1.
Dutch Republic
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It preceded the Batavian Republic, the Kingdom of Holland, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, and ultimately the modern Kingdom of the Netherlands. Alternative names include the United Provinces, Seven Provinces, Federated Dutch Provinces, most of the Low Countries had come under the rule of the House of Burgundy and subsequently the House of Habsburg. In 1549 Holy Roman Emperor Charles V issued the Pragmatic Sanction, Charles was succeeded by his son, King Philip II of Spain. This was the start of the Eighty Years War, in 1579 a number of the northern provinces of the Low Countries signed the Union of Utrecht, in which they promised to support each other in their defence against the Spanish army. This was followed in 1581 by the Act of Abjuration, the declaration of independence of the provinces from Philip II. In 1582 the United Provinces invited Francis, Duke of Anjou to lead them, but after an attempt to take Antwerp in 1583. After the assassination of William of Orange, both Henry III of France and Elizabeth I of England declined the offer of sovereignty, however, the latter agreed to turn the United Provinces into a protectorate of England, and sent the Earl of Leicester as governor-general. This was unsuccessful and in 1588 the provinces became a confederacy, the Union of Utrecht is regarded as the foundation of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces, which was not recognized by the Spanish Empire until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. During the Anglo-French war, the territory was divided into groups, the Patriots, who were pro-French and pro-American and the Orangists. The Republic of the United Provinces faced a series of revolutions in 1783–1787. During this period, republican forces occupied several major Dutch cities, initially on the defence, the Orangist forces received aid from Prussian troops and retook the Netherlands in 1787. After the French Republic became the French Empire under Napoleon, the Batavian Republic was replaced by the Napoleonic Kingdom of Holland, the Netherlands regained independence from France in 1813. In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 the names United Provinces of the Netherlands, on 16 March 1815, the son of stadtholder William V crowned himself King William I of the Netherlands. Between 1815 and 1890 the King of the Netherlands was also in a union the Grand Duke of the sovereign Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. After Belgium gained its independence in 1830, the state became known as the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The County of Holland was the wealthiest and most urbanized region in the world, the free trade spirit of the time received a strong augmentation through the development of a modern, effective stock market in the Low Countries. The Netherlands has the oldest stock exchange in the world, founded in 1602 by the Dutch East India Company, while Rotterdam has the oldest bourse in the Netherlands, the worlds first stock exchange, that of the Dutch East-India Company, went public in six different cities. Later, a court ruled that the company had to reside legally in a city so Amsterdam is recognized as the oldest such institution based on modern trading principles
2.
Kingdom of Prussia
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It was the driving force behind the unification of Germany in 1871 and was the leading state of the German Empire until its dissolution in 1918. Although it took its name from the region called Prussia, it was based in the Margraviate of Brandenburg, the kings of Prussia were from the House of Hohenzollern. Prussia was a power from the time it became a kingdom, through its predecessor, Brandenburg-Prussia. Prussia continued its rise to power under the guidance of Frederick II, more known as Frederick the Great. After the might of Prussia was revealed it was considered as a power among the German states. Throughout the next hundred years Prussia went on to win many battles and it was because of its power that Prussia continuously tried to unify all the German states under its rule. Attempts at creation of a federation remained unsuccessful and the German Confederation collapsed in 1866 when war ensued between its two most powerful states, Prussia and Austria. The North German Confederation which lasted from 1867–1871, created a union between the Prussian-aligned states while Austria and most of Southern Germany remained independent. The North German Confederation was seen as more of an alliance of military strength in the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War, the German Empire lasted from 1871–1918 with the successful unification of all the German states under Prussian hegemony. This was due to the defeat of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, in 1871, Germany unified into a single country, minus Austria and Switzerland, with Prussia the dominant power. Prussia is considered the predecessor of the unified German Reich. The Kingdom left a significant cultural legacy, today notably promoted by the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation, in 1415 a Hohenzollern Burgrave came from the south to the March of Brandenburg and took control of the area as elector. In 1417 the Hohenzollern was made an elector of the Holy Roman Empire, after the Polish wars, the newly established Baltic towns of the German states including Prussia, suffered many economic setbacks. Many of the Prussian towns could not even afford to attend political meetings outside of Prussia, the towns were poverty stricken, with even the largest town, Danzig, having to borrow money from elsewhere to pay for trade. Poverty in these towns was partly caused by Prussias neighbors, who had established and developed such a monopoly on trading that these new towns simply could not compete and these issues led to feuds, wars, trade competition and invasions. However, the fall of these gave rise to the nobility, separated the east and the west. It was clear in 1440 how different Brandenburg was from the other German territories, not only did it face partition from within but also the threat of its neighbors. It prevented the issue of partition by enacting the Dispositio Achillea which instilled the principle of primogeniture to both the Brandenburg and Franconian territories, the second issue was solved through expansion
3.
Orangism (Dutch Republic)
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In the history of the Dutch Republic, Orangism or prinsgezindheid was a political force opposing the Staatsgezinde party. Orangists supported the princes of Oranges as Stadtholders and military commanders of the Republic, the Orangist party drew its members largely from the common people, soldiers, the nobility and orthodox preachers, though its support fluctuated heavily over the course of the Republics history. Orangism can be seen as a continuation of the opposition between the remonstrants and counter-remonstrants during the Twelve Years Truce. The Remonstrants were tolerant and republican, with a view on biblical interpretation. The office had been vacant since the death of William II in 1650, the pro-Republic party was marked by caution, led by raadspensionaris Johan de Witt and had supporters among the ruling class and the regenten. It was de Witt who, in the 1654 peace with England and its leader Oliver Cromwell, de Witt then put pressure on all seven of the Republics provinces to uphold this ban. The pro-prince party was led by the stadholder himself and by men such as Cornelis Tromp, in the second half of the 18th century the anti-Orangist party became known as the Patriots. These Patriots strongly opposed both the Prince of Orange, and the British connection, many of their numbers were drawn from those with commercial and maritime interests who saw Britain as a natural rival of the Dutch, and generally supported the French. At various times the Princes of Orange tried to counter this by moving closer or further away from the British alliance. In his name the British Royal Navy and small contingents of the Dutch Navy conquered much of the Dutch Empire to keep it out of the hands of the French and their allies the Batavian Republic. The stadtholderate was never a concept in the constitution of the Dutch Republic. Likewise, Orangism never became a consistent political theory, instead, they stated their views in terms of republican liberty, sharing the idiom of their States Party opponents. Attempts to introduce elements of John Lockes natural law and Montesquieus separation of powers failed when these same theories were taken over by the opposing Patriot faction in the 1780s, politics and government of the Netherlands Davies, Norman, Europe, a history
4.
