1.
Kingdom of Great Britain
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The Kingdom of Great Britain, officially Great Britain, was a sovereign state in western Europe from 1 May 1707 to 31 December 1800. It did not include Ireland, which remained a separate realm, the unitary state was governed by a single parliament and government that was based in Westminster. Also after the accession of George I to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, the early years of the unified kingdom were marked by Jacobite risings which ended in defeat for the Stuart cause at Culloden in 1746. On 1 January 1801, the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland were merged to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom, the name Britain descends from the Latin name for the island of Great Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, the land of the Britons via the Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The term Great Britain was first used officially in 1474, in the instrument drawing up the proposal for a marriage between Edward IV of Englands daughter Cecily and James III of Scotlands son James. The Treaty of Union and the subsequent Acts of Union state that England and Scotland were to be United into one Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain. However, both the Acts and the Treaty also refer numerous times to the United Kingdom and the longer form, other publications refer to the country as the United Kingdom after 1707 as well. The websites of the UK parliament, the Scottish Parliament, the BBC, additionally, the term United Kingdom was found in informal use during the 18th century to describe the state. The new state created in 1707 included the island of Great Britain, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, both in existence from the 9th century, were separate states until 1707. However, they had come into a union in 1603. Each of the three kingdoms maintained its own parliament and laws and this disposition changed dramatically when the Acts of Union 1707 came into force, with a single unified Crown of Great Britain and a single unified parliament. Ireland remained formally separate, with its own parliament, until the Acts of Union 1800, legislative power was vested in the Parliament of Great Britain, which replaced both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. In practice it was a continuation of the English parliament, sitting at the location in Westminster. Newly created peers in the Peerage of Great Britain were given the right to sit in the Lords. Despite the end of a parliament for Scotland, it retained its own laws. As a result of Poynings Law of 1495, the Parliament of Ireland was subordinate to the Parliament of England, the Act was repealed by the Repeal of Act for Securing Dependence of Ireland Act 1782. The same year, the Irish constitution of 1782 produced a period of legislative freedom, the 18th century saw England, and after 1707 Great Britain, rise to become the worlds dominant colonial power, with France its main rival on the imperial stage
Kingdom of Great Britain
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Lord Clive meeting
Mir Jafar after the
Battle of Plassey, by
Francis Hayman (c. 1762)
Kingdom of Great Britain
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Flag
Kingdom of Great Britain
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Pitt addressing the
Commons in 1793
2.
Savannah, Georgia
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Savannah is the oldest city in the U. S. state of Georgia and is the county seat of Chatham County. Established in 1733 on the Savannah River, the city of Savannah became the British colonial capital of the Province of Georgia, a strategic port city in the American Revolution and during the American Civil War, Savannah is today an industrial center and an important Atlantic seaport. It is Georgias fifth-largest city and third-largest metropolitan area, Downtown Savannah largely retains the original town plan prescribed by founder James Oglethorpe. Savannah was the host city for the sailing competitions during the 1996 Summer Olympics held in Atlanta. On February 12,1733, General James Oglethorpe and settlers from the ship Anne landed at Yamacraw Bluff and were greeted by Tomochichi, the Yamacraws, Mary Musgrove often served as an interpreter. The city of Savannah was founded on that date, along with the colony of Georgia, in 1751, Savannah and the rest of Georgia became a Royal Colony and Savannah was made the colonial capital of Georgia. By the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War, Savannah had become the southernmost commercial port of the Thirteen Colonies, British troops took the city in 1778, and the following year a combined force of American and French soldiers failed to rout the British at the Siege of Savannah. The British did not leave the city until July 1782, Savannah, a prosperous seaport throughout the nineteenth century, was the Confederacys sixth most populous city and the prime objective of General William T. Shermans March to the Sea. Early on December 21,1864, local authorities negotiated a surrender to save Savannah from destruction. Savannah was named for the Savannah River, which derives from variant names for the Shawnee. The Shawnee destroyed another Native people, the Westo, and occupied their lands at the head of the Savannah Rivers navigation on the fall line and these Shawnee, whose Native name was Ša·wano·ki, were known by several local variants, including Shawano, Savano, Savana and Savannah. Still other theories suggest that the name Savannah originates from Algonquian terms meaning not only southerners, Savannah lies on the Savannah River, approximately 20 mi upriver from the Atlantic Ocean. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 108.7 square miles. Savannah is the port on the Savannah River and the largest port in the state of Georgia. It is also located near the U. S. Intracoastal Waterway, Georgias Ogeechee River flows toward the Atlantic Ocean some 16 miles south of downtown Savannah. Savannahs climate is classified as humid subtropical, in the Deep South, this is characterized by long and almost tropical summers and short, mild winters. Savannah records few days of freezing temperatures each year, due to its proximity to the Atlantic coast, Savannah rarely experiences temperatures as extreme as those in Georgias interior. Nevertheless, the temperatures have officially ranged from 105 °F, on July 20,1986, down to 3 °F
Savannah, Georgia
Savannah, Georgia
Savannah, Georgia
Savannah, Georgia
3.
English language
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English /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/ is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now the global lingua franca. Named after the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes that migrated to England, English is either the official language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states. It is the third most common language in the world, after Mandarin. It is the most widely learned second language and a language of the United Nations, of the European Union. It is the most widely spoken Germanic language, accounting for at least 70% of speakers of this Indo-European branch, English has developed over the course of more than 1,400 years. The earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the century, are called Old English. Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman conquest of England, Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the King James Bible, and the start of the Great Vowel Shift. Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, modern English spread around the world from the 17th to mid-20th centuries, English is an Indo-European language, and belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages. Most closely related to English are the Frisian languages, and English, Old Saxon and its descendent Low German languages are also closely related, and sometimes Low German, English, and Frisian are grouped together as the Ingvaeonic or North Sea Germanic languages. Modern English descends from Middle English, which in turn descends from Old English, particular dialects of Old and Middle English also developed into a number of other English languages, including Scots and the extinct Fingallian and Forth and Bargy dialects of Ireland. English is classified as a Germanic language because it shares new language features with other Germanic languages such as Dutch, German and these shared innovations show that the languages have descended from a single common ancestor, which linguists call Proto-Germanic. Through Grimms law, the word for foot begins with /f/ in Germanic languages, English is classified as an Anglo-Frisian language because Frisian and English share other features, such as the palatalisation of consonants that were velar consonants in Proto-Germanic. The earliest form of English is called Old English or Anglo-Saxon, in the fifth century, the Anglo-Saxons settled Britain and the Romans withdrew from Britain. England and English are named after the Angles, Old English was divided into four dialects, the Anglian dialects, Mercian and Northumbrian, and the Saxon dialects, Kentish and West Saxon. Through the educational reforms of King Alfred in the century and the influence of the kingdom of Wessex. The epic poem Beowulf is written in West Saxon, and the earliest English poem, Modern English developed mainly from Mercian, but the Scots language developed from Northumbrian. A few short inscriptions from the period of Old English were written using a runic script. By the sixth century, a Latin alphabet was adopted, written with half-uncial letterforms and it included the runic letters wynn ⟨ƿ⟩ and thorn ⟨þ⟩, and the modified Latin letters eth ⟨ð⟩, and ash ⟨æ⟩
English language
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The opening to the Old English epic poem
Beowulf,
handwritten in
half-uncial script: Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon... "Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..."
English language
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Countries of the world where English is a majority native language
English language
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Title page of Geoffrey Chaucer's
Canterbury Tales c.1400
4.
Mikasuki language
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The Mikasuki language is a Muskogean language spoken by around 500 people in southern Florida. It is part of the Eastern branch of Muskogean languages, along with Creek-Seminole and it is spoken by the Miccosukee tribe and many Florida Seminole. The extinct Hitchiti was a mutually-intelligible dialect, the Seminole and Miccosukee were made up of mostly Creek members of the Creek Confederacy, who had migrated to Florida under pressure from European-American encroachment. The Seminole formed by a process of ethnogenesis in the 18th century, american settlers began to enter Florida and came into conflict with the Seminole. The Seminole Wars of the 19th century greatly depleted the numbers of these tribes, the United States forcibly removed many Seminole to Indian Territory. The Seminole and Miccosukee had gradually moved into the center of Florida, the US gave up efforts against them. In the 20th century, the Seminole and Miccosukee split apart, the Miccosukee lived in communities that were affected by the early 20th-century construction of the Tamiami Trail, which brought tourists into the Everglades. The Miccosukee achieved federal recognition as a tribe in 1962, both tribes have speakers of Mikasuki today. As of 2002, the language was taught in the local school, presentations in the language have been featured at the Florida Folk Festival. There are three tones, high, low and falling, vowel length is distinctive, eche vs eeche, ete vs eete. These phonemes are based on Sylvia Boyntons Outline of Mikasuki Grammar, nouns are marked with suffixes for various functions, some examples, Free pronouns exist but are rarely used. Verb suffixes are the way of marking person. Mikasuki is written using the Latin alphabet, the vowels are pronounced as follows, The consonants are, High tone is indicated with an acute accent, low tone with a grave accent, and falling tone with an acute accent followed by a grave accent. A long vowel with falling tone is represented by two accented vowel letters, when the vowel is short, the grave accent is placed over the next consonant, An epenthetic vowel appears in kl, kw and kn clusters in careful speech. A phonology and morphology of Mikasuki, a Guide to the Miccosukee Language, Miami, Miccosukee Corporation 1978. The Phonology of Mikasuki in Studies in Linguistics 1962,16, a Global Linguistic Database, Mikasuki Miccosukee place names Mikasuki, Omniglot Miccosukee Indian Language OLAC resources in and about the Mikasuki language
Mikasuki language
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Federally recognized tribes
Mikasuki language
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Hitchiti-Mikasuki
5.
Cherokee language
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Cherokee is an Iroquoian language spoken by the Cherokee people. It is the only Southern Iroquoian language and differs significantly from the other Iroquoian languages, Cherokee is a polysynthetic language and uses a unique syllabary writing system. Increasing numbers of Cherokee youth are renewing interest in the traditions, history, Cherokee is reportedly among the most difficult languages for native English speakers to acquire. This is in due to the polysynthetic nature of the language. Words are constructed to convey an assertion, its context, and a host of connotations about the speaker, the action, and the object of the action. The complexity of the Cherokee language is best exhibited in verbs, verbs must contain at minimum a pronominal prefix, a verb root, an aspect suffix, and a modal suffix. Cherokee is an Iroquoian language, and the only Southern Iroquoian language spoken today, linguists believe that the Cherokee people migrated to the southeast from the Great Lakes region about three thousand years ago, bringing with them their language. Some researchers have suggested the homeland of the proto-Iroquoian language resides in Appalachia, whyte contends, based on linguistic and molecular studies, that proto-Iroquoian speakers participated in cultural and economic exchanges along the north-south axis of the Appalachian Mountains. Before the development of the Cherokee syllabary in the 1820s, Cherokee was a language only. The Cherokee syllabary is a syllabary invented by Sequoyah to write the Cherokee language in the late 1810s and his creation of the syllabary is particularly noteworthy in that he could not previously read any script. Sequoyah had some contact with English literacy and the Roman alphabet through his proximity to Fort Loundon and he was exposed to English literacy through his white father. His limited understanding of the Roman alphabet, including the ability to recognize the letters of his name, when developing the written language, Sequoyah first experimented with logograms, but his system later developed into a syllabary. In his system, each represents a syllable rather than a single phoneme. Some symbols do resemble the Latin, Greek and even the Cyrillic scripts letters, around 1809, Sequoyah began work to create a system of writing for the Cherokee language. At first he sought to create a character for word in the language. He spent a year on this effort, leaving his fields unplanted, so that his friends and his wife is said to have burned his initial work, believing it to be witchcraft. He finally realized that this approach was impractical because it would require too many pictures to be remembered and he then tried making a symbol for every idea, but this also caused too many problems to be practical. Sequoyah did not succeed until he gave up trying to represent entire words, after approximately a month, he had a system of 86 characters, some of which were Latin letters he obtained from a spelling book
Cherokee language
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Cherokee Heritage Center - New Hope Church - Bible cover in Cherokee script (2015-05-27 14.09.44 by Wesley Fryer)
Cherokee language
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Pre-contact Distribution of the Cherokee Language
Cherokee language
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Translation of
Genesis into the Cherokee language, 1856
Cherokee language
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Tahlequah is a city in
Oklahoma where Cherokee is still predominantly spoken.
6.
Muscogee language
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The Muscogee language, also known as Creek, Seminole, Maskókî or Muskogee, is a Muskogean language spoken by Muscogee and Seminole people, primarily in the U. S. states of Oklahoma and Florida. Historically the language was spoken by various constituent groups of the Muscogee or Maskoki in what are now Alabama, the Muscogee first brought the Muscogee and Miccosukee languages to Florida in the early 18th century and would eventually become known as the Seminoles. In the 19th century, however, the US government forced most Muscogees and Seminoles to relocate west of the Mississippi River, with many forced into Indian Territory. Today, the language is spoken by around 5000 people, most of live in Oklahoma and are members of the Muscogee Nation. Around 200 speakers are Florida Seminoles, Seminole use of the language constitutes distinct dialects. Creek is widely spoken amongst the Creeks, and the Muscogee Nation offers free language classes, the College of the Muscogee Nation offers a language certificate program. In 2013, the Sapulpa Creek Community Center graduated a class of 14 from its Muscogee language class, the phoneme inventory of Muscogee consists of thirteen consonants and three vowel qualities, which distinguish length and nasalization. In addition, it makes use of the gemination of plosives, fricatives. These are the consonant phonemes of Muscogee, There are four voiceless plosives in Creek, /t͡ʃ/ is a voiceless palatal affricate and patterns as a single consonant and so with the other voiceless stops. /t͡ʃ/ has an allophone before /k/. The obstruent consonants /p t t͡ʃ k/ are voiced to between sonorants and vowels but remain voiceless at the end of a syllable, between instances of, or after at the end of a syllable, the velar /k/ is realized as the uvular or. For example, There are four voiceless fricatives in Muscogee Creek, /f/ can be realized as either labiodental or bilabial ( in place of articulation. Predominantly among speakers in Florida, the articulation of /s/ is more laminal, resulting in /s/ being realized as, nasal assimilation occurs in Creek, /n/ becomes before /k/. Sonorants are devoiced when followed by /h/ in the syllable and results in a single voiceless consonant. Some sonorants may also be geminated, but and are less common than other sonorant geminates, for the majority of speakers, except for those influenced by the Alabama or Koasati languages, the geminate does not occur. The vowel phonemes of Muscogee are as follows, There are three short vowels /i ɑ o/ and three long vowels /iː ɑː oː/, There are also the nasal vowels /ĩ ɑ̃ õ ĩː ɑ̃ː õː/. However, /ɑ/ will generally not centralize when it is followed by /h/ or /k/ in the same syllable, initial vowels can be deleted in Creek, mostly applying to the vowel /i/. The deletion will affect the pitch of the following syllable by creating a pitch on the new initial syllable
Muscogee language
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Muscogee
Muscogee language
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Map showing the distribution of
Oklahoma Indian Languages
7.
