1.
Upper house
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An upper house, sometimes called a Senate, is one of two chambers of a bicameral legislature, the other chamber being the lower house. The house formally designated as the house is usually smaller. Examples of upper houses in countries include the UKs House of Lords, Canadas Senate, Indias Rajya Sabha, Russias Federation Council, Irelands Seanad, Germanys Bundesrat, a legislature composed of only one house is described as unicameral. An upper house is different from the lower house in at least one of the following respects, Powers, In a parliamentary system. Therefore, in countries the Upper House votes on only limited legislative matters. Cannot vote a motion of no confidence against the government, while the house always can. In a presidential system, It may have equal or nearly equal power with the lower house and it may have specific powers not granted to the lower house. For example, It may give advice and consent to some executive decisions and it may have the sole power to try impeachments against officials of the executive, following enabling resolutions passed by the lower house. Status, In some countries, its members are not popularly elected, membership may be indirect and its members may be elected with a different voting system than that used to elect the lower house. Less populated states, provinces, or administrative divisions may be represented in the upper house than in the lower house. Members terms may be longer than in the house. Members may be elected in portions, for staggered terms, rather than all at one time, in some countries, the upper house cannot be dissolved at all, or can be dissolved only in more limited circumstances than the lower house. It typically has fewer members or seats than the lower house and it has usually a higher age of candidacy than the lower house. In parliamentary systems the upper house is seen as an advisory or revising chamber. Some or all of the restrictions are often placed on upper houses. No absolute veto of proposed legislation, though suspensive vetoes are permitted in some states, in countries where it can veto legislation, it may not be able to amend the proposals. A reduced or even absent role in initiating legislation, additionally, a Government must have the consent of both to remain in office, a position which is known as perfect bicameralism or equal bicameralism. An example is the British House of Lords, bills can only be delayed for up to one year before the Commons can use the Parliament Act, although economic bills can only be delayed for one month
2.
Prussian estates
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They were at first composed of officials of six big cities of the region, Braunsberg, Culm, Elbing, Danzig, Königsberg and Thorn. Later, representatives of towns as well as nobility were also included. The estates met on four times per year, and discussed issues such as commerce. Obligations would be changed if new coins, too plentifully issued. Thus a law was passed by the Diet of Teutonic Prussia in 1418, thus creditors and recipients of nominally fixed revenues were not to lose by debasement-induced inflation. The Estates drifted towards the Kingdom of Poland in their political alignment, norman Housley noted that The alienation of the Prussian Estates represented a massive political failure on the part of the Order. The estates eventually became governed by Kingdom of Poland, on 10 December 1525 at their session in Königsberg the Prussian estates established the Lutheran Church in Ducal Prussia by deciding the Church Order. Nicolaus Copernicus, then canon of the Prince-Bishopric of Warmia, addressed the Prussian estates with three memoranda, in fact little essays, on currency reform, debasements continued to ruin Prussian finances, the groat had been debased by 1/5 to 1/6 of its prior bullion content. In 1517,1519 and again in 1526 he suggested to return to the law passed in 1418, however, especially the cities refused that. At least the estates refused to peg the Prussian currency to the Polish, under the Hohenzollerns absolutist rule the power of the Estates increasingly diminished. The West and East Prussian Estates, separately, again played a role in the transformation from feudal traditional agriculture to agricultural business, the Silesian Wars of 1740-1763 had required high taxes, such that many Prussian tax-payers went into debt. Feudal manor estates were not free property sellable at the will of their holders or – in case of over-indebtedness – by way of execution prompted by the creditors of the holders, so the holders of feudal manor estates found it difficult to borrow against their estates. Members of the Estates, then by status mostly noble landed manor holders, in order to overcome the restrictions on selling manor estates to fulfil outstanding debts, the manor estate holders formed a corporation of mutually liable debtors. So solvent manor estate holders had to step in for over-indebted borrowers, coovering over-indebted borrowers imposed hardship for the solvent manor-estate holders. This affected many opinions and even aroused appeals to abolish the system of manor estate holding. In the Napoleonic era the East Prussian Estates gained some political influence again, in return the Estates reached a wider representation of further parts of the population. The last excepted group - the Jews - became citizens in 1812, on 23 January Count Friedrich Ferdinand Alexander zu Dohna-Schlobitten, president of the Estates assembly, called its members for 5 February 1813. The hesitant king could not stop this anymore, but only approve it, only in the wake of the Revolutions of 1848 did Prussia receive its first constitution providing for the Prussian Landtag as the parliament of the kingdom
3.
Free State of Prussia
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The Free State of Prussia was a German state formed after the abolition of the Kingdom of Prussia in the aftermath of the First World War. It was the state of the German Reich during the time of the Weimar Republic, comprising almost 5⁄8 of its territory. Free state is another German term for republic that was coined in contrast to the Latin word, the democratic Free State of Prussia was rendered incapacitated when it was taken over by the Preußenschlag of 1932–33 and Otto Braun was forced from office. His government went to court over this ouster, but in 1933 the Nazi regime seized control of the Prussian government, from 1933, the Free State was deprived of parliamentary democracy and ruled exclusively under the leadership of the National Socialist German Workers Party. Initially, Prussia was administered by high-ranking Nazi Hermann Göring who was appointed Minister-President of Prussia, after the end of World War II Otto Braun approached US officials to reinstate the legal Prussian government. They and the other Allied Occupation forces, who had occupied all of Germany, were opposed to the idea, except for its overseas colonies, Alsace-Lorraine and the Bavarian portion of the Saargebiet, all German territorial losses as a result of World War I were Prussian losses. As specified in the Treaty of Versailles, the kingdom lost territory to Belgium, Denmark. The Saargebiet was administered by the League of Nations until 1935, the Rhine Province became a demilitarised zone. The bulk of Prussias losses were to Poland, including most of the provinces of Posen and West Prussia, Danzig was placed under the administration of the League of Nations as the Free City of Danzig. These losses separated East Prussia from the rest of the country, in particular, it was thought that the French would seek to annex the Rhineland. Both the Reich and Prussian governments in Berlin were dominated by traditionalist sentiment, essentially, apart from its territorial losses and having its government placed on a democratic footing, Prussia continued unchanged. It remained by far the largest state of the Reich, with more territory, during the 500 years of Hohenzollern rule, Prussia had been synonymous with authoritarianism. In contrast, Prussia was a bulwark of democracy during the Weimar Republic, the restrictive Prussian three-class franchise was abolished shortly after Kaiser William II abdicated. Power now passed from the Junker landowners and great industrialists to Red Berlin, Prussia now became a stronghold of the left. From 1919 to 1932, Prussia was governed by a coalition of the Social Democrats, Catholic Centre, unlike in other states of the German Reich, majority rule by democratic parties in Prussia was never endangered. Otto Braun, a Social Democrat from East Prussia, served as Prussian minister-president almost continuously from 1920 to 1932. A capable leader, he implemented several trend-setting reforms together with his minister of the interior, Carl Severing, for instance, a Prussian minister-president could be forced out of office only if there was a positive majority for a potential successor. This concept, known as the vote of no confidence, was carried over into the Basic Law of the FRG
4.
German language
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German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form
5.
Berlin
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Berlin is the capital and the largest city of Germany as well as one of its constituent 16 states. With a population of approximately 3.5 million, Berlin is the second most populous city proper, due to its location in the European Plain, Berlin is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. Around one-third of the area is composed of forests, parks, gardens, rivers. Berlin in the 1920s was the third largest municipality in the world, following German reunification in 1990, Berlin once again became the capital of all-Germany. Berlin is a city of culture, politics, media. Its economy is based on high-tech firms and the sector, encompassing a diverse range of creative industries, research facilities, media corporations. Berlin serves as a hub for air and rail traffic and has a highly complex public transportation network. The metropolis is a popular tourist destination, significant industries also include IT, pharmaceuticals, biomedical engineering, clean tech, biotechnology, construction and electronics. Modern Berlin is home to world renowned universities, orchestras, museums and its urban setting has made it a sought-after location for international film productions. The city is known for its festivals, diverse architecture, nightlife, contemporary arts. Since 2000 Berlin has seen the emergence of a cosmopolitan entrepreneurial scene, the name Berlin has its roots in the language of West Slavic inhabitants of the area of todays Berlin, and may be related to the Old Polabian stem berl-/birl-. All German place names ending on -ow, -itz and -in, since the Ber- at the beginning sounds like the German word Bär, a bear appears in the coat of arms of the city. It is therefore a canting arm, the first written records of towns in the area of present-day Berlin date from the late 12th century. Spandau is first mentioned in 1197 and Köpenick in 1209, although these areas did not join Berlin until 1920, the central part of Berlin can be traced back to two towns. Cölln on the Fischerinsel is first mentioned in a 1237 document,1237 is considered the founding date of the city. The two towns over time formed close economic and social ties, and profited from the right on the two important trade routes Via Imperii and from Bruges to Novgorod. In 1307, they formed an alliance with a common external policy, in 1415 Frederick I became the elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, which he ruled until 1440. In 1443 Frederick II Irontooth started the construction of a new palace in the twin city Berlin-Cölln
6.
Kingdom of Prussia
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It was the driving force behind the unification of Germany in 1871 and was the leading state of the German Empire until its dissolution in 1918. Although it took its name from the region called Prussia, it was based in the Margraviate of Brandenburg, the kings of Prussia were from the House of Hohenzollern. Prussia was a power from the time it became a kingdom, through its predecessor, Brandenburg-Prussia. Prussia continued its rise to power under the guidance of Frederick II, more known as Frederick the Great. After the might of Prussia was revealed it was considered as a power among the German states. Throughout the next hundred years Prussia went on to win many battles and it was because of its power that Prussia continuously tried to unify all the German states under its rule. Attempts at creation of a federation remained unsuccessful and the German Confederation collapsed in 1866 when war ensued between its two most powerful states, Prussia and Austria. The North German Confederation which lasted from 1867–1871, created a union between the Prussian-aligned states while Austria and most of Southern Germany remained independent. The North German Confederation was seen as more of an alliance of military strength in the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War, the German Empire lasted from 1871–1918 with the successful unification of all the German states under Prussian hegemony. This was due to the defeat of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, in 1871, Germany unified into a single country, minus Austria and Switzerland, with Prussia the dominant power. Prussia is considered the predecessor of the unified German Reich. The Kingdom left a significant cultural legacy, today notably promoted by the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation, in 1415 a Hohenzollern Burgrave came from the south to the March of Brandenburg and took control of the area as elector. In 1417 the Hohenzollern was made an elector of the Holy Roman Empire, after the Polish wars, the newly established Baltic towns of the German states including Prussia, suffered many economic setbacks. Many of the Prussian towns could not even afford to attend political meetings outside of Prussia, the towns were poverty stricken, with even the largest town, Danzig, having to borrow money from elsewhere to pay for trade. Poverty in these towns was partly caused by Prussias neighbors, who had established and developed such a monopoly on trading that these new towns simply could not compete and these issues led to feuds, wars, trade competition and invasions. However, the fall of these gave rise to the nobility, separated the east and the west. It was clear in 1440 how different Brandenburg was from the other German territories, not only did it face partition from within but also the threat of its neighbors. It prevented the issue of partition by enacting the Dispositio Achillea which instilled the principle of primogeniture to both the Brandenburg and Franconian territories, the second issue was solved through expansion
7.