States of Holland and West Friesland
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The States of Holland and West Frisia were the representation of the two Estates to the court of the Count of Holland. After the United Provinces were formed — and there no longer was a count, more powerful cities were allowed to send more representatives — Amsterdam had a delegation of four — but these then together had only one vote. All members of the States were appointed officials, including the Lands Advocate or Grand Pensionary, the Lands Advocate or Grand Pensionary was nearly always a previous pensionary of a city. Very important matters, such as taxation, had to be decided on unanimously but normally decisions were made by majority. He had literally both the first — as representing the nobility vote — and the last say in a meeting, since the death of Johan van Oldebarnevelt any Prince of Orange also being stadtholder indirectly had much power over the States. He had the right to appoint the mayors of all cities, mayors of cities with city rights chose the officials who served as representatives in the States of Holland. The States of Holland were disbanded during the reforms by the Batavian Republic, the States of Holland should not be confused with the States-General, or Staten-Generaal, the confederate government of the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands as a whole. Each of the Netherlands had its own States and Holland was just one of seven, nevertheless this province was so dominant that a politician controlling the States of Holland by being Lands Advocate of Holland or Grand Pensionary, in fact controlled the Republic. Johan de Witt is a case in point, and Johan van Oldebarnevelt another famous example, first mentioned in 1428, the States of Holland continued to exist until 1795 when the Batavian Republic was established under French rule
5.
Patriottentijd
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The Patriottentijd was a period of political upheaval in the Dutch Republic between approximately 1780 and 1787. The period takes its name from the political faction known as the Patriots, led by Joan van der Capellen tot den Pol. They were inspired by Enlightenment ideas, the Patriots opposed the Orangists and the rule of William V, Prince of Orange. In 1787, the Patriots were defeated by a Prussian army, from 1756 onwards, however, republican regenten once again began styling themselves Patriots. The Orangist party did try to reappropriate the term, but it was forced on the defensive, Patriotism and anti-Orangism had become synonymous. The Patriots can be divided into two groups, aristocrats and democrats. The democratic Patriots emerged later, and consisted mainly of non-regent members of the bourgeoisie, the Patriots struggled for the removal of stadtholder William V, Prince of Orange. The lower classes largely remained supportive of the existing regime,1780 is generally regarded as the outbreak of the major conflict between Patriots and Orangists, the former of which supported the American Revolution, whilst the latter supported the British Empire. When the Republic threatened to join the First League of Armed Neutrality to defend its right to trade with the American colonies in revolt, Britain declared war, the Patriots seized the occasion to try and rid themselves from Orange altogether, and allied themselves with the American republican revolutionaries. This was most clearly expressed in the 1781 pamphlet Aan het volk van Nederland, partly thanks to his influence, the young American Republic were recognised in 1782 by the States General. Between 1782 and 1787, democratic Patriotism managed to establish itself in parts of the Republic, from 1783 onwards, the Patriots formed militia or paramilitary groups called exercitiegenootschappen or vrijcorpsen. They tried to persuade the prince and city governments to allow non-Calvinists into the vroedschap, in 1784, they held their first national meeting. The total number of Patriot volunteer militiamen is estimated to have been around 28,000, the aristocrats were divided, into Orangists, republicans and democrats, and from summer 1785 more and more republicans backed the prince. The prince was unwilling to carry out reforms, yet unable to take necessary decisions, in the city of Utrecht the Orangist members of the government were sent home by the local militia under Quint Ondaatje, a burgher from Colombo. Another big name, Herman Willem Daendels, failed to get a seat in the local government, in the Dutch Republic five leaders were sentenced to death and, although none of these sentences were carried through, all five were forced to leave the Netherlands. In 1789, two radical leaders Francis Adrian Vanderkemp and Adam Gerard Mappa moved to the USA at the invitation of George Washington. In 1795, a few years after the French Revolution, the Patriots remaining in Northern France returned, schama, S. Patriots and liberators - Revolution in the Netherlands, 1780-1813
6.