Shawnee language
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The Shawnee language is a Central Algonquian language spoken in parts of central and northeastern Oklahoma by the Shawnee people. It was originally spoken in Ohio, West Virginia, Kentucky and it is closely related to other Algonquian languages, such as Mesquakie-Sauk and Kickapoo. Shawnee is severely threatened, with speakers shifting to English, the approximately 200 remaining speakers are older adults. All of these low figures, in addition to the fact that most speakers are older adults, absentee-Shawnee Elder George Blanchards Shawnee language classes were profiled on the PBS show The American Experience in 2009. The Eastern Shawnee have also taught language classes, conversational Shawnee booklets and CDs, and a Learn Shawnee Language website are available. Stress in Shawnee falls on the syllable of a word. Shawnee has six vowels, three of which are high, and three are low, high- i i, o Low- e a a, Shawnee consonants are shown in the chart below. The Shawnee /θ/ is most often derived from Proto-Algonquian *s, some speakers of Shawnee pronounce /ʃ/ more like an alveolar. This pronunciation is common among Loyal Band Shawnee speakers near Vinita. /#____V A word may not begin with a vowel, for example, There are two variants of the article -oci, meaning from. It can attach to nouns to form prepositional phrases, or it can also be a preverb, as we know from the phonological rule stated above, a word may not begin with a vowel in Shawnee. The of ho-- fills the slot that would otherwise have to be filled with. There are two persons, proximate and obviative, and two noun classes, animate and inanimate. It is primarily agglutinating typologically, and is polysynthetic, resulting in a deal of information being encoded on the verb. The most common order is Verb-Subject. Instrumental affixes are as follows -tɵani - bed The independent and imperative orders are used in independent clauses, the imperative order involves an understood second person affecting first or third persons. Teke ki-e -memekw-i NEG 2-FUT-run -IMPER you mustnt run teki-koos-i-ma NEG run, yaama meaning this in examples 1 and 2 refers to someone in front of the speaker. The repetition of yaama in example 1 emphasizes the location of the referent in the presence of the speaker
Shawnee language
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Distribution of the Shawnee language around 1650
8.
Yuchi language
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Yuchi is the language of the Yuchi people living in Oklahoma. Historically, they lived in the southeastern United States, including eastern Tennessee, western Carolinas, northern Georgia, speakers of the Yuchi language were forcibly relocated to Indian Territory in the early 19th century. Yuchi is classified as an isolate, because it is not known to be related to any other language. In 1997, the Euchees United Cultural Historical Educational Efforts claimed that there were two spoken dialects, the Duck Creek/Polecat and the Bigpond variations. Yuchi is primarily spoken in the northeastern Oklahoma region, in 1997,12 to 19 elders spoke the language out of an estimated Yuchi population of 1,500 speakers. In 2009, only five fluent speakers whose first language was not English remained, Yuchi people were originally native to Tennessee and later Georgia in the southeastern United States. However, speakers of the Yuchi language were forcibly relocated with the Muscogee people to Indian Territory prior to the Trail of Tears, because of the languages past of removal and state of being forbidden, there have been several changes which have changed the way the language is spoken. In 1885, Swiss linguist Albert S. Gatschet wrote an article in the publication Science and he claimed that adjectives are not expressed with number, but nouns are with the addition of the particle ha which made the word essentially plural. He also claimed that the language was no longer in a state due to the lack of a dual. Gatschet also did lots of field study and documentation regarding the language, later on, Frank G. Speck published Ethnology of Yuchi Indians in 1907. This publication provided slightly different information and it claimed that there was only one dialect, that inflection was not a characteristic, and that there was no true plural. This information contradicts the study made by Albert S. Gatschet in the century beforehand, Speck also claimed that there was only one dialect of the language. There was, however, one linguistic idiosyncrasy upon which they agreed, in 1997, the Euchees United Cultural Historical Educational Efforts published a work entitled Euchees, Past and Present, which provided more modern information regarding the language. The organization claims that there are two dialects, differentiating between the Duckcreek/Polecat and Bigpond areas. This contradicts the study done by Speck, in which he claimed there was only one dialect, due to assimilation into Muscogee and English-speaking culture, only a few elderly speakers of the Yuchi language remain. In 2000 the estimated number of fluent Yuchi speakers was 15, but this dwindled to 7 by 20065 by 2010. In 2016, first-language speaker and Yuchi elder Josephine Wildcat Bigler died and she had been active in recording and preserving the Yuchi language for future generations. The Euchee Language Project teaches Yuchi classes in Sapulpa, Oklahoma, the Yuchi people and language are the subject of a chapter in Spoken Here, Travels Among Threatened Languages, a book on endangered languages by Mark Abley
Yuchi language
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Sisters Maxine Wildcat Barnett (left) and Josephine Wildcat Bigler; two of the final surviving elderly speakers of Yuchi, visiting their grandmother’s grave in a cemetery behind Pickett Chapel in Sapulpa, Oklahoma. According to the sisters, their grandmother had insisted that Yuchi be their native language.
Yuchi language
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Yuchi
9.
Constitutional monarchy
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A constitutional monarchy is a form of monarchy in which the sovereign exercises their authorities in accordance with a written or unwritten constitution. A constitutional monarchy may refer to a system in which the acts as a non-party political head of state under the constitution. Political scientist Vernon Bogdanor, paraphrasing Thomas Macaulay, has defined a constitutional monarch as a sovereign who reigns, in addition to acting as a visible symbol of national unity, a constitutional monarch may hold formal powers such as dissolving parliament or giving royal assent to legislation. Many constitutional monarchies still retain significant authorities or political influence however, such as through certain reserve powers, the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms are all constitutional monarchies in the Westminster tradition of constitutional governance. Three states – Malaysia, Cambodia and the Holy See – are elective monarchies, the oldest constitutional monarchy dating back to ancient times was that of the Hittites. These were scattered noble families that worked as representatives of their subjects in an adjutant or subaltern federal-type landscape, the most recent country to move from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy was Bhutan, between 2007 and 2008. At the same time, in Scotland the Convention of Estates enacted the Claim of Right Act 1689, although Queen Anne was the last monarch to veto an Act of Parliament when in 1707 she blocked the Scottish Militia Bill, Hanoverian monarchs continued to selectively dictate government policies. For instance George III constantly blocked Catholic Emancipation, eventually precipitating the resignation of William Pitt the Younger as Prime Minister in 1801, Queen Victoria was the last monarch to exercise real personal power but this diminished over the course of her reign. In 1839 she became the last sovereign to keep a Prime Minister in power against the will of Parliament when the Bedchamber crisis resulted in the retention of Lord Melbournes administration, today, the role of the British monarch is by convention effectively ceremonial. No person may accept significant public office without swearing an oath of allegiance to the Queen, with few exceptions, the monarch is bound by constitutional convention to act on the advice of the Government. Constitutional monarchy also occurred briefly in the years of the French Revolution. As originally conceived, a monarch was head of the executive branch and quite a powerful figure even though his or her power was limited by the constitution. In many cases the monarchs, while still at the top of the political and social hierarchy, were given the status of servants of the people to reflect the new. In the course of Frances July Monarchy, Louis-Philippe I was styled King of the French rather than King of France, following the Unification of Germany, Otto von Bismarck rejected the British model. However this model of constitutional monarchy was discredited and abolished following Germanys defeat in the First World War. Later, Fascist Italy could also be considered as a constitutional monarchy and this eventually discredited the Italian monarchy and led to its abolition in 1946. After the Second World War, surviving European monarchies almost invariably adopted some variant of the constitutional monarchy model originally developed in Britain, nowadays a parliamentary democracy that is a constitutional monarchy is considered to differ from one that is a republic only in detail rather than in substance. However, three important factors distinguish monarchies such as the United Kingdom from systems where greater power might otherwise rest with Parliament, other privileges may be nominal or ceremonial
Constitutional monarchy
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Constitutional monarchies with representative
parliamentary systems are shown in green. Other constitutional monarchies are shown in light green.
10.
List of English monarchs
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This list of kings and queens of the Kingdom of England begins with Alfred the Great, King of Wessex, one of the petty kingdoms to rule a portion of modern England. While Alfred was not the first king to lay claim to all of the English, his rule represents the first unbroken line of Kings to rule the whole of England. The last monarch of a kingdom of England was Queen Anne. For monarchs after Queen Anne, see List of British monarchs, arguments are made for a few different kings deemed to control enough of the ancient kingdoms of the Anglo-Saxons to be deemed the first King of England. For example, Offa, king of Mercia, and Egbert, king of Wessex, are described as kings of England by popular writers. In the late eighth century Offa achieved a dominance over southern England that did not survive his death in 796, in 829 Egbert conquered Mercia, but he soon lost control of it. By the late ninth century Wessex was the dominant Anglo-Saxon kingdom and its king, Alfred the Great, was overlord of western Mercia and used the title King of the Angles and Saxons, but he never ruled eastern and northern England, which was then the Danelaw. Since that time, except for King Edward III, the eldest sons of all English monarchs have borne this title. After the death of Queen Elizabeth I without issue, in 1603, the crowns of England and Scotland were joined in personal union under King James VI of Scotland, however, this is not accepted by all historians. Also, it is unclear whether Ælfweard was declared king of the kingdom or of Wessex only, there is evidence that when Edward died, Ælfweard was declared king in Wessex. England came under the control of Sweyn Forkbeard, a Danish king, after an invasion in 1013, during which Æthelred abandoned the throne, following the death of Sweyn Forkbeard, Æthelred the Unready returned from exile and was again proclaimed king on 3 February 1014. His son succeeded him after being chosen king by the citizens of London, following the decisive Battle of Assandun on 18 October 1016, King Edmund signed a treaty with Cnut in which all of England except for Wessex would be controlled by Cnut. Upon Edmunds death on 30 November, Cnut ruled the kingdom as its sole king. After Harthacnut, there was a brief Saxon Restoration between 1042 and 1066, in 1066, several rival claimants to the English throne emerged. Harald and William both invaded separately in 1066, godwinson successfully repelled the invasion by Hardrada, but ultimately lost the throne of England in the Norman conquest of England. After the Battle of Hastings, William the Conqueror made permanent the recent removal of the capital from Winchester to London. William was crowned King William I of England on Christmas Day 1066, in Westminster Abbey, Henry I left no legitimate male heirs, his son William Adelin having died in the White Ship disaster. This ended the direct Norman line of kings in England, Henry named his eldest daughter, the dowager Empress Matilda as his heir
List of English monarchs
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Alfred the Great (Ælfrēd; Ælfrǣd) 871 –899
List of English monarchs
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Coat of arms of the Kings of England, 1558–1603
List of English monarchs
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Edward the Elder Eadweard cyning 26 October 899–924
List of English monarchs
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Æthelstan (Æþelstan) 924–939 King of the Anglo-Saxons 924–927 King of the English 927–939
11.
George II of Great Britain
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George II was King of Great Britain and Ireland, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg and Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire from 11 June 1727 until his death. George was the last British monarch born outside Great Britain, he was born, after the deaths of Sophia and Anne, Queen of Great Britain, in 1714, his father George I, Elector of Hanover, inherited the British throne. In the first years of his fathers reign as king, George was associated with opposition politicians, as king from 1727, George exercised little control over British domestic policy, which was largely controlled by the Parliament of Great Britain. As elector, he spent twelve summers in Hanover, where he had direct control over government policy. He had a relationship with his eldest son, Frederick. During the War of the Austrian Succession, George participated at the Battle of Dettingen in 1743, Frederick died unexpectedly in 1751, nine years before his father, and so George II was ultimately succeeded by his grandson, George III. For two centuries after George IIs death, history tended to him with disdain, concentrating on his mistresses, short temper. Since then, most scholars have reassessed his legacy and conclude that he held and exercised influence in foreign policy and military appointments. George was born in the city of Hanover in Germany, and was the son of George Louis, Hereditary Prince of Brunswick-Lüneburg, both of Georges parents committed adultery, and in 1694 their marriage was dissolved on the pretext that Sophia had abandoned her husband. She was confined to Ahlden House and denied access to her two children, George and his sister Sophia Dorothea of Hanover, who never saw their mother again. George spoke only French, the language of diplomacy and the court, until the age of four, after which he was taught German by one of his tutors, Johann Hilmar Holstein. In addition to French and German, he was schooled in English and Italian. Georges second cousin once removed, Queen Anne, ascended the thrones of England, Scotland and Ireland in 1702, consequently, after his grandmother and father, George was third in line to succeed Anne in two of her three realms. England and Scotland united in 1707 to form the Kingdom of Great Britain, Georges father did not want his son to enter into a loveless arranged marriage as he had, and wanted him to have the opportunity of meeting his bride before any formal arrangements were made. Negotiations from 1702 for the hand of Princess Hedvig Sophia of Sweden, Dowager Duchess and regent of Holstein-Gottorp, the English envoy to Hanover, Edmund Poley, reported that George was so taken by the good character he had of her that he would not think of anybody else. A marriage contract was concluded by the end of July, on 22 August /2 September 1705O. S. /N. S. Caroline arrived in Hanover for her wedding, which was held the evening in the chapel at Herrenhausen. George was keen to participate in the war against France in Flanders, in early 1707, Georges hopes were fulfilled when Caroline gave birth to a son, Frederick
George II of Great Britain
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Portrait by
Thomas Hudson, 1744
George II of Great Britain
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George as a young boy with his mother,
Sophia Dorothea of Celle, and his sister,
Sophia Dorothea of Hanover
George II of Great Britain
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Caroline of Ansbach by
Godfrey Kneller, 1716
George II of Great Britain
–
London, c. 1710
12.
