1.
Fruit tree pruning
–
Fruit tree pruning is the cutting and removing of selected parts of a fruit tree. It spans a number of horticultural techniques, Pruning often means cutting branches back, sometimes removing smaller limbs entirely. It may also mean removal of young shoots, buds, established orchard practice of both organic and nonorganic types typically includes pruning. Pruning can control growth, remove dead or diseased wood, and stimulate the formation of flowers, plants form new tissue in an area called the meristem, located near the tips of roots and shoots, where active cell division takes place. Meristem growth is aimed at ensuring that leaves are quickly elevated into sunlight, once adequate height and length is achieved by the stems and roots, they begin to thicken to support the plant. On the shoots, these growing tips of the plant are called apical buds, removing the apical tip and its suppressive hormone lets lower, dormant lateral buds develop, and the buds between the leaf stalk and stem produce new shoots that compete to become lead growth. Manipulating this natural response to damage by processes such as pruning allows the arborist to determine the shape, size, the main aim when pruning fruit trees is usually to maximize fruit yield. Unpruned trees tend to produce large numbers of fruits that may be difficult to reach when harvesting by hand. Branches can become broken by the weight of the crop, overpruned trees on the other hand tend to produce light crops of large, flavourless fruit that does not store well. Careful pruning balances shoot growth and fruit production, in the early years of the trees life, it is important to develop a framework sufficiently strong to bear the weight of crops. This requires formative pruning to reinforce the tree, formative pruning of apple and pear trees should be carried out in the dormant winter months. For the Northern hemisphere, this should occur between November and March, For the Southern hemisphere, June and September, stone fruits—such as cherries, plums, and gages—have different requirements, and should not be pruned in dormant months. A maiden whip should be pruned to a bud with two buds below it at about 80 cm from the immediately after planting to produce primary branches during the first growing season. A feathered maiden should have its main stem pruned back to three or four strong shoots at 80 cm from the ground, side shoots should be shortened by two thirds of their length to an upward or outward facing bud. Lower shoots should be removed flush with the stem, remove lower shoots and prune between three and five of the best-placed shoots by half to an upwards or outwards facing bud to form what becomes the trees main structural branches. Prune leading shoots of branches selected to extend the framework by half, select four good laterals to fill the framework and shorten these by a half. Prune any remaining laterals to four buds to form fruiting spurs, the tree has begun to fruit and requires only limited formative pruning. Shorten leaders by one third and prune laterals not required to extend the framework to four buds, the tree is established, and should be pruned annually as described in the following section
2.
Silviculture
–
Silviculture is the practice of controlling the establishment, growth, composition, health, and quality of forests to meet diverse needs and values. The name comes from the Latin silvi- + culture, the study of forests and woods is termed silvology. Silviculture also focuses on making sure that the treatment of forest stands are used to preserve, more particularly, silviculture is the theory and practice of controlling the establishment, composition, constitution, and growth of forests. Suggestions for how best to go about the job, presented by Jeglum et al. though aimed primarily at the boreal forest in Ontario, the 110-page publication describes Best Management Practices, first by general principles, then by sensitive sites. Illustrations are plentiful and are chosen to complement this excellent text. To some the distinction between forestry and silviculture is that silviculture is applied at the level and forestry is broader. For example, John D. Matthews says complete regimes for regenerating, tending, adaptive management is common in silviculture, whereas forestry can include natural, conserved land without a stand level management and treatment being applied. A common taxonomy divides silviculture into regenerating, tending and harvesting techniques, and Dauerwald - Continuous cover forestry, in which are found, un-even aged forestry - Plenterwald - Selection forest - Zielstärkennutzung - Target diameter harvesting. This misunderstanding has meant that many older English textbooks did not capture the complexity of silviculture as practiced where it originated in Mitteleuropa. This silviculture was culturally predicated on wood production in temperate and boreal climates, the misapplication of this philosophy to those tropical forests has been problematic. There is also an alternative silvicultural tradition which developed in Japan, after harvesting comes regeneration, which may be split into Natural and Artificial. And tending which includes release treatments, pruning, thinning and intermediate treatments, as it can be imagined it maybe that any of these 3 phases may happen at the same time, within a stand, depending on the goal for that particular stand. Regeneration is basic to the continuation of forested, as well as to the afforestation of treeless land, regeneration can take place through self-sown seed, by artificially sown seed, or by planted seedlings. In whichever case, the performance of regeneration depends on its growth potential, seed, of course, is needed for all regeneration modes, both for natural or artificial sowing and for raising planting stock in a nursery. The process of natural regeneration involves the renewal of forests by means of self-sown seeds, root suckers, in natural forests, conifers rely almost entirely on regeneration through seed. Most of the broadleaves, however, are able to regenerate by the means of emergence of shoots from stumps, any seed, self-sown or artificially applied, requires a seedbed suitable for securing germination. In order to germinate, a seed requires suitable conditions of temperature, moisture, white spruce seed germinated at 35 °F and 40 °F after continuous stratification for one year or longer and developed radicles <6 cm long in the cold room. When exposed to light, those germinants developed chlorophyll and were normally phototropic with continued elongation, shade is very important to the survival of young seedlings
3.
Branch
–
A branch or tree branch is a woody structural member connected to but not part of the central trunk of a tree. Large branches are known as boughs and small branches are known as twigs, due to a broad range of species of trees, branches and twigs can be seen in many different shapes and sizes. While branches can be horizontal, vertical, or diagonal. The term twig often refers to a terminus, while bough refers only to branches coming directly from the trunk, because of the enormous quantity of branches in the world, there are a variety of names in English alone for them. In general however, unspecific words for a branch have been replaced by the branch itself. A bough can also be called a limb or arm, and though these are arguably metaphors, a crotch or fork is an area where a trunk splits into two or more boughs. A twig is frequently referred to as a sprig as well, other words for twig include branchlet, spray, and surcle, as well as the technical terms surculus and ramulus. Branches found under larger branches can be called underbranches, some branches from specific trees have their own names, such as osiers and withes or withies, which come from willows. Often trees have certain words which, in English, are naturally collocated, such as holly and mistletoe, similarly, the branch of a cherry tree is generally referred to as a cherry branch, while other such formations carry no such alliance. A good example of this versatility is oak, which could be referred to as variously an oak branch, an oaken branch, a branch of oak, or the branch of an oak. Once a branch has been cut or in any other way removed from its source, it is most commonly referred to as a stick, thin, flexible sticks are called switches, wands, shrags, or vimina. In Old English, there are words for branch, including seten, stofn, telgor. There are also numerous words, such as blēd, bōgincel, ōwæstm. Numerous other words for twigs and boughs abound, including tān, latin words for branch are ramus or cladus. The second term is a found in other modern words such as cladodonts or cladogram. Basal shoot Plant stem Root Shoot Stolon Switch Trunk Turion Twig Wand
4.
Bud
–
In botany, a bud is an undeveloped or embryonic shoot and normally occurs in the axil of a leaf or at the tip of a stem. Once formed, a bud may remain for some time in a dormant condition, buds may be specialized to develop flowers or short shoots, or may have the potential for general shoot development. The term bud is used in zoology, where it refers to an outgrowth from the body which can develop into a new individual. The buds of many plants, especially in temperate or cold climates, are protected by a covering of modified leaves called scales which tightly enclose the more delicate parts of the bud. Many bud scales are covered by a substance which serves as added protection. When the bud develops, the scales may enlarge somewhat but usually just drop off, leaving on the surface of the growing stem a series of horizontally-elongated scars. By means of these one can determine the age of any young branch, since each years growth ends in the formation of a bud. Continued growth of the branch causes these scars to be obliterated after a few years so that the age of older branches cannot be determined by this means. In many plants scales do not form over the bud, the minute underdeveloped leaves in such buds are often excessively hairy. Naked buds are found in shrubs, like some species of the Sumac and Viburnums. In many of the latter, buds are more reduced. A terminal bud occurs on the end of a stem and lateral buds are found on the side, a head of cabbage is an exceptionally large terminal bud, while Brussels sprouts are large lateral buds. Since buds are formed in the axils of leaves, their distribution on the stem is the same as that of leaves, there are alternate, opposite, and whorled buds, as well as the terminal bud at the tip of the stem. In many plants buds appear in unexpected places, these are known as adventitious buds, often it is possible to find a bud in a remarkable series of gradations of bud scales. Such a series suggests that the scales of the bud are in truth leaves, buds are often useful in the identification of plants, especially for woody plants in winter when leaves have fallen. Buds may be classified and described according to different criteria, location, status, morphology, buds The term bud is used by analogy within zoology as well, where it refers to an outgrowth from the body which develops into a new individual. It is a form of asexual reproduction limited to animals or plants of relatively simple structure, in this process a portion of the wall of the parent cell softens and pushes out. The protuberance thus formed enlarges rapidly while at time the nucleus of the parent cell divides
5.
Root
–
In vascular plants, the root is the organ of a plant that typically lies below the surface of the soil. Roots can also be aerial or aerating, that is growing up above the ground or especially above water, furthermore, a stem normally occurring below ground is not exceptional either. Therefore, the root is best defined as the non-leaf, non-nodes bearing parts of the plants body, however, important internal structural differences between stems and roots exist. The fossil record of roots – or rather, infilled voids where roots rotted after death – spans back to the late Silurian and their identification is difficult, because casts and molds of roots are so similar in appearance to animal burrows. They can be discriminated using a range of features, the first root that comes from a plant is called the radicle. In response to the concentration of nutrients, roots also synthesise cytokinin, Roots often function in storage of food and nutrients. The roots of most vascular plant species enter into symbiosis with fungi to form mycorrhizae. In its simplest form, the root architecture refers to the spatial configuration of a plant’s root system. This system can be complex and is dependent upon multiple factors such as the species of the plant itself, the composition of the soil. The configuration of root systems serves to support the plant, compete with other plants. Roots grow to specific conditions, which, if changed, can impede a plants growth. For example, a system that has developed in dry soil may not be as efficient in flooded soil, yet plants are able to adapt to other changes in the environment. Root architecture plays the important role of providing a supply of nutrients and water as well as anchorage. The main terms used to classify the architecture of a system are, Branch magnitude. Root angle, the angle of a lateral root’s base around the parent root’s circumference, the angle of a lateral root from its parent root. Link radius, the diameter of a root, all components of the root architecture are regulated through a complex interaction between genetic responses and responses due to environmental stimuli. These developmental stimuli are categorised as intrinsic, the genetic and nutritional influences, or extrinsic, the main hormones and respective pathways responsible for root architecture development include, Auxin – Auxin promotes root initiation, root emergence and primary root elongation. Cytokinins – Cytokinins regulate root apical meristem size and promote lateral root elongation, gibberellins – Together with ethylene they promote crown primordia growth and elongation
6.