Lower house
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A lower house is one of two chambers of a bicameral legislature, the other chamber being the upper house. Despite its official position below the house, in many legislatures worldwide. A legislature composed of one house is described as unicameral. In comparison with the house, lower houses frequently display certain characteristics, Powers In a parliamentary system, Much more power. Able to override the upper house in some ways, can vote a motion of no confidence against the government. In a presidential system, Somewhat less power, as the house alone gives advice. Given the sole power to impeach the executive Status Always elected directly, while the house may be elected directly, indirectly. Its members may be elected with a different voting system to the upper house, most populated administrative divisions are better represented than in the upper house, representation is usually proportional to population. Elected all at once, not by staggered terms, in a parliamentary system, can be dissolved by the executive. Has total or original control over budget and monetary laws, lower age of candidacy than the upper house. Many lower houses are named in the manner, House/Chamber of Representatives/the People/Commons/Deputies
8.
Prussian House of Representatives
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The Prussian House of Representatives was, until 1918, the second chamber of the Prussian Landtag, the other chamber being the Prussian House of Lords. It was elected according to the franchise, and had been established by the Prussian constitution of 5 December 1848. The name House of Representatives was introduced in 1855, from 1849 the election of representatives within the Kingdom of Prussia was performed according to the three-class franchise system. In the primary election, those with the right to vote went to the ballot and, several attempts to reform the voting procedure, which heavily favoured the Conservatives, were rebuffed by the House of Lords. The electoral law, which was one of the most progressive in Europe at the time it was introduced, the House of Representatives itself decided to abolish it in 1918, but hat became redundant by the German Revolution of 1918–1919, which founded a republic. To stand for election as a representative, one had to be over 30, the legislative period was at first three years, but, as for the Reichstag, it was changed to 5 years in 1888. The House was, however, dissolved by the king several times. From 1849 to 1918, there were 22 legislative periods and its size was first fixed at 350 seats, which changed to 352 with the incorporation of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen and Hohenzollern-Hechingen in 1849. Following annexations after the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, the number of changed to 432 after the election of 1867. In 1876, another seat for the Duchy of Lauenburg was added, in 1906, ten seats were added, bringing the number to 443 for the elections of 1908. The members of the House received monetary compensation for their work, therefore, many Reichstag members also sat in the House of Representatives. In 1903,110 members of the Reichstag were likewise members of the Prussian House, after 1906, the number of dual office-holders sank significantly, to only 45 in 1913. From 1862, there was a liberal majority in the House. In the Prussian constitutional crisis of 1859–66, however, the Liberals were defeated by chancellor Otto von Bismarck, after the war of 1866, the National Liberals split from the Liberals, and the latter never regained their former strength. A protest, by its vice-president Felix Porsch, on 24 November 1918 was the last sign of life of the House of Representatives
9.
Bicameralism
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A bicameral legislature is one in which the legislators are divided into two separate assemblies, chambers or houses. As of 2015, somewhat less than half of the national legislatures are bicameral. Often, the members of the two chambers are elected or selected using different methods, which vary from country to country and this can often lead to the two chambers having very different compositions of members. However, in many Westminster system parliaments, the house to which the executive is responsible can overrule the other house, some legislatures lie in between these two positions, with one house only able to overrule the other under certain circumstances. For example, one house would represent the aristocracy, and the other would represent the commoners as was the case in the Kingdom of England. Others, such as France under the Ancien Régime had a legislature known as the Estates General, which consisted of separate chambers for the clergymen, the nobility. The Founding Fathers of the United States also favoured a bicameral legislature, the idea was to have the Senate be wealthier and wiser. Benjamin Rush saw this though, and noted that, this type of dominion is almost always connected with opulence, the Senate was created to be a stabilising force, elected not by mass electors, but selected by the State legislators. Senators would be more knowledgeable and more sort of republican nobility—and a counter to what Madison saw as the fickleness. He noted further that the use of the Senate is to consist in its proceeding with more coolness, with system and with more wisdom. Madisons argument led the Framers to grant the Senate prerogatives in foreign policy, an area where steadiness, discretion, the Senate was chosen by state legislators, and senators had to possess a significant amount of property in order to be deemed worthy and sensible enough for the position. In fact, it was not until the year 1913 that the 17th Amendment was passed, as part of the Great Compromise, they invented a new rationale for bicameralism in which the Senate would have states represented equally, and the House would have them represented by population. Many nations with parliaments have to some degree emulated the British three-tier model, nevertheless, the older justification for second chambers—providing opportunities for second thoughts about legislation—has survived. An example of controversy regarding a second chamber has been the debate over the powers of the Canadian Senate or the election of the Senate of France. The relationship between the two chambers varies, in cases, they have equal power, while in others. The first tends to be the case in federal systems and those with presidential governments, the latter tends to be the case in unitary states with parliamentary systems. In the United States both houses of the U. S and this is due to their original location in the two-story building that was to house them. In Canada, the country as a whole is divided into a number of Senate Divisions, each with a different number of Senators, Senators in Canada are not elected by the people but are appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister
10.
House of Lords
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The House of Lords of the United Kingdom, referred to ceremonially as the House of Peers, is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the House of Commons, it meets in the Palace of Westminster, officially, the full name of the house is, The Right Honourable the Lords Spiritual and Temporal of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled. Unlike the elected House of Commons, all members of the House of Lords are appointed, the membership of the House of Lords is drawn from the peerage and is made up of Lords Spiritual and Lords Temporal. The Lords Spiritual are 26 bishops in the established Church of England, of the Lords Temporal, the majority are life peers who are appointed by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister, or on the advice of the House of Lords Appointments Commission. However, they include some hereditary peers including four dukes. Very few of these are female since most hereditary peerages can only be inherited by men, while the House of Commons has a defined 650-seat membership, the number of members in the House of Lords is not fixed. There are currently 805 sitting Lords, the House of Lords is the only upper house of any bicameral parliament to be larger than its respective lower house. The House of Lords scrutinises bills that have approved by the House of Commons. It regularly reviews and amends Bills from the Commons, while it is unable to prevent Bills passing into law, except in certain limited circumstances, it can delay Bills and force the Commons to reconsider their decisions. In this capacity, the House of Lords acts as a check on the House of Commons that is independent from the electoral process, Bills can be introduced into either the House of Lords or the House of Commons. Members of the Lords may also take on roles as government ministers, the House of Lords has its own support services, separate from the Commons, including the House of Lords Library. The Queens Speech is delivered in the House of Lords during the State Opening of Parliament, the House also has a Church of England role, in that Church Measures must be tabled within the House by the Lords Spiritual. This new parliament was, in effect, the continuation of the Parliament of England with the addition of 45 MPs and 16 Peers to represent Scotland, the Parliament of England developed from the Magnum Concilium, the Great Council that advised the King during medieval times. This royal council came to be composed of ecclesiastics, noblemen, the first English Parliament is often considered to be the Model Parliament, which included archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, barons, and representatives of the shires and boroughs of it. The power of Parliament grew slowly, fluctuating as the strength of the monarchy grew or declined, for example, during much of the reign of Edward II, the nobility was supreme, the Crown weak, and the shire and borough representatives entirely powerless. In 1569, the authority of Parliament was for the first time recognised not simply by custom or royal charter, further developments occurred during the reign of Edward IIs successor, Edward III. It was during this Kings reign that Parliament clearly separated into two chambers, the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The authority of Parliament continued to grow, and, during the fifteenth century
11.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established as a sovereign state on 1 January 1801 by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. The growing desire for an Irish Republic led to the Irish War of Independence, Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom, and the state was consequently renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Britain financed the European coalition that defeated France in 1815 in the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire thereby became the foremost world power for the next century. The Crimean War with Russia and the Boer wars were relatively small operations in a largely peaceful century, rapid industrialisation that began in the decades prior to the states formation continued up until the mid-19th century. A devastating famine, exacerbated by government inaction in the century, led to demographic collapse in much of Ireland. It was an era of economic modernization and growth of industry, trade and finance. Outward migration was heavy to the colonies and to the United States. Britain also built up a large British Empire in Africa and Asia, India, by far the most important possession, saw a short-lived revolt in 1857. In foreign policy Britain favoured free trade, which enabled its financiers and merchants to operate successfully in many otherwise independent countries, as in South America. Britain formed no permanent military alliances until the early 20th century, when it began to cooperate with Japan, France and Russia, and moved closer to the United States. A brief period of limited independence for Ireland came to an end following the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the British governments fear of an independent Ireland siding against them with the French resulted in the decision to unite the two countries. This was brought about by legislation in the parliaments of both kingdoms and came into effect on 1 January 1801, however, King George III was bitterly opposed to any such Emancipation and succeeded in defeating his governments attempts to introduce it. When the Treaty of Amiens ended the war, Britain agreed to return most of the territories it had seized, in May 1803, war was declared again. In 1806, Napoleon issued the series of Berlin Decrees, which brought into effect the Continental System and this policy aimed to eliminate the threat from the British by closing French-controlled territory to foreign trade. Frances population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of the British Isles, Napoleon expected that cutting Britain off from the European mainland would end its economic hegemony. The Spanish uprising in 1808 at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent, after Napoleons surrender and exile to the island of Elba, peace appeared to have returned. The Allies united and the armies of Wellington and Blucher defeated Napoleon once, simultaneous with the Napoleonic Wars, trade disputes, arming hostile Indians and British impressment of American sailors led to the War of 1812 with the United States. The war was little noticed in Britain, which could devote few resources to the conflict until the fall of Napoleon in 1814, American frigates inflicted a series of defeats on the Royal Navy, which was short on manpower due to the conflict in Europe
12.
