. Trend boards are created from research in order to keep track of design influences as they relate to the automotive industry. The designer then uses this information to develop themes and concepts that are further refined and tested on the vehicle models
19.
Mass production
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Mass production, flow production or continuous production is the production of large amounts of standardized products, including and especially on assembly lines. Together with job production and batch production, it is one of the three main production methods, the term mass production was popularized by a 1926 article in the Encyclopedia Britannica supplement that was written based on correspondence with Ford Motor Company. The New York Times used the term in the title of an article that appeared before publication of the Britannica article, the concepts of mass production are applied to various kinds of products, from fluids and particulates handled in bulk to discrete solid parts to assemblies of such parts. Mass production is a field, but it can generally be contrasted with craft production or distributed manufacturing. Mass production of fluid matter typically involves pipes with centrifugal pumps or screw conveyors to transfer raw materials or partially complete products between vessels, materials on pallets are handled with forklifts. Also used for handling heavy items like reels of paper, steel or machinery are electric overhead cranes, sometimes called bridge cranes because they span large factory bays. Mass production is intensive and energy intensive, as it uses a high proportion of machinery. It is also usually automated while total expenditure per unit of product is decreased, however, the machinery that is needed to set up a mass production line is so expensive that there must be some assurance that the product is to be successful to attain profits. One of the descriptions of mass production is that the skill is built into the tool, for example, in the 19th or early 20th century, this could be expressed as the craftsmanship is in the workbench itself. Later, once computerized control came about, jigs were obviated and this is the specialized capital required for mass production, each workbench and set of tools is different. Crossbows made with bronze parts were produced in China during the Warring States period, the Qin Emperor unified China at least in part by equipping large armies with these weapons, which were equipped with a sophisticated trigger mechanism made of interchangeable parts. Ships of war were produced on a scale at a moderate cost by the Carthaginians in their excellent harbors. The Venetians themselves also produced ships using prefabricated parts and assembly lines many centuries later, the Venetian Arsenal apparently produced nearly one ship every day, in what was effectively the worlds first factory which, at its height, employed 16,000 people. Mass production in the industry has been commonplace since the Gutenberg Bible was published using a printing press in the mid-15th century. In the Industrial Revolution simple mass production techniques were used at the Portsmouth Block Mills in England to make ships pulley blocks for the Royal Navy in the Napoleonic Wars. It was achieved in 1803 by Marc Isambard Brunel in cooperation with Henry Maudslay under the management of Sir Samuel Bentham, the Navy was in a state of expansion that required 100,000 pulley blocks to be manufactured a year. Bentham had already achieved remarkable efficiency at the docks by introducing power-driven machinery, by 1805, the dockyard had been fully updated with the revolutionary, purpose-built machinery at a time when products were still built individually with different components. A total of 45 machines were required to perform 22 processes on the blocks, the machines were almost entirely made of metal thus improving their accuracy and durability
20.
Mockup
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In manufacturing and design, a mockup, or mock-up, is a scale or full-size model of a design or device, used for teaching, demonstration, design evaluation, promotion, and other purposes. A mockup is an if it provides at least part of the functionality of a system. Mock-ups are used by designers mainly to acquire feedback from users, mock-ups address the idea captured in a popular engineering one-liner, You can fix it now on the drafting board with an eraser or you can fix it later on the construction site with a sledge hammer. Mockups are used as design tools virtually everywhere a new product is designed, mockups are used in the automotive device industry as part of the product development process, where dimensions, overall impression, and shapes are tested in a wind tunnel experiment. They can also be used to test consumer reaction, mockups, wireframes and prototypes are not so cleanly distinguished in software and systems engineering, where mockups are a way of designing user interfaces on paper or in computer images. A software mockup will thus look like the thing. A software prototype, on the hand, will look. In many cases it is best to design or prototype the user interface before source code is written or hardware is built, to avoid having to go back, early layouts of a World Wide Web site or pages are often called mockups. A large selection of proprietary or open-source software tools are available for this purpose, mockups are an integral part of the military acquisition process. Mockups are often used to test human factors and aerodynamics, for example, in this context, mockups include wire-frame models. They can also be used for display and demonstration purposes prior to the development of a prototype. Mockups are used in the consumer goods industry as part of the development process, where dimensions, human factors, overall impression. Mockups are commonly required by designers, architects, and end users for custom furniture, the intention is often to produce a full-sized replica, using inexpensive materials in order to verify a design. Mockups are often used to determine the proportions of the piece, relating to various dimensions of the piece itself, the ability to see how the design of the piece relates to the rest of the space is also an important factor in determining size and design. When designing a piece of furniture, such as a desk or table. Designs that fail to consider these issues may not be practical to use, mockups can also be used to test color, finish, and design details which cannot be visualized from the initial drawings and sketches. Mockups used for this purpose can be on a reduced scale, the cost of making mockups is often more than repaid by the savings made by avoiding going into production with a design which needs improvement. Software UI mockups can range from very simple hand drawn screen layouts, through realistic bitmaps, mockups are often used to create unit tests - there they are usually called mock objects
21.