George III of the United Kingdom
–
He was concurrently Duke and prince-elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg in the Holy Roman Empire until his promotion to King of Hanover on 12 October 1814. He was the third British monarch of the House of Hanover, early in his reign, Great Britain defeated France in the Seven Years War, becoming the dominant European power in North America and India. However, many of Britains American colonies were soon lost in the American War of Independence, further wars against revolutionary and Napoleonic France from 1793 concluded in the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. In the later part of his life, George III had recurrent, although it has since been suggested that he had the blood disease porphyria, the cause of his illness remains unknown. After a final relapse in 1810, a regency was established, on George IIIs death, the Prince Regent succeeded his father as George IV. Historical analysis of George IIIs life has gone through a kaleidoscope of changing views that have depended heavily on the prejudices of his biographers and the sources available to them. Until it was reassessed in the half of the 20th century, his reputation in the United States was one of a tyrant. George was born in London at Norfolk House and he was the grandson of King George II, and the eldest son of Frederick, Prince of Wales, and Augusta of Saxe-Gotha. As Prince George was born two months prematurely and he was unlikely to survive, he was baptised the same day by Thomas Secker. One month later, he was baptised at Norfolk House. His godparents were the King of Sweden, his uncle the Duke of Saxe-Gotha, George grew into a healthy but reserved and shy child. The family moved to Leicester Square, where George and his younger brother Prince Edward, Duke of York, Family letters show that he could read and write in both English and German, as well as comment on political events of the time, by the age of eight. He was the first British monarch to study science systematically and his religious education was wholly Anglican. At age 10 George took part in a production of Joseph Addisons play Cato and said in the new prologue, What. It may with truth be said, A boy in England born, historian Romney Sedgwick argued that these lines appear to be the source of the only historical phrase with which he is associated. Georges grandfather, King George II, disliked the Prince of Wales, however, in 1751 the Prince of Wales died unexpectedly from a lung injury, and George became heir apparent to the throne. He inherited one of his fathers titles and became the Duke of Edinburgh, now more interested in his grandson, three weeks later the King created George Prince of Wales. Georges mother, now the Dowager Princess of Wales, preferred to keep George at home where she could imbue him with her moral values
George III of the United Kingdom
–
Coronation portrait by
Allan Ramsay, 1762
George III of the United Kingdom
–
George (right) with his brother
Prince Edward, Duke of York and Albany, and their tutor,
Francis Ayscough, later
Dean of
Bristol, c. 1749
George III of the United Kingdom
–
Pastel portrait of George as
Prince of Wales by
Jean-Étienne Liotard, 1754
George III of the United Kingdom
–
George III by
Allan Ramsay, 1762
13.
James Oglethorpe
–
James Edward Oglethorpe was a British soldier, Member of Parliament, and philanthropist, as well as the founder of the colony of Georgia. As a social reformer, he hoped to resettle Britains worthy poor in the New World, James Oglethorpe was born in Surrey, the son of Sir Theophilus Oglethorpe of Westbrook Place, Godalming, and his wife Eleanor Lady Oglethorpe. He entered Corpus Christi College, Oxford in 1714, but in the year left to join the army of Prince Eugene of Savoy. After his return to England, he was elected Member of Parliament for Haslemere in 1722, in 1728 in Parliament, he advocated reform of the terrible conditions experienced by sailors in the British Royal Navy by publishing an anonymous pamphlet, The Sailors Advocate. In 1728, three years before conceiving the Georgia colony, Oglethorpe chaired a Parliamentary committee on prison reform, the committee documented horrendous abuses in three debtors prisons. As a result of the actions, many debtors were released from prison with no means of support. The petition was approved in 1732, and the first ship, led by Oglethorpe. Oglethorpe and the Trustees formulated a contractual, multi-tiered plan for the settlement of Georgia, the plan envisioned a system of agrarian equality, designed to support and perpetuate an economy based on family farming, and prevent social disintegration associated with unregulated urbanisation. Land ownership was limited to fifty acres, a grant that included a lot, a garden plot near town. Self-supporting colonists were able to obtain larger grants, but such grants were structured in fifty-acre increments tied to the number of indentured servants supported by the grantee, servants would receive a land grant of their own upon completing their term of service. No one was permitted to acquire land through purchase or inheritance. With Oglethorpe on that ship were cotton seeds provided by the Chelsea Medicinal Garden in London, the cotton seeds given to Oglethorpe were instrumental in establishing the cotton industry in the U. S. South. As discussed below, the plan for the colony was originally anti-slavery, but economic pressures eventually led to the lifting of the ban on slavery, as described below—and slavery was indispensable to the rise of large cotton-growing plantations throughout the Deep South. Oglethorpe and the first colonists arrived at South Carolina on the ship Anne in late 1732 and he negotiated with the Yamacraw tribe for land, and built a series of defensive forts, most notably Fort Frederica, of which substantial remains can still be visited. He then returned to England and arranged to have banned in Georgia after being emotionally moved by an intercepted letter from Ayuba Suleiman Diallo. Oglethorpe and his trustees were granted a royal charter for the Province of Georgia between the Savannah and Altamaha rivers on 9 June 1732. Georgia was a key contested area, lying in between the English Carolinas and Spanish Florida and it was Oglethorpes idea that British debtors should be released from prison and sent to Georgia. Although it is repeated that this would theoretically rid Britain of its so-called undesirable elements
James Oglethorpe
–
James Edward Oglethorpe
James Oglethorpe
–
Statue of James Oglethorpe at the
Augusta Common, an open space he personally designed when co-founding the city in 1735.
James Oglethorpe
–
Postage stamp, USA, 1933.
James Oglethorpe
–
Oglethorpe Avenue sign in
Savannah
14.
James Wright (governor)
–
James Wright was an American colonial lawyer and jurist who was the last British Royal Governor of the Province of Georgia. He was the only Royal Governor of the Thirteen Colonies to regain control of his colony during the American Revolutionary War, James Wright was born in London to Robert Wright. In 1730 his father accompanied Robert Johnson to the Province of South Carolina, James followed soon after and began the practice of law in Charleston. In 1747 James was named colonial attorney-general and he also began amassing plantation lands. Wright returned to London as an agent for the South Carolina colony in 1757, then, in May 1760, he was named as Lieutenant Governor to Henry Ellis in Georgia. He returned to America and took up residence in Savannah, Georgia, when Ellis resigned he was appointed Governor in November 1760. He was the third, and arguably most popular, Royal Governor of the colony and he sold many of his holdings in South Carolina, acquired land in Georgia, and moved his financial operations as well. With peace temporarily established with the French and Spanish, he negotiated with the Indians. In his early administration, the new lands and economic improvement fostered the development of the Georgia colony and his first troubles came with the Stamp Act of 1765. But, in spite of efforts by the Sons of Liberty to block its implementation, Georgia was the colony to import. In 1768, Wright established the 12,000 acre settlement known as Wrightsboro, Georgia did not send delegates to the First Continental Congress in 1774. By 1775, the spirit had reached Georgia through the Committees of Correspondence. But a revolutionary congress met that summer in Savannah and elected delegates to the Second Continental Congress, then, in early 1776, following the arrival of a small British fleet, rebel forces entered his home and briefly took him prisoner. Wright escaped on February 11,1776 to the safety of the HMS Scarborough, the congress and the Council adjourned without answering him. For a time, Wright continued negotiations and he was even able to trade with the rebels to keep his offshore troops and ships supplied. But the differences continued to escalate, when his attempt to retake Savannah with naval forces failed, he returned to England. By 1778, Governor Wright convinced the government to lend him enough troops to once again attempt to take Savannah, after some short but sharp fights, he regained control of Savannah on December 29,1778. While never fully in control of the state, he did restore large areas within Georgia to colonial rule and he led a successful defense against several American and French attempts to capture the city
James Wright (governor)
–
Portrait by
Andrea Soldi
15.
Colonial history of the United States
–
The colonial history of the United States covers the history of European settlements from the start of colonization until their incorporation into the United States. In the late 16th century, England, France, Spain, small early attempts often disappeared, such as the English Lost Colony of Roanoke. Everywhere, the rate was very high among the first arrivals. Nevertheless, successful colonies were established several decades. European settlers came from a variety of social and religious groups, few aristocrats settled permanently, but a number of adventurers, soldiers, farmers, and tradesmen arrived. They built colonies with distinctive social, religious, political, non-British colonies were taken over and most of the inhabitants were assimilated, unlike in Nova Scotia, where the British expelled the French Acadian inhabitants. There were no civil wars among the 13 colonies. The colonies developed legalized systems of slavery, based largely in the Atlantic slave trade from Africa or by way of the Caribbean, Wars were recurrent between the French and the British—the French and Indian Wars especially—and involved French support for Native American attacks on the British frontiers. By 1760, France was defeated and the British seized its colonies, on the eastern seaboard of what became the United States, the four distinct British regions were, New England, the Middle Colonies, the Chesapeake Bay Colonies, and the Lower South. Some historians add a fifth region of the Frontier which was never separately organized, see timeline of Colonial America for list of historical events. Colonizers came from European kingdoms that had highly developed military, naval, governmental and these efforts were managed respectively by the Casa de Contratación and the Casa da Índia. England, France, and the Netherlands had also started colonies in both the West Indies and North America and they had the ability to build ocean-worthy ships but did not have as strong a history of colonization in foreign lands as did Portugal and Spain. However, English entrepreneurs gave their colonies a foundation of merchant-based investment that seemed to need much less government support, initially, matters concerning the colonies were dealt with primarily by the Privy Council and its committees. The Commission of Trade was set up in 1625 as the first special body convened to advise on colonial questions, mercantilism was the basic policy imposed by Britain on its colonies from the 1660s. The goal of mercantilism was to run trade surpluses, so that gold, the government took its share through duties and taxes, with the remainder going to merchants in Britain. The government spent much of its revenue on a superb Royal Navy which protected the British colonies, thus, the British Navy captured New Amsterdam in 1664. The colonies were captive markets for British industry, and the goal was to enrich the mother country, the prospect of religious persecution by authorities of the crown and the Church of England prompted a significant number of colonization efforts. People fleeing persecution by King Charles I were responsible for settling most of New England, anonymous Portuguese explorers were the first Europeans to map the future eastern seaboard of the U. S. from New York to Florida, as documented in the Cantino planisphere of 1502
Colonial history of the United States
–
Juan Ponce de León (
Santervás de Campos,
Valladolid,
Spain). He explored in Florida, which he named.
Colonial history of the United States
–
Castillo de San Marcos, built beginning in 1672 to defend Spanish
St. Augustine, Florida
Colonial history of the United States
–
The ruins of the Spanish
Mission San Juan Capistrano in California.
Colonial history of the United States
–
A map of
New Amsterdam in 1660
16.
Pound sterling
–
It is subdivided into 100 pence. A number of nations that do not use sterling also have called the pound. At various times, the sterling was commodity money or bank notes backed by silver or gold. The pound sterling is the worlds oldest currency still in use, the British Crown dependencies of Guernsey and Jersey produce their own local issues of sterling, the Guernsey pound and the Jersey pound. The pound sterling is also used in the Isle of Man, Gibraltar, the Bank of England is the central bank for the pound sterling, issuing its own coins and banknotes, and regulating issuance of banknotes by private banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Sterling is the fourth most-traded currency in the exchange market, after the United States dollar, the euro. Together with those three currencies it forms the basket of currencies which calculate the value of IMF special drawing rights, Sterling is also the third most-held reserve currency in global reserves. The full, official name, pound sterling, is used mainly in formal contexts, otherwise the term pound is normally used. The abbreviations ster. or stg. are sometimes used, the term British pound is commonly used in less formal contexts, although it is not an official name of the currency. The pound sterling is also referred to as cable amongst forex traders, the origins of this term are attributed to the fact that in the 1800s, the dollar/pound sterling exchange rate was transmitted via transatlantic cable. Forex brokers are sometimes referred to as cable dealers, as another established source notes, the compound expression was then derived, silver coins known as sterlings were issued in the Saxon kingdoms,240 of them being minted from a pound of silver. Hence, large payments came to be reckoned in pounds of sterlings, in 1260, Henry III granted them a charter of protection. And because the Leagues money was not frequently debased like that of England, English traders stipulated to be paid in pounds of the Easterlings, and land for their Kontor, the Steelyard of London, which by the 1340s was also called Easterlings Hall, or Esterlingeshalle. For further discussion of the etymology of sterling, see sterling silver, the currency sign for the pound sign is £, which is usually written with a single cross-bar, though a version with a double cross-bar is also sometimes seen. The ISO4217 currency code is GBP, occasionally, the abbreviation UKP is used but this is non-standard because the ISO3166 country code for the United Kingdom is GB. The Crown dependencies use their own codes, GGP, JEP, stocks are often traded in pence, so traders may refer to pence sterling, GBX, when listing stock prices. A common slang term for the pound sterling or pound is quid, since decimalisation in 1971, the pound has been divided into 100 pence. The symbol for the penny is p, hence an amount such as 50p properly pronounced fifty pence is more colloquially, quite often, pronounced fifty pee /fɪfti, pi and this also helped to distinguish between new and old pence amounts during the changeover to the decimal system
Pound sterling
–
The Hatter 's hat shows an example of the old pre-decimal system: the hat costs half a guinea (10 shillings and 6 pence)
Pound sterling
–
All frequently used coins. The coins shown are those after the extensive
2008 redesign.
Pound sterling
–
A pound = 20
shillings = 240
silver pennies (formerly)
Pound sterling
–
£1 coin (Welsh design, 2000)
17.
Georgia (U.S. state)
–
Georgia is a state in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1733, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies, named after King George II of Great Britain, Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2,1788. It declared its secession from the Union on January 19,1861 and it was the last state to be restored to the Union, on July 15,1870. Georgia is the 24th largest and the 8th most populous of the 50 United States, from 2007 to 2008,14 of Georgias counties ranked among the nations 100 fastest-growing, second only to Texas. Georgia is known as the Peach State and the Empire State of the South, Atlanta is the states capital, its most populous city and has been named a global city. Georgia is bordered to the south by Florida, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean and South Carolina, to the west by Alabama, the states northern part is in the Blue Ridge Mountains, part of the Appalachian Mountains system. Georgias highest point is Brasstown Bald at 4,784 feet above sea level, Georgia is the largest state entirely east of the Mississippi River in land area. Before settlement by Europeans, Georgia was inhabited by the mound building cultures, the British colony of Georgia was founded by James Oglethorpe on February 12,1733. The colony was administered by the Trustees for the Establishment of the Colony of Georgia in America under a charter issued by King George II. The Trustees implemented a plan for the colonys settlement, known as the Oglethorpe Plan. In 1742 the colony was invaded by the Spanish during the War of Jenkins Ear, in 1752, after the government failed to renew subsidies that had helped support the colony, the Trustees turned over control to the crown. Georgia became a colony, with a governor appointed by the king. The Province of Georgia was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution by signing the 1776 Declaration of Independence, the State of Georgias first constitution was ratified in February 1777. Georgia was the 10th state to ratify the Articles of Confederation on July 24,1778, in 1829, gold was discovered in the North Georgia mountains, which led to the Georgia Gold Rush and an established federal mint in Dahlonega, which continued its operation until 1861. The subsequent influx of white settlers put pressure on the government to land from the Cherokee Nation. In 1830, President Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act into law, sending many eastern Native American nations to reservations in present-day Oklahoma, including all of Georgias tribes. Despite the Supreme Courts ruling in Worcester v. Georgia that ruled U. S. states were not permitted to redraw the Indian boundaries, President Jackson and the state of Georgia ignored the ruling. In 1838, his successor, Martin Van Buren, dispatched troops to gather the Cherokee
Georgia (U.S. state)
–
A girl spinner in a Georgia cotton mill, 1909.
Georgia (U.S. state)
–
Flag
Georgia (U.S. state)
–
Road to
Brasstown Bald
Georgia (U.S. state)
–
Jekyll Island
18.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
–
Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
–
Flag
United States
–
The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
–
The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
19.