Plant nursery
–
A nursery is a place where plants are propagated and grown to usable size. Some retail and wholesale nurseries sell by mail, nurseries may supply plants for gardens, for agriculture, for forestry and for conservation biology. Some nurseries specialize in one phase of the process, propagation, growing out, or retail sale, or in one type of plant, e. g. groundcovers, shade plants, or rock garden plants. Some produce bulk stock, whether seedlings or grafted, of particular varieties for purposes such as trees for orchards. Nurseries can grow plants in open fields, on container fields, in open fields nurseries grow ornamental trees, shrubs and herbaceous perennials, especially the plants meant for the wholesale trade or for amenity plantings. On a containerfield nurseries grow small trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants, nurseries also grow plants in greenhouses, a building of glass or in plastic tunnels, designed to protect young plants from harsh weather, while allowing access to light and ventilation. Modern greenhouses allow automated control of temperature, ventilation and light, some also have fold-back roofs to allow hardening-off of plants without the need for manual transfer to outdoor beds. Although some processes have been mechanised and automated, others have not, a UK nurseryman has estimated that manpower accounts for 70% of his production costs. Picking merely requires selection of a batch and manual quality control before dispatch, in other cases, a high loss rate during maturation is accepted for the reduction in detailed plant maintenance costs. Business is highly seasonal, concentrated in spring and autumn, there is no guarantee that there will be demand for the product - this will be affected by temperature, drought, cheaper foreign competition, fashion, among other things. Annuals are sold in trays, flats, peat pots, or plastic pots, perennials and woody plants are sold either in pots, bare-root or balled and burlapped and in a variety of sizes, from liners to mature trees. Balled and Burlap trees are dug either by hand or by a loader that has a tree spade attachment on the front of the machine. Although container grown plants are becoming more and more popular due to the versatility. Plants may be propagated by seeds, but often desirable cultivars are propagated asexually, the most common method is by cuttings. These can be taken from shoot tips or parts of stems with a node or from older stems, herbaceous perennials are also often propagated by root cuttings or division. For plants on a rootstock grafting or budding is used, older techniques like layering are sometimes used for crops which are difficult to propagate. With the objective of fitting planting stock more ably to withstand stresses after outplanting, buse and Day, for instance, studied the effect of conditioning of white spruce and black spruce transplants on their morphology, physiology, and subsequent performance after outplanting. Root pruning, wrenching, and fertilization with potassium at 375 kg/ha were the treatments applied
7.
Harvest
–
Harvesting is the process of gathering a ripe crop from the fields. Reaping is the cutting of grain or pulse for harvest, typically using a scythe, sickle, on smaller farms with minimal mechanization, harvesting is the most labor-intensive activity of the growing season. On large mechanized farms, harvesting utilizes the most expensive and sophisticated farm machinery, the term harvesting in general usage may include immediate postharvest handling, including cleaning, sorting, packing, and cooling. Harvest, a noun, came from the Old English word hærfest, meaning autumn, harvest-time, the harvest came to also mean the activity of reaping, gathering, and storing grain and other grown products during the autumn, and also the grain and other grown products themselves. Harvest was also verbified, To harvest means to reap, gather, people who harvest and equipment that harvests are harvesters, while they do it, they are harvesting. In history, crop failures and subsequent famines have triggered human migration, rural exodus, over years, unsustainable farming of land degrades soil fertility and diminishes crop yield. With a steadily growing population and local overpopulation, even slightly diminishing yields are already the equivalent to a partial harvest failure. Fortunately, fertilizers obviate the need for regeneration in the first place. Harvesting commonly refers to grain and produce, but also has other uses, the term harvest is also used in reference to harvesting grapes for wine. Within the context of irrigation, water harvesting refers to the collection, instead of harvest, the term exploit is also used, as in exploiting fisheries or water resources. Energy harvesting is the process of capturing and storing energy that would otherwise go unexploited, body harvesting, or cadaver harvesting, is the process of collecting and preparing cadavers for anatomical study. In a similar sense, organ harvesting is the removal of tissues or organs from a donor for purposes of transplanting. Harvesting or Domestic Harvesting in Canada refers to hunting, fishing, and plant gathering by First Nations, Métis, for example, in the Gwichin Comprehensive Land Claim Agreement, Harvesting means gathering, hunting, trapping or fishing. Similarly, in the Tlicho Land Claim and Self Government Agreement, Harvesting means, in relation to wildlife, hunting, trapping or fishing and, in relation to plants or trees, combine Harvester Harvest Harvest festival Overharvesting Threshing Winnowing
8.
Plant pathology
–
Plant pathology is the scientific study of diseases in plants caused by pathogens and environmental conditions. Organisms that cause infectious disease include fungi, oomycetes, bacteria, viruses, viroids, virus-like organisms, phytoplasmas, protozoa, nematodes, not included are ectoparasites like insects, mites, vertebrate, or other pests that affect plant health by consumption of plant tissues. Control of plant diseases is crucial to the production of food. Plants in both natural and cultivated populations carry inherent disease resistance, but there are examples of devastating plant disease impacts. However, disease control is reasonably successful for most crops, plant diseases cause major economic losses for farmers worldwide. The Food and Agriculture Organization estimates indeed that pests and diseases are responsible for about 25% of crop loss, most phytopathogenic fungi belong to the Ascomycetes and the Basidiomycetes. The fungi reproduce sexually and asexually via the production of spores and other structures. Spores may be spread long distances by air or water, or they may be soilborne, Many soil inhabiting fungi are capable of living saprotrophically, carrying out the part of their life cycle in the soil. These are known as facultative saprotrophs, fungal diseases may be controlled through the use of fungicides and other agriculture practices. However, new races of fungi often evolve that are resistant to various fungicides, biotrophic fungal pathogens colonize living plant tissue and obtain nutrients from living host cells. Necrotrophic fungal pathogens infect and kill host tissue and extract nutrients from the dead host cells, see the powdery mildew and rice blast images, below. Significant fungal plant pathogens include, Fusarium spp, magnaporthe grisea Sclerotinia sclerotiorum Ustilago spp. The oomycetes are not true fungi but are fungus-like organisms and they include some of the most destructive plant pathogens including the genus Phytophthora, which includes the causal agents of potato late blight and sudden oak death. Particular species of oomycetes are responsible for root rot, despite not being closely related to the fungi, the oomycetes have developed very similar infection strategies. Oomycetes are capable of using effector proteins to turn off a plants defenses in its infection process, plant pathologists commonly group them with fungal pathogens. Significant oomycete plant pathogens Pythium spp and these are caused by species of Plasmodiophora and Spongospora, respectively. Most bacteria that are associated with plants are actually saprotrophic and do no harm to the plant itself, however, a small number, around 100 known species, are able to cause disease. Bacterial diseases are more prevalent in subtropical and tropical regions of the world
9.
Tissue (biology)
–
In biology, tissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organ. A tissue is an ensemble of similar cells from the origin that together carry out a specific function. Organs are then formed by the grouping together of multiple tissues. The study of tissue is known as histology or, in connection with disease, the classical tools for studying tissues are the paraffin block in which tissue is embedded and then sectioned, the histological stain, and the optical microscope. In the last couple of decades, developments in microscopy, immunofluorescence. With these tools, the appearances of tissues can be examined in health and disease. Animal tissues are grouped into four types, connective, muscle, nervous. Collections of tissues joined in structural units to serve a common function compose organs, while all animals can generally be considered to contain the four tissue types, the manifestation of these tissues can differ depending on the type of organism. For example, the origin of the cells comprising a particular type may differ developmentally for different classifications of animals. By contrast, a true epithelial tissue is present only in a layer of cells held together via occluding junctions called tight junctions. This tissue covers all surfaces that come in contact with the external environment such as the skin, the airways. It serves functions of protection, secretion, and absorption, and is separated from other tissues below by a basal lamina and they are made up of cells separated by non-living material, which is called an extracellular matrix. This matrix can be liquid or rigid, for example, blood contains plasma as its matrix and bones matrix is rigid. Connective tissue gives shape to organs and holds them in place, blood, bone, tendon, ligament, adipose and areolar tissues are examples of connective tissues. One method of classifying tissues is to divide them into three types, fibrous connective tissue, skeletal connective tissue, and fluid connective tissue. Muscle cells form the active contractile tissue of the known as muscle tissue or muscular tissue. Muscle tissue functions to force and cause motion, either locomotion or movement within internal organs. Cells comprising the nervous system and peripheral nervous system are classified as nervous tissue
10.
Woody plant
–
A woody plant is a plant that produces wood as its structural tissue. Woody plants are usually either trees, shrubs, or lianas and these are usually perennial plants whose stems and larger roots are reinforced with wood produced from secondary xylem. The main stem, larger branches, and roots of plants are usually covered by a layer of bark. Wood is a structural cellular adaptation that allows plants to grow from above ground stems year after year. Wood is primarily composed of cells with cell walls made of cellulose. Xylem is a vascular tissue which moves water and nutrients from the roots to the leaves, however, in some monocotyledons such as palms and dracaenas, the wood is formed in bundles scattered through the interior of the trunk. Woody herbs are herbaceous plants that develop hard woody stems and they include such plants as Uraria picta and certain species in family Polygonaceae. These herbs are not truly woody but have densely packed stem tissue. Other herbaceous plants have woody stems called a caudex, which is a stem base often found in plants that grow in alpine or dry environments. Under specific conditions, woody plants may decay or may in time become petrified wood, the symbol for a woody plant, based on Species Plantarum by Linnaeus is, which is also the astronomical symbol for the planet Saturn
11.