Breadboard
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A breadboard is a construction base for prototyping of electronics. Originally it was literally a bread board, a piece of wood used for slicing bread. In the 1970s the solderless breadboard became available and nowadays the term breadboard is commonly used to refer to these, because the solderless breadboard does not require soldering, it is reusable. This makes it easy to use for creating temporary prototypes and experimenting with circuit design, for this reason, solderless breadboards are also extremely popular with students and in technological education. Older breadboard types did not have this property, a stripboard and similar prototyping printed circuit boards, which are used to build semi-permanent soldered prototypes or one-offs, cannot easily be reused. A variety of systems may be prototyped by using breadboards, from small analog. In the early days of radio, amateurs nailed bare copper wires or terminal strips to a wooden board, sometimes a paper schematic diagram was first glued to the board as a guide to placing terminals, then components and wires were installed over their symbols on the schematic. Using thumbtacks or small nails as mounting posts was also common, breadboards have evolved over time, with the term now being used for all kinds of prototype electronic devices. For example, US Patent 3,145,483, filed in 1961 and granted in 1964, describes a wooden plate breadboard with mounted springs and other facilities. US Patent 3,496,419, filed in 1967 and granted in 1970, both examples refer to and describe other types of breadboards as prior art. The breadboard most commonly used today is made of white plastic and is a pluggable breadboard. It was designed by Ronald J. Portugal of EI Instruments Inc. in 1971, alternative methods to create prototypes are point-to-point construction, wire wrap, wiring pencil, and boards like the stripboard. However, prototyping techniques are used for some applications such as RF circuits. You could also use a grid of pairs of holes where one hole per pair connects to its row. This same shape can be in a circle with rows and columns each spiraling opposite clockwise/counterclockwise, a modern solderless breadboard consists of a perforated block of plastic with numerous tin plated phosphor bronze or nickel silver alloy spring clips under the perforations. The clips are called tie points or contact points. The number of tie points is given in the specification of the breadboard. The spacing between the clips is typically 0.1 in, integrated circuits in dual in-line packages can be inserted to straddle the centerline of the block
22.
Stripboard
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It is commonly also known by the name of the original product Veroboard, which is a trademark, in the UK, of British company Vero Technologies Ltd and Canadian company Pixel Print Ltd. In using the board, breaks are made in the tracks, usually around holes, with care, it is possible to break between holes to allow for components that have two pin rows only one position apart such as twin row headers for IDCs. Stripboard is available from many vendors, all versions have copper strips on one side. Some are made using printed circuit board etching and drilling techniques, although some have milled strips, the original Veroboard used FR-2 synthetic-resin-bonded paper as the base board material. Some versions of stripboard now use higher quality FR-4 material, Stripboard holes are drilled on 0.1 inch centers. This spacing allows components having pins with a 0.1 inch spacing to be inserted, compatible parts include DIP ICs, sockets for ICs, some types of connectors, and other devices. Stripboards have evolved over time into several variants and related products, for example, a larger version using a 0.15 inch grid and larger holes is available, but is generally less popular. Stripboard is available in a variety of sizes, one common size is 160 mm x 100 mm. The components are placed on the plain side of the board. The leads are then soldered to the tracks on the other side of the board to make the desired connections. The continuous tracks may be easily and neatly cut as desired to form breaks between conductors using a 3 mm twist drill, a hand made for the purpose. Tracks may be linked up on either side of the board using wire, with practice, very neat and reliable assemblies can be created, though such a method is labour-intensive and therefore unsuitable for production assemblies except in very small quantity. Alternatively, some types of connectors have a pin spacing to be inserted directly into the board. For high density prototyping, especially of digital circuits, wire wrap is faster, in contrast, breadboard connections are held by friction, and the breadboard can be reused many times. Stripboards have further evolved into a class of prototype boards, available in different shapes and sizes. For example, one variant is called a TriPad board and this is similar to stripboard, except that the conductive tracks do not run continuously along the board but are broken into sections, each of which spans three holes. This allows the legs of two or three components to be linked together in the circuit conveniently without the need for track breaks to be made. However, in order to more than three holes together, wire links or bridges must be formed and this can result in a less compact layout than is possible with ordinary stripboard
23.