British America
–
English America, and later British America, were the English, and later British, territories in North America, Central America, the Caribbean, and Guyana from 1607 to 1783. After that, British North America was used to describe the remainder of Britains continental North American possessions, the term British North America was first used informally in 1783, but it was uncommon before the Report on the Affairs of British North America, called the Durham Report. British America gained large amounts of new territory following the Treaty of Paris which ended Britains involvement in the Seven Years War, at the start of the American War of Independence in 1775, the British Empire included 20 colonies north and east of New Spain. East and West Florida were ceded to Spain in the Treaty of Paris which ended the American Revolution, all but one of the remaining colonies of British North America apart from the British West Indies united together from 1867 to 1873 forming the Dominion of Canada. The first such permanent settlement was founded at Jamestown by the Virginia Company whose investors expected to reap rewards from their speculative investments, Virginia Native Americans had established settlements long before the English settlers arrived, and there were an estimated 14,000 natives in the region. Native American political leadership sought to resettle the English colonizers from Jamestown to another location, other colonizers, both English and German, did join the Powhatans. The first colonizers were welcomed by the Indians with dancing, feasting, there were twenty British colonies in North America in 1775
British America
–
Flag
20.
Thirteen Colonies
–
The Thirteen Colonies were a group of British colonies on the east coast of North America founded in the 17th and 18th centuries that declared independence in 1776 and formed the United States. The Thirteen Colonies had very similar political, constitutional, and legal systems and they were part of Britains possessions in the New World, which also included colonies in present-day Canada and the Caribbean, as well as East and West Florida. However, the Thirteen Colonies had a degree of self-government and active local elections. In the 1750s, the colonies began collaborating with each other instead of dealing directly with Britain, Colonial decisions were subject to approval by the governor and the home government. There were also substantial populations of African slaves in some of the colonies, especially Virginia, the Carolinas, the names of the colonies were chosen by the founders and proprietors, subject to royal approval, and given in the founding charters. Nine of the thirteen chose to include in their names the term Province of, later residents tended to drop the ambiguous terminology, as in the map shown in the article Province of New Jersey, which is labeled simply East Jersey and West Jersey. In July 1776, they formed a new nation called the United States of America, the new nation achieved that goal by winning the American Revolutionary War with the aid of France, the Netherlands, and Spain. The American flag features thirteen horizontal stripes which represent these original thirteen colonies, besides these thirteen colonies, Britain had another dozen in the New World. Those in the British West Indies, Newfoundland, the Province of Quebec, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Bermuda, and East and West Florida remained loyal to the crown throughout the war. The British crown had recently acquired those lands, and many of the issues facing the Thirteen Colonies did not apply to them, especially in the case of Quebec. Contemporary documents usually list the thirteen colonies of British North America in geographical order, the consolidation collapsed after the Glorious Revolution of 1688–89, and the nine former colonies re-established their separate identities in 1689. Massachusetts Bay Colony Settled in 1630 by Puritans from England, the colonial charter was revoked in 1684, and a new charter was issued in 1691 establishing an enlarged Province of Massachusetts Bay. Province of Maine Settled in 1622, the Massachusetts Bay Colony claimed the Maine territory in the 1650s, then limited to present-day southernmost Maine. Parts of Maine east of the Kennebec River were also part of New York in the half of the 17th century. These areas were made part of the Province of Massachusetts Bay in the charter of 1691. Plymouth Colony Settled in 1620 by the Pilgrims, plymouth was merged into the Province of Massachusetts Bay in the charter of 1691. Saybrook Colony Founded in 1635 and merged with Connecticut Colony in 1644, New Haven Colony Settled in late 1637. New Netherland Extensive region centered about New Amsterdam at the tip of Manhattan Island
Thirteen Colonies
–
Join, or Die by
Benjamin Franklin was recycled to encourage the former colonies to unite against British rule.
Thirteen Colonies
–
Map of the thirteen original colonies as published for the US Centennial in 1876
21.
Pacific Ocean
–
The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of the Earths oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south and is bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, the Mariana Trench in the western North Pacific is the deepest point in the world, reaching a depth of 10,911 metres. Both the center of the Water Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere are in the Pacific Ocean, the oceans current name was coined by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the Spanish circumnavigation of the world in 1521, as he encountered favourable winds on reaching the ocean. He called it Mar Pacífico, which in both Portuguese and Spanish means peaceful sea, important human migrations occurred in the Pacific in prehistoric times. Long-distance trade developed all along the coast from Mozambique to Japan, trade, and therefore knowledge, extended to the Indonesian islands but apparently not Australia. By at least 878 when there was a significant Islamic settlement in Canton much of trade was controlled by Arabs or Muslims. In 219 BC Xu Fu sailed out into the Pacific searching for the elixir of immortality, from 1404 to 1433 Zheng He led expeditions into the Indian Ocean. The east side of the ocean was discovered by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513 after his expedition crossed the Isthmus of Panama and he named it Mar del Sur because the ocean was to the south of the coast of the isthmus where he first observed the Pacific. Later, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailed the Pacific East to West on a Castilian expedition of world circumnavigation starting in 1519, Magellan called the ocean Pacífico because, after sailing through the stormy seas off Cape Horn, the expedition found calm waters. The ocean was often called the Sea of Magellan in his honor until the eighteenth century, sailing around and east of the Moluccas, between 1525 and 1527, Portuguese expeditions discovered the Caroline Islands, the Aru Islands, and Papua New Guinea. In 1542–43 the Portuguese also reached Japan, in 1564, five Spanish ships consisting of 379 explorers crossed the ocean from Mexico led by Miguel López de Legazpi and sailed to the Philippines and Mariana Islands. The Manila galleons operated for two and a half centuries linking Manila and Acapulco, in one of the longest trade routes in history, Spanish expeditions also discovered Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Cook Islands, the Solomon Islands, and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific. In the 16th and 17th century Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a Mare clausum—a sea closed to other naval powers, as the only known entrance from the Atlantic the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships. On the western end of the Pacific Ocean the Dutch threatened the Spanish Philippines, Spain also sent expeditions to the Pacific Northwest reaching Vancouver Island in southern Canada, and Alaska. The French explored and settled Polynesia, and the British made three voyages with James Cook to the South Pacific and Australia, Hawaii, and the North American Pacific Northwest, one of the earliest voyages of scientific exploration was organized by Spain in the Malaspina Expedition of 1789–1794. It sailed vast areas of the Pacific, from Cape Horn to Alaska, Guam and the Philippines, New Zealand, Australia, and the South Pacific. Growing imperialism during the 19th century resulted in the occupation of much of Oceania by other European powers, and later, Japan, in Oceania, France got a leading position as imperial power after making Tahiti and New Caledonia protectorates in 1842 and 1853 respectively. After navy visits to Easter Island in 1875 and 1887, Chilean navy officer Policarpo Toro managed to negotiate an incorporation of the island into Chile with native Rapanui in 1888, by occupying Easter Island, Chile joined the imperial nations
Pacific Ocean
–
Maris Pacifici by
Ortelius (1589). One of the first printed maps to show the Pacific Ocean; see also
Waldseemüller map (1507).
Pacific Ocean
–
The Pacific Ocean
Pacific Ocean
–
USS
Lexington under air attack on 8 May 1942 during the
Battle of the Coral Sea
Pacific Ocean
–
Map of the Pacific Ocean during European Exploration, circa 1702–1707.
22.
King George II of Great Britain
–
George II was King of Great Britain and Ireland, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg and Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire from 11 June 1727 until his death. George was the last British monarch born outside Great Britain, he was born, after the deaths of Sophia and Anne, Queen of Great Britain, in 1714, his father George I, Elector of Hanover, inherited the British throne. In the first years of his fathers reign as king, George was associated with opposition politicians, as king from 1727, George exercised little control over British domestic policy, which was largely controlled by the Parliament of Great Britain. As elector, he spent twelve summers in Hanover, where he had direct control over government policy. He had a relationship with his eldest son, Frederick. During the War of the Austrian Succession, George participated at the Battle of Dettingen in 1743, Frederick died unexpectedly in 1751, nine years before his father, and so George II was ultimately succeeded by his grandson, George III. For two centuries after George IIs death, history tended to him with disdain, concentrating on his mistresses, short temper. Since then, most scholars have reassessed his legacy and conclude that he held and exercised influence in foreign policy and military appointments. George was born in the city of Hanover in Germany, and was the son of George Louis, Hereditary Prince of Brunswick-Lüneburg, both of Georges parents committed adultery, and in 1694 their marriage was dissolved on the pretext that Sophia had abandoned her husband. She was confined to Ahlden House and denied access to her two children, George and his sister Sophia Dorothea of Hanover, who never saw their mother again. George spoke only French, the language of diplomacy and the court, until the age of four, after which he was taught German by one of his tutors, Johann Hilmar Holstein. In addition to French and German, he was schooled in English and Italian. Georges second cousin once removed, Queen Anne, ascended the thrones of England, Scotland and Ireland in 1702, consequently, after his grandmother and father, George was third in line to succeed Anne in two of her three realms. England and Scotland united in 1707 to form the Kingdom of Great Britain, Georges father did not want his son to enter into a loveless arranged marriage as he had, and wanted him to have the opportunity of meeting his bride before any formal arrangements were made. Negotiations from 1702 for the hand of Princess Hedvig Sophia of Sweden, Dowager Duchess and regent of Holstein-Gottorp, the English envoy to Hanover, Edmund Poley, reported that George was so taken by the good character he had of her that he would not think of anybody else. A marriage contract was concluded by the end of July, on 22 August /2 September 1705O. S. /N. S. Caroline arrived in Hanover for her wedding, which was held the evening in the chapel at Herrenhausen. George was keen to participate in the war against France in Flanders, in early 1707, Georges hopes were fulfilled when Caroline gave birth to a son, Frederick
King George II of Great Britain
–
Portrait by
Thomas Hudson, 1744
King George II of Great Britain
–
George as a young boy with his mother,
Sophia Dorothea of Celle, and his sister,
Sophia Dorothea of Hanover
King George II of Great Britain
–
Caroline of Ansbach by
Godfrey Kneller, 1716
King George II of Great Britain
–
London, c. 1710
23.
Slavery in the colonial United States
–
The origins of slavery in the colonial United States are complex and there are several theories that have been proposed to explain the trade. It was largely tied to European colonies need for labor, especially plantation agricultural labor in their Caribbean sugar colonies operated by Great Britain, France, Spain, and the Dutch Republic. Most slaves who were brought or kidnapped to the Thirteen British colonies which became the Eastern seaboard of the United States were imported from the Caribbean. They arrived in the Caribbean predominantly as a result of the Atlantic slave trade, although slavery of indigenous peoples also occurred in the North American colonies, by comparison of scale it was less important. Slave status for Africans usually became hereditary, while they knew about Spanish and Portuguese slave trading, the British did not conceive of using slave labor in the Americas until the 17th century. British travelers were fascinated by the people they found in West Africa. The first Africans to arrive in England came voluntarily with John Lok in 1555, Lok intended to teach them English in order to facilitate trading of material goods. This model gave way to a slave trade initiated by John Hawkins, blacks in England were subordinate but did not have the legal status of chattel slaves. In 1607, England established Jamestown as its first permanent colony on the North American continent, tobacco became the chief crop of the colony, due to the efforts of John Rolfe in 1611. Once it became clear that tobacco was going to drive the Jamestown colony, the British aristocracy needed to find a labor force to work on its plantations in the Americas. The major possibilities were indentured servants from Britain, Native Americans, during this time, off the North American mainland, Barbados became an English Colony in 1624 and the Caribbeans Jamaica in 1655. These and other Caribbean colonies became the center of wealth and the focus of the trade for the growing English empire. Towards indigenous Americans, the English entertained two lines of thought simultaneously, because these people were lighter skinned, they were seen as more European and therefore as candidates for civilization. At the same time, because they were occupying the land desired by the powers, they were from the beginning. At first, indentured servants were used as the needed labor and these servants provided up to seven years of service in exchange for having their trip to Jamestown paid for by someone in Jamestown. Once the seven years was over, the servant was free to live in Jamestown as a regular citizen. Several Colonial colleges, held enslaved people—and relied on captives to operate, until the early 18th century, enslaved Africans were difficult to acquire in the colonies that became the United States, as most were sold in the West Indies. One of the first major establishments of African slavery in these colonies occurred with the founding of Charles Town, the colony was founded mainly by planters from the overpopulated British sugar island colony of Barbados, who brought relatively large numbers of African slaves from that island
Slavery in the colonial United States
–
The First Slave Auction at New Amsterdam in 1655, by
Howard Pyle
Slavery in the colonial United States
–
Slavery
24.
Garrison
–
Garrison is the collective term for a body of troops stationed in a particular location, originally to guard it, but now often simply using it as a home base. The garrison is usually in a city, town, fort, castle, garrison town is a common expression for any town that has a military base nearby. Garrison towns were used during the Arab Islamic conquests of Middle Eastern lands by Arab-Muslim armies to increase their dominance over indigenous populations. In Ireland, Association football has historically been termed the game or the garrison sport for its connections with British military serving in Irish cities. In Israel, a unit is a regular unit defending a specified Israeli zone in need of protection from attack from combatants. Israeli garrison units placed in the territories of West Bank are recognized under UN Resolution 242 as occupied pending peaceful recognition by all regional combatants. It was an old custom in ancient Italy to send out colonies for the purpose of securing new conquests, the Romans, having no standing army, used to plant bodies of their own citizens in conquered towns as a kind of garrison
Garrison
–
"Arrival of the dean fleet ", showing the garrison of
Malta in 1565 and the
Ottoman invasion force.
25.