William V, Prince of Orange
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William V, Prince of Orange was the last Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic. He went into exile to London in 1795 and he was the reigning Prince of Nassau-Orange until his death in 1806. In that capacity he was succeeded by his son William, William Batavus was born in The Hague on 8 March 1748, the only son of William IV, who had the year before been restored as stadtholder of the United Provinces. He was only three years old when his father died in 1751, and a long regency began, William was made the 568th Knight of the Order of the Garter in 1752. William V assumed the position of stadtholder and Captain-General of the Dutch States Army in 1766, on 4 October 1767 in Berlin, Prince William married Princess Wilhelmina of Prussia, the daughter of Augustus William of Prussia, niece of Frederick the Great and a cousin of George III. He became an art collector and in 1774 his Galerij Prins Willem V was opened to the public, the position of the Dutch during the American War of Independence was one of neutrality. However, things came to a head with the Dutch attempt to join the Russian-led League of Armed Neutrality, after much political debate and pressure from American and French diplomats such as John Adams, Joan van der Capellen tot den Pol and Court Lambertus van Beyma took the initiative. After the signing of the Treaty of Paris, there was growing restlessness in the United Provinces with Williams rule, in the meantime, a band of young revolutionaries, called Patriots, was challenging his authority more and more. In 1785 William left the Hague and removed his court to Guelders, in September 1786 he had to send an army to stop Herman Willem Daendels, organizing an overthrow at the cities vroedschap. In June 1787 his energetic wife Wilhelmina tried to travel to the Hague, outside Schoonhoven, she was stopped by militia, taken to a farm near Goejanverwellesluis and within two days made to return to Nijmegen. To Wilhelmina and her brother, Frederick William II of Prussia, Frederick sent in an army to attack the dissidents. Many Patriots fled to the North of France, around Saint-Omer, until his overthrow they were supported by King Louis XVI of France. With the coming of the French Revolution William V joined the First Coalition against Republican France in 1793 and his troops fought bravely in the Flanders Campaign, but in 1794 the military situation deteriorated and the Dutch Republic was threatened by invading armies. The year 1795 was a one for the ancien régime of the Netherlands. Supported by the French Army, the revolutionaries returned from Paris to fight in the Netherlands, a few days later the Batavian Revolution in Amsterdam occurred, and the Dutch Republic was replaced with the Batavian Republic. Though only a number complied this contributed to their confusion and demoralisation. Almost all Dutch colonies were in the course of time occupied by the British, who in the end returned most, in 1799 the Hereditary Prince took an active part in the Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland, engineering the capture of a Batavian naval squadron in the Vlieter Incident. The surrender of the ships was formally accepted in the name of William V as stadtholder, but that was his only success, as the troops suffered from choleric diseases, and civilians at that time were unwilling to re-instate the old regime
7.
Frederick III, Prince of Salm-Kyrburg
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Frederick III John Otto Francis Christian Philip was prince of Salm-Kyrburg, Hornes and Overijse, Gemen and Count of Solre-le-Château. He was the eldest son of Philip Joseph, Prince of Salm-Kyrburg and Princess Maria Theresa of Hornes, through his mother, the eldest daughter of Maximilian, Prince of Hornes, he inherited all the possessions of the Hornes family. He held the title from 1779 to 1794, as commander of the Legion of the Rhine, formed by Count of Salm during the Kettle War in 1784, his troops were responsible for the defense of the republic. The troops included eight companies of Hussars, two companies of Jaegers, and six companies of Foot, including sharpshooters, in 1786, Holland employed him to maintain an army, but six months later dismissed his regiment to save money. In Amsterdam a fund was set up to support his troops so that Von Salm, eager to replace the Stadtholder, on May 12,1787 Frederick led the army to Utrecht, to protect the Patriot occupation of the democratic Eldorado. On the 28 June, he marched to Woerden to capture princess Wilhelmina of Prussia, early September 1787, the Gelderse Hunters corps occupied Makkum on the initiative of Court Lambertus van Beyma. When Frederick William II of Prussia invaded the Dutch Republic, Frederick left Utrecht three days later, without giving battle and his regiment retreated through Amsterdam to Weesp, and Frederick endured heavy criticism. There are different versions of what happened next and he may have remained hidden for a few months in the house of Henry Hope. Possibly he secretly left the city of Amsterdam within a week and stopped in Jever and he may have fled to his brother at Grumbach in the Rhineland-Palatinate In the summer of 1788 one of the leading patriots Pieter Paulus refused to admit him on a visit to Paris. In 1791 Quint Ondaatje, his assistant, wrote him an apology. In 1794 Von Salm was guillotined together with Alexandre de Beauharnais, Frederick commissioned the construction of the Hôtel de Salm in Paris, where Madame de Stael gave her soirees in 1797. From 1804, the Légion dHonneur resided in the Hôtel, the villa was rebuilt and is named Palais de la Légion dHonneur. Henry Hope wanted to copy the Hôtel de Salm in Haarlem, Frederick married in 1781 Princess Johanna Francesca of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. Information on the formation of the Rijngraaf of Salms legion
8.
Jean Baptiste Ternant
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Jean Baptiste Ternant was a French soldier, diplomat, and was French ambassador to the United States from 1791 to 1793. He was a lieutenant in the Royal Corps of Engineers, beginning in 1778 at Valley Forge, he served as a subinspector in the Continental Army. After the abolition of the monarchy, he was dismissed by the ruling Girondins from his post and was succeeded by Edmond-Charles Genet, the Independence National Historical Park has an oil portrait, painted by Charles Willson Peale in 1781
9.
Exercitiegenootschap
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Exercitiegenootschappen were propagated by Joan van der Capellen tot den Pol, who translated an old book by Andrew Fletcher on arming a nations citizens and so got the idea from Scotland. He also saw them as necessary due to the decline in the existing. Exercitiegenootschappen were set up after the Scottish, American and Swiss examples of musket-armed citizens, the expenses of a standing army, the attracting of foreign officers into the national army and the neglect of the navy were all loudly criticised and reform was called for. The leaders of the Patriots tried to seek a solution during the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War, the first exercitiegenootschappen were set up in the beginning of 1783 in Deventer, Dordrecht or Utrecht. Quint Ondaatje was the leader of the exercitiegenootschap in Utrecht, and he knew that the exercitiegenootschappen had to be organized firstly at provincial levels. In 1784 a number of nationally-organized free-corps signed the Acte van Verbintenis and this Act especially stimulated the exercitiegenootschappen and vrijcorpsen in the small cities to confidence and action. Gerrit Paape set himself the task of being a historian of local societies. Many people wanted to become a member, with Catholics and Mennonites no longer excluded, not only many shopkeepers, but also ministers, such as François Adriaans van der Kemp, reported for duty. They exercised at least once a week, mostly on Sundays after the service or, in bad weather. Members never needed to be enough to buy their own weapon. Non-attendance earned a fine of a few stuivers, exercitiegenootschappen had the preference above free corps, being completely independent of the existing schutterij. Vrijcorpsen arose mainly in the countryside, because there was no schutterij for their area, court Lambertus of Beyma took the initiative in Friesland, causing a wave of new exercitiegenootschappen and free-corps that spring. The Provincial States reached an understanding in their regulations, initial support, however, turned into a discouraging administration in the summer of 1785, with the aristocrats moving more and more towards the prince. At the beginning of August 1786 in Utrecht, the gathered together to commemorate the Battle of Dogger Bank. At that meeting, a decision was taken, sixteen democratically chosen Patriots were appointed to the council. This was an event in Europe. Freedom of assembly had reached its limits, in May 1787 the professors and students in Franeker were forbidden from joining the local exercitiegenootschappen or militia. East of Utrecht, the State army camped, there were several shootings, moreover it was a war in propaganda
10.