Compartmentalization of decay in trees
–
Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees, also known as Compartmentalization Of Disease In Trees by some, is a concept created by Dr. Alex Shigo after years of studying tree decay patterns. In keeping with the theory of abiogenesis, in living things can develop from non-living things. According to CODIT, when a tree is wounded cells undergo changes to form walls around the wound, slowing or preventing the spread of disease, the first wall is formed by plugging up normally conductive vascular tissue above and below the wound. This tissue runs up and down the length of the stem, tissues are plugged in various ways, such as with tylosis, polyphenolic deposits, anti-fungal substances and by the closure of the bordered pits linking vessel cells. The second wall is formed by the thick-walled, lignin-rich cells of the growth ring interior and exterior to the wound. This wall is the second weakest, and is continuous except where intersected by ray cells. The third wall is formed by ray cells, which are groups of radiating cells oriented perpendicularly to the stem axis and these groups of cells are not continuous and vary in length, height and thickness, forming a maze-like barrier to tangential spread of decay. After wounding, some ray cells are also altered chemically, becoming toxic to some microorganisms and this is the strongest wall at the time of wounding, prior to the growth of the fourth wall. The fourth wall, known as the zone, is created by new growth of specialised woody tissue on the exterior of the tree. This is the strongest wall, and often the one which can completely halt the spread of infection by closing the wound with new wood. When only the wall remains intact, the result is something most people have seen walking through the woods or in a park. In such cases, all the present at the time of injury has become infected. By increasing understanding of how trees respond to decay, CODIT has had many applications, for example, arborists are frequently called upon to analyze the danger posed to people or property by a damaged or decaying tree. By knowing how decay is likely to spread, such hazard tree analyses may be accurate, thereby preventing unnecessary tree removal, property damage. For another example, in the production of maple syrup holes are drilled into a trees vascular tissues, CODIT has helped farmers to better understand the effects of different tapping techniques and accordingly to change their methods to minimize damage and maximize production. Work done by Gilman et al. at the University of Florida shows that a wounds proximity to leaf mass greatly influences compartmentalization as well as wound closure. Except for the introduction and sections with specific citations, most of this article is based on information from USDA Forest Service Agriculture Information Bulletin No,419, Tree Decay, An Expanded Concept by Alex Shigo. Shigo, A. L. Compartmentalization, A Conceptual Framework for Understanding How Trees Grow and Defend Themselves
12.
Rose
–
A rose is a woody perennial flowering plant of the genus Rosa, in the family Rosaceae, or the flower it bears. There are over a species and thousands of cultivars. They form a group of plants that can be erect shrubs, flowers vary in size and shape and are usually large and showy, in colours ranging from white through yellows and reds. Most species are native to Asia, with smaller numbers native to Europe, North America, species, cultivars and hybrids are all widely grown for their beauty and often are fragrant. Roses have acquired cultural significance in many societies, Rose plants range in size from compact, miniature roses, to climbers that can reach seven meters in height. Different species hybridize easily, and this has used in the development of the wide range of garden roses. The leaves are borne alternately on the stem, most roses are deciduous but a few are evergreen or nearly so. The flowers of most species have five petals, with the exception of Rosa sericea, each petal is divided into two distinct lobes and is usually white or pink, though in a few species yellow or red. Beneath the petals are five sepals and these may be long enough to be visible when viewed from above and appear as green points alternating with the rounded petals. There are multiple superior ovaries that develop into achenes, the aggregate fruit of the rose is a berry-like structure called a rose hip. Many of the domestic cultivars do not produce hips, as the flowers are so tightly petalled that they do not provide access for pollination, the hips of most species are red, but a few have dark purple to black hips. Each hip comprises an outer layer, the hypanthium, which contains 5–160 seeds embedded in a matrix of fine. Rose hips of some species, especially the dog rose and rugosa rose, are rich in vitamin C. The hips are eaten by fruit-eating birds such as thrushes and waxwings, some birds, particularly finches, also eat the seeds. While the sharp objects along a stem are commonly called thorns. Rose prickles are typically sickle-shaped hooks, which aid the rose in hanging onto other vegetation growing over it. Despite the presence of prickles, roses are frequently browsed by deer, a few species of roses have only vestigial prickles that have no points. Hesperrhodos contains Rosa minutifolia and Rosa stellata, from North America, platyrhodon with one species from east Asia, Rosa roxburghii
13.
Viticulture
–
Viticulture is the science, production, and study of grapes. It deals with the series of events occur in the vineyard. It is a branch of the science of horticulture, for this reason, viticulture can be found on every continent except Antarctica. Viticulturists are often involved with winemakers, because vineyard management. A great number of varieties are now approved in the European Union as true grapes for wine-growing and viticulture, the earliest evidence of grape vine cultivation and winemaking dates back 7,000 years. The history of viticulture is closely related to the history of wine, evidence suggests that some of the earliest domestication of Vitis vinifera occurred in the area of the modern countries Georgia and Armenia. The oldest-known winery was discovered in the Areni-1 cave in Vayots Dzor, dated to c. 4100 BC, the site contained a wine press, fermentation vats, jars, and cups. Archaeologists also found V. vinifera seeds and vines, commenting on the importance of the find, McGovern said, The fact that winemaking was already so well developed in 4000 BC suggests that the technology probably goes back much earlier. There is also evidence of domestication in the Near East in the early Bronze Age. Evidence of ancient viticulture is provided by sources, plant remains, historical geography. The remnants of ancient wine jars have been used to determine the culture of wine consumption, in addition to winemaking, grapes have been grown for the production of raisins. With the ability to pollinate itself, over time the hermaphroditic vines were able to sire offspring that were consistently hermaphroditic, during this period, grape cultivation developed from an aspect of local consumption to an important component of international economies and trade. From 1200 BC to 900 BC, the Phoenicians developed viticulture practices that were used in Carthage. Around 500 BC, the Carthaginian writer Mago recorded such practices in a work that was one of the few artifacts to survive the Roman destruction of Carthage during the Third Punic War. The Roman statesman Cato the Elder was influenced by texts, and around 160 BC he wrote De Agricultura. Around 65 AD, the Roman writer Columella produced the most detailed work on Roman viticulture in his twelve-volume text De Re Rustica, columellas work is one of the earliest to detail trellis systems for raising vines off the ground. Columella advocated the use of stakes versus the previously accepted practice of training vines to grow up along tree trunks. Roman viticulturists were among the first to identify steep hillsides as one of the locations to plant vines, because cool air runs downhill
14.
Hedge
–
A hedge or hedgerow is a line of closely spaced shrubs and tree species, planted and trained to form a barrier or to mark the boundary of an area, such as between neighbouring properties. Hedges used to separate a road from adjoining fields or one field from another, often they serve as windbreaks to improve conditions for the adjacent crops. When clipped and maintained, hedges are also a form of topiary. The development of hedges over the centuries is preserved in their structure, the first hedges enclosed land for cereal crops during the Neolithic Age. The farms were of about 5 to 10 hectares, with fields about 0.1 hectares for hand cultivation, some hedges date from the Bronze and Iron Ages, 2000–4000 years ago, when traditional patterns of landscape became established. Others were built during the Medieval field rationalisations, more originated in the boom of the 18th and 19th centuries. In parts of Britain, early hedges were destroyed to make way for the manorial open-field system, many were replaced after the Enclosure Acts, then removed again during modern agricultural intensification, and now some are being replanted for wildlife. A hedge may consist of a species or several, typically mixed at random. In many newly planted British hedges, at least 60 per cent of the shrubs are hawthorn, blackthorn, the first two are particularly effective barriers to livestock. Other shrubs and trees used include holly, beech, oak, ash, and willow, of the hedgerows in the Normandy region of France, Martin Blumenson said, The hedgerow is a fence, half earth, half hedge. The wall at the base is a parapet that varies in thickness from one to four or more feet. Growing out of the wall is a hedge of hawthorn, brambles, vines, originally property demarcations, hedgerows protect crops and cattle from the ocean winds that sweep across the land. The hedgerows of Normandy became barriers that slowed the advance of Allied troops following the D-Day invasion of WWII, there are thought to be around 1.8 million hedgerow trees in Britain with perhaps 98% of these being in England and Wales. Hedgerow trees are both an important part of the English landscape and are valuable habitats for wildlife, many hedgerow trees are veteran trees and therefore of great wildlife interest. The most common species are oak and ash, though in the past elm would also have been common, around 20 million elm trees, most of them hedgerow trees, were felled or died through Dutch elm disease in the late 1960s. Many other species are used, notably including beech and various nut, the age structure of British hedgerow trees is old because the number of new trees is not sufficient to replace the number of trees that are lost through age or disease. New trees can be established by planting but it is more successful to leave standard trees behind when laying hedges. Trees should be left at no closer than 10 metres apart, the distance allows the young trees to develop full crowns without competing or producing too much shade
15.
Hedge trimmer
–
A hedge trimmer, shrub trimmer, or bush trimmer, is a gardening tool or machine used for trimming hedges or solitary shrubs. Different designs as well as manual and powered versions of hedge trimmers exist, the power source of stand-alone hedge trimmers can be human power, gasoline, or electricity. Manual hedge trimmers are designed as large scissors or large pruning shears and they do not need anything to operate and are cheapest/most environmentally friendly. Motorized hedge trimmers allow work to be faster and with less effort than manual ones. Their cutting mechanism is similar to that of finger-bar mowers, powered trimmers are generally designed with safety devices such that they work only when both of the operators hands are on the handles. Gasoline-powered trimmers tend to be powerful but can be heavier. Electrical trimmers tend to be lighter and less powerful as well as less polluting/noisy, tractor-mounted and tractor-driven hedge trimmers also exist, but are not that common. These machines consist of an arm with a large hedge trimmer attachment at its end. Their cutting mechanism is similar to that of finger-bar mowers, such large hedge trimmers are often confused with tractor-mounted reach flail mowers, which appear similar due to the use of booms. And in colloquial language both, tractor-mounted hedge trimmers and reach flail mowers, are imprecisely called hedge cutters, or brush cutters. In contrast to tractor-mounted hedge trimmers, reach flail mowers have a different cutting mechanism, and are not only used for trimming hedges, furthermore some special machines allow easy trimming of specific plants or food crops, and are sometimes just called trimmers, too. These include e. g. vine trimmers, and tree trimmers and their cutting mechanisms can be very different from hedge trimmers. Media related to Hedge trimmers at Wikimedia Commons
16.