Perfboard
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Perfboard is a material for prototyping electronic circuits. It is a thin, rigid sheet with holes pre-drilled at standard intervals across a grid and these holes are ringed by round or square copper pads, though bare boards are also available. Inexpensive perfboard may have pads on only one side of the board, since each pad is electrically isolated, the builder makes all connections with either wire wrap or miniature point to point wiring techniques. Discrete components are soldered to the board such as resistors, capacitors. The substrate is made of paper laminated with phenolic resin or a fiberglass-reinforced epoxy laminate. The 0.1 in grid system accommodates integrated circuits in DIP packages, perfboard is not designed for prototyping surface mount devices. Before building a circuit on perfboard, the locations of the components, small scale prototypes, however, are often built ad hoc, using an oversized perfboard. Software for PCB layout can often be used to generate perfboard layouts as well, in this case, the designer positions the components so all leads fall on intersections of a 0.1 in grid. When routing the connections more than 2 copper layers can be used, next, electrical connections are made as called for in the layout. One school of thought is to make as many connections as possible without adding extra wire and this is done by bending the existing leads on resistors, capacitors, etc. into position, trimming off extra length, and soldering the lead to make the required electrical connection. If extra wires need to be used, or are used for principal reasons, because, as opposite to strip boards, nearby holes arent connected, and the only hole in a pad is already occupied by a components lead. Wires used range from isolated wires, including verowire, to copper wire, depending on individual preference. For insulated wires thin solid core wire with temperature-resistant insulation such as Kynar or Tefzel is preferred, the wire gauge is typically 24 -30 AWG. A special stripping tool can be used, incorporating a steel blade with a slit that the wire is simply inserted into and then pulled loose. This wire was developed initially for circuit assembly by the wire wrap technique, intentional solder bridges can be used to connect adjacent pads when necessary. Careful hand–eye coordination is needed to avoid causing inadvertent short circuits, circuits assembled on perfboard are not necessarily fragile but may be less impact-resistant than printed circuit boards. Perfboard differs from stripboard in that each pad on perfboard is isolated, stripboard is made with rows of copper conductors that form default connections, which are broken into isolated segments as required by scraping through the copper. This is similar to the pattern of connections on a solderless breadboard
24.
Printed circuit board
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Components are generally soldered on the PCB. Advanced PCBs may contain components embedded in the substrate, PCBs can be single sided, double sided or multi-layer. Conductors on different layers are connected with vias, multi-layer PCBs allow for much higher component density. FR-4 glass epoxy is the primary insulating substrate, a basic building block of the PCB is an FR-4 panel with a thin layer of copper foil laminated to one or both sides. In multi-layer boards multiple layers of material are laminated together, printed circuit boards are used in all but the simplest electronic products. Alternatives to PCBs include wire wrap and point-to-point construction, PCBs require the additional design effort to lay out the circuit, but manufacturing and assembly can be automated. Manufacturing circuits with PCBs is cheaper and faster than other wiring methods as components are mounted and wired with one single part. A minimal PCB with a component used for easier prototyping is called a breakout board. When the board has no embedded components it is correctly called a printed wiring board or etched wiring board. However, the printed wiring board has fallen into disuse. A PCB populated with electronic components is called a printed circuit assembly, the IPC preferred term for assembled boards is circuit card assembly, and for assembled backplanes it is backplane assemblies. The term PCB is used both for bare and assembled boards. The world market for bare PCBs exceeded $60.2 billion in 2014, initially PCBs were designed manually by creating a photomask on a clear mylar sheet, usually at two or four times the true size. Starting from the diagram the component pin pads were laid out on the mylar. Rub-on dry transfers of common component footprints increased efficiency, traces were made with self-adhesive tape. Pre-printed non-reproducing grids on the mylar assisted in layout, to fabricate the board, the finished photomask was photolithographically reproduced onto a photoresist coating on the blank copper-clad boards. Modern PCBs are designed with dedicated software, generally in the following steps. Card dimensions and template are decided based on required circuitry and case of the PCB, the positions of the components and heat sinks are determined
25.
Dual in-line package
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In microelectronics, a dual in-line package, or dual in-line pin package is an electronic component package with a rectangular housing and two parallel rows of electrical connecting pins. The package may be mounted to a printed circuit board or inserted in a socket. Furthermore, square and rectangular packages made it easier to route printed-circuit traces beneath the packages, a DIP is usually referred to as a DIPn, where n is the total number of pins. For example, a package with two rows of seven vertical leads would be a DIP14. The photograph at the right shows three DIP14 ICs. Common packages have as few as four and as many as 64 leads, many analog and digital integrated circuit types are available in DIP packages, as are arrays of transistors, switches, light emitting diodes, and resistors. DIP plugs for ribbon cables can be used with standard IC sockets, DIP packages are usually made from an opaque molded epoxy plastic pressed around a tin-, silver-, or gold-plated lead frame that supports the device die and provides connection pins. Some types of IC are made in ceramic DIP packages, where temperature or high reliability is required. Most DIP packages are secured to a circuit board by inserting the pins through holes in the board. Where replacement of the parts is necessary, such as in test fixtures or where programmable devices must be removed for changes, some sockets include a zero insertion force mechanism. DIP packages have been displaced by surface-mount package types, which avoid the expense of drilling holes in a printed circuit board. DIPs are commonly used for integrated circuits, other devices in DIP packages include resistor networks, DIP switches, LED segmented and bargraph displays, and electromechanical relays. DIP connector plugs for ribbon cables are common in computers and other electronic equipment, dallas Semiconductor manufactured integrated DIP real-time clock modules which contained an IC chip and a non-replaceable 10-year lithium battery. DIP header blocks on to which discrete components could be soldered were used where groups of components needed to be removed, for configuration changes. The original dual-in-line package was invented by Bryant Buck Rogers in 1964 while working for Fairchild Semiconductor, the first devices had 14 pins and looked much like they do today. The rectangular shape allowed integrated circuits to be packaged more densely than previous round packages, DIP packages were still large with respect to the integrated circuits within them. By the end of the 20th century, surface-mount packages allowed further reduction in the size, DIP chips are still popular for circuit prototyping on a breadboard because of how easily they can be inserted and utilized there. DIPs were the mainstream of the industry in the 1970s and 80s
26.