Prussia
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Prussia was a historic state originating out of the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg, and centred on the region of Prussia. For centuries, the House of Hohenzollern ruled Prussia, successfully expanding its size by way of an unusually well-organised, Prussia, with its capital in Königsberg and from 1701 in Berlin, shaped the history of Germany. In 1871, German states united to create the German Empire under Prussian leadership, in November 1918, the monarchies were abolished and the nobility lost its political power during the German Revolution of 1918–19. The Kingdom of Prussia was thus abolished in favour of a republic—the Free State of Prussia, from 1933, Prussia lost its independence as a result of the Prussian coup, when the Nazi regime was successfully establishing its Gleichschaltung laws in pursuit of a unitary state. Prussia existed de jure until its liquidation by the Allied Control Council Enactment No.46 of 25 February 1947. The name Prussia derives from the Old Prussians, in the 13th century, the Teutonic Knights—an organized Catholic medieval military order of German crusaders—conquered the lands inhabited by them. In 1308, the Teutonic Knights conquered the region of Pomerelia with Gdańsk and their monastic state was mostly Germanised through immigration from central and western Germany and in the south, it was Polonised by settlers from Masovia. The Second Peace of Thorn split Prussia into the western Royal Prussia, a province of Poland, and the part, from 1525 called the Duchy of Prussia. The union of Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia in 1618 led to the proclamation of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1701, Prussia entered the ranks of the great powers shortly after becoming a kingdom, and exercised most influence in the 18th and 19th centuries. During the 18th century it had a say in many international affairs under the reign of Frederick the Great. During the 19th century, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck united the German principalities into a Lesser Germany which excluded the Austrian Empire. At the Congress of Vienna, which redrew the map of Europe following Napoleons defeat, Prussia acquired a section of north western Germany. The country then grew rapidly in influence economically and politically, and became the core of the North German Confederation in 1867, and then of the German Empire in 1871. The Kingdom of Prussia was now so large and so dominant in the new Germany that Junkers and other Prussian élites identified more and more as Germans and less as Prussians. In the Weimar Republic, the state of Prussia lost nearly all of its legal and political importance following the 1932 coup led by Franz von Papen. East Prussia lost all of its German population after 1945, as Poland, the main coat of arms of Prussia, as well as the flag of Prussia, depicted a black eagle on a white background. The black and white colours were already used by the Teutonic Knights. The Teutonic Order wore a white coat embroidered with a cross with gold insert
11.
House of Orange-Nassau
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Several members of the house served during this war and after as governor or stadtholder during the Dutch Republic. However, in 1815, after a period as a republic. The dynasty was established as a result of the marriage of Henry III of Nassau-Breda from Germany and their son René inherited in 1530 the independent and sovereign Principality of Orange from his mothers brother, Philibert of Châlon. As the first Nassau to be the Prince of Orange, René could have used Orange-Nassau as his new family name, however, his uncle, in his will, had stipulated that René should continue the use of the name Châlon-Orange. History knows him therefore as René of Châlon, after the death of René in 1544 his cousin William of Nassau-Dillenburg inherited all his lands. This William I of Orange, in English better known as William the Silent, the Castle of Nassau was founded around 1100 by Count Dudo-Henry of Laurenburg, the founder of the House of Nassau. In 1120, Dudo-Henrys sons and successors, Counts Robert I and Arnold I of Laurenburg and they renovated and extended the castle complex in 1124. The first man to be called the count of Nassau was Robert I of Nassau, the Nassau family married into the family of the neighboring Counts of Arnstein. His sons Walram and Otto split the Nassau possessions, the descendants of Walram became known as the Walram Line, which became Dukes of Nassau, and in 1890, the Grand Dukes of Luxembourg. This line also included Adolph of Nassau, who was elected King of the Romans in 1292, the descendants of Otto became known as the Ottonian Line, which inherited parts of Nassau County, and properties in France and the Netherlands. The House of Orange-Nassau stems from the younger Ottonian Line, the first of this line to establish himself in the Netherlands was John I, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg, who married Margareta of the Marck. The real founder of the Nassau fortunes in the Netherlands was Johns son and he became counsellor to the Burgundian Dukes of Brabant, first to Anton of Burgundy, and later to his son Jan IV of Brabant. He also would later serve Philip the Good, in 1403 he married the Dutch noblewoman Johanna van Polanen, and so inherited lands in the Netherlands, with the Barony of Breda as the core of the Dutch possessions and the family fortune. A nobles power was based on his ownership of vast tracts of land. It also helped that much of the lands that the House of Orange and Nassau controlled sat under one of the commercial and mercantile centers of the world (see below under Lands and Titles. The importance of the Nassaus grew throughout the 15th and 16th centuries as they became councilors, generals, Engelbert II of Nassau served Charles the Bold and Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, who had married Charless daughter Mary of Burgundy. In 1496 he was appointed stadtholder of Flanders and by 1498 he had been named President of the Grand Conseil, in 1501, Maximilian named him Lieutenant-General of the Seventeen Provinces of the Netherlands. From that point forward, Engelbert was the representative of the Habsburg Empire to the region
12.