Revolutions of 1848 in the German states
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They were a series of loosely coordinated protests and rebellions in the states of the German Confederation, including the Austrian Empire. They demonstrated the desire for the Zollverein movement. The middle-class elements were committed to principles, while the working class sought radical improvements to their working and living conditions. As the middle class and working class components of the Revolution split, liberals were forced into exile to escape political persecution, where they became known as Forty-Eighters. Many immigrated to the United States, settling from Wisconsin to Texas, the groundwork of the 1848 uprising in Germany was laid long beforehand. The Hambacher Fest of 1832, for instance, reflected growing unrest in the face of heavy taxation, the Hambacher Fest is noteworthy for the republicans adopting the black-red-gold colours as a symbol of the republican movement and of unity among the German-speaking people. Activism for liberal reform spread through many of the German states, in France the revolution of 1848 became known as the February Revolution. The revolutions spread across Europe, they erupted in Austria and Germany, beginning with the demonstrations on March 13,1848. This resulted in the resignation of Prince von Metternich as chief minister to Emperor Ferdinand I of Austria, because of the date of the Vienna demonstrations, the revolutions in Germany are usually called the March Revolution. Fearing the fate of Louis-Philippe of France, some monarchs in Germany accepted some of the demands of the revolutionaries, in the south and west, large popular assemblies and mass demonstrations took place. They demanded freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, written constitutions, arming of the people, in 1848, Austria was the predominant German state. It was considered the successor to the Holy Roman Empire, which had dissolved by Napoleon in 1806. German Austrian chancellor Metternich had dominated Austrian politics from 1815 until 1848, on March 13,1848 university students mounted a large street demonstration in Vienna, and it was covered by the press across the German-speaking states. Following the important, but relatively minor, demonstrations against Lola Montez in Bavaria on February 9,1848, the first major revolt of 1848 in German lands occurred in Vienna on March 13,1848. The demonstrating students in Vienna had been restive and were encouraged by a sermon of Anton Füster, the student demonstrators demanded a constitution and a constituent assembly elected by universal male suffrage. Emperor Ferdinand and his chief advisor Metternich directed troops to crush the demonstration, when demonstrators moved to the streets near the palace, the troops fired on the students, killing several. The new working class of Vienna joined the student demonstrations, developing an armed insurrection, the Diet of Lower Austria demanded Metternichs resignation. With no forces rallying to Metternichs defense, Ferdinand reluctantly complied and dismissed him, the former chancellor went into exile in London
13.
Frederick William IV of Prussia
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Frederick William IV, the eldest son and successor of Frederick William III of Prussia, reigned as King of Prussia from 1840 to 1861. In politics, he was a conservative, and in 1849 rejected the title of Emperor of the Germans offered by the Frankfurt Parliament as not the Parliaments to give, in 1857, he suffered a stroke and was left incapacitated until his death. Born to Frederick William III by his wife Queen Louise, he was the favourite son. Frederick William was educated by tutors, many of whom were experienced civil servants. He also gained experience by serving in the Prussian Army during the War of Liberation against Napoleon in 1814. In 1823 he married Elisabeth Ludovika of Bavaria, since she was a Roman Catholic, the preparations for this marriage included difficult negotiations which ended with her conversion to Lutheranism. There were two wedding ceremonies—one in Munich, and another in Berlin, the couple had a very harmonious marriage, but childless. Frederick William opposed the idea of a unified German state, believing that Austria was divinely ordained to rule over Germany, Frederick William became King of Prussia on the death of his father in 1840. Through a personal union, he became the sovereign prince of the Principality of Neuchâtel. In 1842, he gave his fathers menagerie at Pfaueninsel to the new Berlin Zoo, despite being a devout Lutheran, his Romantic leanings led him to settle the Cologne church conflict by releasing the imprisoned Clemens August von Droste-Vischering, the Archbishop of Cologne. He also patronized further construction of Cologne Cathedral, Cologne having become part of Prussia in 1815, in 1844, he attended the celebrations marking the completion of the cathedral, becoming the first king of Prussia to enter a Roman Catholic building. He committed himself to German unification, formed a government, convened a national assembly. Once his position was more secure again, however, he quickly had the army reoccupy Berlin and in December dissolved the assembly, therefore, Frederick William would only accept the imperial crown after being elected by the German princes, as per the former empires ancient customs. In the kings eyes, only a reconstituted College of Electors could possess such authority, with the failed attempt by the Frankfurt Parliament to include the Habsburgs into a newly unified German Empire, the Parliament turned to Prussia. Seeing Austrian ambivalence towards Prussia taking a powerful role in German affairs. All German states, excluding those of the Habsburgs, would be unified under Hohenzollern authority, the German Confederation remained the common government of German Europe. The lower house was elected by all taxpayers, but in a system based on the amount of taxes paid. This constitution remained in effect until the dissolution of the Prussian kingdom in 1918, Frederick William IV is buried with his wife in the crypt underneath the Church of Peace in the park of Sanssouci, at Potsdam
14.
German nobility
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The German nobility was a status group which until 1919 enjoyed certain privileges relative to other people under the laws and customs in the German-speaking area. Historically German entities which recognized or conferred nobility included the Holy Roman Empire, the German Confederation, all legal privileges and immunities of the nobility were officially abolished in 1919 by the Weimar Republic, and nobility is no longer conferred or recognized by the Federal Republic of Germany. Former hereditary titles are permitted as part of the surname, later developments distinguished the Austrian nobility, which came to be associated with the Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary. The nobility system of the German Empire was similar to nobility in the Austrian Empire, noble rank was usually granted to men by letters patent, whereas women were members of the nobility by descent or by marriage to a nobleman. Nobility was inherited equally by all descendants in the male line. Most German titles of nobility were also inherited by all descendants, although some descended by male primogeniture. Upon promulgation of the Weimar Constitution on 11 August 1919, all Germans were declared equal before the law, other German states enacted equivalent legislation. The Bavarian constitution of 1998 also bans the transfer, by way of adoption, altogether abolished were titles borne exclusively by German monarchs, such as emperor/empress, king/queen, grand duke/grand duchess, etc. However, former titles shared and inherited by all members of the family were retained but incorporated into the surname, for instance, members of the former royal families of Prussia and Bavaria were allowed use of Prinz/Prinzessin, or Herzog/Herzogin. However, these became extinct upon their deaths, not being heritable. With the demise of all persons styled crown prince before 1918, all other former titles and nobiliary particles are now inherited as part of the surname, and remain protected as private names under the laws. Whereas the title previously prefixed the given and surname, the legal usage moves the former title to the surname, however, the pre-1919 style sometimes continues in colloquial usage. In Austria, by contrast, not only were the privileges of the nobility abolished, some states within the Holy Roman Empire had strict laws concerning proper conduct, employment, or marriage of individual nobles. Failure to comply with these laws could result in temporary or permanent Adelsverlust, until about the early 19th century, for example, it was commonly forbidden for nobles, theoretically on pain of Adelsverlust, to marry persons of low birth—i. e. Moreover, nobles employed in menial labour could, theoretically, lose their noble rank, Adelsverlust only concerned the individual who was in violation of noble laws of conduct, meaning that their kin, spouse and living children were generally not affected. Most, but not all, surnames of the German nobility were preceded by or contained the preposition von or zu as a nobiliary particle, the two were occasionally combined into von und zu. In general, the von form indicates the place of origin. Therefore, von und zu indicates a family which is named for and continues to own their original feudal holding or residence
15.
Commoner
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The terms common people, common man, commoners, or the masses denote a broad social division referring to ordinary people who are members of neither royalty nor nobility nor the priesthood. Since the 20th century, the common people has been used in a more general sense to refer to typical members of society in contrast to highly privileged. In Europe, a concept analogous to common people arose in the Classical civilization of ancient Rome around the 6th century BC. The division may have been instituted by Servius Tullius, as an alternative to the clan based divisions that had been responsible for internecine conflict. The ancient Greeks generally had no concept of class and their leading social divisions were simply non-Greeks, free-Greeks, with the growth of Christianity in the 4th century AD, a new world view arose that would underpin European thinking on social division until at least early modern times. Saint Augustine postulated that social division was a result of the Fall of Man, the three leading divisions were considered to be the priesthood, the nobility, and the common people. Sometimes this would be expressed as those who prayed, those who fought, the Latin terms for the three classes – oratores, bellatores and laboratores – are often found even in modern textbooks, and have been used in sources since the 9th century. This threefold division was formalised in the system of social stratification. They were the third of the Three Estates of the Realm in medieval Europe, consisting of peasants, social mobility for commoners was limited throughout the Middle Ages. Generally, the serfs were unable to enter the group of the bellatores, commoners could sometimes secure entry for their children into the oratores class, usually they would serve as rural parish priests. There were cases of serfs becoming clerics in the Holy Roman Empire, though from the Carolingian era, of the two thousand bishops serving from the 8th to the 15th century, just five came from the peasantry. Up until the late 15th-century European social order was relatively stable, there were periods where the common people felt oppressed in certain regions, but often they were content with their lot. The social and political order of medieval Europe was shaken by the development of the cannon in the 15th century. Up until that time a noble with a force could hold their castle or walled town for years even against large armies -. Once effective cannons were available, walls were of far less defensive value and this change of orientation among the nobles left the common people less content with their place in society. A similar trend occurred regarding the clergy, where many priests began to abuse the power they had due to the sacrament of contrition. An early major social upheaval driven in part by the common peoples mistrust of both the nobility and clergy occurred in Great Britain with the English Revolution of 1642, after the forces of Oliver Cromwell triumphed, movements like the Levellers rose to prominence demanding equality for all. According to historian Roger Osbourne, the Colonels speech was the first time a prominent person spoke in favour of male suffrage
16.
House of Hohenzollern
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The House of Hohenzollern is a dynasty of former princes, electors, kings and emperors of Hohenzollern, Brandenburg, Prussia, the German Empire, and Romania. The family arose in the area around the town of Hechingen in Swabia during the 11th century, the first ancestor of the Hohenzollerns was mentioned in 1061. They may have derived from the Burchardinger dynasty, the Hohenzollern family split into two branches, the Catholic Swabian branch and the Protestant Franconian branch, which later became the Brandenburg-Prussian branch. The Swabian branch ruled the principalities of Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen until 1849, members of the Franconian branch became Margrave of Brandenburg in 1415 and Duke of Prussia in 1525. The Margraviate of Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia were ruled in personal union after 1618 and were called Brandenburg-Prussia, germanys defeat in World War I in 1918 led to the German Revolution. The Hohenzollerns were overthrown and the Weimar Republic was established, thus bringing an end to the German monarchy, Georg Friedrich, Prince of Prussia is the current head of the royal Prussian line, while Karl Friedrich, Prince of Hohenzollern is the head of the princely Swabian line. Zollern, from 1218 Hohenzollern, was a county of the Holy Roman Empire and its ruling dynasty was first mentioned in 1061. The Hohenzollerns named their estates after Hohenzollern Castle in the Swabian Alps, the Hohenzollern Castle still belongs to the family today. According to the medieval chronicler Berthold of Reichenau, Burkhard I, Count of Zollern was born before 1025, the Zollerns received the comital title from Emperor Henry V in 1111. As loyal vassals of the Swabian Hohenstaufen dynasty, they were able to enlarge their territory. In 1218 the burgraviate passed to Fredericks younger son Conrad I, he became the ancestor of the Franconian Hohenzollern branch. 1150-1155 and 1160, Gotfried of Zimmern, 4th oldest son of Frederick I before 1171 – c,1200, Frederick III/I Count Frederick III of Zollern was a loyal retainer of the Holy Roman Emperors Frederick Barbarossa and Henry VI. In about 1185 he married Sophia of Raabs, the daughter of Conrad II, after the death of Conrad II who left no male heirs, Frederick III was granted Nuremberg in 1192 as Burgrave Frederick I of Nuremberg-Zollern. Since then the name has been Hohenzollern. The younger brother, Conrad III, received the burgraviate of Nuremberg from his older brother Frederick IV in 1218, members of the Franconian line eventually became the Brandenburg-Prussian branch. The Franconian line later converted to Protestantism, the cadet Franconian branch of the House of Hohenzollern was founded by Conrad I, Burgrave of Nuremberg. Beginning in the 16th century, this branch of the family became Protestant and decided on expansion through marriage, the family supported the Hohenstaufen and Habsburg rulers of the Holy Roman Empire during the 12th to 15th centuries, being rewarded with several territorial grants. He ruled the Margraviate of Brandenburg-Ansbach after 1398, from 1420, he became Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach
17.