New Spain
–
New Spain was a colonial territory of the Spanish Empire, in the New World north of the Isthmus of Panama. It was established following the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in 1521, after 1535 the colony was governed by the Viceroy of New Spain, an appointed minister of the King of Spain, who ruled as monarch over the colony. The capital of New Spain was Mexico City and it developed highly regional divisions, which reflect the impact of climate, topography, the presence or absence of dense indigenous populations, and the presence or absence of mineral resources. The areas of central and southern Mexico had dense indigenous populations with complex social, political, silver mining not only became the engine of the economy of New Spain, but vastly enriched Spain, and transformed the global economy. New Spain was the New World terminus of the Philippine trade, although New Spain was a dependency of Spain, it was a kingdom not a colony, subject to the presiding monarch on the Iberian Peninsula. Every privilege and position, economic political, or religious came from him and it was on this basis that the conquest, occupation, and government of the New World was achieved. The Viceroyalty of New Spain was established in 1535 in the Kingdom of New Spain and it was the first New World viceroyalty and one of only two in the Spanish empire until the 18th century Bourbon Reforms. The Spanish Empire comprised the territories in the north overseas Septentrion, from North America, to the west of the continent, New Spain also included the Spanish East Indies. To the east of the continent, it included the Spanish West Indies and this was not occupied by many Spanish settlers and were considered more marginal to Spanish interests than the most densely populated and lucrative areas of central Mexico. To shore up its claims in North America starting in the late 18th century, Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest explored and claimed the coast of what is now British Columbia and Alaska. The indigenous societies of Mesoamerica brought under Spanish control were of unprecedented complexity, the societies could provide the conquistadors, especially Hernán Cortés, a base from which the conquerors could become autonomous, or even independent, of the Crown. As a result, the Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain, since the time of the Catholic Monarchs, central Iberia was governed through councils appointed by the monarch with particular jurisdictions. Thus, the creation of the Council of the Indies became another, the crown had set up the Casa de Contratación in 1503 to regulate contacts between Spain and its overseas possessions. A key function was to gather information about navigation to make trips less risky and they were accompanied by maps of the area discussed, many of which were drawn by indigenous artists. The Francisco Hernández Expedition, the first scientific expedition to the New World, was sent to gather information medicinal plants, an earlier Audiencia had been established in Santo Domingo in 1526 to deal with the Caribbean settlements. That Audiencia, housed in the Casa Reales in Santo Domingo, was charged with encouraging further exploration, management by the Audiencia, which was expected to make executive decisions as a body, proved unwieldy. Therefore, in 1535, King Charles V named Don Antonio de Mendoza as the first Viceroy of New Spain. After the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in 1532 opened up the vast territories of South America to further conquests, the Crown established an independent Viceroyalty of Peru there in 1540
New Spain
–
"Vázquez de Coronado Sets Out to the North" (1540) by
Frederic Remington, oil on canvas, 1905
New Spain
–
Flag
New Spain
–
Indian Wedding and Flying Pole, circa 1690
New Spain
–
Route from Philippines to Acapulco, México
26.
Oglethorpe Plan
–
James Edward Oglethorpe founded the Georgia Colony, and the town of Savannah, on February 12,1733. Not until 1763 did the French formally cede this territory east of the Mississippi to Great Britain, much of the territory ultimately became American in 1795, when the United States resolved its West Florida boundary dispute with Spain. Oglethorpes plan for settlement of the new colony had been in the works since 1730, the Oglethorpe Plan was an embodiment of all of the major themes of the Enlightenment, including science, humanism, and secular government. Remnants of the Oglethorpe Plan exist today in Savannah, showcasing a town plan that retains the vibrancy of ideas behind its conception, at the heart of Oglethorpe’s comprehensive and multi-faceted plan there was a vision of social equity and civic virtue. Many of those ideals have been carried forward, and are today in Savannah’s Tricentennial Plan. Oglethorpe wrote that the plan was conceived with toleration and wholesome regulations, other sources are speculative, since they were not cited by Oglethorpe of the Trustees. Many prominent planners and urban theorists have commented on various attributes of the Oglethorpe Plan, the quotes cited below are only a few of many laudatory comments. The famous Oglethorpe plan for Savannah … made a use of the square in the design. –Paul Zucker … a plan so exalted that it remains as one of the finest diagrams for city organization, –Edmund Bacon he grid pattern of Savannah. Is like no other we know in its fineness and its distinguishable squares, nce seen it is unforgettable, and it carries over into real life experience. --Allan Jacobs Savannah occupies a position in the history of city planning. Oglethorpe developed a plan in which the basic design unit was the ward. Wards were composed of four tything blocks and four trust blocks, the tything blocks contained ten houses, which was the basic organizational unit for administration, farming, and defense. Each tything was assigned a square mile tract outside town for farming, the tything trained together for militia duty, a necessity on the frontier. Families were also assigned five-acre kitchen gardens near town, Oglethorpe’s town plan was initially developed for Savannah, which grew largely in accordance with the original design. The same basic plan was intended for replication in towns throughout the colony, however, Darien and it was laid out with four wards, two of which remain substantially intact. In its 2008 comprehensive plan, the town envisioned redeveloping its historic core in accordance with the original plan. Other towns, such as Brunswick, Georgia, adopted a version of the design after the Trustee period The City of Savannah has preserved the ward design within its National Historic Landmark District, Oglethorpe originally laid out six wards in Savannah
Oglethorpe Plan
–
Savannah map of 1818 showing continuation of the ward design with minor modifications
Oglethorpe Plan
–
Sketch of Savannah's Town Plan showing four cellular wards, each containing eight city blocks around a square (four residential blocks in the corners, each split by a narrow lane, plus four smaller commercial blocks east and west of the square)
27.
Creek people
–
The Muscogee, also known as the Creek and the Creek Confederacy, are a group of related Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands. Originally from Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama, and northern Florida, Muscogee people were relocated in the early 19th century to Indian Territory, Alabama, Louisiana. Their languages, Muscogee and Hitchiti-Mikasuki, belong to the Eastern Muskogean branch of the Muscogean language family, the Muscogee are descendants of the Mississippian culture peoples, who built earthwork mounds at their regional chiefdoms located throughout the Mississippi River valley and its tributaries. Early Spanish explorers encountered ancestors of the Muscogee when they visited Mississippian-culture chiefdoms in the Southeast in the mid-16th century, the Muscogee were the first Native Americans considered to be civilized under George Washingtons civilization plan. The result was a weakening of the Creek Nation and the ceding of Creek lands to the US. During the Indian Removal of the 1830s, most of the Muscogee Confederacy were forcibly relocated to Indian Territory, at least 12,000 years ago, Native Americans or Paleo-Indians lived in what is today the Southern United States. Paleo-Indians in the Southeast were hunter-gatherers who pursued a range of animals, including the megafauna. During the time known as the Woodland period, from 1000 BCE to 1000 CE, locals developed pottery, the Mississippian culture arose as the cultivation of maize from Mesoamerica led to population growth. Increased population density gave rise to urban centers and regional chiefdoms, stratified societies developed, with hereditary religious and political elites, and flourished in what is now the Midwestern, Eastern, and Southeastern United States from 800 to 1500 CE. The early historic Muscogee were descendants of the builders of the Mississippian culture along the Tennessee River in modern Tennessee, Georgia. They may have related to the Tama of central Georgia. At the time the Spanish made their first forays inland from the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, many centers of the Mississippians were already in decline. The region is best described as a collection of moderately sized native chiefdoms interspersed with autonomous villages. After Cabeza de Vaca, a castaway who survived the ill-fated Narváez expedition, returned to Spain, Hernando de Soto was a Spanish explorer and conquistador who led the first expedition into the interior of the North American continent. De Soto, convinced of the riches, wanted Cabeza de Vaca to go on the expedition, from 1540–1543, de Soto explored through present-day Florida and Georgia, and then westward into the Alabama and Mississippi area. The areas were inhabited by historic Muscogee Native Americans, de Soto brought with him a well-equipped army. He attracted many recruits from a variety of backgrounds who joined his quest for riches in the Americas, as the de Soto expeditions brutalities became known to the indigenous peoples, they decided to defend their territory. The Battle of Mabila was a point for the de Soto venture, the battle broke the back of the Spanish campaign
Creek people
–
Muscogee portraits
Creek people
–
The Mississippian culture was a mound-building Native American culture that flourished in the United States before the arrival of Europeans.
Creek people
–
Hernando de Soto and his men burn Mabila, after a surprise attack by Chief Tuskaloosa and his people, 1540 CE, painting by Herb Roe, 2008
Creek people
–
A raiding party against Spanish missions in Florida passes the Ocmulgee
trading post
28.
Tomochichi
–
Tomochichi was a seventeenth-century Creek leader and the head chief of a Yamacraw town on the site of present-day Savannah, Georgia. He gave his land to James Oglethorpe to build the city of Savannah and he remains a prominent character of early Georgia history. Although much of his life is unknown, Tomochichi was exiled from the Creek nation for unclear reasons and, along with several followers, first settled what is now Savannah. Presumably, he was Creek and participated in their activities with Englishmen in. In about 1728 Tomochichi created his own tribe of Yamacraw from an assortment of Creek, Nations disagreed over future relations with the English and the Spanish. His group, approximately two hundred people, settled on the bluffs of the Savannah River because the location was the place of his ancestors and had close proximity to English traders. Among Oglethorpes entourage was Mary Musgrove, daughter of a Creek mother and an English father, Tomochichi had had previous contact with English colonists, making him unafraid yet cautious. In an excerpt from the August 1733 British publication, The Gentlemans Magazine, gives the following Part of a Letter from James Oglethorpe, Esq, at Georgia, to the Hon. -------in London. Dated the 9th of June Last, there seems a Door opened to our Colony towards the Conversion of the Indians. They abhor Adultery, and do not approve of Plurality of Wives, theft is a thing not know among the Creek Nation, tho frequent, and even honourable, amongst the Uchees. Murder they look upon as a most abominable Crime, but do not esteem the killing of an Enemy, or one that has injurd them, for there is no coercive power in any of their Nations. Their Kings can do no more than perswade, all the Power that they have is no more than to call their old Men and their Captains together, and to propound to them, without Interruption, the Measures they think proper. After they have done speaking, all the others have Liberty to give their Opinions also and these Conferences in Matters of great Difficulty have sometimes lasted two Days, and are always carried on with great Temper and Modesty. They generally in their Speeches use Similies and Metaphors and their Similies were quite new to me, and generally wonderful proper and well carried on. But in the Conferences among their chief Men they are more Laconick, in fine, in speaking to their young Men they generally address to the Passions, in speaking to their old Men they apply to Reason only. He desired me to accept it because the Eagle signified Speed, and that the Feathers of the Eagle were soft, and signified Love, and the Buffalos Skin war, and signified protection, therefore he hoped that we would Love and Protect their little Families. One of the Indians of the Cherichee Nation being come down to the Governor upon the Rumour of the War, the Governor told him that he need fear nothing and he answerd smartly, I always speak freely, what should I fear. I am now among my Friends, and I never feared even amongst my Enemies, when you are drunk you are quarrelsome, and you know you love to be drunk, but you dont love to be whipt
Tomochichi
–
Tomochichi and his nephew, Toonahawi
29.
Savannah River
–
Two tributaries of the Savannah, the Tugaloo River and the Chattooga River, form the northernmost part of the border. The Savannah River drainage basin extends into the side of the Appalachian Mountains just inside North Carolina. The river is around 301 miles long and it is formed by the confluence of the Tugaloo River and the Seneca River. Today this confluence is submerged beneath Lake Hartwell, the Tallulah Gorge is located on the Tallulah River, a tributary of the Tugaloo River that forms the northwest branch of the Savannah River. Two major cities are located along the Savannah River, Savannah and they were nuclei of early English settlements during the Colonial period of American history. The Savannah River is tidal at Savannah proper, downstream from there, the river broadens into an estuary before flowing into the Atlantic Ocean. The area where the estuary meets the ocean is known as Tybee Roads. The Intracoastal Waterway flows through a section of the Savannah River near the city of Savannah, the name Savannah comes from a group of Shawnee who migrated to the Piedmont region in the 1680s. They destroyed the Westo and occupied established Westo lands at the Savannah Rivers head of navigation on the fall line and these Shawnee were called by several variant names that all derive from their native name, Ša·wano·ki. The local variants included Shawano, Savano, Savana, and Savannah, another theory is that the name was derived from the English term savanna, a kind of tropical grassland, which was borrowed by the English from Spanish sabana and used in the colonial southeast. The Spanish word was borrowed from the Taino word zabana, other theories interpret the name Savannah to come from Atlantic coastal tribes, who spoke Algonquian languages, as there are similar terms meaning not only southerner but perhaps salt. Historical and variant names of the Savannah River, as listed by the U. S. Geological Survey, include May River, Westobou River, Kosalu River, Isundiga River and Girande River, among others. The Westobou River was the name of the Savannah River that was derived from the Westo Native American Indians. The Westo were thought to have come from the northeast, pushed out by the powerful tribes of the Iroquois Confederacy. This migration beginning in the late 16th century resulted in the Westo Indians reaching the present area of Augusta, Georgia, the Westo used the river for fishing and water supplies, for transportation, and for trade. They were strong enough to hold off the Spanish colonists making incursions from Florida, the Carolina Colony needed the Westo alliance during its early years. When Carolinians desired to expand its trade to Charleston, they viewed the Westo tribe as an obstacle. In order to remove the tribe, they sent a group called the Goose Creek Men to arm the Savanna Indians, a Shawnee tribe, following this, the English colonists renamed the river as the Savannah, it was integral to early development
Savannah River
–
Savannah River at
Augusta, with the
Augusta Canal running alongside
Savannah River
–
Talmadge Memorial Bridge over the Savannah River in Savannah
Savannah River
–
A cargo ship navigates the narrow Savannah River channel at Savannah
30.
Altamaha River
–
The Altamaha River /ˈɑːltəməhɑː/ is a major river in the U. S. state of Georgia. It flows generally eastward for 137 miles from its origin at the confluence of the Oconee River and Ocmulgee River towards the Atlantic Ocean, there are no dams directly on the Altamaha, though there are some on the Oconee and the Ocmulgee. Including its tributaries, the Altamaha Rivers drainage basin is about 14,000 square miles in size and it is reportedly the third largest contributor of fresh water to the Atlantic Ocean from North America. The beginning of the Colorado River of Texas is just within New Mexico, the long Mobile-Alabama-Coosa River system, mostly in Alabama, originates a short distance within Georgia. The Altamaha River traverses an area of low population density with few significant towns or cities along its course. There are some along its tributaries, such as the fall line cities of Milledgeville on the Oconee. Centuries ago, riverboats used the Altamaha to reach those towns and the plantations founded along the rivers, which were the main transportation routes. According to the USGS, variant and historical names of the Altamaha River include A-lot-amaha, Alatahama, Alatamaha, Allamah, Frederica River, Rio Al Tama, Rio de Talaje, and Talaxe River. The 1, 759-megawatt Plant Hatch nuclear power plant sits on the bank of the Altamaha River in Appling County. The Altamaha River originates at the confluence of the Oconee River and Ocmulgee River, at its source, the Altamaha River forms the border between Jeff Davis County to the south and Montgomery County to the north. On the north side, Toombs County gives way to Tattnall County, the Big Hammock Wildlife Management Area and Big Hammock Natural Area are located along the Altamaha at the Ohoopee confluence. Big Hammock Natural Area is a National Natural Landmark site, noted for its biodiversity and many rare plant species. Below Big Hammock, the tributary Beards Creek joins the Altamaha River from the north, the Altamaha passes through Griffin Ridge Wildlife Management Area before flowing by Doctortown, near Jesup. A wide and swampy floodplain surrounds the river in this area, several miles below Doctortown Wayne County gives way to McIntosh County on the north side of the river. From this point to the mouth there are numerous wildlife management areas. The Sansaville Wildlife Management Area lies on the side of the river, while the Altamaha Wildlife Management Area lies on the north. Wolf Island National Wildlife Refuge occupies Wolf Island on the Atlantic coast, in its last several miles, the Altamaha River marks the boundary between McIntosh County on the north and Glynn County on the south. The town of Darien lies just north of the Altamaha Rivers mouth, several miles to the south lies the larger city of Brunswick
Altamaha River
–
The Altamaha River viewed from the bridge between Glynn County and McIntosh County, Georgia, USA
Altamaha River
–
Map of the Altamaha River watershed showing the two main tributaries, the Ocmulgee River and the Oconee River.