Stadtholder
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In the Low Countries, stadtholder, literally steward, designated a medieval official and then a national leader. For the last half century of its existence, it became a hereditary role. His son, Prince William V, was the last stadtholder of the republic, whose own son, King William I, became the first king of the Netherlands. The Dutch Monarchy is thus descended from the first stadtholder of the young Republic, William of Orange, the title stadtholder is roughly comparable to Englands historic title Lord Lieutenant. Its component parts literally translate as place holder, or as a cognate, stead holder. Note, however, that is not the word for the rank of lieutenant. Stadtholders in the Middle Ages were appointed by feudal lords to represent them in their absence, if a lord had several dominions, some of these could be ruled by a permanent stadtholder, to whom was delegated the full authority of the lord. A stadtholder was thus more powerful than a governor, who had limited authority. The local rulers of the independent provinces of the Low Countries made extensive use of stadtholders, in the 15th century the Dukes of Burgundy acquired most of the Low Countries, and these Burgundian Netherlands mostly each had their own stadtholder. Only the Prince-Bishopric of Liège and two smaller territories remained outside his domains, stadtholders continued to be appointed to represent Charles and King Philip II, his son and successor in Spain and the Low Countries. Due to the centralist and absolutist policies of Philip, the power of the stadtholders strongly diminished. The stadtholder no longer represented the lord but became the highest executive official, although each province could assign its own stadtholder, most stadtholders held appointments from several provinces at the same time. As these councils themselves appointed most members of the states, the stadtholder could very indirectly influence the general policy, in the army, he could appoint officers by himself, in the navy only affirm appointments of the five admiralty councils. Legal powers of the stadtholder were thus limited, and by law he was a mere official. His real powers, however, were greater, especially given the martial law atmosphere of the permanent Eighty Years War. Maurice of Orange after 1618 ruled as a dictator. The leader of the Dutch Revolt was William the Silent, he had been appointed stadtholder in 1572 by the first province to rebel and his personal influence and reputation was subsequently associated with the office and transferred to members of his house. Maurice in 1618 and William III of Orange from 1672 replaced entire city councils with their partisans to increase their power, by intimidation, the stadtholders tried to extend their right of affirmation
13.
Goejanverwellesluis
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The Goejanverwellesluis is a lock in Hekendorp, Netherlands. The Goejannen - the men from the surrounding polders who went to sea - said their last farewells by this channel, according to the tradition, Wilhelmina of Prussia, wife of stadholder William V was captured here on 28 June 1787 by the Patriots from Gouda. In reality, her entourage were arrested at Bonrepas on the river Vlist, Wilhelmina was at a farm overhanging the Goejanverwellesluis, where Cornelis Johan de Lange, commander of the free corps of Gouda, had been billeted. Informed of her plans by the gentleman Martinus van Toulon, former bailiff of Gouda, the princess left the very same evening after 10pm in the direction of Schoonhoven and turned back to her spouse stadholder William V at Nijmegen. This event formed the reason for the Prussians raid into Holland, with Frederick William II of Prussia coming to his sister Wilhelminas aid. This raid led to an exodus of the Patriots from the United Republic of the Seven Netherlands in 1787, a foot ferry at Goejanverwellesluis was replaced by the Wilhelmina van Pruisen Bridge in 1992. Wildschut, A. Goejanverwellesluis, de strijd tussen patriotten en prinsgezinden, 1780-1787 Smit, een regentendagboek uit de achttiende eeuw, Oudheidkundige kring Die Goude,1957 New light on the arrest of Wilhelmina of Prussia
14.
Wilhelmina of Prussia, Princess of Orange
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Princess Wilhelmina of Prussia was the consort of William V of Orange and the de facto leader of the dynastic party and counter-revolution in the Netherlands. She was the daughter of Prince Augustus William of Prussia and Luise of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, Wilhelmina was the longest serving Princess consort of Orange. Wilhelmina was brought up by her grandmother, on 4 October 1767 in Berlin, she was married to William V of Orange, the last Dutch Stadtholder. As a person, she was proud and politically ambitious, as a Princess consort, she dominated her spouse and exerted both overt and covert influence on the politics of state. She was deeply involved in the political conflict in the Netherlands from 1781 onwards -- not only a supporter and partner. She was recognized openly as the leader of the dynastic Stadtholder party. She was in correspondence with foreign powers and used foreign supporters to influence Dutch internal policy. In 1785, her spouse was forced to leave Den Haag, Wilhelmina persuaded William not to give in, and subsequently went to Friesland -- officially to visit a jubilee, but in reality she aimed to gain support in the ongoing political conflict. In 1786, the family moved from the capital at the Hague to Nijmegen, both Wilhelmina and her brother, King Frederick William II of Prussia perceived the occurrences as an insult. After having returned to Nijmegen, Wilhelmina asked her brother for a military intervention, Frederick, despite having been in power for only for a year, attacked the Dutch Republic on 13 September 1787. Many rebels had to flee to France, and William was restored to power, with the support of foreign troops, Wilhelmina returned to The Hague and was celebrated by her followers as the true ruler of the Netherlands. However, the Dutch patriots returned in 1795 with support from the French, during their exile, the couple lived in Kew until 1802, and subsequently went to Germany, where they lived in Nassau and Braunschweig. Thereafter, Wilhelmina and her daughter – both having been widowed in 1806 – lived together at places in the Confederation of the Rhine. Wilhelmina and her returned to the Netherlands in 1814. She received Tsar Alexander I of Russia in Haarlem in 1815, an unnamed son William I, King of the Netherlands Willem Georg Frederik, Prince of Orange-Nassau, unmarried and without issue
15.