Surface-mount technology
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Surface-mount technology is a method for producing electronic circuits in which the components are mounted or placed directly onto the surface of printed circuit boards. An electronic device so made is called a surface-mount device, in the industry it has largely replaced the through-hole technology construction method of fitting components with wire leads into holes in the circuit board. By employing SMT, the production process speeds up, but the risk of defects also increase due to the components miniaturization, in those conditions, the failures detection have become critical for any SMT manufacturing process. An SMT component is usually smaller than its through-hole counterpart because it has either smaller leads or no leads at all and it may have short pins or leads of various styles, flat contacts, a matrix of solder balls, or terminations on the body of the component. Surface mounting was originally called planar mounting, surface-mount technology was developed in the 1960s and became widely used in the late 1980s. Much of the work in this technology was by IBM. Components were mechanically redesigned to have metal tabs or end caps that could be directly soldered to the surface of the PCB. Components became much smaller and component placement on both sides of a board became far more common with surface mounting than through-hole mounting, allowing much higher circuit densities. Adhesive is sometimes used to hold SMT components on the side of a board if a wave soldering process is used to solder both SMT and through-hole components simultaneously. Surface mounting lends itself well to a degree of automation, reducing labor cost. SMDs can be one-quarter to one-tenth the size and weight, solder paste, a sticky mixture of flux and tiny solder particles, is first applied to all the solder pads with a stainless steel or nickel stencil using a screen printing process. It can also be applied by a mechanism, similar to an inkjet printer. After pasting, the boards then proceed to the pick-and-place machines, the components to be placed on the boards are usually delivered to the production line in either paper/plastic tapes wound on reels or plastic tubes. Some large integrated circuits are delivered in static-free trays, numerical control pick-and-place machines remove the parts from the tapes, tubes or trays and place them on the PCB. The boards are then conveyed into the reflow soldering oven and they first enter a pre-heat zone, where the temperature of the board and all the components is gradually, uniformly raised. The boards then enter a zone where the temperature is high enough to melt the solder particles in the solder paste, there are a number of techniques for reflowing solder. One is to use infrared lamps, this is called infrared reflow, another is to use a hot gas convection. Another technology which is becoming popular again is special fluorocarbon liquids with high boiling points which use a method called vapor phase reflow, due to environmental concerns, this method was falling out of favor until lead-free legislation was introduced which requires tighter controls on soldering
27.
Texas Instruments
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Texas Instruments Inc. is an American technology company that designs and manufactures semiconductors, which it sells to electronics designers and manufacturers globally. Headquartered in Dallas, Texas, United States, TI is one of the top ten semiconductor companies worldwide, Texas Instrumentss focus is on developing analog chips and embedded processors, which accounts for more than 85% of their revenue. TI also produces TI digital light processing technology and education technology products including calculators, microcontrollers, to date, TI has more than 43,000 patents worldwide. TI produced the worlds first commercial silicon transistor in 1950, Jack Kilby invented the integrated circuit in 1958 while working at TIs Central Research Labs. TI also invented the hand-held calculator in 1967, and introduced the first single-chip microcontroller in 1970, in 1987, TI invented the digital light processing device, which serves as the foundation for the companys award-winning DLP technology and DLP Cinema. In 1990, TI came out with the popular TI-81 calculator which made them a leader in the calculator industry. In 1997, its business was sold to Raytheon, which allowed TI to strengthen its focus on digital solutions. Texas Instruments was founded by Cecil H. Green, J. Erik Jonsson, Eugene McDermott, McDermott was one of the original founders of Geophysical Service Inc. in 1930. McDermott, Green, and Jonsson were GSI employees who purchased the company in 1941, in November,1945, Patrick Haggerty was hired as general manager of the Laboratory and Manufacturing division, which focused on electronic equipment. By 1951, the L&M division, with its contracts, was growing faster than GSIs Geophysical division. The company was reorganized and initially renamed General Instruments Inc, because there already existed a firm named General Instrument, the company was renamed Texas Instruments that same year. From 1956 to 1961, Fred Agnich of Dallas, later a Republican member of the Texas House of Representatives, was the Texas Instruments president, Geophysical Service, Inc. became a subsidiary of Texas Instruments. Early in 1988 most of GSI was sold to the Halliburton Company, in 1930, J. Clarence Karcher and Eugene McDermott founded Geophysical Service, an early provider of seismic exploration services to the petroleum industry. In 1939, the company reorganized as Coronado Corp. an oil company with Geophysical Service Inc, on December 6,1941, McDermott along with three other GSI employees, J. Erik Jonsson, Cecil H. Green, and H. B. During World War II, GSI expanded their services to include electronics for the U. S. Army, Signal Corps, in 1951, the company changed its name to Texas Instruments, GSI becoming a wholly owned subsidiary of the new company. Texas Instruments also continued to manufacture equipment for use in the seismic industry, after selling GSI, TI finally sold the company to Halliburton in 1988, at which point GSI ceased to exist as a separate entity. Texas Instruments entered the electronics market in 1942 with submarine detection equipment. During the early 1980s, Texas Instruments instituted a quality program which included Juran training, as well as promoting statistical process control, Taguchi methods and Design for Six Sigma
28.