Altamaha River
–
Altamaha River on the border of McIntosh and Glynn Counties, Georgia, USA. The bridge is over
US Highway 17.
Altamaha River
–
Altamaha River looking towards the
Atlantic Ocean.
31.
Headwater
–
The source or headwaters of a river or stream is the furthest place in that river or stream from its estuary or confluence with another river, as measured along the course of the river. As an example of the definition above, the USGS at times considers the Missouri River as a tributary of the Mississippi River. But it also follows the first definition above in using the combined Missouri - lower Mississippi length figure in lists of lengths of rivers around the world. This definition, from geographer Andrew Johnston of the Smithsonian Institution, is used by the National Geographic Society when pinpointing the source of rivers such as the Amazon or Nile. A definition given by the state of Montana agrees, stating that a source is never a confluence but is in a location that is the farthest, along water miles. Under this definition neither a lake nor a confluence of tributaries can be a river source. Likewise, the source of the Amazon River has been determined this way, when not listing river lengths, however, alternative definitions may be used. In the case of the Missouri River, Lewis and Clark would have had to travel to the east. to reach the source. Sometimes the source of the most remote tributary may be in an area that is more marsh-like, for example, the source of the River Tees is marshland. The furthest stream is often called the headstream. Headwaters are often small streams with cool waters because of shade and they may also be glacial headwaters, waters formed by the melting of glacial ice. Headwater areas are the areas of a watershed, as opposed to the outflow or discharge of a watershed. The river source is often but not always on or quite near the edge of the watershed, for example, the source of the Colorado River is at the Continental Divide separating the Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean watersheds of North America. A river is considered a geographic feature, with only one mouth. For an example, note how the Mississippi River and Missouri River sources are officially defined, U. S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System, Mississippi River, Length,2,340 miles, Source, 47°14′22″N 95°12′29″W U. S. For example, The River Thames rises in Gloucestershire, the White Nile rises in the Great Lakes region of central Africa. The word source, when applied to lakes rather than rivers or streams, refers to the lakes inflow
Headwater
–
River Wey near its source at
Farringdon,
Hampshire
Headwater
–
The marker indicating the source of the
Po River, near
Crissolo. "Here is born the Po"
Headwater
–
Rhume Spring, source of the Rhume river in Germany.
32.
Ocmulgee River
–
The Ocmulgee River is a western tributary of the Altamaha River, approximately 255 mi long, in the U. S. state of Georgia. It is the westernmost major tributary of the Altamaha, the Ocmulgee River and its tributaries provide drainage for some 6,180 square miles in parts of 33 Georgia counties, a large section of the Piedmont and coastal plain of central Georgia. The name of the river may have come from a Hitchiti words oki plus molki, the river rises at a point in north central Georgia southeast of Atlanta, at the confluence of the Yellow, South, and Alcovy rivers. Since the construction of the Lloyd Shoals Dam in the early 20th century, the rivers source is formed at an elevation of around 530 feet above sea level. The Ocmulgee River flows from the dam southeast past Macon, which was founded on the fall line and it joins the Oconee from the northwest to form the Altamaha near Lumber City. Four power plants in the Ocmulgee basin that use the water, including the coal-fired Plant Scherer in Juliette. A diverse array of species in twenty-one families—inhabit the Ocmulgee River basin. The family with the largest representation in the basin is Cyprinidae. It is followed by Centrarchidae, which has 22 species, the Ocmulgee basin contains ten species in the family Ictaluridae and eight species of in the family Catostomidae. The river basin is inhabited by one State of Georgia-designated endangered fish species. The world record for largest recorded catch of a largemouth bass was achieved in 1932 in Montgomery Lake, the record-setting fish, caught by farmer George Washington Perry, weighted 22 pounds, six ounces. There are some fifteen invasive species of fish inhabit the river basin. According to a Georgia Department of Natural Resources report, many of species are well-established and are detrimental to native fish populations. Archeological evidence shows that Native Americans first inhabited the Ocmulgee basin about 10,000 to 15,000 years ago, scraping tools and flint spearpoints from nomadic Paleoindians hunters have been discovered in the Ocmulgee floodplain. In the Archaic period which followed, hunter-gatherers in Ocmulgee basin used fiber-tempered pottery, during the Woodland period, there were various villages in the area, evidenced by earthen mounds and pottery sherds. These areas are now part of the Ocmulgee National Monument, a National Park Service-administered protected area established in 1936, the Ichisi served corncakes, wild onion, and roasted venison to De Soto and his party. Over the next hundred years, however, the Native Americans in the area were devastated from disease, eli Whitneys invention of the cotton gin stimulated development of short-staple cotton plantations in the uplands, where it grew well. The gin mechanized processing of the cotton and made it profitable, demand for land in the Southeast increased, as well as demand for slave labor in the Deep South
Ocmulgee River
–
The Ocmulgee River at Macon
33.
Province of Carolina
–
The Province of Carolina was an English and later a British colony of North America. Carolina was founded in what is modern day North Carolina, Sir Robert Heath, attorney-general of King Charles I of England, was granted the Cape Fear region of America, incorporated as the Province of Carolina, in 1629. The charter was unrealized and ruled invalid, and a new charter was issued to a group of eight English noblemen, Charles II granted the land to the eight Lords Proprietors in return for their financial and political assistance in restoring him to the throne in 1660. Charles II intended for the newly created province to serve as an English bulwark to contest lands claimed by Spanish Florida, led informally by Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, the Province of Carolina was controlled from 1663 to 1729 by these lords and their heirs. In 1691, dissent over the governance of the led to the appointment of a deputy governor to administer the northern half of Carolina. The division between the northern and southern governments became complete in 1712, but both remained in the hands of the same group of proprietors. A rebellion against the proprietors broke out in 1719 which led to the appointment of a governor for South Carolina in 1720. After nearly a decade in which the British government sought to locate and buy out the proprietors, both North and South Carolina became royal colonies in 1729. On October 30,1629, King Charles I of England granted a patent to Sir Robert Heath for the south of 36 degrees and north of 31 degrees, under the name, in honor of that king. Heath wanted the land for French Huguenots, but when Charles restricted use of the land to members of the Church of England, Heath assigned his grant to George, King Charles I was executed in 1649 and Heath fled to France where he died. Following the 1660 restoration of the monarchy, Heaths heirs attempted to reassert their claim to the land, the eight were called Lords Proprietors or simply Proprietors. The 1663 charter granted the Lords Proprietor title to all of the land from the border of the Virginia Colony at 36 degrees north to 31 degrees north. The charter also granted all the land, between these northerly and southerly bounds, from the Atlantic, westward to the shores of the Pacific Ocean, of the eight, the one who demonstrated the most active interest in Carolina was Lord Shaftesbury. The Lords Proprietors, operating under their charter, were able to exercise their authority with nearly the independence of the king himself. Within three generations of Columbus, the Spanish from their Florida base had issued up the coast permeating North Carolina, a hostile Virginia tribe drove them back to Georgia. A Scottish contingent had meanwhile settled in South Carolina only to be extirpated by the Spanish, the Spanish were again beaten back to Georgia. The Albemarle Settlements, preceding the royal charter by ten years, by 1664, the region was organized as Albemarle County. In 1663, Captain William Hilton had noted the presence of a cross erected by the Spaniards that still stood before the town meeting house of the Indians living at what later became Port Royal
Province of Carolina
Province of Carolina
–
Flag
Province of Carolina
–
"A New Description of Carolina", engraved by Francis Lamb (London, Tho. Basset and Richard Chiswell, 1676)
34.
Privy Council of the United Kingdom
–
Her Majestys Most Honourable Privy Council, usually known simply as the Privy Council, is a formal body of advisers to the Sovereign of the United Kingdom. Its membership mainly comprises senior politicians, who are present or former members of either the House of Commons or the House of Lords, the Council also holds the delegated authority to issue Orders of Council, mostly used to regulate certain public institutions. The Council advises the sovereign on the issuing of Royal Charters, which are used to grant special status to incorporated bodies, otherwise, the Privy Councils powers have now been largely replaced by the Cabinet of the United Kingdom. The Judicial Committee consists of judges appointed as Privy Counsellors, predominantly Justices of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. The Privy Council of the United Kingdom was preceded by the Privy Council of Scotland, the key events in the formation of the modern Privy Council are given below, Witenagemot was an early equivalent to the Privy Council of England. During the reigns of the Norman monarchs, the English Crown was advised by a court or curia regis. The body originally concerned itself with advising the sovereign on legislation, administration, later, different bodies assuming distinct functions evolved from the court. The courts of law took over the business of dispensing justice, nevertheless, the Council retained the power to hear legal disputes, either in the first instance or on appeal. Furthermore, laws made by the sovereign on the advice of the Council, powerful sovereigns often used the body to circumvent the Courts and Parliament. During Henry VIIIs reign, the sovereign, on the advice of the Council, was allowed to enact laws by mere proclamation, the legislative pre-eminence of Parliament was not restored until after Henry VIIIs death. Though the royal Council retained legislative and judicial responsibilities, it became an administrative body. The Council consisted of forty members in 1553, but the sovereign relied on a smaller committee, by the end of the English Civil War, the monarchy, House of Lords, and Privy Council had been abolished. The remaining parliamentary chamber, the House of Commons, instituted a Council of State to execute laws, the forty-one members of the Council were elected by the House of Commons, the body was headed by Oliver Cromwell, de facto military dictator of the nation. In 1653, however, Cromwell became Lord Protector, and the Council was reduced to thirteen and twenty-one members, all elected by the Commons. In 1657, the Commons granted Cromwell even greater powers, some of which were reminiscent of those enjoyed by monarchs, the Council became known as the Protectors Privy Council, its members were appointed by the Lord Protector, subject to Parliaments approval. In 1659, shortly before the restoration of the monarchy, the Protectors Council was abolished, Charles II restored the Royal Privy Council, but he, like previous Stuart monarchs, chose to rely on a small group of advisers. Under George I even more power transferred to this committee and it now began to meet in the absence of the sovereign, communicating its decisions to him after the fact. Thus, the British Privy Council, as a whole, ceased to be a body of important confidential advisers to the sovereign and it is closely related to the word private, and derives from the French word privé
Privy Council of the United Kingdom
–
Queen Victoria convened her first
Privy Council on the day of her
accession in 1837.
Privy Council of the United Kingdom
–
United Kingdom
35.
Subsidy
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A subsidy is a form of financial aid or support extended to an economic sector generally with the aim of promoting economic and social policy. Although commonly extended from government, the subsidy can relate to any type of support – for example from NGOs or as implicit subsidies. Subsidies come in forms including, direct and indirect. Furthermore, they can be broad or narrow, legal or illegal, ethical or unethical, the most common forms of subsidies are those to the producer or the consumer. Producer/production subsidies ensure producers are better off by either supplying market price support, direct support, consumer/consumption subsidies commonly reduce the price of goods and services to the consumer. For example, in the US at one time it was cheaper to buy gasoline than bottled water, whether subsidies are positive or negative is typically a normative judgment. As a form of intervention, subsidies are inherently contrary to the markets demands. However, they can also be used as tools of political, a production subsidy encourages suppliers to increase the output of a particular product by partially offsetting the production costs or losses. The objective of production subsidies is to expand production of a product more so than the market would promote. This type of subsidy is found in developed markets. Other examples of production include the assistance in the creation of a new firm, industry. A consumption subsidy is one that subsidises the behavior of consumers, for example, some governments offer lifeline rates for electricity, that is, the first increment of electricity each month is subsidised. An export subsidy is a support from the government for products that are exported, usha Haley and George Haley identified the subsidies to manufacturing industry provided by the Chinese Government and how they have altered trade patterns. Traditionally, economists have argued that subsidies benefit consumers but hurt the subsidizing countries, export subsidy is known for being abused. For example, some exporters substantially over declare the value of their goods so as to more from the export subsidy. Thus the trader benefits from the subsidy without creating real trade value to the economy. Export subsidy as such can become a self-defeating and disruptive policy, an employment subsidy serves as an incentive to businesses to provide more job opportunities to reduce the level of unemployment in the country or to encourage research and development. With an employment subsidy, the government provides assistance with wages, Another form of employment subsidy is the social security benefits
Subsidy
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Contents
36.
Proprietary colony
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A proprietary colony was a type of British colony mostly in North America and the Caribbean in the 17th century. In the British Empire, all belonged to the ruler. Therefore, all properties were partitioned by royal charter into one of four types, proprietary, royal, joint stock. King Charles II used the solution to reward allies and focus his own attention on Britain itself. He offered his friends colonial charters which facilitated private investment and colonial self-government, the charters made the proprietor the effective ruler, albeit one ultimately responsible to English law and the king. Charles II gave New Netherland to his younger brother The Duke of York and he gave an area to William Penn who named it Pennsylvania. This type of indirect rule eventually fell out of favour as the colonies became established, in medieval times, it was customary in Continental Europe for a sovereign to grant almost regal powers of government to the feudal lords of his border districts, so as to prevent foreign invasion. These districts or manors were often called palatinates or counties palatine, because the lord dwelled in a palace and his power was regal in kind, but inferior in degree to that of the king. This type of arrangement had made in Norman times for certain English border counties. These territories were known as counties palatine and they lasted at least in part to 1830 and for reason, remoteness, poor communications. The monarch and his or her government, retained its right to separate head and body, figuratively or literally. Proprietary colonies in America were governed by a proprietor, who, holding authority by virtue of a royal charter. Eventually, these were converted to royal colonies, barbados The British America colonies before the American Revolution consisted of thirteen colonies that became states of the United States of America. The King also gave Dugua a monopoly in the fur trade for these territories and named him Lieutenant General for Acadia, in return, Dugua promised to bring 60 new colonists each year to what would be called lAcadie. In 1607 the monopoly was revoked and the failed. The Iles Glorieuses, i. e. Glorioso Islands, were on 2 March 1880 settled and named by Frenchman Hippolyte Caltaux, only on 23 August 1892 they were claimed for the French Third Republic, as part of the Indian Ocean colony of French Madagascar. However he was again their proprietor from 1901 till his death in 1907, English colonial empire Proprietary governor Proprietary House Colonial government in the Thirteen Colonies Crown colony Commonwealth Settler colonialism Donatorio Quia Emptores Martinez, Albert J. The Palatinate Clause of the Maryland Charter, 1632-1776, From Independent Jurisdiction to Independence, American Journal of Legal History, 305-325
Proprietary colony
–
Cecil Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore was the first Proprietor and Proprietary Governor of the
Province of Maryland.