Nijmegen
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Nijmegen, historically anglicized as Nimeguen, is a municipality and a city in the Dutch province of Gelderland. It is situated on the Waal river, close to the German border, Nijmegen is the oldest city in the Netherlands, the first to be recognized as such in Roman times, and in 2005 celebrated 2,000 years of existence. The municipality is part of the Stadsregio Arnhem-Nijmegen, an area with 736,107 inhabitants. By 69, when the Batavians, the inhabitants of the Rhine and Maas delta, revolted. This village was destroyed in the revolt, but when it had ended the Romans built another, bigger camp where the Legio X Gemina was stationed, soon after, another village formed around this camp. In 98, Nijmegen was the first of two settlements in what is now the Kingdom of the Netherlands to receive Roman city rights. In 103, the X Gemina was re-stationed to Vindobona, modern day Vienna, in 104 Emperor Trajan renamed the town, which now became known as Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum, Noviomagus for short. Beginning in the half of the 4th century, Roman power decreased. It also appeared around this time on the Peutinger Map and it has been contended that in the 8th century Emperor Charlemagne maintained his palatium in Nijmegen on at least four occasions. During his brief deposition of 830, the emperor Louis the Pious was sent to Nijmegen by his son Lothar I, thanks to the Waal river, trade flourished. The powerful Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor was born at Nijmegen in 1165, in 1230 his son Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor granted Nijmegen city rights. In 1247, the city was ceded to the count of Guelders as collateral for a loan, the loan was never repaid, and Nijmegen has been a part of Gelderland ever since. This did not hamper trade, Nijmegen even became part of the Hanseatic League in 1364, the arts also flourished in this period. Famous medieval painters like the Limbourg brothers were born and educated in Nijmegen, during the Dutch Revolt, trade came to a halt and even though Nijmegen became a part of the Republic of United Provinces in 1585, it remained a border town and had to endure multiple sieges. In 1678 Nijmegen was host to the negotiations between the European powers that aimed to put an end to the constant warfare that had ravaged the continent for years, the result was the Treaty of Nijmegen that, unfortunately, failed to provide for a lasting peace. In the second half of the 19th century, the fortifications around the city became a major problem, there were too many inhabitants inside the walls, but the fortifications could not be demolished because Nijmegen was deemed as being of vital importance to the defence of the Netherlands. When events in the Franco-Prussian war proved that old-fashioned fortifications were no more of use, this policy was changed, the old castle had already been demolished in 1797, so that its bricks could be sold. Through the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century, the Waal was bridged in 1878 by a rail bridge and in 1936 by a car bridge, which was claimed to be Europes biggest bridge at the time
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The Hague
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The Hague is a city on the western coast of the Netherlands, and the capital city of the province of South Holland. With a population of 520,704 inhabitants and more than one million including the suburbs, it is the third-largest city of the Netherlands. The Rotterdam The Hague Metropolitan Area, with a population of approximately 2.7 million, is the 12th-largest in the European Union and the most populous in the country. Located in the west of the Netherlands, The Hague is in the centre of the Haaglanden conurbation and lies at the southwest corner of the larger Randstad conurbation. The Hague is the seat of the Dutch government, parliament, the Supreme Court, and the Council of State, but the city is not the capital of the Netherlands, which constitutionally is Amsterdam. King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands plans to live at Huis ten Bosch and works at Noordeinde Palace in The Hague, the Hague is also home to the world headquarters of Royal Dutch Shell and numerous other major Dutch companies. The Hague originated around 1230, when Count Floris IV of Holland purchased land alongside a pond, in 1248, his son and successor William II, King of the Romans, decided to extend the residence to a palace, which would later be called the Binnenhof. He died in 1256 before this palace was completed but parts of it were finished by his son Floris V, of which the Ridderzaal and it is still used for political events, such as the annual speech from the throne by the Dutch monarch. From the 13th century onwards, the counts of Holland used The Hague as their administrative centre, the village that originated around the Binnenhof was first mentioned as Haga in a charter dating from 1242. In the 15th century, the smarter des Graven hage came into use, literally The Counts Wood, with connotations like The Counts Hedge, s-Gravenhage was officially used for the city from the 17th century onwards. Today, this name is used in some official documents like birth. The city itself uses Den Haag in all its communication and their seat was located in The Hague. At the beginning of the Eighty Years War, the absence of city walls proved disastrous, in 1575, the States of Holland even considered demolishing the city but this proposal was abandoned, after mediation by William of Orange. From 1588, The Hague also became the seat of the government of the Dutch Republic, in order for the administration to maintain control over city matters, The Hague never received official city status, although it did have many of the privileges normally granted only to cities. In modern administrative law, city rights have no place anymore, only in 1806, when the Kingdom of Holland was a puppet state of the First French Empire, was the settlement granted city rights by Louis Bonaparte. After the Napoleonic Wars, modern-day Belgium and the Netherlands were combined in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands to form a buffer against France, as a compromise, Brussels and Amsterdam alternated as capital every two years, with the government remaining in The Hague. After the separation of Belgium in 1830, Amsterdam remained the capital of the Netherlands, when the government started to play a more prominent role in Dutch society after 1850, The Hague quickly expanded. The growing city annexed the rural municipality of Loosduinen partly in 1903, the city sustained heavy damage during World War II
17.