German Mediatisation
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For convenience, historians use the term mediatization for the entire restructuring process that took place at the time, whether the mediatized states survived in some form or lost all individuality. The secularization of ecclesiastical states took place concurrently with the mediatization of free imperial cities, the mass mediatization and secularization of German states that took place at the time was not initiated by Germans. It came under military and diplomatic pressure from revolutionary France. It constituted the most extensive redistribution of property and territories in German history prior to 1945, although most of its neighbors coalesced into relatively centralized states before the 19th century, Germany did not follow that path. At the time of Emperor Frederick IIs death, it had already decided that the regnum teutonicum was an aristocracy with a monarchical head. Among those states and territories, the principalities were unique to Germany. The German bishop became a prince of the Empire and direct vassal of the Emperor for his hochstift, the bishops, now elected by independent-minded cathedral chapters rather than chosen by the emperor or the pope, were confirmed as territorial lords equal to the secular princes. Having to face with the territorial expansionism of the powerful secular princes. In the course of the Reformation, several of the bishoprics in the north and northeast were secularized, on the other hand, Hildesheim and Paderborn – under Protestant administration for decades and given up for lost – were restored as prince-bishoprics. While no actual secularization took place during the century and a half that followed the Peace of Westphalia, there was a history of rumors. Frederick II added the archbishopric of Salzburg to the list and Charles VII went as far as adding the bishoprics of Eichstätt, although the sudden death of Charles VII put an end to this scheming, the idea of secularization did not fade away. In the late 18th century, the existence of the Holy Roman Empire. It took an external factor — the French Revolution — to shake the Empire to its foundation, by then, the French leaders had already resolved more or less openly to annex those lands to the Republic as soon as circumstances permitted. On the other hand, the secular rulers entitled to compensation should be compensated with secularized ecclesiastical land, a secret Franco-Prussian convention signed in August 1796 spelled out that such a compensation would be the Prince-Bishopric of Münster and Vest Recklinghausen. A secret article, not implemented at the time, added the Archbishopric of Salzburg, the treaty also provided for the holding of a congress at Rastatt where delegates of the Imperial Diet would negotiate a general peace with France. In March 1799, Austria, allied with Russia, resumed the war against France. This time, Francis II signed the treaty not only on Austria’s behalf but also on behalf of the Empire, which conceded the loss of the Austrian Netherlands. They warned that a complete secularization would be such a blow to the Empire that it would lead to its demise, generally, the proponents of secularization were less vocal and passionate, in good part because they realized that the course of events was in their favor
18.
Arenberg
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Arenberg, also spelled as Aremberg or Ahremberg, is a historic county, principality and finally duchy located in modern Germany. The Dukes of Arenberg remain a prominent Belgian aristocratic family, first mentioned in the 12th century, it was named after the village Aremberg in the Ahr Hills in todays Rhineland-Palatinate. It became a state of the Holy Roman Empire in 1549, was raised to a principality in 1576, the territorial possessions of the dukes of Arenberg varied through the ages. Around 1789 the duchy was located in the Eifel region on the west side of the Rhine, however, although the Duchy itself was in Germany, from the 15th century on, the principal lands of the Dukes of Arenberg have been in modern-day Belgium. The pre-Napoleonic duchy had an area of 413 km² and a population of 14,800 and it belonged to the Electoral Rhenish Circle, and was bordered by the duchy of Jülich, the Archbishopric of Cologne, the Archbishopric of Trier, and the county of Blankenheim. After the French occupation of the west bank of the Rhine around 1798 the duke of Arenberg received new lands, the county of Vest Recklinghausen, the county of Meppen, and the lordship of Dülmen. Arenberg joined Napoleons Confederation of the Rhine, although that did not prevent it being mediatised in 1810, with France annexing Dülmen and Meppen, and the duchy of Berg annexing Recklinghausen. After Napoleons defeat in 1814 and the dissolution of the Confederation of the Rhine the former Arenberg territories were divided between the kingdom of Prussia and the kingdom of Hanover, in both Prussia and Hanover, the dukes became local peers subordinate to the king. In 1826, the Arenberg territory in Hanover was named duchy of Arenberg-Meppen, Arenberg-Meppen had an area of 2,195 km² and a population of 56,700. The county of Recklinghausen, in Prussia, had an area of 780 km², the dukes of Arenberg remain a prominent Belgian aristocratic family. The direct family of the reigning duke are called by the title of prince of Arenberg. The ducal family descends agnatically from the House of Ligne, the forest of Arenberg is located in northeastern France, and is famous for its cobbled roads used in the classic road cycle race Paris–Roubaix. Its areas saw extensive mining in the past, arenberg-Nordkirchen Official site of the House of Arenberg The dukes of Arenberg Meyers Konversationslexikon Map of Luxembourg and the Duchy of Arenberg in 1789
19.
Bentheim-Steinfurt
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Bentheim-Steinfurt was a historical county located in northwestern North Rhine-Westphalia in the region surrounding Steinfurt, Germany. Bentheim-Steinfurt was a partition of Bentheim-Bentheim, itself a partition of the County of Bentheim, bentheim-Steinfurt was partitioned, between itself and Bentheim-Tecklenburg-Rheda in 1606, and between itself and Bentheim-Bentheim in 1643. Bentheim-Steinfurt and its territories were converted to Lutheranism in 1544 by Count Arnold II and he was succeeded by his less-religious son, Eberwin III. After the latters death at age 26, he was succeeded by his infant child, Arnold III. Arnold III married Magdalena of Neuenahr in 1576, and he attempts to properly convert the county to Protestantism. In the autumn of 1587, Lutheran preachers from across Germany were invited to reform the Counties of Bentheim, Steinfurt, Lingen. The new laws were largely modelled on those of Mörs, and were introduced in Bentheim and Tecklenburg, in the following year, and finally Steinfurt in 1591. Arnold also founded a school in Schüttorf during 1588, which was relocated to Steinfurt in 1591 and taught Latin, law, theology, philosophy. Arnold died in 1606, and was succeeded by his sons Arnold Jobst, William Henry, Frederick Liudolph, in 1643, Arnold Jobst died and was succeeded by his son Ernest William. He was greatly influenced by Bernhard von Galen, the Prince-Bishop of Münster, a fierce crisis ensued in which the Protestant preachers were expelled. Ernest William died in 1693, and it was left to his son and heir, Count Ernest, to resolve the troubles, a new reformed Church constitution was released, modelled on the 1678 Church Constitution of Lingen. Bentheim-Steinfurt obtained the Castle Batenburg in 1700, although by time it had ceased to be permanently garrisoned. Count Louis obtained the County of Bentheim-Bentheim in 1803, bentheim-Steinfurt was mediatised to Prussia in 1806, ceded to Berg in 1809, restored to Prussia in 1813 and ceded to the Kingdom of Hanover in 1815
20.
County of Isenburg
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Isenburg was a region of Germany located in southern present-day Hesse, located in territories north and south of Frankfurt. The states of Isenburg emerged from the Niederlahngau, which partitioned in 1137 into Isenburg-Isenburg and these countships were partitioned between themselves many times over the next 700 years. The House of Isenburg was an old family of medieval Germany. Occasionally referred to as the House of Rommersdorf before the 12th century, in 1664 the Lower Isenburg branch died out. The Büdingen line continued to partition, and by the beginning of the 19th century the lines of Isenburg-Büdingen, Isenburg-Birstein, Isenburg-Meerholz, today still exist the princes of Isenburg, the princes of Ysenburg and the counts of Ysenburg-Philippseich. Isenburg, the countship was divided in 1137 into, Isenburg, 1137–1199, eventually dividing c.1210 into, Isenburg-Braunsberg, 1210–1388. Isenburg-Wied, in turn, existed from 1388–1454, when it passed by marriage to the Lords of Runkel and was superseded by the Countship of Wied in 1462, Nieder-Isenburg, 1218–1502 when it was divided into, Isenburg-Grenzau, 1502–1664. After the death of Count Ernest in 1664 without direct heirs, his territories were claimed back as feudal tenures by the Archbishoprics of Cologne and Trier, the core territories including Isenburg were passed on by Fulda to the Counts of Walderdorff. They had to them according to a later agreement with the Counts of Wied. Isenburg-Neumagen, 1502–1554, when it passed by marriage to the Counts of Sayn-Homburg, isenburg-Kempenich, 1137–1424, when it passed to the Lords of Schöneck. In 1434, it passed to the Archbishop of Trier, who sold the territory to the Counts of Virneburg, Isenburg-Limburg-Covern, 1137–1158, when it was divided into, Isenburg-Covern, 1158–1306, when it passed to Isenburg-Cleberg. Isenburg-Arnfels, 1286–1379, when it passed to Isenburg-Wied, Isenburg-Cleberg, 1287–1340, when it was divided into, Isenburg-Grenzau, 1340–1439, when it passed to Nassau-Beilstein. It subsequently passed to the Archbishopric of Trier in 1446, and was purchased by the Counts of Nieder-Isenburg in 1460. When the Holy Roman Empire was defeated by Napoleon I of France in that year, the empire was abolished, as an incentive to join the Confederation, it was stated that any state which joined could mediatise their neighbours. His Principality was renamed to Isenburg, the Principality continued under the rule of Prince Charles through the Napoleonic era, but was mediatised by the Congress of Vienna for being too keen an ally of Napoleon. The lands of the principality were divided between the Grand Duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt and the Electorate of Hesse-Kassel
21.