37.
British monarchy
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The monarchy of the United Kingdom, commonly referred to as the British monarchy, is the constitutional monarchy of the United Kingdom, its dependencies and its overseas territories. The monarchs title is King or Queen, the current monarch and head of state, Queen Elizabeth II, ascended the throne on the death of her father, King George VI, on 6 February 1952. The monarch and his or her immediate family undertake various official, ceremonial, diplomatic, as the monarchy is constitutional, the monarch is limited to non-partisan functions such as bestowing honours and appointing the Prime Minister. The monarch is, by tradition, commander-in-chief of the British Armed Forces, from 1603, when the Scottish monarch King James VI inherited the English throne as James I, both the English and Scottish kingdoms were ruled by a single sovereign. From 1649 to 1660, the tradition of monarchy was broken by the republican Commonwealth of England, the Act of Settlement 1701 excluded Roman Catholics, or those who married Catholics, from succession to the English throne. In 1707, the kingdoms of England and Scotland were merged to create the Kingdom of Great Britain, and in 1801, the British monarch became nominal head of the vast British Empire, which covered a quarter of the worlds surface at its greatest extent in 1921. After the Second World War, the vast majority of British colonies and territories became independent, George VI and his successor, Elizabeth II, adopted the title Head of the Commonwealth as a symbol of the free association of its independent member states. The United Kingdom and fifteen other Commonwealth monarchies that share the person as their monarch are called Commonwealth realms. In the uncodified Constitution of the United Kingdom, the Monarch is the Head of State, oaths of allegiance are made to the Queen and her lawful successors. God Save the Queen is the British national anthem, and the monarch appears on postage stamps, coins, the Monarch takes little direct part in Government. Executive power is exercised by Her Majestys Government, which comprises Ministers, primarily the Prime Minister and the Cabinet and they have the direction of the Armed Forces of the Crown, the Civil Service and other Crown Servants such as the Diplomatic and Secret Services. Judicial power is vested in the Judiciary, who by constitution, the Church of England, of which the Monarch is the head, has its own legislative, judicial and executive structures. Powers independent of government are legally granted to public bodies by statute or Statutory Instrument such as an Order in Council. The Sovereigns role as a monarch is largely limited to non-partisan functions. This role has been recognised since the 19th century, the constitutional writer Walter Bagehot identified the monarchy in 1867 as the dignified part rather than the efficient part of government. Whenever necessary, the Monarch is responsible for appointing a new Prime Minister, the Prime Minister takes office by attending the Monarch in private audience, and after kissing hands that appointment is immediately effective without any other formality or instrument. Since 1945, there have only been two hung parliaments, the first followed the February 1974 general election when Harold Wilson was appointed Prime Minister after Edward Heath resigned following his failure to form a coalition. Although Wilsons Labour Party did not have a majority, they were the largest party, the second followed the May 2010 general election, in which the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats agreed to form the first coalition government since World War II
British monarchy
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Queen of the United Kingdom
British monarchy
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Royal coat of arms
British monarchy
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The English
Bill of Rights of 1689 curtailed the monarch's governmental power.
British monarchy
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The
Bayeux Tapestry depicts the Norman Conquest of 1066.
38.
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian peoples of the Americas and their descendants. The term Amerindian is used in Quebec, the Guianas, Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, and Alaska Natives. Application of the term Indian originated with Christopher Columbus, who, in his search for Asia, eventually, the Americas came to be known as the West Indies, a name still used to refer to the islands of the Caribbean Sea. This led to the blanket term Indies and Indians for the indigenous inhabitants, although some indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers—and many, especially in the Amazon basin, still are—many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time, although some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting, and gathering. In some regions the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, chiefdoms, states, and empires. Many parts of the Americas are still populated by peoples, some countries have sizable populations, especially Belize, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Greenland, Guatemala, Mexico. At least a different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas. Some, such as the Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan languages, many also maintain aspects of indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees, including religion, social organization, and subsistence practices. Like most cultures, over time, cultures specific to many indigenous peoples have evolved to incorporate traditional aspects, some indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western culture and a few are still counted as uncontacted peoples. The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are the subject of ongoing research. According to archaeological and genetic evidence, North and South America were the last continents in the world with human habitation. During the Wisconsin glaciation, 50–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the bridge of Beringia that joined Siberia to northwest North America. Alaska was a glacial refugium because it had low snowfall, allowing a small population to exist, the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of North America, blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska for thousands of years. Indigenous genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single population, one that developed in isolation. The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10–20,000 years, around 16,500 years ago, the glaciers began melting, allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran Ice Sheets. Another route proposed involves migration - either on foot or using primitive boats - along the Pacific Northwest coast to the south, archeological evidence of the latter would have been covered by the sea level rise of more than 120 meters since the last ice age
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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Quechua women in
Peru
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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Pai Tavytera Indians in
Amambay Department,
Paraguay, 2012
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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Paleo-Indians hunting a
glyptodont
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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Drawing accompanying text in Book XII of the 16th-century
Florentine Codex (compiled 1540–1585), showing
Nahuas of conquest-era central Mexico suffering from smallpox
39.
Augusta, Georgia
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It is in the piedmont section of the state. The city was named after Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha, according to 2012 US Census estimates, the Augusta–Richmond County population was 197,872, not counting the unconsolidated cities of Hephzibah and Blythe. It is the 116th-largest city in the United States, internationally, Augusta is best known for hosting The Masters golf tournament each spring. The area along the river was inhabited by varying cultures of indigenous peoples. The site of Augusta was used by Native Americans as a place to cross the Savannah River, in 1735, two years after James Oglethorpe founded Savannah, he sent a detachment of troops to explore the upper Savannah River. He gave them an order to build at the head of the part of the river. The expedition was led by Noble Jones, who created the settlement to provide a first line of defense for coastal areas against potential Spanish or French invasion from the interior, Oglethorpe named the town Augusta, in honor of Princess Augusta, wife of Frederick, Prince of Wales. Oglethorpe visited Augusta once, in September 1739, Augusta was the second state capital of Georgia from 1785 until 1795. Augusta developed rapidly as a town as the Black Belt in the Piedmont was developed for cotton cultivation. Invention of the cotton gin made processing of cotton profitable. Cotton plantations were worked by labor, with hundreds of thousands of slaves shipped from the Upper South to the Deep South in the domestic slave trade. In the mid-20th century, it was a site of civil rights demonstrations, in 1970 Charles Oatman, a mentally disabled teenager, was killed by his cellmates in an Augusta jail. A protest against his death broke out in a riot involving 500 people, after six black men were killed by police, the noted singer and entertainer James Brown was called in to help quell lingering tensions, which he succeeded in doing. Augusta is located on the Georgia/South Carolina border, about 150 miles east of Atlanta and 70 miles west of Columbia, the city is located at 33°28′12″N 81°58′30″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the Augusta–Richmond County balance has an area of 306.5 square miles. Augusta is located halfway up the Savannah River on the fall line. The city marks the end of a waterway for the river. The Clarks Hill Dam is built on the line near Augusta
Augusta, Georgia
Augusta, Georgia
Augusta, Georgia
Augusta, Georgia
40.
Sunbury, Georgia
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Liberty County is a county located in the U. S. state of Georgia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 63,453, Liberty County is part of the Hinesville, Georgia Metropolitan Statistical Area, which is also included in the Savannah-Hinesville-Statesboro, Georgia Combined Statistical Area. Liberty county was established in 1777 and it is named for the popular American ideal of liberty. Sunbury was first designated the county seat in 1784, in 1797, the seat was transferred to Riceboro and in 1837 it was transferred again to Hinesville. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 603 square miles. The eastern and southern portion of Liberty County is located in the Ogeechee Coastal sub-basin of the Ogeechee River basin, the northern and western portion of the county is located in the Canoochee River sub-basin of the Ogeechee River basin. The population density was 119 people per square mile, there were 21,977 housing units at an average density of 42 per square mile. 8. 15% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,16. 60% of all households were made up of individuals and 3. 20% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.93 and the family size was 3.29. In the county, the population was out with 32. 00% under the age of 18,17. 90% from 18 to 24,33. 90% from 25 to 44,12. 20% from 45 to 64. The median age was 25 years, for every 100 females there were 111.30 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 115.10 males, the median income for a household in the county was $33,477, and the median income for a family was $35,031. Males had an income of $25,305 versus $20,765 for females. The per capita income for the county was $13,855, about 13. 50% of families and 15. 00% of the population were below the poverty line, including 19. 20% of those under age 18 and 19. 90% of those age 65 or over. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 63,453 people,22,155 households, the population density was 129.5 inhabitants per square mile. There were 26,731 housing units at a density of 54.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 47. 1% white,42. 2% black or African American,2. 0% Asian,0. 6% Pacific islander,0. 6% American Indian,2. 9% from other races, and 4. 7% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 9. 7% of the population, in terms of ancestry,8. 8% were German,6. 9% were Irish, and 6. 0% were American
Sunbury, Georgia
–
Location in the state of
Georgia
41.
Midway, Georgia
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Midway is a city in Liberty County, Georgia, United States. It is a part of the Hinesville-Fort Stewart metropolitan statistical area, Midway is situated near Savannah, Brunswick, St. Simons Island, and Jekyll Island. The population was 2,121 as of the 2010 census, Midway has several museums, including the Midway Museum and Cemetery and the Dorchester Academy Museum. There are also two islands, Colonels Island and Dolphin Island, midways history dates back to the 18th century. Puritans migrated to St. Johns Parish, Georgia from Dorchester, South Carolina in 1752, in 1752 the Council of Georgia granted the settlers 31,950 acres, as colonial officials wanted a large number of settlers in the area to protect them from the Creek Indians. The original settlers were primarily rice planters and the Midway settlers developed an agricultural economy aided by the 1,500 slaves they brought from South Carolina. The settlers in the area took a stand for independence. In May 1775, Lyman Hall was sent to the Continental Congress as a delegate from the parish of St. John, a year later Hall and St. Johns Parish resident Button Gwinnett signed the Declaration of Independence. Another Midway resident, Nathan Brownson, served in the Continental Congress from 1776 to 1778, in 1777 St. Johns Parish, St. Andrews Parish, and St. James Parish combined to become Liberty County. Established in 1752, the Midway Congregational Church building was destroyed during the American Revolutionary War by the British, the present building was completed in 1792. The religious welfare of the slaves was given consideration and the members of the church, with the blacks in the galleries. Every April, the Midway Society conducts an annual service commemorating the towns settlement, the Church and the adjacent cemetery were placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973. Among those buried here are two American Generals who served in the Revolutionary War, Daniel Stewart and James Screven, a large monument, erected in 1915 in the center of the cemetery, is dedicated to these men. In 1973, the Midway Historic District, encompassing the Midway Congregational Church and Cemetery, the Midway Museum, the City of Midway was Incorporated in 1925. Midway has a park with nine manufacturing facilities. In 2007, Target Corporation opened a 1,500, 000-square-foot regional distribution center, Midway is located at 31°48′00″N 81°24′44″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 5.6 square miles. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 2,121 people residing in the city
Midway, Georgia
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Declaration of Independence Signers from Midway, Georgia
Midway, Georgia
–
Location in
Liberty County and the state of
Georgia
Midway, Georgia
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Midway Church and cemetery
42.
Darien, Georgia
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Darien/dɛəriːˈɛn/ is a city in McIntosh County, Georgia, United States. It lies on Georgias coast at the mouth of the Altamaha River, approximately 50 miles south of Savannah, the population of Darien was 1,975 at the 2010 census. The city is the county seat of McIntosh County and it is the second oldest planned city in Georgia and was originally called New Inverness. Darien is located at 31°22′16″N 81°25′51″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 2.0 square miles, all land. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 1,975 people residing in the city. The racial makeup of the city was 51. 9% White,44. 1% Black,0. 1% Native American,0. 8% Asian,0. 1% Pacific Islander,0. 1% from some other race and 1. 1% from two or more races. 1. 9% were Hispanic or Latino of any race, as of the census of 2000, there were 1,719 people,697 households, and 464 families residing in the city. The population density was 869.6 people per square mile, there were 832 housing units at an average density of 420.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 54. 10% White,43. 98% African American,0. 12% Native American,0. 64% Asian,0. 17% Pacific Islander,0. 06% from other races, and 0. 93% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 64% of the population,30. 6% of all households were made up of individuals and 13. 2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.47 and the family size was 3.06. In the city, the population was out with 29. 2% under the age of 18,7. 5% from 18 to 24,25. 4% from 25 to 44,23. 5% from 45 to 64. The median age was 37 years, for every 100 females, there were 82.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 80.3 males, the median income for a household in the city was $24,135, and the median income for a family was $28,750. Males had an income of $26,198 versus $16,897 for females. The per capita income for the city was $11,938, about 21. 3% of families and 24. 7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 29. 8% of those under age 18 and 25. 2% of those ages 65 or over. The British built Fort King George in 1721, near what would become Darien, at the time it was the southernmost outpost of the British Empire in North America. The fort was abandoned in 1727 following attacks from the Spanish and its remains constitute the oldest fort on the Georgia coast
Darien, Georgia
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Darien City Hall
Darien, Georgia
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Historical markers
Darien, Georgia
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Ruins of 1863 destruction of the city.
Darien, Georgia
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Waterfront Park
43.
Sapelo Island
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Sapelo Island /ˈsæpəloʊ/ is a state-protected barrier island located in McIntosh County, Georgia. The island is accessible by aircraft or boat, with the primary ferry coming from the Sapelo Island Visitors Center in McIntosh County, Georgia. Approximately 97 percent of the island is owned by the state of Georgia and is managed by the Georgia Department of Natural Resources, the western perimeter of Sapelo is the Sapelo Island National Estuarine Research Reserve which is part of NOAAs National Estuarine Research Reserve system. The University of Georgia Marine Institute, which is focused on research, the Reynolds Mansion, a Georgia State Park, also lies on the south end of the island. Visitors to the island must be a part of a tour or guests of residents on the island. The island also has a private airport run by the state of Georgia. The community of Hog Hammock, also known as Hogg Hummock, includes homes, a store, bar, public library. There are two church congregations in Hog Hammock, St. Luke Baptist Church, founded in 1885. The latter congregation has a building known as First African Baptist Church at Raccoon Bluff. It is used for services and programs. The current population of full-time Gullah-Geechee residents in the community is estimated to be 47, the residents must bring all supplies from the mainland or purchase them in the small store on the island. The children of Hog Hammock take the ferry to the mainland and then take a bus to school, Hog Hammock is also home to the Sapelo Island Cultural and Revitalization Society, Inc. a non-profit organization whose mission is to preserve and revitalize the Hogg Hummock Community. SICARS was incorporated in 1994, has over 600 members, the organization hosts a Cultural Day festival every third Saturday in October. The entire 427 acres of the community was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1996 as Hog Hammock Historic District, in the 1990s, mainlanders began acquiring parcels of land from the Gullahs to construct vacation homes. In 2012, McIntosh County property tax appraisers notified Hog Hammock residents of huge property tax increases, one Hog Hammock property owners annual tax bill soared from $600 to $2,100. S. that a Catholic mass was celebrated. During the 17th century Sapelo Island was part of the Guale missionary province of Spanish Florida, after 1680, several missions were merged and relocated to the island under the mission Santa Catalina de Guale. Spalding brought 400 slaves to the island from West Africa and the West Indies to work the plantation, in 1820, a Winslow Lewis brick lighthouse was built on the island. Although it remained dark for over 90 years, it was restored, Spalding opposed the abolition of slavery and he died in 1851 returning from a convention to assert Georgias position on the matter
Sapelo Island
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University of Georgia dormitories on Sapelo Island
Sapelo Island
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Tabby ruins of Spalding's 1809 sugar mill
Sapelo Island
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R.J. Reynolds mansion
44.