Gijsbert Karel van Hogendorp
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Gijsbert Karel, Count van Hogendorp was a liberal conservative and liberal Dutch statesman. He was the brother of Dirk van Hogendorp the elder and the father of Dirk van Hogendorp the younger, Van Hogendorp was born in Rotterdam, and went to military school in Berlin. He graduated as an officer but didnt particularly like his new job in the Prussian military, during his stay in Berlin befriended the enlightened Dr Johann Erich Biester, a scholar and undersecretary at Prussian ministry of Cult who later became head of the Royal Library. Bister taught him English, Latin and Greek and together they read classical and he returned to Holland in 1781 at the request of his mother to serve in the Army of prince William V, stadtholder of the Republic. He became quite close to the stadtholder, but especially to his wife, princess Wilhelmina, Van Hogendorp visited the United States of America in 1783. During his trip in the United States he met Thomas Jefferson who had an impression of the young Van Hogendorp. He was also invited by George Washington at Mount Vernon, but was disappointed when Mr. and Mrs. Washington showed no interest in his person, during his stay in the US he made a study of its constitution, which he admired very much. On his return to the Dutch Republic he briefly visited London to get acquainted with the system of government. In 1785 he attended the University of Leiden, where he majored in law and he belonged to the moderate wing of the Orangist party and he personally advocated some reforms, including the introduction of a constitution. He opposed the Patriots, who wanted revolutionary reforms and the degradation of the stadtholder to a figurehead, the Patriots dominated the provinces of Holland and Utrecht, the most prosperous of the seven provinces of the Dutch Republic. The stadtholder was forced to leave The Hague and lived most of the time in Nijmegen, Prussia invaded the Dutch Republic in 1787 to restore the power of the stadtholder. The Patriots were prosecuted, some of them were able to leave the Republic, Van Hogendorp refused to collaborate with the new regime and stayed out of politics for the next 18 years. He didnt change his mind when some of his ald colleagues form the Orangist party went to serve Louis Napoleon when he became King of the Kingdom of Holland in 1806, in 1810 Holland became a province of the French Empire of Napoleon I. Gijsbert Karel van Hogendorps older brother, Dirk van Hogendorp, who admired the French Emperor, Napoleon later bestowed him with the title of Comte de lEmpire. Gijsbert Karel didnt held the Emperor in high esteem, in his eyes the Emperor was nothing more than a Dictator and a brute. During the French occupation Gijsbert Karel van Hogendorp and his wife, Hester Clifford, in 1809 he moved to The Hague where he remained till the end of his life. In 1812 Van Hogendorp became convinced that the French Empire would collapse in a few years and drafted a paper and he played a decisive role during the revolt of October and November 1813 that restored the Dutch independence. He was part of the Driemanschap that invited William Frederick, the eldest son of William V to become Prince of the new independent Netherlands in late 1813
18.
James Harris, 1st Earl of Malmesbury
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James Harris, 1st Earl of Malmesbury GCB was an English diplomat. Born at Salisbury, the son of James Harris, an MP and the author of Hermes and he was educated at Winchester, Oxford and Law and History at the University of Leiden. This interval gave him his opportunity, he discovered the intention of Spain to attack the Falkland Islands, as a reward he was appointed minister ad interim at Madrid. In January 1772 Harris was appointed envoy-extraordinary to Prussia in Berlin, within a month of his arrival he became the first diplomat to hear of Frederick the Greats partition of Poland with the cooperation of Russia. His service in office was undistinguished but he made an impression on Frederick. Harris married Harriet Maria Amyand, the youngest daughter of Sir George Amyand MP and they had four children together, Lady Frances Harris m. General Galbraith Lowry Cole Lady Catherine Harris m, the historian Paul Langford has claimed that Harris proved brilliantly effective as a focus for Orangist and anti-French feeling, and as the agent of Anglo-Prussian cooperation. He returned to England and took an anxious interest in politics, in that year he was sent by Pitt, but in vain, to try to keep Prussia true to the first coalition against France. In 1794, he was sent to Brunswick to solicit the hand of the unfortunate Princess Caroline of Brunswick for the Prince of Wales, to marry her as proxy, due to bad roads in France, Malmesbury reached Paris on 22 October 1796, a week after leaving London. This led the foremost opponent of peace with France, Edmund Burke and his later years were free from politics, and till his death on 21 November 1820 he lived very quietly and almost forgotten. One historian called him the greatest English diplomat of the eighteenth century, Paul Langford has claimed was by any standards a brilliant diplomat as well as an experienced one. Malmesbury remarked that it was a truth inculcated into John Bull with his mothers milk, Malmesbury did not publish anything himself, except an account of the Dutch revolution, and an edition of his fathers works, but his important Diaries and Letters were edited by his grandson. He was a Member of Parliament for Christchurch from 1770 to 1774, jeremy Black, Natural and Necessary Enemies. Anglo-French relations in the Eighteenth Century Alfred Cobban, Ambassadors and Secret Agents, John Ehrman, The Younger Pitt,3 vols. Paul Langford, The Eighteenth Century 1688-1815, isabel de Madariaga, Britain, Russia and the armed neutrality of 1780, Sir James Harriss mission to St Petersburg during the American Revolution. H. M. Scott, ‘Harris, James, first earl of Malmesbury ’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press,2004, online edn, May 2009, accessed 7 Aug 2011. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. The Third Earl of Malmesbury, Diaries and Correspondence of James Harris, First Earl of Malmesbury 4 vols
19.