Wire wrap
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Wire wrap is a method to construct electronic circuit boards. Wires can be wrapped by hand or by machine, and can be hand-modified afterwards and it was popular for large-scale manufacturing in the 60s and early 70s, and continues to be used for short runs and prototypes. The method eliminates the design and fabrication of a circuit board. Wire wrapping is unusual among other prototyping technologies since it allows for complex assemblies to be produced by automated equipment, the connections themselves are firmer and have lower electrical resistance due to cold welding of the wire to the terminal post at the corners. Wire wrap was used for assembly of high frequency prototypes and small runs, including gigahertz microwave circuits. It is unique among automated prototyping techniques in that wire lengths can be exactly controlled, Wire wrap construction became popular around 1960 in circuit board manufacturing, and use has now sharply declined. Surface-mount technology has made the technique much less useful than in previous decades, solder-less breadboards and the decreasing cost of professionally made PCBs have nearly eliminated this technology. A correctly made wire-wrap connection for 30 or 28 AWG wire is seven turns of wire with half to one. The square hard-gold-plated post thus forms 28 redundant contacts, the silver-plated wire coating cold-welds to the gold. If corrosion occurs, it occurs on the outside of the wire, a correctly designed wire-wrap tool applies up to twenty tons of force per square inch on each joint. The electronic parts sometimes plug into sockets, the sockets are attached with cyanoacrylate to thin plates of glass-fiber-reinforced epoxy. The usual posts are 0.025 in square,1 in high, premium posts are hard-drawn beryllium copper alloy plated with a 0.000025 in of gold to prevent corrosion. Less-expensive posts are bronze with tin plating,30 gauge silver-plated soft copper wire is insulated with a fluorocarbon that does not emit dangerous gases when heated. The most common insulation is Kynar, the 30 AWG Kynar wire is cut into standard lengths, then one inch of insulation is removed on each end. A wire wrap tool has two holes, the wire and 1⁄4 in of insulated wire are placed in a hole near the edge of the tool. The hole in the center of the tool is placed over the post, the result is that 1.5 to 2 turns of insulated wire are wrapped around the post, and above that,7 to 9 turns of bare wire are wrapped around the post. The post has room for three such connections, although only one or two are needed. This permits manual wire-wrapping to be used for repairs, the turn and a half of insulated wire helps prevent wire fatigue where it meets the post
29.