Meteorology
–
Meteorology is a branch of the atmospheric sciences which includes atmospheric chemistry and atmospheric physics, with a major focus on weather forecasting. The study of meteorology dates back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until the 18th century, the 19th century saw modest progress in the field after weather observation networks were formed across broad regions. Prior attempts at prediction of weather depended on historical data, Meteorological phenomena are observable weather events that are explained by the science of meteorology. Different spatial scales are used to describe and predict weather on local, regional, Meteorology, climatology, atmospheric physics, and atmospheric chemistry are sub-disciplines of the atmospheric sciences. Meteorology and hydrology compose the interdisciplinary field of hydrometeorology, the interactions between Earths atmosphere and its oceans are part of a coupled ocean-atmosphere system. Meteorology has application in diverse fields such as the military, energy production, transport, agriculture. The word meteorology is from Greek μετέωρος metéōros lofty, high and -λογία -logia -logy, varāhamihiras classical work Brihatsamhita, written about 500 AD, provides clear evidence that a deep knowledge of atmospheric processes existed even in those times. In 350 BC, Aristotle wrote Meteorology, Aristotle is considered the founder of meteorology. One of the most impressive achievements described in the Meteorology is the description of what is now known as the hydrologic cycle and they are all called swooping bolts because they swoop down upon the Earth. Lightning is sometimes smoky, and is then called smoldering lightning, sometimes it darts quickly along, at other times, it travels in crooked lines, and is called forked lightning. When it swoops down upon some object it is called swooping lightning, the Greek scientist Theophrastus compiled a book on weather forecasting, called the Book of Signs. The work of Theophrastus remained a dominant influence in the study of weather, in 25 AD, Pomponius Mela, a geographer for the Roman Empire, formalized the climatic zone system. According to Toufic Fahd, around the 9th century, Al-Dinawari wrote the Kitab al-Nabat, ptolemy wrote on the atmospheric refraction of light in the context of astronomical observations. St. Roger Bacon was the first to calculate the size of the rainbow. He stated that a rainbow summit can not appear higher than 42 degrees above the horizon, in the late 13th century and early 14th century, Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī and Theodoric of Freiberg were the first to give the correct explanations for the primary rainbow phenomenon. Theoderic went further and also explained the secondary rainbow, in 1716, Edmund Halley suggested that aurorae are caused by magnetic effluvia moving along the Earths magnetic field lines. In 1441, King Sejongs son, Prince Munjong, invented the first standardized rain gauge and these were sent throughout the Joseon Dynasty of Korea as an official tool to assess land taxes based upon a farmers potential harvest. In 1450, Leone Battista Alberti developed a swinging-plate anemometer, and was known as the first anemometer, in 1607, Galileo Galilei constructed a thermoscope
17.
Salt pruning
–
Salt pruning is the process by which saline mists generated by seawater are driven ashore by winds and thus over time alter the shape of trees or shrubs. The process degrades foliage and branches on the side of the plant that faces the body of saline water. The resultant growth form is asymmetrical, appearing swept back away from the ocean, there are numerous examples worldwide of this phenomenon. In the eastern United States on Long Island occurrences of salt-pruned Quercus stellata are observable in Flax Marsh, in San Diego County, California, a colony of Pinus torreyana has been salt-pruned by spray from the Pacific Ocean. The logo of the Torrey Pines Golf Course in La Jolla, California, ice pruning Lone Cypress Brooks, Robbyn. Salt, storms stimulate trees and vegetation
18.
Abscission
–
Abscission is the shedding of various parts of an organism, such as a plant dropping a leaf, fruit, flower, or seed. In zoology, abscission is the shedding of a body part, such as the shedding of a claw, husk. In mycology, it is the liberation of a fungal spore, in cell biology, abscission refers to the separation of two daughter cells at the completion of cytokinesis. A plant will abscise a part either to discard a member that is no longer necessary, such as a leaf during autumn, or a flower following fertilisation, most deciduous plants drop their leaves by abscission before winter, whereas evergreen plants continuously abscise their leaves. Another form of abscission is fruit drop, when a plant abscises fruit while still immature, if a leaf is damaged, a plant may also abscise it to conserve water or photosynthetic efficiency, depending on the costs to the plant as a whole. The abscission layer is a greenish-grayish color, abscission can also occur in premature leaves as a means of plant defense. Premature leaf abscission has been shown to occur in response to infestation by gall aphids, by abscising leaves that have been made host to aphid galls, plants have been shown to massively diminish the pest population, as 98% of aphids in abscised galls died. The abscission is selective, and the chance of dropping leaves increases as the number of galls increase. A leaf with three or more galls was four times more likely to abscise than a leaf with one, abscission occurs in a series of three events, 1) remobilization, 2) protective layer formation, and 3) detachment. Steps 2 and 3 may occur in either order depending on the species, remobilization involves degrading chlorophyll to extract the majority of its nutrients. Nitrogen is found in chlorophyll and is often a limiting nutrient for plants because plants need large quantities of N to form acids, nucleic acids, proteins. Once nitrogen and other nutrients have been extracted from chlorophyll, the nutrients will travel to other tissues of the plant, remobilization is what causes leaves in the fall to change colors. Carotenoids in the leaves are slower to degrade than chlorophyll, so autumn leaves appear yellow, cells under the abscission zone divide and form a layer of cork cells. Situated on both sides of the zone are layers of parenchyma cells, which produce and inject suberin and lignin under the abscission zone into the new layer of cork cells. Suberin and lignin create a durable and waterproof layer for the plant once the organ is detached and this step can occur in a variety of ways depending on the species but always occurs at the abscission zone. Detachment can occur when layers of parenchyma cells secrete cell wall enzymes to self-digest the middle lamella and this causes the cells of the abscission zone to break apart and the leaf or other plant part to fall off. Another way detachment occurs is through imbibition of water, the plant cells at the abscission zone will take in a large amount of water, swell, and eventually burst, making the organ fall off. Once detached, the layer of cork will be exposed
19.
Arborist
–
Arborists generally focus on the health and safety of individual plants and trees, rather than managing forests or harvesting wood. An arborists scope of work is distinct from that of either a forester or a logger. To work near power wires either additional training is required for arborists or they need to be Qualified Line Clearance Arborist or Utility Arborists. There is a variety of distances that must be kept from power wires depending on voltage. Arborists who climb can use a variety of techniques to ascend into the tree, the least invasive, and most popular technique used is to ascend on rope. There are two methods of climbing, Single Rope Technique and Double Rope Technique. When personal safety is an issue, or the tree is being removed, arborists may use spikes, attached to their boots with straps to ascend. Spikes wound the tree, leaving holes where each step has been. An arborists work may involve very large and complex trees, or ecological communities and these may require monitoring and treatment to ensure they are healthy, safe, and suitable to property owners or community standards. Arborists may also plan, consult, write reports and give legal testimony. While some aspects of work are done on the ground or in an office, much of it is done by arborists who perform tree services. Lifts and cranes may be used too, the work of all arborists is not the same. Some may just provide a service, others may perform climbing, pruning and planting. Arborists gain qualifications to practice arboriculture in a variety of ways, experience working safely and effectively in and around trees is essential. All these disciplines are related and some arborists are very experienced in all areas of tree work. Many arborists choose to pursue formal certification, which is available in countries and varies somewhat by location. An arborist who holds certification in one or more disciplines may be expected to participate in continuing education requirements to ensure continuous improvement of skills. In the UK an arborist can gain qualifications up to and including a masters degree, other designations include Municipal Specialist, Utility Specialist and Board Certified Master Arborist
20.
Pollarding
–
Pollarding is a pruning system in which the upper branches of a tree are removed, promoting a dense head of foliage and branches. Pollarding in Ancient Rome was mentioned by Propertius during the 1st Century BC and it has been common in Europe since medieval times and is practised today in urban areas worldwide, primarily to maintain trees at a predetermined height. Traditionally, trees were pollarded for one of two reasons, for fodder to feed livestock, or for wood and this is not a practice to use if one wants an attractive, natural tree as the natural growth is stunted. Many times this is done in states of the USA to crepe myrtles. Fodder pollards produced pollard hay, which was used as livestock feed, wood pollards were pruned at longer intervals of eight to fifteen years, a pruning cycle that tended to produce upright poles favored for fence rails and posts, as well as boat construction. Supple young willow or hazel branches are harvested as material for weaving baskets, fences, older pollards often become hollow, so can be difficult to age accurately. Pollards tend to slowly, with narrower growth rings in the years immediately after cutting. Pollarding began with walled cities in Europe which did not have room for large trees, the smaller limbs that resulted could be used for heat and cooking. As in coppicing, the tradition of pollarding is to encourage the tree to produce new growth on a basis to maintain a supply of new wood for various purposes. In some areas, dried leafy branches are stored as winter fodder for stock, depending upon the use of the cut material, the length of time between cutting will vary from one year for tree hay or withies, to five years or more for larger timber. Sometimes, only some of the stems may be cut in a season – this is thought to reduce the chances of death of the tree when recutting long-neglected pollards. Pollarding was preferred over coppicing in wood-pastures and other grazed areas, historically, the right to pollard or lop was often granted to local people for fuel on common land or in royal forests, this was part of the right of Estover. An incidental effect of pollarding in woodland is the encouragement of growth due to increased levels of light reaching the woodland floor. However, in woodland where pollarding was once common but has now ceased, an example of this can be seen in Epping Forest in London/Essex, UK, the majority of which was pollarded until the late 19th century. Here, the light reaches the woodland floor is extremely limited owing to the thick growth of the pollarded trees. Pollards cut at only about a metre or so above the ground are called stubs and these were often used as markers in coppice or other woodland. Stubs cannot be used where the trees are browsed by animals, although people who came to the United States from Europe continued the practice, in the 21st century, experts believe pollarding harms the tree. The smaller limbs grow from wood that is not as strong, as with coppicing, only species with vigorous epicormic growth may be made into pollards
21.
Statue of Liberty
–
The Statue of Liberty is a colossal neoclassical sculpture on Liberty Island in New York Harbor in New York City, in the United States. The copper statue, a gift from the people of France to the people of the United States, was designed by French sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, the statue was dedicated on October 28,1886. The Statue of Liberty is a female figure representing Libertas. She holds a torch above her head, and in her left arm carries a tabula ansata inscribed July 4,1776, a broken chain lies at her feet. The statue became an icon of freedom and of the United States, due to the post-war instability in France, work on the statue did not commence until the early 1870s. In 1875, Laboulaye proposed that the French finance the statue, Bartholdi completed the head and the torch-bearing arm before the statue was fully designed, and these pieces were exhibited for publicity at international expositions. The torch-bearing arm was displayed at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876, fundraising proved difficult, especially for the Americans, and by 1885 work on the pedestal was threatened due to lack of funds. Publisher Joseph Pulitzer of the New York World started a drive for donations to complete the project attracted more than 120,000 contributors. The statue was constructed in France, shipped overseas in crates, the statues completion was marked by New Yorks first ticker-tape parade and a dedication ceremony presided over by President Grover Cleveland. The statue was administered by the United States Lighthouse Board until 1901 and then by the Department of War, public access to the balcony surrounding the torch has been barred for safety reasons since 1916. The project is traced to a conversation between Édouard René de Laboulaye, a staunch abolitionist and Frédéric Bartholdi, a sculptor. The National Park Service, in a 2000 report, however, deemed this a legend traced to an 1885 fundraising pamphlet, in order to honor these achievements, Laboulaye proposed that a gift be built for the United States on behalf of France. Laboulaye hoped that by calling attention to the recent achievements of the United States, according to sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, who later recounted the story, Laboulayes comment was not intended as a proposal, but it inspired Bartholdi. Given the repressive nature of the regime of Napoleon III, Bartholdi took no action on the idea except to discuss it with Laboulaye. Sketches and models were made of the work, though it was never erected. There was a precedent for the Suez proposal, the Colossus of Rhodes. This statue is believed to have been over 100 feet high, any large project was further delayed by the Franco-Prussian War, in which Bartholdi served as a major of militia. In the war, Napoleon III was captured and deposed, Bartholdis home province of Alsace was lost to the Prussians, and a more liberal republic was installed in France
22.