Salm-Salm
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The Principality of Salm-Salm was a state of the Holy Roman Empire. It was located in the present-day French départements of the Bas-Rhin, Salm-Salm was created as a partition of Salm-Dhaun in 1574, and was raised from a County to a Principality in 1739 after being inherited and renamed by Count Nicholas Leopold of Salm-Hoogstraten. Salm-Salm was partitioned between itself and Salm-Neuweiler in 1608, the last territorial partition occurred in 1751, when Salm-Salm reorganized its borders with the Duchy of Lorraine. In 1790, after the French Revolution, the princes of Salm fled the territory and moved to their castle in Anholt, Salm-Salm then was besieged by the revolutionary army, which blocked food supplies from reaching the state. As a consequence, the population was forced to surrender to France, on March 2,1793, the French National Convention declared Salm-Salm to be a part of the French Republic and attached it to the Départment of the Vosges. This was recognized by the Holy Roman Empire in the Peace of Lunéville of 1801, some years later, in 1802/1803, together with Salm-Kyrburg, the prince of Salm-Salm was granted new territories formerly belonging to the Bishops of Münster. The new territory was governed in union with Salm-Kyrburg and was known as the Principality of Salm, in 1165, the original County of Salm was divided into the counties of Lower Salm, in the Ardennes, and the county of Upper Salm, situated in the Vosges mountains. In 1738, the County of Upper Salm was elevated to Principality of Salm-Salm, the capital of Salm-Salm was first Badonviller, and from 1751 on, Senones. The second part of the name of Salm-Salm derives from Salm Castle near Salm, at the end of its existence, Salm-Salm had an area of about 200 km² and 10,000 inhabitants. It was separated from the part of the Holy Roman Empire when most of Alsace was ceded to France in the 17th century. Until 1766, it was bordered by the Duchy of Lorraine to the west, after Lorraine became a part of France on 24 February 1766, Salm-Salm formed an exclave of the Holy Roman Empire surrounded by French territory. The economy of Salm-Salm was mainly based on a mine near Grandfontaine
22.
Stolberg-Wernigerode
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The County of Stolberg-Wernigerode was a county of the Holy Roman Empire located in the Harz region around Wernigerode, now part of Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. It was ruled by a branch of the House of Stolberg, the Counts of Wernigerode had become extinct in 1429 and their lands were inherited through Salic law by the Counts of Stolberg, sovereign counts of the Empire since the early 11th century. On 31 May 1645, the Harz line of Stolberg-Stolberg was divided between a senior Stolberg-Wernigerode line and a junior Stolberg-Stolberg line, because Wernigerode was heavily damaged by the Thirty Years War, the Counts of Stolberg-Wernigerode also resided in the castle of Ilsenburg. The town of Gedern in Hesse, acquired in 1535, became the seat of the branch of Stolberg-Gedern in 1677. This junior line, raised to a principality by Emperor Charles VII of Wittelsbach in 1742, was reacquired by Stolberg-Wernigerode in 1804. The Wernigerode line also re-acquired Stolberg-Schwarza on 14 September 1748, the county was mediatised in 1807 and made part of the Kingdom of Westphalia. In the 1815 Congress of Vienna, Stolberg-Wernigerode was granted to Prussia, the territory was incorporated into the Prussian Province of Saxony in 1815. The Counts of Stolberg-Wernigerode were considered Reichsfrei, the children of Fürsten, Fürstinnen and Erbprinzen zu Stolberg-Wernigerode bore the title of Prince zu Stolberg-Wernigerode and were styled as Serene Highness. Other members of this bore the equal title of Graf/Gräfin zu Stolberg-Wernigerode and were styled as Illustrious Highness
23.
Wied
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Wied was a County of Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany, located on the river Wied where it meets the Rhine. Wied emerged as a County earlier than many other German states, from 1243–1462, Wied was united with an Isenburgian County as Isenburg-Wied. Wied was partitioned twice, between itself and Wied-Dierdorf in 1631, and between Wied-Neuwied and Wied-Runkel in 1698, via William of Albania, the House of Wied ruled the Principality of Albania in 1914. Matfried I Eberhard Matfried II Richwin II Richwin III Richwin IV with, george, in 1217-1218 he was a commander of the German crusaders of the 5th crusade Lothar To Isenburg-Wied Frederick I William III, Count of Mörs with. John I Philip John II Herman I with, Herman II Frederick II Partitioned between Wied-Neuwied and Wied-Runkel Map of Wied in 1789 Héraldique européenne
24.
Duke of Schleswig-Holstein
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In the course of history the County of Holstein was several times partitioned among the inheriting sons into up to six lines. In 1386 King Oluf II of Denmark and his mother-regent, Queen Margaret I, enfeoffed in Nyborg Gerhard VI, Count of Holstein-Rendsborg and he was as Gerhard II duke of Schleswig. Until 1390 the Rendsborg branch united by inheritance all branches except of that of Holstein-Pinneberg and it remaining a separately ruled territory in Holstein until its line was extinct in 1640, when Holstein-Pinneberg was merged into the then Duchy of Holstein. In turn much of the current westerly, northerly and easterly suburbs within Greater Hamburg were ceded from Holstein on 1 April 1937, north Schleswig had merged into Denmark in 1920. Some Lauenburgian and Mecklenburgian municipalities were exchanged by the Barber Lyashchenko Agreement in 1945, in 1474 Lauenburgs liege lord Emperor Frederick III elevated Christian as Count of Holstein-Rendsburg to Duke of Holstein, thus becoming an immediate imperial vassal. The smaller Holstein-Pinneberg remained a county ruled by the House of Schauenburg. The House of Schauenburg continued its rule only in the County of Holstein-Pinneberg and they determined their youngest brother Frederick for a career as Lutheran administrator of an ecclesiastical state within the Holy Roman Empire. The secular rule in the fiscally divided duchies thus became a condominium of the parties, as dukes of Holstein and Schleswig the rulers of both houses bore the formal title of Duke of Schleswig, Holstein, Dithmarschen and Stormarn. The dynastic name Holstein-Gottorp comes as convenient usage from the more correct Duke of Schleswig. The Danish monarchs and the Dukes of Holstein-Gottorp listed below ruled both duchies together as to government, however, collected their revenues in their separate estates. John II the Elder conveniently called Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Haderslev produced no issue, John the Younger and his heirs, however, had no share in the condominial rule, they were only titular partitioned-off dukes. The share of John II the Elder, who died in 1580, was halved between Adolf and Frederick II, thus increasing again the royal share by a sixth of Holstein
25.
List of rulers of Hesse
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This is a list of rulers of Hesse during the history of Hesse on west-central Germany. These rulers belonged to a dynasty known as the House of Hesse. Hesse was ruled as a Landgraviate, Electorate and later as a Grand duchy until 1918, the title of all of the following rulers was Landgrave unless otherwise noted. In the early Middle Ages the Hessengau territory formed the parts of the German stem duchy of Franconia along with the adjacent Lahngau. Upon the extinction of the ducal Conradines, these Rhenish Franconian counties were gradually acquired by Landgrave Louis I of Thuringia, the remaining Thuringian landgraviate fell to the Wettin margrave Henry III of Meissen. Henry I of Hesse was raised to princely status by King Adolf of Germany in 1292, Hesse Between 1308 and 1311 the brothers Otto I and John I divided Hesse between them, until the death of John in 1311, when Hesse was reunited again. From 1567 on the new partition made wasnt over until the end of World War I, Philip I divided his land in four parts, Hesse-Kassel, Hesse-Marburg, Hesse-Rheinfels and Hesse-Darmstadt. Hesse-Kassel Hesse-Marburg Hesse-Rheinfels Hesse-Darmstadt In 1583 the only holder of Hesse-Rheinfels I, Philip II, died withou heirs, the same happened in 1604, Louis IV of Hesse-Marburg died without heirs and his lands divided between the two remaining brothers. Although some dispute in this last division, the division was concluded in 1648, between 1609 and 1632, Hesse-Kassel and Hesse-Darmstadt were divided, In 1609 Hesse-Darmstadt divided in Hesse-Darmstadt and Hesse-Darmstadt-Butzbach. In 1655 Hesse-Kassel-Eschwege returned to Hesse-Kassel-Rotenburg, and in 1658 the same occurred to Hesse-Kassel-Rheinfels, in 1661 Hesse-Darmstadt divided itself again, to create Hesse-Itter. In 1663 from Hesse-Kassel was created Hesse-Kassel-Philippsthal. In 1806 Hesse-Darmstadt annexed Hesse-Darmstadt-Homburg, in 1807 the Electorate of Hesse-Kassel was annexed to the Kingdom of Westphalia, to be restored in 1813, together with the mentioned lands. In 1834 Hesse-Kassel-Rotenburg reunited with Hesse-Kassel, In 1866 various lands was annexed by Prussia, only surviving Hesse-Darmstadt, genealogy of the Hessian noble family
26.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
27.
Paul Hirsch (politician)
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Paul Hirsch was a German politician and a member of the Social Democratic Party who served as Prime Minister of Prussia from 1918 to 1920. Hirsch was born in Prenzlau, Brandenburg and he attended the Evangelisches Gymnasium zum Grauen Kloster in Berlin and went on to study medicine, social sciences and economics at the Frederick William University. From 1892 he worked as a writer and journalist. He joined the Social Democratic Party and in 1899 was elected councillor in the then independent town of Charlottenburg. From 1908 he was one of the first Social Democratic members of the Prussian House of Representatives, on 4 January 1919 he dismissed the USPD chief of police Emil Eichhorn, which sparked the Spartacist uprising. Hirsch supported the Greater Berlin Act of 1920 and he resigned from his post after the Kapp Putsch, but remained a member of the Prussian Landtag until the Preußenschlag coup in 1932. He served as a councillor in Charlottenburg and from 1925 as mayor in Dortmund. Forced to retire after the Nazi Machtergreifung in 1933, Hirsch moved back to Berlin where he died in poverty in 1940. He was mentioned by name as one of the Jewish politicians who undermined the Weimar Republic in the 1940 Nazi propaganda film Der Ewige Jude produced by Fritz Hippler
28.