Veroboard
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The first single-size Veroboard product was the forerunner of the numerous types of prototype wiring board which, with world-wide use over five decades, have become known as stripboard. The generic terms veroboard and stripboard are now taken to be synonymous, the VPE Electronics Department was formed early in 1959 when managing director Geoffrey Verdon-Roe hired two former Saunders-Roe Ltd employees, Peter H Winter and Terry Fitzpatrick. The usual configuration for most of the PCBs of that time had components placed in a pattern with the circuit formed by maze-like conductive pathways. A patent application was filed and the invention was developed for Vero by associates Winter, Fitzpatrick. Production of the new product, Veroboard, was undertaken by the VPE machine tool department. Many dimensional, material quality and tooling problems were encountered before finished boards of acceptable quality could be produced in quantity. These machining problems were encountered due to the non-availability, in 1960, however, with experience production rates improved and in 1961 Vero Electronics Ltd was formed as a separate company to market the increasing sales of Veroboard. As with other stripboards, in using Veroboard, components are suitably positioned and soldered to the conductors to form the required circuit, breaks can be made in the tracks, usually around holes, to divide the strips into multiple electrical nodes enabling increased circuit complexity. This type of wiring board may be utilised for initial electronic circuit development, Veroboard was first used for prototype construction within Vero Electronics Department in 1961. The images of a decade counter sub-unit clearly show both the assembled components and the copper conductors with the required discontinuities. A number of these sub-units were interconnected through connectors mounted on a similar to that shown in the Veroboard Display image. Each sub-unit had a capacity equivalent to 1/2 byte of data storage - i. e.2,000,000 would be required to store 1 megabyte. Two forms of Veroboard are produced with hole pitch of 2.54 mm or 3.5 mm, the larger pitch is and was considered easier to assemble, especially at a time when many constructors were still more familiar with valves and tag strips. The increasingly popular integrated circuits in dual in-line packages would only fit the 0.1 boards, very soon 0.1 pitch became by far the dominant form. Integrated circuits and the layout of short parallel strips protruding from the sides of an IC package encouraged the development of specialist boards such as Verostrip. This was a long, thin board with the copper strips arranged transversely, a ready-cut central gap was provided to isolate the sides of the IC. A1979 Vero Electronics Ltd production drawing shows a special Veroboard product made for RS Components Ltd, the versatility of the veroboard/stripboard type of product is demonstrated by the large number of design examples currently to be found on the Internet. The British company Vero Technologies Ltd currently holds the UK trademark for Veroboard, in the Americas the Veroboard trademark is now held by the Canadian company Pixel Print Ltd. of Vancouver
30.
Fritzing
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It was developed at the University of Applied Sciences of Potsdam. The associated website helps users share and discuss drafts and experiences as well as to reduce manufacturing costs, as of December 2,2014 Fritzing has made a code view option, where one can modify code and upload it directly to an Arduino device. Component images are distributed under CC-BY-SA, which will also be the license for any generated breadboard views, the Fritzing source code is written in C++ using the Qt-framework. The source code can be downloaded and edited via the GitHub repositories, the source is split in two main repositories, Fritzing-App and Fritzing-Parts. Fritzing allows for creation of printed circuit boards. FritzingFab enables users to order PCBs with designs made on the Fritzing software, official website FabService Fritzing-App on GitHub Fritzing-Parts on GitHub Fritzing overview
31.
Arduino
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Arduino boards are available commercially in preassembled form, or as do-it-yourself kits. Arduino board designs use a variety of microprocessors and controllers, the boards are equipped with sets of digital and analog input/output pins that may be interfaced to various expansion boards and other circuits. The boards feature serial communications interfaces, including Universal Serial Bus on some models, the microcontrollers are typically programmed using a dialect of features from the programming languages C and C++. In addition to using traditional compiler toolchains, the Arduino project provides a development environment based on the Processing language project. Common examples of such devices intended for beginner hobbyists include simple robots, thermostats, the name Arduino comes from a bar in Ivrea, Italy, where some of the founders of the project used to meet. The bar was named after Arduin of Ivrea, who was the margrave of the March of Ivrea, the origin of the Arduino project started at the Interaction Design Institute Ivrea in Ivrea, Italy. At that time, the students used a BASIC Stamp microcontroller at a cost of $100, the project goal was to create simple, low cost tools for creating digital projects by non-engineers. The Wiring platform consisted of a circuit board with an ATmega168 microcontroller. In 2003, Massimo Banzi, with David Mellis, another IDII student, but instead of continuing the work on Wiring, they copied the Wiring source code and renamed it as a separate project, called Arduino. The initial Arduino core team consisted of Massimo Banzi, David Cuartielles, Tom Igoe, Gianluca Martino, and David Mellis, following the completion of the Wiring platform, lighter and less-expensive versions were distributed in the open-source community. The hardware reference designs are distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution Share-Alike 2.5 license and are available on the Arduino website, layout and production files for some versions of the hardware are also available. The source code for the IDE is released under the GNU General Public License, nevertheless, an official Bill of Materials of Arduino boards has never been released by Arduino staff. The official policy document on use of the Arduino name emphasizes that the project is open to incorporating work by others into the official product, several Arduino-compatible products commercially released have avoided the project name by using various names ending in -duino. Most Arduino boards consist of an Atmel 8-bit AVR microcontroller with varying amounts of memory, pins. The 32-bit Arduino Due, based on the Atmel SAM3X8E was introduced in 2012, the boards use single or double-row pins or female headers that facilitate connections for programming and incorporation into other circuits. These may connect with add-on modules termed shields, multiple, and possibly stacked shields may be individually addressable via an I²C serial bus. Most boards include a 5 V linear regulator and a 16 MHz crystal oscillator or ceramic resonator, some designs, such as the LilyPad, run at 8 MHz and dispense with the onboard voltage regulator due to specific form-factor restrictions. Arduino microcontrollers are pre-programmed with a loader that simplifies uploading of programs to the on-chip flash memory
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Microcontroller