Orchardist
–
An orchard is an intentional planting of trees or shrubs that is maintained for food production. Orchards comprise fruit- or nut-producing trees which are grown for commercial production. Orchards are also sometimes a feature of gardens, where they serve an aesthetic as well as a productive purpose. A fruit garden is generally synonymous with an orchard, although it is set on a smaller non-commercial scale, most temperate-zone orchards are laid out in a regular grid, with a grazed or mown grass or bare soil base that makes maintenance and fruit gathering easy. Orchards are sometimes concentrated near bodies of water, where climatic extremes are moderated, an orchards layout is the technique of planting the crops in a proper system. There are different methods of planting and thus different layouts, some of these layout types include, Square method Rectangular method Quincunx method Triangular method Hexagonal method Contour method For different varieties, these systems may vary to some extent. The most extensive orchards in the United States are apple and orange orchards, the most extensive apple orchard area is in eastern Washington state, with a lesser but significant apple orchard area in most of Upstate New York. Extensive orange orchards are found in Florida and southern California, where they are widely known as groves. In eastern North America, many orchards are along the shores of Lake Michigan, Lake Erie, in Canada, apple and other fruit orchards are widespread on the Niagara Peninsula, south of Lake Ontario. This region is known as Canada Fruitbelt and, in addition to large-scale commercial fruit marketing, murcia is a major orchard area in Europe, with citrus crops. New Zealand, China, Argentina and Chile also have extensive apple orchards, tenbury Wells in Worcestershire has been called The Town in the Orchard, since the 19th century, because it was surrounded by extensive orchards. Today, this heritage is celebrated through an annual Applefest, streuobstwiese is a German word that means a meadow with scattered fruit trees or fruit trees that are planted in a field. Streuobstwiese, or a meadow orchard, is a landscape in the temperate. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Streuobstwiesen were a kind of a community orchard that were intended for productive cultivation of stone fruit. In recent years, ecologists have successfully lobbied for state subsidies to valuable habitats, biodiversity and natural landscapes, both conventional and meadow orchards provide a suitable habitat for many animal species that live in a cultured landscape. Orchard House in Concord, Massachusetts was the residence of American celebrated writer Louisa May Alcott, fruita, Utah part of Capitol Reef National Park has Mormon pioneer orchards maintained by the United States National Park Service. The Orchard Link organisation provides advice on how to manage and restore the county of Devons orchards, an organisation called Orchards Live carries out similar work in North Devon. Peoples Trust for Endangered Species has mapped every traditional orchard within England, the UK Biodiversity Partnership lists traditional orchards and a priority UK Biodiversity Action Plan habitat
23.
Gardener
–
A gardener is someone who practices gardening, either professionally or as a hobby. The garden designer is someone who will design the garden, the term gardener is also used to describe garden designers and landscape gardeners, who are involved chiefly in the design of gardens, rather than the practical aspects of horticulture. Garden design is considered to be an art in most cultures, distinguished from gardening, vita Sackville-West, Gertrude Jekyll and William Robinson were garden designers as well as gardeners. Garden design is the creation of a plan for the construction of a garden, the design can include different themes such as perennial, butterfly, wildlife, Japanese, water, tropical, or shade gardens. In 18th-century japan, country estates were refashioned by landscape gardeners into formal gardens or landscaped park lands, such as at Versailles, France, or Stowe, Professional landscape designers are certified by the Association of Professional Landscape Designers. The designer also provides directions and supervision during construction, and the management of establishment, the gardener is the person who has the skill to maintain the gardens design. Weeds tend to thrive at the expense of the more refined edible or ornamental plants, gardeners need to control weeds using physical or chemical methods to stop weeds from reaching a mature stage of growth when they could be harmful to domesticated plants. Early activities, such as starting young plants from seeds for later transplantation, are performed in early spring
24.
Garden tool
–
A garden tool is any one of many tools made for gardens and gardening and overlaps with the range of tools made for agriculture and horticulture. Garden tools can also be tools and power tools. The hand tools used by gardeners originated with the earliest agricultural implements used by humans. Examples include, Axe Sickle Pitchfork Spade Scythe Shovel Trowel Hoe Fork Rake In some places the machete may be used as a tool as well. The earliest tools were made of wood, flint, metal, tin, however, the development of metal working, first in copper and later in iron and steel, enabled the manufacture of more durable tools. Industrial metalworking enabled the manufacture of efficient cutting tools, including pruning shears, grass shears, loppers and larger, modern tool design includes ergonomics considerations. Tools are being designed that induce ever less stress on the body when used. The most efficient tools keep the body in a position while being used. This helps to lessen the stress on joints and muscles, an advantage of this approach is that it requires gardeners to exert less energy whilst using the tools. Some modern patents such as US7,832,125 show an example without hand stop provisions, the first power tool to become popular with gardeners was the lawn mower. US emission standards specifically limit emissions from small engines. Agricultural machinery Antique tool Cutting tool Diamond tool Groundskeeping equipment Hand tool Landscape products Mechanised agriculture Power tool Tool BBC How to be a gardener
25.
Pruning shears
–
Pruning shears, also called hand pruners, or secateurs, are a type of scissors for use on plants. They are strong enough to prune hard branches of trees and shrubs and they are used in gardening, arboriculture, farming, flower arranging, and nature conservation, where fine-scale habitat management is required. Loppers are a larger, two-handed, long-handled version for branches thicker than pruning shears can cut, during the late 1890s, secateurs were sold all over Europe and the US. Nowadays every pro- and semiprofessional gardener, vintner and fruit farmer uses secateurs, there are three different blade designs for pruning shears, anvil, bypass and parrot-beak. Anvil pruners have only one blade, which closes onto a flat surface, anvil pruners are useful for cutting thick branches, one can bite into the stem from one direction, swing the handle around and bite further through narrowed wood from another direction. Bypass pruners usually work exactly like a pair of scissors, with two blades passing by other to make the cut. At least one of the blades will be curved, a convex upper blade with either a concave or straight lower one, some bypass designs have only one blade, the lower jaw being broad but passing the upper jaw. The ratchet pruner, which can handle stems thicker than two centimeters, fits in this category, parrot-beak pruners consist of two concave passing blades, which trap the stem between them to make the cut. These are suitable only for narrower stems, Secateurs have short handles and are operated with one hand. A spring between the causes the jaws to open again after closing. When not in use, the jaws may be closed by a safety catch or by a loop holding the handles together. Some types are designed for right-handed or left-handed use only, and some incorporate a rotating handle to reduce friction and minimize hand stress during repetitive use. There are also longer versions called telescopic pruners, which are adjustable for long-reach, an early version of these was known as an averruncator. Garden tool Media related to Secateurs at Wikimedia Commons
26.
Loppers
–
Loppers are a type of scissors used for pruning twigs and small branches, like secateurs with very long handles. They are the largest type of manual garden cutting tool and they are usually operated with two hands, and with handles typically between 30 centimetres &91 centimetres long to give good leverage. Some have telescopic handles which can be extended to a length of two metres, in order to leverage and to reach high branches on a tree. Loppers are mainly used for the pruning of branches with diameters less than 5 centimetres. Some of the newer designs have a gear or compound lever system which increases the force applied to the blades. The word lopper can be used in the singular or the plural, the plural form, most common in speech but less so in print, is a plurale tantum, and seems to be on the model of a pair of scissors. The name of the tool is derived from the verb to lop, meaning to cut off, which in turn is related to a noun of precisely the same form, a lop is a period or session of branch cutting. The noun and verb first appeared in Middle English as loppe, the main distinction among loppers is between bypass and anvil types. The jaws of bypass loppers may be straight, curved, or one curved with one straight, anvil loppers have the disadvantage of tending to crush rather than cut, sometimes leaving an untidy wound, more vulnerable to infection. Their main advantages are of relative strength and of being less likely to jam with fibrous material, both types of lopper generally have a sprung adjusting screw at the fulcrum, which can be used to tighten the blades as they loosen in use. With bypass loppers, it is useful for releasing material jamming the blades. Anvil loppers usually have a screw for adjusting or detaching the plate, pruning shears —smaller garden cutting tools usually operated with one hand
27.
Chainsaw
–
A chainsaw is a portable, mechanical saw which cuts with a set of teeth attached to a rotating chain that runs along a guide bar. It is used in such as tree felling, limbing, bucking, pruning, cutting firebreaks in wildland fire suppression. Chainsaws with specially designed bar and chain combinations have been developed as tools for use in chainsaw art, specialized chainsaws are used for cutting concrete. Chainsaws are sometimes used for cutting ice, for example for ice sculpture, someone who uses a saw is a sawyer. The origin is debated, but a tool was made around 1830 by the German orthopaedist Bernhard Heine. This instrument, the osteotome, had links of a chain carrying small cutting teeth with the set at an angle. As the name implies, this was used to cut bone, the chain hand saw, a fine serrated link chain which cut on the concave side, was invented around 1783-1785. It was illustrated in Aitkens Principles of Midwifery or Puerperal Medicine, Jeffray claimed to have conceived the idea of the chain saw independently about that time but it was 1790 before he was able to have it produced. In 1806, Jeffray published Cases of the Excision of Carious Joints by H. Park, in this communication he translated Moreaus paper of 1803. Park and Moreau described successful excision of diseased joints, particularly the knee, Jeffray explained that the chain saw would allow a smaller wound and protect the adjacent neurovascular bundle. While a heroic concept, symphysiotomy had too many complications for most obstetricians but Jeffrays ideas became accepted, mechanised versions of the chain saw were developed but in the later 19th Century, it was superseded in surgery by the Gigli twisted wire saw. For much of the 19th century, however, the saw was a useful surgical instrument. The earliest patent for an endless chain saw was granted to Samuel J. Bens of San Francisco on January 17,1905. His intent being to fell giant redwoods, the first portable chainsaw was developed and patented in 1918 by Canadian millwright James Shand. After he allowed his rights to lapse in 1930 his invention was developed by what became the German company Festo in 1933. The company now operates as Festool producing portable power tools, in 1927, Emil Lerp, the founder of Dolmar, developed the worlds first gasoline-powered chainsaw and mass-produced them. World War II interrupted the supply of German chain saws to North America, so new manufacturers sprang up including Industrial Engineering Ltd in 1947, Ltd and part of Outboard Marine Corporation, the oldest manufacturer of chainsaws in North America. McCulloch in North America started to produce chainsaws in 1948, the early models were heavy, two-person devices with long bars
28.