Landtag
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A Landtag is a representative assembly in German-speaking countries with legislative authority and competence over a federated state. Landtage assemblies are the bodies for the individual states of Germany and states of Austria. Likewise, the Landtag of South Tyrol is the legislature of the province of South Tyrol in northeast Italy. In the sovereign principality of Liechtenstein the national parliament is called the Landtag of Liechtenstein, the German word Landtag is composed of the words Land and Tag. The German word Tagung is derived from the German word Tag, as such meetings were held at daylight, the English word diet likewise comes from Latin, dies. Therefore, the representatives primarily defended class interests, and decisions were based on an electoral system. The precise composition obviously varied greatly, and could change over time, as the result of privileges granted or lost, entities split or merged, since 1466, Prussian Landtag were held in Royal Prussia. Prior to that, Prussian Landtag meetings were held in the Monastic state of the Teutonic Order, since 1525, Prussian Landtag were held in Ducal Prussia. 1806 the German Confederation was founded as successor of the Holy Roman Empire, §13 of the Bundesakte forced the German states to pass constitutions and implement parliaments called Landstände or Landtag. The first constitution was passed in Nassau, until 1841 all but 2 states got their constitution and parliaments. 1871 the German Empire was founded, all 25 states of the German Empire and the Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen had Landtage as legislative authorities. The most important one was the Prussian Landtag, in the Weimar Republic 1918 till 1933 all German states had Landtage. In difference to the former Landstände and Landtage the Weimar Republik Landtage have been elected in free an equal elections,1933 the Nazis abandoned the federal structure of the Weimar Republic and established a unitary state. The Landtage were abolished as a result, since then, the official term in Swedish is riksdag, equivalent of the German Reichstag. In the contemporary Federal Republic of Germany, the Republic of Austria and the Italian Republics province of South Tyrol, in the Principality of Liechtenstein, the Landtag is the sole national parliament, because Liechtenstein has no federal structure due to its size. The national bicameral Parliament comprises the directly elected Bundestag and the Bundesrat which represents the governments in Federal matters which affect the Länder. The representatives are elected in general, free, secret and direct ballots according to the principle of proportional representation, the largest of the parliamentary groups usually nominates the Landeshauptmann governor. The modern Landtage are the successors of the estates assemblies in the corresponding crown lands of the Austrian Empire
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Provinces of Prussia
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The Provinces of Prussia constituted the main administrative divisions of Prussia upon the Stein-Hardenberg Reforms. Following the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and the Congress of Vienna in 1815 and its territory covered some 60 percent of the territory that was to become the German Reich. The German Confederation was established at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the Prussian state was initially subdivided into ten provinces. The Prussian government appointed the heads of each known as Oberpräsident. The Oberpräsident represented the Prussian government in the province, and was busy with implementing and supervising central prerogatives of the Prussian government, the provinces of Prussia were further subdivided into government districts, subject to the High Commissioner. Congruent with the Kingdom of Prussia proper, its territory, like the Greater Polish territory of Posen, was not part of the German Confederation, in 1850 the Province of Hohenzollern in Southern Germany, created from the annexed principalities of Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. The outcome of the Austro-Prussian War put an end to the aspirations of a unified state consisting of the countries in both Germany and Austria. Instead the North German Confederation was created under Prussian leadership, the German Empire was dissolved in 1918 following World War I. Prussia had to virtually all territory belonging to the provinces of Posen and West Prussia to the newly created state of Poland. Smaller areas had been ceded to Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, the League of Nations mandate of the Memel Territory, Poland, and the Mandatory Saar. Prussia and its provinces formally continued to exist even though political control was taken over by the National Socialist German Workers Party following their rise to power in 1933. However, Prussia did not survive the defeat and the division of Germany following the end of World War II in 1945, several of the provinces attained statehood or became a part of other post-war federal states
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Cologne
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Cologne is the largest city in the German federal State of North Rhine-Westphalia and the fourth-largest city in Germany. It is located within the Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan region, one of the major European metropolitan areas, and with more than ten million inhabitants, Cologne is located on both sides of the Rhine River, less than eighty kilometres from Belgium. The citys famous Cologne Cathedral is the seat of the Catholic Archbishop of Cologne, the University of Cologne is one of Europes oldest and largest universities. Cologne was founded and established in Ubii territory in the first century AD as the Roman Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium, Cologne, the French version of the citys name, has become standard in English as well. The city functioned as the capital of the Roman province of Germania Inferior, during the Middle Ages it flourished on one of the most important major trade routes between east and west in Europe. Cologne was one of the members of the Hanseatic League and one of the largest cities north of the Alps in medieval. Up until World War II the city had several occupations by the French. Cologne was one of the most heavily bombed cities in Germany during World War II, the bombing reduced the population by 95%, mainly due to evacuation, and destroyed almost the entire city. With the intention of restoring as many buildings as possible. Cologne is a cultural centre for the Rhineland, it hosts more than thirty museums. Exhibitions range from local ancient Roman archeological sites to contemporary graphics, the Cologne Trade Fair hosts a number of trade shows such as Art Cologne, imm Cologne, Gamescom, and the Photokina. The first urban settlement on the grounds of modern-day Cologne was Oppidum Ubiorum, founded in 38 BC by the Ubii, in 50 AD, the Romans founded Colonia on the Rhine and the city became the provincial capital of Germania Inferior in 85 AD. The city was named Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium in 50 AD, considerable Roman remains can be found in present-day Cologne, especially near the wharf area, where a notable discovery of a 1900-year-old Roman boat was made in late 2007. From 260 to 271 Cologne was the capital of the Gallic Empire under Postumus, Marius, in 310 under Constantine a bridge was built over the Rhine at Cologne. Roman imperial governors resided in the city and it one of the most important trade. Cologne is shown on the 4th century Peutinger Map, maternus, who was elected as bishop in 313, was the first known bishop of Cologne. The city was the capital of a Roman province until occupied by the Ripuarian Franks in 462, parts of the original Roman sewers are preserved underneath the city, with the new sewerage system having opened in 1890. Early medieval Cologne was part of Austrasia within the Frankish Empire, Cologne had been the seat of a bishop since the Roman period, under Charlemagne, in 795, bishop Hildebold was promoted to archbishop
31.
Konrad Adenauer
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Konrad Hermann Joseph Adenauer was a German statesman who served as the first post-war Chancellor of Germany from 1949 to 1963. He led his country from the ruins of World War II to a productive and prosperous nation that forged close relations with France, the United Kingdom, during his years in power West Germany achieved democracy, stability, international respect and economic prosperity. He was the first leader of the Christian Democratic Union, a Christian Democratic party that under his leadership became one of the most influential parties in the country, Adenauer, the Chancellor till age 87 was dubbed Der Alte. British historian Roy Jenkins says he was the oldest statesman ever to function in elected office and he belied his age by his intense work habits and his uncanny political instinct. He displayed a strong dedication to a vision of market-based liberal democracy. A shrewd politician, Adenauer was deeply committed to a Western-oriented foreign policy and he worked to restore the West German economy from the destruction of World War II to a central position in Europe, presiding over the German Economic Miracle. He reestablished the German military in 1955 and he came to terms with France, which made possible the economic unification of Western Europe. Adenauer opposed rival East Germany and made his nation a member of NATO, a devout Roman Catholic, he had been a leading Centre Party politician in the Weimar Republic, serving as Mayor of Cologne and as president of the Prussian State Council. Konrad Adenauer was born as the third of five children of Johann Konrad Adenauer and his wife Helene in Cologne, Rhenish Prussia and his siblings were August, Johannes, Lilli and Elisabeth, who died shortly after birth in c. In 1894, he completed his Abitur and began studying law and politics at the universities of Freiburg, Munich and Bonn. In 1896, at the age of 20, he was conscripted into the German army and he was a member of several Roman Catholic students associations under the K. St. V. He graduated in 1900 and afterwards worked as a lawyer at the court in Cologne and he was strongly interested in the use of medicinal herbs, according to famous French herbalist Maurice Messugue, whom he met and befriended. These were his favorite medicinal plants according to Messugue, though he had knowledge of a wide range of plants. He agreed with Messugue that plants had to be free of sprays and he told Messugue that he owed his good health to the plants, to nature. Adenauer found relaxation and great enjoyment in the Italian game of bocce, as a devout Catholic, he joined the Centre Party in 1906 and was elected to Colognes city council in the same year. In 1909, he became Vice-Mayor of Cologne, a metropolis with a population of 635,000 in 1914. From 1917 to 1933, he served as Mayor of Cologne, Adenauer headed Cologne during World War I, working closely with the army to maximize the citys role as a rear base of supply and transportation for the Western Front. He paid special attention to the food supply, enabling the residents to avoid the worst of the severe shortages that beset most German cities during 1918–19
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Machtergreifung
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The Nazi seizure of power, frequently referred to by the German name Machtergreifung, was the advent to power in Germany of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers Party. Hitler seized power after the Reichstag Fire, to this day scholars dispute who started the fire that allowed Hitler to establish totalitarian rule over Germany. From an economic perspective, Brüning pursued a policy of austerity and public budget balancing. A proposed coalition between the Centre Party, the national conservative German National Peoples Party, and the Nazis, in the German federal election of July 1932, the Nazi Party gained the largest number of seats in the Reichstag, yet were still without a majority. However these plans failed, and behind his back on 4 January 1933, Hitler met Papen, along with State Secretary Otto Meissner and Hindenburgs son Oskar, Papen could finally persuade the reluctant president to appoint Hitler. Adolf Hitlers rise to power Reichstag fire Gleichschaltung Stachura, Peter D. ed. Introduction, Weimar National Socialism, Machtergreifung – Anmerkungen zu einem historischen Begriff]. The Coming of the Third Reich, evans, Richard J. Das Dritte Reich – Aufstieg. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, A History of Nazi Germany
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Baroque architecture
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It was characterized by new explorations of form, light and shadow, and dramatic intensity. Baroque architecture and its embellishments were on the one hand more accessible to the emotions and on the other hand, the new style manifested itself in particular in the context of the new religious orders, like the Theatines and the Jesuits who aimed to improve popular piety. The architecture of the High Roman Baroque can be assigned to the reigns of Urban VIII, Innocent X and Alexander VII. Dissemination of Baroque architecture to the south of Italy resulted in variations such as Sicilian Baroque architecture or that of Naples. To the north, the Theatine architect Camillo-Guarino Guarini, Bernardo Vittone and Sicilian born Filippo Juvarra contributed Baroque buildings to the city of Turin and the Piedmont region. A synthesis of Bernini, Borromini and Cortona’s architecture can be seen in the late Baroque architecture of northern Europe which paved the way for the more decorative Rococo style. During the 17th century, Baroque architecture spread through Europe and Latin America, michelangelos late Roman buildings, particularly St. Peters Basilica, may be considered precursors to Baroque architecture. Colonialism required the development of centralized and powerful governments with Spain and France, the initial mismanagement of colonial wealth by the Spaniards bankrupted them in the 16th century, recovering only slowly in the following century. While this was good for the industries and the arts, the new wealth created an inflation. Rome was known just as much for its new sumptuous churches as for its vagabonds, one of the first Roman structures to break with the Mannerist conventions exemplified in the Gesù, was the church of Santa Susanna, designed by Carlo Maderno. The dynamic rhythm of columns and pilasters, central massing, there is an incipient playfulness with the rules of classic design, but it still maintains rigor. These concerns are more evident in his reworking of Santa Maria della Pace. Probably the most well known example of such an approach is Saint Peters Square, the piazza, designed by Gian Lorenzo Bernini, is formed principally by two colonnades of free standing columns centred on an Egyptian obelisk. Berninis own favourite design was his church of SantAndrea al Quirinale decorated with polychome marbles. His secular architecture included the Palazzo Barberini based on plans by Maderno, Berninis rival, the architect Francesco Borromini, produced designs that deviated dramatically from the regular compositions of the ancient world and Renaissance. His building plans were based on geometric figures, his architectural forms were unusual and inventive. Borrominis architectural spaces seem to expand and contract when needed, showing some affinity with the style of Michelangelo. A later work, the church of SantIvo alla Sapienza, displays the same playful inventiveness and antipathy to the flat surface, following the death of Bernini in 1680, Carlo Fontana emerged as the most influential architect working in Rome
34.