St. Simons, Georgia
–
St. Simons is a census-designated place located on St. Simons Island in Glynn County, Georgia, United States. The community and the island are interchangeable, known simply as St. Simons Island, St. Simons is part of the Brunswick, Georgia Metropolitan Statistical Area, and according to the 2010 census, the CDP had a population of 12,743. Located on the southeast Georgia coast, midway between Savannah and Jacksonville, St. Simons Island is both a seaside resort and residential community and it is the largest of Georgias renowned Golden Isles. Visitors are drawn to the Island for its climate, beaches, variety of outdoor activities, shops and restaurants, historical sites. In addition to its base of permanent residents, the island enjoys an influx of visitors and part-time residents throughout the year. The 2010 Census notes that 26. 8% of total housing units are for “seasonal, recreational, the vast majority of commercial and residential development is located on the southern half of the island. Much of the northern half remains marsh or woodland, a large tract of land in the northeast has been converted to a nature preserve containing trails, historical ruins, and undisturbed maritime forest. The tract, Cannon’s Point Preserve, is open to the public on specified days, originally inhabited by tribes of the Creek Nation, the area of South Georgia that includes St. Simons Island was contested by the Spaniards, English and French. The primary mode of travel to the island is by automobile via F. J. Torras Causeway, malcolm McKinnon Airport serves general aviation on the island. St. Simons Island is part of a cluster of barrier islands, Sea Island forms the eastern edge of this cluster, with Little St. Simons on the north, and the marshes of Glynn plus the Intracoastal Waterway to the west. The Köppen Climate Classification System rates the climate of St. Simons Island as humid subtropical, ocean breezes tend to moderate the island climate, as compared to the nearby mainland. Daytime mean highs in winter range from 61 to 68 °F, summertime mean highs are 88 to 90 °F, with average lows 73 to 75 °F. Average rainfall is 45 inches per year, rainfall is greatest in August and September, when passing afternoon thunderstorms are typical. Accumulation of snow/ice is extremely rare, the last recorded snow on St. Simons was in 1989. The island is located in USDA Plant Hardiness Zone 9a, according to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 17.7 square miles,15.9 square miles of which is land and 1.7 square miles of it is water. On St. Simons Island, a diverse and complex ecology exists alongside residential and commercial development. The island shares many common to the chain of sea islands along the southeastern U. S. coast…sandy beaches on the ocean side, marshes to the west. Despite centuries of agriculture and development, a canopy of live oaks, the abundance of food provided by the marshes, estuaries and vegetation attracts a varied assortment of wildlife on land, sea and in the air
St. Simons, Georgia
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St. Simons Park marker
St. Simons, Georgia
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St. Simons, Georgia
St. Simons, Georgia
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St. Simons Park
St. Simons, Georgia
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Remains of Fort Frederica
45.
French and Indian War
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The French and Indian War comprised the North American theater of the worldwide Seven Years War of 1754–1763. At the start of the war, the French North American colonies had a population of roughly 60,000 European settlers, the outnumbered French particularly depended on the Indians. Following months of localised conflict, the nations declared war on each other in 1756. The name French and Indian War, used mainly in the United States, British and European historians use the term the Seven Years War, as do English speaking Canadians. French Canadians call it La guerre de la Conquête or the Fourth Intercolonial War, fighting took place primarily along the frontiers between New France and the British colonies, from Virginia in the south to Newfoundland in the north. It began with a dispute over control of the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, called the Forks of the Ohio, and the site of the French Fort Duquesne. The dispute erupted into violence in the Battle of Jumonville Glen in May 1754, in 1755, six colonial governors in North America met with General Edward Braddock, the newly arrived British Army commander, and planned a four-way attack on the French. None succeeded, and the effort by Braddock proved a disaster, he lost the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9,1755. In 1755, the British captured Fort Beauséjour on the border separating Nova Scotia from Acadia, orders for the deportation were given by William Shirley, Commander-in-Chief, North America, without direction from Great Britain. The Acadians, both captured in arms and those who had sworn the loyalty oath to His Britannic Majesty, were expelled. Native Americans were likewise driven off their land to make way for settlers from New England, after the disastrous 1757 British campaigns, the British government fell. France concentrated its forces against Prussia and its allies in the European theatre of the war, between 1758 and 1760, the British military launched a campaign to capture the Colony of Canada. They succeeded in capturing territory in surrounding colonies and ultimately the city of Quebec, though the British later lost the Battle of Sainte-Foy west of Quebec, the French ceded Canada in accordance with the Treaty of Paris. The outcome was one of the most significant developments in a century of Anglo-French conflict, France ceded its territory east of the Mississippi to Great Britain. It ceded French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to its ally Spain, in compensation for Spains loss to Britain of Florida. Frances colonial presence north of the Caribbean was reduced to the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the conflict is known by multiple names. In British America, wars were often named after the sitting British monarch, such as King Williams War or Queen Annes War. As there had already been a King Georges War in the 1740s, British colonists named the war in King Georges reign after their opponents
French and Indian War
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Iroquois engaging in trade with Europeans, 1722
French and Indian War
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French and Indian War
French and Indian War
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Robert Dinwiddie, British lieutenant governor of Virginia
French and Indian War
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Washington's map of the
Ohio River and surrounding region containing notes on French intentions, 1753 or 1754
46.
Jekyll Island
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Jekyll Island is located off the coast of the U. S. state of Georgia, in Glynn County. It is one of the Sea Islands and one of the Golden Isles of Georgia barrier islands, the city of Brunswick, Georgia, the Marshes of Glynn, and several other islands, including the larger St. Simons Island, are close by. Long used seasonally by indigenous peoples of the region, beginning in the colonial era, a few structures still stand made of tabby, a coastal building material of crushed oyster shells. The island was developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries for private homes of wealthy American businessmen. It was evacuated during World War II by order of the US government, in 1947 the state of Georgia acquired all the property, for security and preservation. A popular tourist destination, the island has beaches frequented by vacationers, guided tours of the Landmark Historic District are available. Bike trails, walks along the beaches and sandbars, and Summer Waves, the historic district features numerous impressive and ambitious buildings from the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The island is full of wildlife, consisting of many different mammals, reptiles. Jekyll Island is one of only four Georgia barrier islands that have a causeway to allow access from the mainland by car. It has 5,700 acres of land, including 4,400 acres of solid earth, the rest is tidal marshlands, mostly on the islands western shore. Like the other Golden Isles, Jekyll is mostly made of older Pleistocene land mass, the climate is humid subtropical, with rainfall concentrated in the hottest months. The north end of the island is the area that has been affected by human development over the past few hundred years. Early settlers and the loggers who came afterwards developed plantations in this area and they used fallen trees for the construction of ships. In the early 20th century, much of what was considered wilderness was developed into golf courses, a short winding road leads to a parking lot and one of the three picnic areas on the island. To the west is a vast marsh hammock and a view of the Sidney Lanier Bridge, a large fishing pier extends northwest from the picnic area. To the east, a bridge crosses Clam Creek, in front of a marsh, to connect the picnic area to the North End Beach. These beaches are characterized by another tidal creek emptying into St. Simons Sound, the two-story house built from tabby in 1742 stands along N. Riverview Rd. The frame is intact, while the roof, doors, tabby was an indigenous material developed along the coast that was formed from crushed oyster shells, lime and water to make a kind of cement
Jekyll Island
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The Horton House ruins in 2007
Jekyll Island
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Jekyll Island Club Hotel
Jekyll Island
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Major William Horton's tabby-structure home. Built in 1742, this image was taken in 1927.
47.
American Revolutionary War
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From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
American Revolutionary War
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Clockwise from top left:
Surrender of Lord Cornwallis after the
Siege of Yorktown,
Battle of Trenton,
The Death of General Warren at the
Battle of Bunker Hill,
Battle of Long Island,
Battle of Guilford Court House
American Revolutionary War
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Notice of Stamp Act of 1765 in newspaper
American Revolutionary War
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This iconic 1846 lithograph by
Nathaniel Currier was entitled "The Destruction of Tea at Boston Harbor"; the phrase "Boston Tea Party" had not yet become standard. Contrary to Currier's depiction, few of the men dumping the tea were actually disguised as Indians.
American Revolutionary War
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The British marching to
Concord in April 1775
48.
County (United States)
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In the United States, an administrative or political sub-division of a state is a county, which is a region having specific boundaries and usually some level of governmental authority. The term county is used in 48 U. S. states, while Louisiana and Alaska have functionally equivalent subdivisions called parishes, most counties have subdivisions which may include municipalities and unincorporated areas. Others have no divisions, or may serve as a singular consolidated city-county. Some municipalities are in multiple counties, New York City is uniquely partitioned into multiple counties/boroughs, the U. S. federal government uses the term county equivalent to describe non-county administrative or statistical areas that are comparable to counties. Alaskas Unorganized Borough is divided into 11 census areas that are equivalent to counties. As of 2013, the United States has 3,007 counties and 137 county equivalents for a total of 3,144 counties, the number of counties per state ranges from the 3 counties of Delaware to the 254 counties of Texas. Counties have significant governmental functions in all states except Rhode Island and Connecticut, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts has removed most government functions from eight of its 14 counties. The county with the largest population, Los Angeles County, counties were among the earliest units of local government established in the Thirteen Colonies that would become the United States. Virginia created the first counties in order to ease the workload in Jamestown. Americas oldest intact county court records can be found at Eastville, Virginia, in Northampton County, maryland established its first county, St. Marys, in 1637, and Massachusetts followed in 1643. When independence came, the framers of the Constitution did not provide for local governments, rather, they left the matter to the states. Subsequently, early state constitutions generally conceptualized county government as an arm of the state, in some states, these powers are partly or mostly devolved to the counties smaller divisions usually called townships, though in New York, New England and Wisconsin they are called towns. The county may or may not be able to override its townships on certain matters, the newest county in the United States is the city and county of Broomfield, Colorado, established in 2001 as a consolidated city-county. The newest county-equivalents are the Alaskan boroughs of Skagway established in 2007, Wrangell established in 2008, there are 40 consolidated city-counties in the U. S. Similarly, some of Alaskas boroughs have merged with their principal cities creating unified city-boroughs. Some such consolidations and mergers have created cities that rank among the geographically largest cities in the world, see also, #County names, regarding Louisiana. Independent cities, These are cities that legally belong to no county, Washington, D. C. outside the jurisdiction of any state, has a special status. The city of Washington comprises the entirety of the District of Columbia, when founded in 1801, the District consisted of two counties and three cities. In 1846, Alexandria County – including the then–City of Alexandria – was given back to Virginia, in 1871, the three remaining entities – the City of Washington, Georgetown City, and Washington County – were merged into a consolidated government by an act of Congress
County (United States)
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A highway sign designating the border between
Nicholas and
Greenbrier counties in
West Virginia along a secondary road.
County (United States)
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County
49.
Muscogee
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The Muscogee, also known as the Creek and the Creek Confederacy, are a group of related Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands. Originally from Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama, and northern Florida, Muscogee people were relocated in the early 19th century to Indian Territory, Alabama, Louisiana. Their languages, Muscogee and Hitchiti-Mikasuki, belong to the Eastern Muskogean branch of the Muscogean language family, the Muscogee are descendants of the Mississippian culture peoples, who built earthwork mounds at their regional chiefdoms located throughout the Mississippi River valley and its tributaries. Early Spanish explorers encountered ancestors of the Muscogee when they visited Mississippian-culture chiefdoms in the Southeast in the mid-16th century, the Muscogee were the first Native Americans considered to be civilized under George Washingtons civilization plan. The result was a weakening of the Creek Nation and the ceding of Creek lands to the US. During the Indian Removal of the 1830s, most of the Muscogee Confederacy were forcibly relocated to Indian Territory, at least 12,000 years ago, Native Americans or Paleo-Indians lived in what is today the Southern United States. Paleo-Indians in the Southeast were hunter-gatherers who pursued a range of animals, including the megafauna. During the time known as the Woodland period, from 1000 BCE to 1000 CE, locals developed pottery, the Mississippian culture arose as the cultivation of maize from Mesoamerica led to population growth. Increased population density gave rise to urban centers and regional chiefdoms, stratified societies developed, with hereditary religious and political elites, and flourished in what is now the Midwestern, Eastern, and Southeastern United States from 800 to 1500 CE. The early historic Muscogee were descendants of the builders of the Mississippian culture along the Tennessee River in modern Tennessee, Georgia. They may have related to the Tama of central Georgia. At the time the Spanish made their first forays inland from the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, many centers of the Mississippians were already in decline. The region is best described as a collection of moderately sized native chiefdoms interspersed with autonomous villages. After Cabeza de Vaca, a castaway who survived the ill-fated Narváez expedition, returned to Spain, Hernando de Soto was a Spanish explorer and conquistador who led the first expedition into the interior of the North American continent. De Soto, convinced of the riches, wanted Cabeza de Vaca to go on the expedition, from 1540–1543, de Soto explored through present-day Florida and Georgia, and then westward into the Alabama and Mississippi area. The areas were inhabited by historic Muscogee Native Americans, de Soto brought with him a well-equipped army. He attracted many recruits from a variety of backgrounds who joined his quest for riches in the Americas, as the de Soto expeditions brutalities became known to the indigenous peoples, they decided to defend their territory. The Battle of Mabila was a point for the de Soto venture, the battle broke the back of the Spanish campaign
Muscogee
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Muscogee portraits
Muscogee
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The Mississippian culture was a mound-building Native American culture that flourished in the United States before the arrival of Europeans.
Muscogee
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Hernando de Soto and his men burn Mabila, after a surprise attack by Chief Tuskaloosa and his people, 1540 CE, painting by Herb Roe, 2008
Muscogee
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A raiding party against Spanish missions in Florida passes the Ocmulgee
trading post
United States
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Georgia (U.S. state) portal