Billhook
–
The billhook is a traditional cutting tool used widely in agriculture and forestry for cutting smaller woody material such as shrubs and branches and is distinct from the sickle. It is very common in the countries of Europe. Elsewhere, it developed locally such as in China, India and Japan, or was introduced by European settlers, such as in North and South America, South Africa. The blade is made from a medium-carbon steel in varying weights and lengths. Blades are straight near the handle but have a strong curve towards the end. The blade is sharpened only on the inside of the curve. The blade is fixed to a handle, in Europe usually made from ash due to its strength. Handles are mostly 12 to 15 centimetres long and may be caulked or round, longer handles may sometimes be used for heavier patterns, making the tool double-handed. The blade and handle are usually linked by a passing through the handle. Some styles of billhook may have scales of hardwood or horn fitted to the handle, some billhooks have a single-bevelled blade, available in both right- and left-handed versions, others have dished blades, or a pronounced thickened nose. The reasons for many of these variations are now lost, the use of a billhook is between that of a knife and an axe. It is often used for cutting woody plants such as saplings and small branches, for hedging, in France and Italy it is widely used for pruning grape vines. The billhook is the European equivalent of such as machetes, parangs, kukris. The billhooks use as a cutting tool goes back to the Bronze Age, the tool has developed a large variety of names in different parts of Britain, including bill, hedging bill, hand bill, hook bill, billhook, billook, brishing hook and broom hook. In American English a billhook may sometimes be referred to as a fascine knife, made on a small scale in village smithies and in larger industrial sites the billhook is still relatively common throughout most of western Europe.5 inches steps. The French firm of Talabot boasted in their 1930 catalogue that they held over 3000 different patterns in their archives, billhooks would have once been made by the local smith to the users specifications but now sizes and shapes are largely standardised. The handles are mostly rat-tail tang, except the Yorkshire having such a long handle that a tang is just not practical—they have a socket instead, the smaller hooks have variations in the shape of the handle, round, oval and pistol-grip. Billhooks are almost universally made from steel of a moderate carbon content
29.
Sling blade
–
A sling blade or kaiser blade is a heavy, hooked, steel blade at the end of a 40-inch handle that is usually made of hickory wood. The blade is double-edged, and both sides are usually kept sharp and it is used to cut brush, briar, and undergrowth. Other common names for the tool are ditch bank blade, briar axe, on the East Coast of the United States some farmers call it a bush axe. In the movie Sling Blade, Karl Childers, the main character, Childers describes it as, some folks call it a sling blade, I call it a kaiser blade. Its just a long handle, kind of like an axe handle, with a long blade on it shaped kinda like a bannaner. Sharp on one edge, and dull on the other and its what the highway boys use to cut down weeds and whatnot. In the novel Red Rising, Helldivers are equipped with sling blades intended to sever their limbs if caught in machinery, darrow later acquires a sling blade during a training game. After breaking the rules of the game and attacking the proctors, he becomes known as The Reaper with the sling blade as his sigil
30.
Coppicing
–
Coppicing is a traditional method of woodland management which takes advantage of the fact that many trees make new growth from the stump or roots if cut down. In a coppiced wood, which is called a copse, young stems are repeatedly cut down to near ground level. In subsequent growth years, many new shoots emerge, and, after a number of years the coppiced tree, or stool, is ready to be harvested. Pollarding is a process carried out at a higher level on the tree. Many forestry practices worldwide involve cutting and regrowth, and coppicing has been of significance in many parts of lowland temperate Europe, the widespread and long-term practice of coppicing as a landscape-scale industry is something that remains of special importance in southern England. For this reason many of the English-language terms referenced in this article are particularly relevant to historic, typically a coppiced woodland is harvested in sections or coups on a rotation. In this way, a crop is available each year somewhere in the woodland, coppicing has the effect of providing a rich variety of habitats, as the woodland always has a range of different-aged coppice growing in it, which is beneficial for biodiversity. The cycle length depends upon the species cut, the custom. Birch can be coppiced for faggots on a three- or four-year cycle, coppicing maintains trees at a juvenile stage, and a regularly coppiced tree will never die of old age — some coppice stools may therefore reach immense ages. The age of a stool may be estimated from its diameter, evidence suggests that coppicing has been continuously practiced since pre-history. Coppiced stems are characteristically curved at the base and this curve occurs as the competing stems grow out from the stool in the early stages of the cycle, then up towards the sky as the canopy closes. The curve may allow the identification of coppice timber in archaeological sites, timber in the Sweet Track in Somerset has been identified as coppiced lime. When it originated, the system now called coppicing was solely for small wood production. In German this is called Niederwald, which translates as low forest, later on in Mediaeval times farmers encouraged pigs to feed from acorns and so some trees were allowed to grow bigger. This different silvicultural system is called in English coppice with standards, in German this is called Mittelwald, which translates as middle forest. As modern forestry seeks to harvest timber mechanically, and pigs are generally no longer fed from acorns, in the days of charcoal iron production in England, most woods in ironmaking regions were managed as coppices, usually being cut on a cycle of about 16 years. In this way, fuel could be provided for industry, in principle indefinitely. This was regulated by a statute of 1544 of Henry VIII, coppice with standards has been commonly used throughout most of Europe as a means of giving greater flexibility in the resulting forest product from any one area
31.
Axe
–
An axe is an implement that has been used for millennia to shape, split and cut wood, to harvest timber, as a weapon, and as a ceremonial or heraldic symbol. The axe has many forms and specialised uses but generally consists of an axe head with a handle, before the modern axe, the stone-age hand axe was used from 1.5 million years BP without a handle. It was later fastened to a wooden handle, the earliest examples of handled axes have heads of stone with some form of wooden handle attached in a method to suit the available materials and use. Axes made of copper, bronze, iron, and steel appeared as these technologies developed, axes are usually composed of a head and a handle. The axe is an example of a machine, as it is a type of wedge. This reduces the effort needed by the wood chopper and it splits the wood into two parts by the pressure concentration at the blade. The handle of the axe also acts as a lever allowing the user to increase the force at the cutting edge—not using the length of the handle is known as choking the axe. For fine chopping using an axe this sometimes is a positive effect. Generally, cutting axes have a shallow angle, whereas splitting axes have a deeper angle. Most axes are double bevelled, i. e, less common today, they were once an integral part of a joiner and carpenters tool kit, not just a tool for use in forestry. A tool of similar origin is the billhook, however, in France and Holland the billhook often replaced the axe as a joiners bench tool. Most modern axes have heads and wooden handles, typically hickory in the US and ash in Europe and Asia. Modern axes are specialised by use, size, and form, hafted axes with short handles designed for use with one hand are often called hand axes but the term hand axe refers to axes without handles as well. Hatchets tend to be small hafted axes often with a hammer on the back side, as easy-to-make weapons, axes have frequently been used in combat. Initially axes were tools of stone called hand axes, used without handles, axes made with ground cutting edges are known since the Neolithic period ending 4,000 to 2,000 BC. The first true hafted axes are known from the Mesolithic period, few wooden hafts have been found from this period, but it seems that the axe was normally hafted by wedging. Birch-tar and raw-hide lashings were used to fix the blade, the antler was hollowed out at one end to create a socket for the axehead. The antler sheath was then either perforated and a handle inserted into it or set in a made in the handle instead
32.
Trellis (architecture)
–
The rose trellis is especially common in Europe and other rose-growing areas, and many climbing rose varieties require a trellis to reach their potential as garden plants. Trellis can also be referred to as panels, usually made from interwoven wood pieces, a pergola usually refers to trellis-work that is laid horizontally above head height to provide a partial roof in a garden. The trellis was originally intended to support vine stock — which gives its name, though it is unknown when and where the trellis was invented, the trellis has been mentioned in literature and botanical works throughout history. Pliny the Younger, in the first and second centuries, wrote about trellises in some of his letters about gardens, in the 19th century, Walt Whitman also mentioned a trellis in his poem Give me the Splendid, Silent Sun. Trellis was used to support shrubs in espalier, also to separate roads from thickets and these sorts of fences were made by the gardeners. When the art of gardening was perfected by André Le Nôtre and Jules Hardouin-Mansart and they worked individually until 1769, when they joined the corporation of carpenters. The treillageur has to have at least some elementary notions and principles of architecture, could trellis be designed as a gallery, portico, room, and different element of architecture thus evolved into garden architecture linked to landscaping. Jean-Max Albert notes the trellis possibilities in visual art, « The trellis permits a visual contact of external and internal elements and it allows to observe together the inside and the outside of a construction. The semi-transparency of the plans permits a simultaneous reading of imbricated volumes »
33.
Espalier
–
Espalier is the horticultural and ancient agricultural practice of controlling woody plant growth for the production of fruit, by pruning and tying branches to a frame. Plant are frequently shaped in formal patterns, flat against a structure such as a wall, fence, or trellis, Espaliers, trained into flat two-dimensional forms, are used not only for decorative purposes, but also for gardens in which space is limited. These two strategies allow the season to be extended so that fruit has more time to mature, a restricted form of training consists of a central stem and a number of paired horizontal branches all trained in the same plane. The most important advantage is that of being able to increase the growth of a branch by training it vertically, later, one can decrease growth while increasing fruit production by training it horizontally. The word espalier is French, and it comes from the Italian spalliera, Espalier as a technique seems to have started with the ancient Romans. In the Middle Ages the Europeans refined it into an art, vineyards have used the technique in the training of grapes for hundreds or perhaps even thousands of years. A Belgian fence is created by cutting back an unbranched, slender tree to between fifteen and eighteen inches above the ground, the topmost three buds are allowed to form, one in the middle is trained vertically while two others are trained into a V shape. Any other buds are rubbed away, removing the vertical stem completes the individual V-shaped espalier. By placing many similarly trained trees in a two feet apart with their branches trained to the same plane, a Belgian fence is created. Multiple levels of horizontal branching can be trained in this way, certain types of trees adapt better to this practice than others, but almost any woody plant can be trained to grow along a flat plane by removing growth outside that plane. Horizontal T training of an apple or pear tree is an example of the ideal species for espalier. In the spring, the tree is pruned to the lowest wire perhaps 15 to 18 inches above the ground, during the summer, buds lengthen into branches, one trained vertically to the next wire while others are trained along the wires. Unnecessary buds are removed by rubbing them away with a thumb, in autumn, the side branches are lowered and tied to the wires completing the level. The following year another level is created, examples of species for espalier include, Espalier design often uses traditional formal patterns developed over hundreds of years, but can also employ more modern informal designs. A stunted or deformed plant, or one already has interesting or unique characteristics. Common formal patterns include the following styles, the V shape is the first step in producing many other formal patterns. Belgian fence, More than one V shaped espaliers are planted two feet apart, so their branches cross, and are tied to a trellis, stepover, A Horizontal espalier with only one set of branches tied to a wire around 15 inches above the ground. Start with a V shape until desired branch length is attained, takes only one year to produce the design from a well-rooted unbranched tree
34.