Leipziger Platz
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Leipziger Platz is an octagonal square in the center of Berlin. It is located along Leipziger Straße just east of and adjacent to the Potsdamer Platz, prior to the war, the square was home to the Reichsmarineamt, the Wertheim flagship department store, the Mosse-Palais, Palast-Hotel and the Prussian Ministry of Agriculture. Today, it is home to the Canadian Embassy and the American Jewish Committee, there is also a little piece of the Berlin Wall located in the southern half. Interactive 360° panoramic view of Leipziger Platz 2009
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Johann Ernst Gotzkowsky
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Johann Ernst Gotzkowsky was a Prussian merchant with a successful trade in trinkets, silk, taft and porcelain. A relief on Meissen porcelain introduced in 1740s was named after him, moreover, he acted as a diplomat and art dealer. Born in Konitz in Royal Prussia, Gotzkowsky descended from an Adam Gotzkowsky from an family of Polish nobility. Both his parents died when he was five years as a result of the plague, Gotzkowsky grew up with relatives in Dresden, who neglected his education. As a 14-year-old he went to Berlin to live with his brother and he established him in his jewel and trinket shop and he quickly acquired customers in the highest circles, when he met Frederick the Great. In 1745, he married the daughter of a lace maker. Gotzkowsky persuaded his father-in-law to start a factory, which he inherited some years later. King Frederick II of Prussia commissioned Gotzkowsky to promote the trade to compete with France. Frederick also followed his recommendations in the field of toll levies, moreover, Gotzkowsky supplied the Prussian army and entered into consultation with Russian and Austrian army leaders, especially after the Prussian defeat at Kunersdorf. On 9 October 1760 Berlins City Council decided to surrender the city formally to the Russians rather than the Austrians, the Russians immediately made a demand for 4 million Thalers in exchange for the protection of private property. Gotzkowsky took over the negotiations on behalf of the city, and was able to persuade Heinrich von Tottleben to reduce the levy to 1.5 million Thalers, Gotzkowsky travelled to Königsberg in Prussia as a guarantor for the redemption money. In 1761, Gotzkowsky took over the factory of Wilhelm Caspar Wegely. Gotzkowsky attracted competent staff from Meissen, which was occupied in 1760 by the Prussian army, already in 1763, he had difficulty paying as a result of buying up Russian grain of bad quality and too high prices, causing the infamous Amsterdam company De Neufville to go broke. As a result, bankruptcies in Hamburg, Frankfurt, and Amsterdam followed, Gotzkowsky provided 317 paintings, including 90 not precisely known, to the Russian crown c. q. Catherine the Great, to satisfy to his obligations, one of the Rembrandts in the possession of Gotzkowsky was Ahasuerus and Haman at the feast of Esther. This last painting came from the possession of the Amsterdam clothdealer, a focal point of Berlin society during the war years was the residence of Gotzkowsky, whose gardens and paintings were admired both by the old nobility and new bourgeoisie. In 1764 James Boswell came to him on a visit and called him, in 1767 Gotzkowsky went bankrupt for the second time. Frederick the Great, who supported Gotzkowsky from 1740, and had him buy Dutch and Italian paintings, the company is still known as the Royal Porcelain Manufacture
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Royal Porcelain Factory, Berlin
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The Royal Porcelain Factory in Berlin was founded in 1763 by Frederick II of Prussia. Its actual origins, however, lie in three private enterprises, which, under patronage, were trying to establish the production of white gold in Berlin from the mid-18th century onwards. The company logo is a cobalt blue sceptre, which is stamped on every piece, all painted pieces produced by KPM are signed by the painter. KPM is still producing to this day, each piece of dishware, KPM has produced a number of dishware forms and porcelain figurines throughout its history. Some forms have changed their shape in over 200 years of production. Before KPM Berlin was founded two attempts had already made to establish a porcelain manufactory in Berlin. In 1751 the Berlin wool manufacturer Wilhelm Caspar Wegely was granted the privilege to set up a porcelain manufactory in Berlin. Furthermore, Frederick granted exemption from duties for the import of essential materials, Wegely hired first-class craftsmen from his competitors, and appointed the porcelain sculptor Ernst Heinrich Reichard to the post of chief modeller. However, technical difficulties and the Seven Years’ War between Prussia and Saxony soon proved to be the enterprise’s downfall, in 1757 he dissolved his company and sold its inventories, equipment and materials to the Berlin businessman Johann Ernst Gotzkowsky. In 1761, the porcelain manufactory in Berlin started its operations. Gotzkowsky concluded an agreement with Wegely’s chief modeller, Ernst Heinrich Reichard, Reichard received 4,000 thaler for the arcanum, and another 3,000 for the stock of porcelain and other materials. Furthermore, he undertook to work for Gotzkowsky as a keeper of the arcanum, Gotzkowsky also agreed to take over Reichard’s eight workers. Appreciated and supported by the King of Prussia, Gotzkowsky managed to attract important artists, Gotzkowsky bought another building next to his own property at Leipziger Straße 4, and began to build a manufactory on the site. Nevertheless, Gotzkowsky’s finances began to deteriorate, since the royal exchequer was in the red on account of the war, Gotzkowsky believed that he stood little or no chance of obtaining assistance from the king. The end of the war signalled the end for Gotzkowsky’s manufactory. Today, the porcelain from the early days marked with a W for Wegely und a G for Gotzkowsky are extremely rare, on 19 September 1763, Frederick II officially became the manufactory’s new owner. He purchased the manufactory for the sum of 225,000 thaler. He gave the business its name and allowed it to use the royal sceptre as its symbol, from now on it was called Koenigliche Porzellan-Manufaktur Berlin and became a model of how to run a business
37.
Abraham Mendelssohn Bartholdy
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Abraham Ernst Mendelssohn Bartholdy was a German banker and philanthropist. He was the father of Felix Mendelssohn and Fanny Mendelssohn, Mendelssohn was born and died in Berlin. The son of the philosopher Moses Mendelssohn, Abraham is supposed to have complained to a friend, Once I was the son of a famous father, by the time of Mosess death in 1786 the Mendelssohn family was well established and wealthy. In line with Mosess ideas that German Jews should participate in German as well as Jewish culture Abraham had a liberal education and he was one of the founding members of the Jewish liberal society Gesellschaft der Freunde in 1792, but also of the Sing-Akademie zu Berlin founded in 1793. In 1796 his future wife Lea Salomon, a granddaughter of Daniel Itzig, also joined the Akademie, French life did not appeal to him. In 1804 Abraham married Lea in Hamburg, where he managed an office of the family bank, in 1804, Abraham Mendelssohn became a partner in his brother Josephs banking company. The private bank which later was renamed into Mendelssohn & Co. existed on the Jägerstraße in Berlin from 1815 until the end of 1938, in 1811 the French occupation of Hamburg and decline of trade caused Abraham and his family to return to Berlin. He entrusted Felix to the tuition of Carl Friedrich Zelter, who in 1801 had taken over the direction of the Singakademie and he later engaged the pianist Ignaz Moscheles to give his children some lessons, and this led to a lasting association between Moscheles and the family. When Felix made his first visit to England in 1829 Abraham entrusted him to Moscheless care, the Mendelssohn household in Berlin was often the setting for concerts and at many of these semi-domestic occasions the early music of Felix was performed and Felix and Fanny themselves played. Abraham and Lea had two children, Rebecka, who married the mathematician Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet and the banker Paul. In 1825 Abraham was elected a councillor in Berlin. Abraham and his wife are buried close to three of their children and their graves are preserved in the Trinity Church Cemetery No.1 in Berlin, Abraham took an uncompromising attitude towards his Jewish origins. He felt that the day of Judaism was over and that it was necessary to take steps to assimilate with German society. To this end he and Lea took the decision not to have their sons Felix and Paul circumcised after their births in 1805 and 1809 respectively. He further took the advice of Leas brother Jakob to change his surname, Jakob had adopted the name Bartholdy after a property which he had acquired, and Abraham, too, chose to take this name. As he was to later to Felix, because of the fame of Moses Mendelssohn there can no more be a Christian Mendelssohn than there can be a Jewish Confucius. Their son Felix later married the daughter of the minister of that church. Carl Klingemann The Mendelssohn Family 1729-1847, 4th ed.2 vols, London 1884
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Felix Mendelssohn
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Jakob Ludwig Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy, born and widely known as Felix Mendelssohn, was a German composer, pianist, organist and conductor of the early Romantic period. A grandson of the philosopher Moses Mendelssohn, Felix Mendelssohn was born into a prominent Jewish family and he was brought up without religion until the age of seven, when he was baptised as a Reformed Christian. Mendelssohn was recognised early as a prodigy, but his parents were cautious. Mendelssohn enjoyed early success in Germany, where he revived interest in the music of Johann Sebastian Bach. The Leipzig Conservatoire, which he founded, became a bastion of this anti-radical outlook, Mendelssohn wrote symphonies, concerti, oratorios, piano music and chamber music. His Songs Without Words are his most famous solo piano compositions and he is now among the most popular composers of the Romantic era. Mendelssohns father was the banker Abraham Mendelssohn, the son of the German Jewish philosopher Moses Mendelssohn and his mother was Lea Salomon, a member of the Itzig family and a sister of Jakob Salomon Bartholdy. Mendelssohn was the second of four children, his older sister Fanny also displayed exceptional, the family moved to Berlin in 1811, leaving Hamburg in disguise fearing French revenge for the Mendelssohn banks role in breaking Napoleons Continental System blockade. Abraham and Lea Mendelssohn sought to give their children – Fanny, Felix, Paul, Fanny became a well-known pianist and amateur composer, originally Abraham had thought that she, rather than Felix, would be the more musical. However, at time, it was not considered proper, by either Abraham or Felix, for a woman to have a career in music, so Fanny remained an active. Abraham was also disinclined to allow Felix to follow a career until it became clear that he seriously intended to dedicate himself to it. Mendelssohn grew up in an intellectual environment, Sarah Rothenburg wrote of the household that Europe came to their living room. Abraham Mendelssohn renounced the Jewish religion, he and his wife decided not to have Felix circumcised. Felix and his siblings were first brought up without religious education, Abraham and his wife Lea were themselves baptised in 1822, formally adopting the surname Mendelssohn Bartholdy for themselves and their children. The name Bartholdy was added at the suggestion of Leas brother, Jakob Salomon Bartholdy, in 1829, his sister Fanny wrote to him of Bartholdy this name that we all dislike. Like Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart before him, Mendelssohn was regarded as a child prodigy and he began taking piano lessons from his mother when he was six, and at seven was tutored by Marie Bigot in Paris. After the family moved to Berlin, all four Mendelssohn children studied piano with Ludwig Berger, from at least May 1819 Felix studied counterpoint and composition with Carl Friedrich Zelter in Berlin. This was an important influence on his future career, Zelter had almost certainly been recommended as a teacher by his aunt Sarah Levy, who had been a pupil of W. F. Bach and a patron of C. P. E. Bach