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A microcontroller is a small computer on a single integrated circuit. In modern terminology, it is a system on a chip or SoC, a microcontroller contains one or more CPUs along with memory and programmable input/output peripherals. Program memory in the form of Ferroelectric RAM, NOR flash or OTP ROM is also included on chip. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications, in contrast to the used in personal computers or other general purpose applications consisting of various discrete chips. Mixed signal microcontrollers are common, integrating analog components needed to control non-digital electronic systems, some microcontrollers may use four-bit words and operate at frequencies as low as 4 kHz, for low power consumption. Other microcontrollers may serve performance-critical roles, where they may need to act more like a signal processor, with higher clock speeds. The first microprocessor was the 4-bit Intel 4004 released in 1971, with the Intel 8008, however, both processors required external chips to implement a working system, raising total system cost, and making it impossible to economically computerize appliances. One book credits TI engineers Gary Boone and Michael Cochran with the creation of the first microcontroller in 1971. The result of their work was the TMS1000, which became available in 1974. It combined read-only memory, read/write memory, processor and clock on one chip and was targeted at embedded systems and it combined RAM and ROM on the same chip. This chip would find its way into one billion PC keyboards. At that time Intels President, Luke J. Valenter, stated that the microcontroller was one of the most successful in the companys history, most microcontrollers at this time had concurrent variants. One had an erasable EPROM program memory, with a transparent quartz window in the lid of the package to allow it to be erased by exposure to ultraviolet light, often used for prototyping. The PROM was of type of memory as the EPROM. The erasable versions required ceramic packages with quartz windows, making them more expensive than the OTP versions. The same year, Atmel introduced the first microcontroller using Flash memory, other companies rapidly followed suit, with both memory types. Cost has plummeted over time, with the cheapest 8-bit microcontrollers being available for under 0.25 USD in quantity in 2009, nowadays microcontrollers are cheap and readily available for hobbyists, with large online communities around certain processors. In the future, MRAM could potentially be used in microcontrollers as it has infinite endurance, in 2002, about 55% of all CPUs sold in the world were 8-bit microcontrollers and microprocessors
33.
Software release life cycle
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Usage of the alpha/beta test terminology originated at IBM. As long ago as the 1950s, IBM used similar terminology for their hardware development, a test was the verification of a new product before public announcement. B test was the verification before releasing the product to be manufactured, C test was the final test before general availability of the product. Martin Belsky, a manager on some of IBMs earlier software projects claimed to have invented the terminology, IBM dropped the alpha/beta terminology during the 1960s, but by then it had received fairly wide notice. The usage of beta test to refer to testing done by customers was not done in IBM, rather, IBM used the term field test. Pre-alpha refers to all activities performed during the project before formal testing. These activities can include requirements analysis, software design, software development, in typical open source development, there are several types of pre-alpha versions. Milestone versions include specific sets of functions and are released as soon as the functionality is complete, the alpha phase of the release life cycle is the first phase to begin software testing. In this phase, developers generally test the software using white-box techniques, additional validation is then performed using black-box or gray-box techniques, by another testing team. Moving to black-box testing inside the organization is known as alpha release, alpha software can be unstable and could cause crashes or data loss. Alpha software may not contain all of the features that are planned for the final version, in general, external availability of alpha software is uncommon in proprietary software, while open source software often has publicly available alpha versions. The alpha phase usually ends with a freeze, indicating that no more features will be added to the software. At this time, the software is said to be feature complete, Beta, named after the second letter of the Greek alphabet, is the software development phase following alpha. Software in the stage is also known as betaware. Beta phase generally begins when the software is complete but likely to contain a number of known or unknown bugs. Software in the phase will generally have many more bugs in it than completed software, as well as speed/performance issues. The focus of beta testing is reducing impacts to users, often incorporating usability testing, the process of delivering a beta version to the users is called beta release and this is typically the first time that the software is available outside of the organization that developed it. Beta version software is useful for demonstrations and previews within an organization
34.
Programming language
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A programming language is a formal computer language designed to communicate instructions to a machine, particularly a computer. Programming languages can be used to programs to control the behavior of a machine or to express algorithms. From the early 1800s, programs were used to direct the behavior of such as Jacquard looms. Thousands of different programming languages have created, mainly in the computer field. Many programming languages require computation to be specified in an imperative form while other languages use forms of program specification such as the declarative form. The description of a language is usually split into the two components of syntax and semantics. Some languages are defined by a document while other languages have a dominant implementation that is treated as a reference. Some languages have both, with the language defined by a standard and extensions taken from the dominant implementation being common. A programming language is a notation for writing programs, which are specifications of a computation or algorithm, some, but not all, authors restrict the term programming language to those languages that can express all possible algorithms. For example, PostScript programs are created by another program to control a computer printer or display. More generally, a language may describe computation on some, possibly abstract. It is generally accepted that a specification for a programming language includes a description, possibly idealized. In most practical contexts, a programming language involves a computer, consequently, abstractions Programming languages usually contain abstractions for defining and manipulating data structures or controlling the flow of execution. Expressive power The theory of computation classifies languages by the computations they are capable of expressing, all Turing complete languages can implement the same set of algorithms. ANSI/ISO SQL-92 and Charity are examples of languages that are not Turing complete, markup languages like XML, HTML, or troff, which define structured data, are not usually considered programming languages. Programming languages may, however, share the syntax with markup languages if a computational semantics is defined, XSLT, for example, is a Turing complete XML dialect. Moreover, LaTeX, which is used for structuring documents. The term computer language is used interchangeably with programming language
35.