Pruning
–
Pruning is a horticultural and silvicultural practice involving the selective removal of certain parts of a plant, such as branches, buds, or roots. The practice entails targeted removal of diseased, damaged, dead, non-productive, structurally unsound, or otherwise unwanted tissue from crop and landscape plants. In general, the smaller the branch that is cut, the easier it is for a plant to compartmentalize the wound and thus limit the potential for pathogen intrusion. It is therefore preferable to any necessary formative structural pruning cuts to young plants, rather than removing large. Specialized pruning practices may be applied to plants, such as roses, fruit trees. It is important when pruning that the limbs are kept intact. Different pruning techniques may be deployed on herbaceous plants than those used on perennial woody plants, hedges, by design, are usually maintained by hedge trimming, rather than by pruning. In nature, meteorological conditions such as wind, ice and snow and this natural shedding is called abscission. For arboricultural purposes the unions of tree branches are placed in one of three types, collared, collarless or codominant and this is often referred to by arborists as target cutting. Branches die off for a number of reasons including light deficiency, pest and disease damage, a dead branch will at some point decay back to the parent stem and fall off. This is normally a slow process but can be quickened by high winds or extreme temperature, the main reason deadwooding is performed is safety. Situations that usually demand removal of deadwood is trees that overhang public roads, houses, public areas, trees located in wooded areas are usually assessed as lower risk but assessments consider the amount of visitors. Usually, trees adjacent to footpaths and access roads are considered for deadwood removal, another reason for deadwooding is amenity value, i. e. a tree with a large amount of deadwood throughout the crown looks more aesthetically pleasing with the deadwood removed. The physical practice of deadwooding can be carried out most of the year though not when the tree is coming into leaf, the deadwooding process speeds up the trees natural abscission process. It also reduces unwanted weight and wind resistance and can help overall balance, crown and canopy thinning increases light and reduces wind resistance by selective removal of branches throughout the canopy of the tree. This is a practice which improves the trees strength against adverse weather conditions as the wind can pass through the tree resulting in less load being placed on the tree. The shape is vital for the survival of the tree and lopping off the wrong sections of a tree if it has surpassed its height limit can actually be extremely damaging and this can hinder its growth or cause an overbalance. Crown lifting involves the removal of the branches to a given height
35.
Seed
–
A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering. The formation of the seed is part of the process of reproduction in seed plants, Seeds are the product of the ripened ovule, after fertilization by pollen and some growth within the mother plant. The embryo is developed from the zygote and the coat from the integuments of the ovule. Seed plants now dominate biological niches on land, from forests to both in hot and cold climates. The term seed also has a meaning that antedates the above—anything that can be sown, e. g. seed potatoes. In the case of sunflower and corn seeds, what is sown is the seed enclosed in a shell or husk, many structures commonly referred to as seeds are actually dry fruits. Plants producing berries are called baccate, sunflower seeds are sometimes sold commercially while still enclosed within the hard wall of the fruit, which must be split open to reach the seed. Different groups of plants have other modifications, the stone fruits have a hardened fruit layer fused to. Nuts are the one-seeded, hard-shelled fruit of plants with an indehiscent seed. Seeds are produced in several related groups of plants, and their manner of production distinguishes the angiosperms from the gymnosperms, angiosperm seeds are produced in a hard or fleshy structure called a fruit that encloses the seeds, hence the name. Some fruits have layers of hard and fleshy material. In gymnosperms, no special structure develops to enclose the seeds, however, the seeds do become covered by the cone scales as they develop in some species of conifer. Seed production in natural plant populations varies widely from year-to-year in response to weather variables, insects and diseases, over a 20-year period, for example, forests composed of loblolly pine and shortleaf pine produced from 0 to nearly 5 million sound pine seeds per hectare. Over this period, there were six bumper, five poor, and nine good seed crops, right after fertilization, the zygote is mostly inactive, but the primary endosperm divides rapidly to form the endosperm tissue. This tissue becomes the food the young plant will consume until the roots have developed after germination, after fertilization the ovules develop into the seeds. The ovule consists of a number of components, The funicle or seed stalk which attaches the ovule to the placenta and hence ovary or fruit wall, the nucellus, the remnant of the megasporangium and main region of the ovule where the megagametophyte develops. The micropyle, a pore or opening in the apex of the integument of the ovule where the pollen tube usually enters during the process of fertilization. The chalaza, the base of the ovule opposite the micropyle, the shape of the ovules as they develop often affects the final shape of the seeds
36.
Dormancy
–
Dormancy is a period in an organisms life cycle when growth, development, and physical activity are temporarily stopped. This minimizes metabolic activity and therefore helps an organism to conserve energy, dormancy tends to be closely associated with environmental conditions. Organisms can synchronize entry to a dormant phase with their environment through predictive or consequential means, predictive dormancy occurs when an organism enters a dormant phase before the onset of adverse conditions. For example, photoperiod and decreasing temperature are used by plants to predict the onset of winter. Consequential dormancy occurs when organisms enter a dormant phase after adverse conditions have arisen and this is commonly found in areas with an unpredictable climate. Hibernation is a used by many mammals to escape cold weather. Hibernation may be predictive or consequential, an animal prepares for hibernation by building up a thick layer of body fat during late summer and autumn that will provide it with energy during the dormant period. During hibernation, the animal undergoes many changes, including decreased heart rate. An additional thermoregulatory response a hibernating animal will undergo is a process known as non-shivering thermogenesis. Non-shivering thermogenesis is a process in which the body will break down brown adipose tissue as a method for increasing heat production. Animals that hibernate include bats, ground squirrels and other rodents, mouse lemurs, although hibernation is almost exclusively seen in mammals, some birds, such as the common poorwill, may hibernate. Diapause is a strategy that is predetermined by an animals genotype. Aestivation, also spelled estivation, is an example of dormancy in response to very hot or dry conditions. It is common in such as the garden snail and worm. Brumation is an example of dormancy in reptiles that is similar to hibernation and it differs from hibernation in the metabolic processes involved. Reptiles generally begin brumation in late autumn and they often wake up to drink water and return to sleep. They can go for months without food, reptiles may eat more than usual before the brumation time but eat less or refuse food as the temperature drops. However, they do need to drink water, the brumation period is anywhere from one to eight months depending on the air temperature and the size, age, and health of the reptile
37.
Frost
–
Frost is the coating or deposit of ice that may form in humid air in cold conditions, usually overnight. In temperate climates it most commonly appears as white crystals or frozen dew drops near the ground. Frost is composed of delicate branched patterns of ice crystals formed as the result of fractal process development, Frost is known to damage crops or reduce future crop yields, therefore farmers in those regions where frost is a problem often invest substantial means to prevent its formation. In most temperate countries such temperatures usually are the result of loss by radiation at night. The size of frost crystals varies depending on the time they have been building up, Frost crystals may be clear or translucent, but, like snow, a mass of frost crystals will scatter light in all directions, so that a coating of frost appears white. If a solid surface is chilled below the dew point of the humid air. If the water deposits as a liquid that freezes, it forms a coating that may look glassy, opaque, or crystalline. Depending on context, that also may be called atmospheric icing. The ice it produces differs in ways from crystalline frost. For desublimation to proceed the surface must be below the frost point of the air, the air must be humid, but not sufficiently humid to permit the condensation of liquid water, or icing will result instead of desublimation. The size of the crystals depends largely on the temperature, the amount of water vapor available, as a rule, except in conditions where supercooled droplets are present in the air, frost will form only if the deposition surface is colder than the surrounding air. For instance frost may be observed around cracks in cold wooden sidewalks when humid air escapes from the ground beneath. Other objects on which frost commonly forms are those with low specific heat or high thermal emissivity, such as blackened metals, the apparently erratic occurrence of frost in adjacent localities is due partly to differences of elevation, the lower areas becoming colder on calm nights. Where static air settles above an area of ground in the absence of wind, hoar frost refers to white ice crystals, deposited on the ground or loosely attached to exposed objects such as wires or leaves. They form on cold, clear nights when conditions are such that heat radiates out to the sky faster than it can be replaced from nearby sources such as wind or warm objects. Under suitable circumstances, objects cool to below the frost point of the surrounding air, such freezing may be promoted by effects such as flood frost or frost pocket. These occur when ground-level radiation losses cool air till it flows downhill and accumulates in pockets of cold air in valleys. Hoar frost may freeze in such low-lying cold air even when the air temperature a few feet above ground is well above freezing
38.
Fungus
–
A fungus is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi, which is separate from the other eukaryotic life kingdoms of plants, a characteristic that places fungi in a different kingdom from plants, bacteria and some protists, is chitin in their cell walls. Similar to animals, fungi are heterotrophs, they acquire their food by absorbing dissolved molecules, growth is their means of mobility, except for spores, which may travel through the air or water. Fungi are the principal decomposers in ecological systems and this fungal group is distinct from the structurally similar myxomycetes and oomycetes. The discipline of biology devoted to the study of fungi is known as mycology, in the past, mycology was regarded as a branch of botany, although it is now known fungi are genetically more closely related to animals than to plants. Abundant worldwide, most fungi are inconspicuous because of the size of their structures. Fungi include symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi and they may become noticeable when fruiting, either as mushrooms or as molds. Fungi perform a role in the decomposition of organic matter and have fundamental roles in nutrient cycling. Since the 1940s, fungi have been used for the production of antibiotics, Fungi are also used as biological pesticides to control weeds, plant diseases and insect pests. Many species produce bioactive compounds called mycotoxins, such as alkaloids and polyketides, the fruiting structures of a few species contain psychotropic compounds and are consumed recreationally or in traditional spiritual ceremonies. Fungi can break down manufactured materials and buildings, and become significant pathogens of humans, losses of crops due to fungal diseases or food spoilage can have a large impact on human food supplies and local economies. The fungus kingdom encompasses a diversity of taxa with varied ecologies, life cycle strategies. However, little is known of the biodiversity of Kingdom Fungi. Advances in molecular genetics have opened the way for DNA analysis to be incorporated into taxonomy, phylogenetic studies published in the last decade have helped reshape the classification within Kingdom Fungi, which is divided into one subkingdom, seven phyla, and ten subphyla. The English word fungus is directly adopted from the Latin fungus, used in the writings of Horace, a group of all the fungi present in a particular area or geographic region is known as mycobiota, e. g. the mycobiota of Ireland. Like plants, fungi grow in soil and, in the case of mushrooms, form conspicuous fruit bodies. The fungi are now considered a kingdom, distinct from both plants and animals, from which they appear to have diverged around one billion years ago. Fungi have membrane-bound cytoplasmic organelles such as mitochondria, sterol-containing membranes and they have a characteristic range of soluble carbohydrates and storage compounds, including sugar alcohols, disaccharides, and polysaccharides
39.