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Fanny Mendelssohn
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Fanny Mendelssohn, later Fanny Mendelssohn Bartholdy and, after her marriage, Fanny Hensel, was a German pianist and composer. She composed over 460 pieces of music and her compositions include a piano trio and several books of solo piano pieces and songs. A number of her songs were published under her brother, Felix Mendelssohns. Her piano works are often in the manner of songs, and she also wrote, amongst other works for the piano, a cycle of pieces depicting the months of the year, Das Jahr. The music was written on coloured sheets of paper, and illustrated by her husband Wilhelm Hensel, each piece was also accompanied by a short poem. Mendelssohn was born in Hamburg, the oldest of four children and she was descended on both sides from distinguished Jewish families, her parents were Abraham Mendelssohn, and Lea, née Salomon, a granddaughter of the entrepreneur Daniel Itzig. She was not however brought up as Jewish, and never practised Judaism and she received her first piano instruction from her mother, who had been trained in the Berliner-Bach tradition by Johann Kirnberger, who was himself a student of Johann Sebastian Bach. Thus as a 13 year old, Fanny could already play all 24 Preludes from Bachs The Well-Tempered Clavier by heart and she studied briefly with the pianist Marie Bigot in Paris, and finally with Ludwig Berger. In 1820 Fanny, along with her brother Felix, joined the Sing-Akademie zu Berlin which was led by Carl Friedrich Zelter and this child is really something special. Much later, in an 1831 letter to Goethe, Zelter described Fannys skill as a pianist with the highest praise for a woman at the time, both Fanny and Felix received instruction in composition with Zelter starting in 1819. Fanny showed prodigious ability as a child and began to write music. Visitors to the Mendelssohn household in the early 1820s, including Ignaz Moscheles, however, Fanny was limited by prevailing attitudes of the time toward women, attitudes apparently shared by her father, who was tolerant, rather than supportive, of her activities as a composer. Her father wrote to her in 1820 Music will perhaps become his profession, while for you it can, although Felix was privately broadly supportive of her as a composer and a performer, he was cautious of her publishing her works under her own name. He wrote, From my knowledge of Fanny I should say that she has neither inclination nor vocation for authorship and she is too much all that a woman ought to be for this. She regulates her house, and neither thinks of the public nor of the world, nor even of music at all. Publishing would only disturb her in these, and I cannot say that I approve of it, the siblings shared a great passion for music. Felix did arrange with Fanny for some of her songs to be published under his name, in turn Fanny helped Felix by constructive criticism of pieces and projects, which he always considered very carefully. In 1829, after a courtship of several years, Fanny married the painter Wilhelm Hensel and her husband was supportive of her composing
40.
A Midsummer Night's Dream (Mendelssohn)
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At two separate times, Felix Mendelssohn composed music for William Shakespeares play, A Midsummer Nights Dream. First in 1826, near the start of his career, he wrote a concert overture, later, in 1842, only a few years before his death, he wrote incidental music for a production of the play, into which he incorporated the existing Overture. The incidental music includes the world-famous Wedding March, the German title reads Ein Sommernachtstraum. The Overture in E major, Op.21, was written by Mendelssohn at 17 years and 6 months old, contemporary music scholar George Grove called it the greatest marvel of early maturity that the world has ever seen in music. It was written as an overture, not associated with any performance of the play. The Overture was written after Mendelssohn had read a German translation of the play in 1826, the translation was by August Wilhelm Schlegel, with help from Ludwig Tieck. There was a connection as well, Schlegels brother Friedrich married Felix Mendelssohns Aunt Dorothea. While a romantic piece in atmosphere, the Overture incorporates many elements, being cast in sonata form and shaped by regular phrasings. The piece is noted for its striking instrumental effects, such as the emulation of scampering fairy feet at the beginning. Heinrich Eduard Jacob, in his biography of the composer, said that Mendelssohn had scribbled the chords after hearing an evening breeze rustle the leaves in the garden of the familys home, the overture begins with four chords in the winds. Following the first theme in the parallel minor representing the dancing fairies, a transition leads to a second theme and this is followed by the braying of Bottom with the hee-hawing being evoked by the strings. A final group of themes, reminiscent of craftsmen and hunting calls, the fairies dominate most of the development section, while the Lovers theme is played in a minor key. The recapitulation begins with the opening four chords in the winds, followed by the Fairies theme. The fairies return, and ultimately have the word in the coda. The overture ends once again with the opening four chords by the winds. The Overture was premiered in Stettin on 20 February 1827, at a concert conducted by Carl Loewe, Mendelssohn had turned 18 just over two weeks earlier. He had to travel 80 miles through a snowstorm to get to the concert. After the intermission, he joined the first violins for a performance of Beethovens Ninth Symphony, Mendelssohn wrote the incidental music, Op.61, for A Midsummer Nights Dream in 1842,16 years after he wrote the Overture
41.
Reichstag (North German Confederation)
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The Reichstag was the Parliament of the North German Confederation, founded after the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. It functioned until the establishment of the German Empire in 1871, parliamentary sessions were held in the same building as the Upper House of the Prussian Landtag, the Prussian House of Lords, located at 3 Leipziger Straße in Berlin, Germany. The same location is now the home of the German Federal Bundesrat, after the draft 1860 Constitution of Otto von Bismarck, based on a design by Lothar Bucher, the Reichstag became the official Parliament of the North German Confederation. It was specifically designed to form a counterweight to the monarchy, while the new Reichstag was significantly weaker than other federal institutions, in the Constitution it did have significant powers. On the basis of the new Constitution, a constituent parliament was elected on the basis of universal suffrage on 12 February 1867, the area of the North German Confederation was divided into 297 electoral districts, where an absolute majority vote directly elected a MP. If no candidate reached a majority on the first ballot. Despite considerable criticism of the North German Confederation, especially in areas that Prussia had annexed in 1866, overall, the turnout of almost 65% was significantly higher than previous elections to the Prussian Landtag. The government tried to influence the elections, but nevertheless the results reflected the mood of the population. A majority was formed by the National Liberal Party, the Progressive Party, there were also some more liberal-minded MPs. Together the block constituted 180 of the 297 seats and formed a block of potential support to Bismarcks policies. This was countered by 63 Old Conservatives,13 Polish deputies,18 Particularists and 19 members of the Progressive Party, the anti-Prussian democratically-oriented Saxon Peoples Party was represented by August Bebel and Reinold Schraps. Eduard von Simson, who held the position of President in the Frankfurt Parliament and later in the Reichstag of the German Empire. August Bebel later wrote in his memoirs that the elite of the North German political, in addition there were Generals selected due to their accomplishments in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Eduard Vogel von Falckenstein and Karl Friedrich von Steinmetz. Bebel also described Bismarck as an orator and ended his diary with an assessment. Politicians must ask themselves, today more than ever, what is achievable over what is desirable, in connection with the outcome of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, the Reichstag voted on the accession of the states of Baden, Hesse, Bavaria and Württemberg. At the request of the Federal Council and with the consent of the Reichstag, the Reichstag of the North German Confederation was then replaced by the Reichstag of the German Empire, with new elections scheduled for March 3,1871. Klaus Erich Pollmann, Parlamentarismus im Norddeutschen Bund 1867–1870, ISBN 3-7700-5130-0 Wolfram Siemann, Gesellschaft im Aufbruch. ISBN 3-89166-164-9, pp. 13–16 Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte, Volume 3, In, ISBN 3-406-32263-8, p.303 Egbert Weiß, Corpsstudenten im Reichstag des Norddeutschen Bundes
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North German Federation
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The North German Confederation was a confederation of 22 previously independent states of northern Germany, with nearly 30 million inhabitants. It was the first modern German nation state and the basis for the later German Empire, after several unsuccessful proposals from several sides to reform the German Confederation, the North German major power Prussia left the German Confederation with some allies. It came to war between states on one hand and southern states led by Austria on the other. After a quick decision in the Austro-Prussian War of July 1866, Prussia, at first, it was a military alliance between independent states, the so-called August Alliance, but the states already had the intention to form a federation or confederation with a constitution. The North German Confederation is historically important for the economic and judicial unification of Germany, many of its laws were taken over by the German Empire, the North German Confederation continues as the German nation state which still exists today. On January 1st,1871, the received a new constitution that gave it the name German Empire. In 1815, after the defeat of Napoleon, the German princes. The sovereignty remained with the individual German states, there were several attempts to create a modern nation state, most prominently in the Revolution of 1848. A major issue in the struggle was the rivalry between Austria, the principal power in Germany, and the ascending Prussia. The Austro-Prussian War of 1866 demonstrated the superiority of Prussia, led by its ingenious. The alliance had 15 members then, with 80 percent of the living in Prussia. A notable exclave of the North German Confederation was the Prussian territory of Hohenzollern in the south, hesse-Darmstadt was part of the new Confederation only with its northern part. A South German Confederation, as mentioned in the Peace of Prague, from the beginning the alliance was supposed to become a nation state with a federal constitution. On 15 December 1866, Bismarck presented a proposal to the representatives of the allied governments and their complaints did not seriously alter the proposal. On 7 February 1867, the proposal of the governments was ready. It was the not to impose the new constitution but to stipulate it together with a representation of the people. To this end a parliament was elected on 12 February and this Konstituierender Reichstag accepted the constitution, with relatively minor changes, on 16 April 1867. Then, the state parliaments adopted it, consequently, the first North German Reichstag was elected, the only one during the existence of the North German Confederation