C (programming language)
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C was originally developed by Dennis Ritchie between 1969 and 1973 at Bell Labs, and used to re-implement the Unix operating system. C has been standardized by the American National Standards Institute since 1989, C is an imperative procedural language. Therefore, C was useful for applications that had formerly been coded in assembly language. Despite its low-level capabilities, the language was designed to encourage cross-platform programming, a standards-compliant and portably written C program can be compiled for a very wide variety of computer platforms and operating systems with few changes to its source code. The language has become available on a wide range of platforms. In C, all code is contained within subroutines, which are called functions. Function parameters are passed by value. Pass-by-reference is simulated in C by explicitly passing pointer values, C program source text is free-format, using the semicolon as a statement terminator and curly braces for grouping blocks of statements. The C language also exhibits the characteristics, There is a small, fixed number of keywords, including a full set of flow of control primitives, for, if/else, while, switch. User-defined names are not distinguished from keywords by any kind of sigil, There are a large number of arithmetical and logical operators, such as +, +=, ++, &, ~, etc. More than one assignment may be performed in a single statement, function return values can be ignored when not needed. Typing is static, but weakly enforced, all data has a type, C has no define keyword, instead, a statement beginning with the name of a type is taken as a declaration. There is no function keyword, instead, a function is indicated by the parentheses of an argument list, user-defined and compound types are possible. Heterogeneous aggregate data types allow related data elements to be accessed and assigned as a unit, array indexing is a secondary notation, defined in terms of pointer arithmetic. Unlike structs, arrays are not first-class objects, they cannot be assigned or compared using single built-in operators, There is no array keyword, in use or definition, instead, square brackets indicate arrays syntactically, for example month. Enumerated types are possible with the enum keyword and they are not tagged, and are freely interconvertible with integers. Strings are not a data type, but are conventionally implemented as null-terminated arrays of characters. Low-level access to memory is possible by converting machine addresses to typed pointers
36.
C++
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C++ is a general-purpose programming language. It has imperative, object-oriented and generic programming features, while also providing facilities for low-level memory manipulation and it was designed with a bias toward system programming and embedded, resource-constrained and large systems, with performance, efficiency and flexibility of use as its design highlights. C++ is a language, with implementations of it available on many platforms and provided by various organizations, including the Free Software Foundation, LLVM, Microsoft, Intel. C++ is standardized by the International Organization for Standardization, with the latest standard version ratified and published by ISO in December 2014 as ISO/IEC14882,2014. The C++ programming language was standardized in 1998 as ISO/IEC14882,1998. The current C++14 standard supersedes these and C++11, with new features, the C++17 standard is due in 2017, with the draft largely implemented by some compilers already, and C++20 is the next planned standard thereafter. Many other programming languages have influenced by C++, including C#, D, Java. In 1979, Bjarne Stroustrup, a Danish computer scientist, began work on C with Classes, the motivation for creating a new language originated from Stroustrups experience in programming for his Ph. D. thesis. When Stroustrup started working in AT&T Bell Labs, he had the problem of analyzing the UNIX kernel with respect to distributed computing, remembering his Ph. D. experience, Stroustrup set out to enhance the C language with Simula-like features. C was chosen because it was general-purpose, fast, portable, as well as C and Simulas influences, other languages also influenced C++, including ALGOL68, Ada, CLU and ML. Initially, Stroustrups C with Classes added features to the C compiler, Cpre, including classes, derived classes, strong typing, inlining, furthermore, it included the development of a standalone compiler for C++, Cfront. In 1985, the first edition of The C++ Programming Language was released, the first commercial implementation of C++ was released in October of the same year. In 1989, C++2.0 was released, followed by the second edition of The C++ Programming Language in 1991. New features in 2.0 included multiple inheritance, abstract classes, static functions, const member functions. In 1990, The Annotated C++ Reference Manual was published and this work became the basis for the future standard. Later feature additions included templates, exceptions, namespaces, new casts, after a minor C++14 update released in December 2014, various new additions are planned for 2017 and 2020. According to Stroustrup, the name signifies the nature of the changes from C. This name is credited to Rick Mascitti and was first used in December 1983, when Mascitti was questioned informally in 1992 about the naming, he indicated that it was given in a tongue-in-cheek spirit