Maple
–
Acer /ˈeɪsər/ is a genus of trees or shrubs commonly known as maple. There are approximately 128 species, most of which are native to Asia, with a number appearing in Europe, northern Africa. Only one species, Acer laurinum, extends to the Southern Hemisphere, the type species of the genus is the sycamore maple, Acer pseudoplatanus, the most common maple species in Europe. Most maples are trees growing to 10–45 m height, others are shrubs less than 10 meters tall with a number of small trunks originating at ground level. Most species are deciduous, and many are renowned for their autumn colour, but a few in southern Asia. Most are shade-tolerant when young and are often riparian, understory, many of the root systems are typically dense and fibrous, inhibiting the growth of other vegetation underneath them. A few species, notably Acer cappadocicum, frequently produce root sprouts, maples are distinguished by opposite leaf arrangement. The leaves in most species are palmate veined and lobed, with 3 to 9 veins each leading to a lobe, a small number of species differ in having palmate compound, pinnate compound, pinnate veined or unlobed leaves. Several species, including Acer griseum, Acer mandshuricum, Acer maximowiczianum, one species, Acer negundo, has pinnately compound leaves that may be simply trifoliate or may have five, seven, or rarely nine leaflets. A few, such as Acer laevigatum and Acer carpinifolium, have pinnately veined simple leaves, the flowers are regular, pentamerous, and borne in racemes, corymbs, or umbels. They have four or five sepals, four or five petals about 1 –6 mm long, four to ten stamens about 6 –10 mm long, and two pistils or a pistil with two styles. The ovary is superior and has two carpels, whose wings elongate the flowers, making it easy to tell which flowers are female. Maples flower in winter or early spring, in most species with or just after the appearance of the leaves. Maple flowers are green, yellow, orange or red, though individually small, the effect of an entire tree in flower can be striking in several species. Some maples are a spring source of pollen and nectar for bees. The distinctive fruits are called samaras, maple keys, helicopters and these seeds occur in distinctive pairs each containing one seed enclosed in a nutlet attached to a flattened wing of fibrous, papery tissue. They are shaped to spin as they fall and to carry the seeds a considerable distance on the wind, people often call them helicopters due to the way that they spin as they fall. During World War II, the US Army developed an air drop supply carrier that could carry up to 65 pounds of supplies and was based on the Maple seed
40.
Magnolia
–
Magnolia is a large genus of about 210 flowering plant species in the subfamily Magnolioideae of the family Magnoliaceae. It is named after French botanist Pierre Magnol, appearing before bees did, the flowers are theorized to have evolved to encourage pollination by beetles. To avoid damage from pollinating beetles, the carpels of Magnolia flowers are extremely tough, fossilised specimens of M. acuminata have been found dating to 20 million years ago, and of plants identifiably belonging to the Magnoliaceae date to 95 million years ago. Magnolia shares the characteristic with several other flowering plants near the base of the flowering plant lineage such as Amborella. As with all Magnoliaceae, the perianth is undifferentiated, with 9–15 tepals in 3 or more whorls, the flowers are bisexual with numerous adnate carpels and stamens are arranged in a spiral fashion on the elongated receptacle. The fruit dehisces along their dorsal sutures, the pollen is monocolpate, and the embryo development is of the Polygonium type. The name Magnolia first appeared in 1703 in the Genera of Charles Plumier, english botanist William Sherard, who studied botany in Paris under Joseph Pitton de Tournefort, a pupil of Magnol, was most probably the first after Plumier to adopt the genus name Magnolia. He was at least responsible for the part of Johann Jacob Dilleniuss Hortus Elthamensis and of Mark Catesbys Natural History of Carolina, Florida. These were the first works after Plumiers Genera that used the name Magnolia, Carl Linnaeus, who was familiar with Plumiers Genera, adopted the genus name Magnolia in 1735 in his first edition of Systema Naturae, without a description, but with a reference to Plumiers work. In 1753, he took up Plumiers Magnolia in the first edition of Species Plantarum, there he described a monotypic genus, with the sole species being Magnolia virginiana. He placed it in the synonymy of Magnolia virginiana var. fœtida, under Magnolia virginiana Linnaeus described five varieties. In the tenth edition of Systema Naturae, he merged grisea with glauca, by the end of the 18th century, botanists and plant hunters exploring Asia began to name and describe the Magnolia species from China and Japan. The first Asiatic species to be described by western botanists were Magnolia denudata and Magnolia liliiflora, soon after that, in 1794, Carl Peter Thunberg collected and described Magnolia obovata from Japan and at roughly the same time Magnolia kobus was also first collected. With the number of increasing, the genus was divided into the two subgenera Magnolia and Yulania. Magnolia contains the American evergreen species M. grandiflora, which is of importance, especially in the southeastern United States, and M. virginiana. Yulania contains several deciduous Asiatic species, such as M. denudata and M. kobus, classified in Yulania, is also the American deciduous M. acuminata, which has recently attained greater status as the parent responsible for the yellow flower colour in many new hybrids. Relations in the family Magnoliaceae have been puzzling taxonomists for a long time, because the family is quite old and has survived many geological events, its distribution has become scattered. Some species or groups of species have been isolated for a long time, to create divisions in the family, solely based upon morphological characters, has proven to be a nearly impossible task
41.
Forsythia
–
Forsythia is a genus of flowering plants in the family Oleaceae. There are about 11 species, mostly native to eastern Asia, the common name is also forsythia, the genus is named after William Forsyth. Forsythia are deciduous shrubs growing to a height of 1–3 m and, rarely. The flowers are produced in the spring before the leaves, bright yellow with a deeply four-lobed flower. These become pendent in rainy weather thus shielding the reproductive parts and it is widely stated that forsythia flowers are able to produce lactose. Lactose is very established in other natural sources except milk. However, the presence of lactose could not be confirmed, the actual fruit is a dry capsule, containing several winged seeds. The genus is named after William Forsyth, a Scottish botanist who was head gardener. Garden hybrid between F. suspensa and F. viridissima, Forsythia likiangensis Ching & Feng ex P. Y. Bai. Sources, A genetic study does not fully match the accepted species listed above. Forsythias are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Brown-tail, two species of forsythia are at the heart of the selected forms, for both species are variable, and garden hybrids, Forsythia suspensa and F. viridissima. Forsythia suspensa, the first to be noticed by a Westerner, was seen in a Japanese garden by the botanist-surgeon Carl Peter Thunberg, thunbergs professional connections lay with the Dutch East India Company, and F. suspensa reached Holland first, by 1833. In England, when it was being offered by Veitch Nurseries in Exeter at mid-century, Forsythia viridissma, meanwhile, had overtaken it in European gardens. The Scottish plant-hunter Robert Fortune discovered it— in a garden of the coastal city of Chusan — before he ever saw it growing wild in the mountains in Chusans province. Forsythia × intermedia, as its name suggests, is a hybrid of F. suspensa and F. viridissima, repeated crosses of the same two parents have made reiterations of F. × intermedia quite variable. A bud sport of a particularly showy form is marketed as F. × intermedia Lynwood Variety. This cultivar has gained the Royal Horticultural Societys Award of Garden Merit, as have F. × intermedia Week End Courtalyn, the hybrids Forsythia × intermedia and Forsythia × ×variabilis have been produced in cultivation. Forsythia intermedia is a hybrid between F. suspensa and F. viridissima, many cultivars have been selected from this cross including dwarf and compact forms
42.
Azalea
–
Azaleas /əˈzeɪliə/ are flowering shrubs in the genus Rhododendron, particularly the former sections Tsutsuji and Pentanthera. Azaleas bloom in spring, their flowers often lasting several weeks, shade tolerant, they prefer living near or under trees. They are part of the family Ericaceae, plant enthusiasts have selectively bred azaleas for hundreds of years. This human selection has produced over 10,000 different cultivars which are propagated by cuttings, Azalea seeds can also be collected and germinated. Azaleas are generally slow-growing and do best in well-drained acidic soil, fertilizer needs are low, some species need regular pruning. Azaleas are native to several continents including Asia, Europe and North America and they are planted abundantly as ornamentals in the southeastern USA, southern Asia, and parts of southwest Europe. Magnolias owner John Grimke Drayton imported the plants for use in his estate garden from Philadelphia, with encouragement from Charles Sprague Sargent from Harvards Arnold Arboretum, Magnolia Gardens was opened to the public in 1871, following the American Civil War. Magnolia is one of the oldest public gardens in America, since the late nineteenth century, in late March and early April, thousands visit to see the azaleas bloom in their full glory. R. occidentale flowers are larger than other azaleas and are white with a splotch of yellow. R. arborescens are native to the east coast of North America and can be found growing wild from Alabama to Pennsylvania in wooded, plants grow up to 20 feet high and flowers are white and fragrant. The Flame Azalea, R. Native to the regions of Pennsylvania to Georgia. Flowers do not smell but bloom in every shade from yellow to crimson red. Flowers bloom in the late spring, a good variety for drier soils and shady areas. Foliage turns bright yellow in the Fall, Azalea leafy gall can be particularly destructive to azalea leaves during the early spring. Hand picking infected leaves is the method of control. They can also be subject to root rot in moist. In Chinese culture, the azalea is known as thinking of home bush and is immortalized in the poetry of Du Fu, the azalea is also one of the symbols of the city of São Paulo, in Brazil. In addition to being renowned for its beauty, the azalea is also highly toxic—it contains andromedotoxins in both its leaves and nectar, including honey from the nectar
"