Dutch States Army
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The Dutch States Army was the army of the Dutch Republic. It was usually called this, because it was formally the army of the States-General of the Netherlands and it played a major role in the Eighty Years War and in the wars of the Grand Alliance with France after 1672. However, the army did not spring wholly formed from the brow of Mars, the roots of the army are to be found in the armies raised by the rulers of the Habsburg Netherlands, Philip and his father, Charles V in their wars with France before 1559. These were mercenary armies recruited on the market of Landsknechte and followed the organisation, orange also shrank the size of the companies to about 150 men, and introduced the French model of commissioned and non-commissioned officers to replace the Landsknecht organisation. He finally changed the proportion of firearms to pole weapons decidedly in favor of the former in the newly raised companies. Except for the preponderance of firearms, these remained in place throughout the history of the mercenary troops, first of the States of Holland. These forces can, however, not be seen as predecessors of the States Army, the core of that new army were the troops raised by Holland on the model introduced after 1572. Though 16th-century armies were usually preponderantly mercenary armies, there often were elements of feudal levies and these were lacking in the States Army. Apparently it never occurred to the authorities in the Republic to organize a volunteer or conscript army, the authorities of the rebel provinces continued where they left of in this respect. They were, however, content to limit their role to financial administration and these financial institutions helped the Dutch Republic to punch above its weight in military matters. The following table gives the strengths of the Dutch States Army, the Army of Flanders, mercenary armies leveled the playing field. But they were expensive to maintain. For instance, the cost of fielding the States Army before 1609 was about 600,000 guilders annually, in the period between 1621 and 1629 the cost rose to between 800,000 and 1 million guilders annually. After 1629 the cost rose again to between 1.5 and 2 million guilders annually, with a peak of 3 million in 1632 and these sums exceeded the ordinary revenues of the province. The difference had to be borrowed from investors, in 1634 the Southern Quarter of the province alone already owed 44.4 million guilders. After 1588 the financing of the war expenditures of the Republic was put on a new organizational footing, in the Union-of-Utrecht treaty defense of the Union was indicated as one of the main functions of the federal republic. Though every participating province retained certain prerogatives, in practice they agreed to pool their resources and this establishment was enumerated in the so-called Staat van Oorlog that repartitioned the cost of regiments and companies to the several provinces. This statement was drawn up periodically by the Council of State, though such appointments were usually made by the captain-general of the army, the States of the provinces usually presented him with a list of three nominees to choose from
20.
Amersfoort
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Amersfoort is a municipality and the second largest city of the province of Utrecht in central Netherlands. The city is growing quickly but has a well-preserved and protected medieval centre, Amersfoort is one of the largest railway junctions in the country, because of its location on two of the Netherlands main east-west and north-south rail lines. It celebrated its 750th birthday as a city in 2009, hunter gatherers set up camps in the Amersfoort region in the Mesolithic period. Archaeologists have found traces of these camps, such as the remains of hearths, the city grew around what is now known as the central square, the Hof, where the Bishops of Utrecht established a court in order to control the Gelderse Vallei area. It was granted city rights in 1259 by the bishop of Utrecht, a first defensive wall, made out of brick, was finished around 1300. Soon after, the need for enlargement of the city became apparent and around 1380 the construction of a new wall was begun, the famous Koppelpoort, a combined land and water gate, is part of this second wall. The first wall was demolished and houses were built in its place, todays Muurhuizen Street is at the exact location of the first wall, the fronts of the houses are built on top of the first city walls foundations. The Onze-Lieve-Vrouwentoren tower is one of the tallest medieval church towers in the Netherlands at 98 metres, the construction of the tower and the church was started in 1444. It is now the point of the RD coordinate system, the coordinate grid used by the Dutch topographical service. The inner city of Amersfoort has been preserved well since the Middle Ages, in the Middle Ages, Amersfoort was an important centre for the textile industry, and there were a large number of breweries. In the 18th century the city flourished because of the cultivation of tobacco, after the 1920s growth stalled again, until in 1970 the national government designated Amersfoort, then numbering some 70,000 inhabitants, as a growth city. In 2009 the population was 140,000 plus, with an expected 150,000 by 2012, after four days of battle, the population was allowed to return. There was a functioning Jewish community in the town, at the beginning of the war numbering about 700 people, half of them were deported and killed, mainly in Auschwitz and Sobibor. In 1943, the synagogue, dating from 1727, was damaged on the orders of the then Nazi-controlled city government. It was restored and opened again after the war, and has served since by a succession of rabbis. There was a camp near the city of Amersfoort during the war. The camp, officially called Polizeiliches Durchgangslager Amersfoort, better known as Kamp Amersfoort, was located in the neighbouring municipality of Leusden. After the war the leader of the camp, Joseph Kotälla and he died in captivity in 1979
21.
Johann Friedrich August Tischbein
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Johann Friedrich August Tischbein, known as the Leipziger Tischbein was a German portrait painter from the Tischbein family of artists. He received his first lessons from his father, the set painter Johann Valentin Tischbein, in 1768, he went to Kassel to work in the studios of his uncle, Johann Heinrich Tischbein. Four years later, he took a trip through France, ending in Paris. In 1777, he took a trip to Naples and Rome and he returned to Germany in 1780. That same year, he was appointed painter to Friedrich Karl August, Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont in Bad Arolsen and was later named Council. During the 1780s he made three trips to the Netherlands, on behalf of his patron, where he improved his skills in portrait painting, in 1799, he had even greater success in Dresden. The following year, he received an appointment to replace Adam Friedrich Oeser as Director of the Academy of Visual Arts in Leipzig, in 1806, he went to Saint Petersburg to settle the estate of his brother, the architect and set designer, Ludwig Philipp Tischbein. He remained there for three years to several lucrative commissions from the Russian aristocracy. His daughter, Caroline and son Carl Wilhelm also became artists, adolf Stoll, Der Maler Johann Friedrich August Tischbein und seine Familie. Ein Lebensbild nach den Aufzeichnungen seiner Tochter Caroline, literature by and about Johann Friedrich August Tischbein in the German National Library catalogue
22.
Gouda, South Holland
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Gouda is a municipality and city in the province of South Holland, the Netherlands. The city is famous for its Gouda cheese, stroopwafels, many grachten, smoking pipes, goudas array of historic churches and other buildings makes it a very popular day trip destination. The area, originally marshland, developed over the course of two centuries, by 1225, a canal was linked to the Gouwe and its estuary was transformed into a harbour. City rights were granted in 1272, around the year 1100, the area where Gouda now is located was swampy and covered with a peat forest, crossed by small creeks such as the Gouwe. Along the shores of this stream near the current market and city hall, in 1139, the name Gouda is first mentioned in a statement from the Bishop of Utrecht. In the 13th century, the Gouwe was connected to the Oude Rijn by means of a canal, Castle Gouda was built to protect this harbour. This shipping route was used for trade between Flanders and France with Holland and the Baltic Sea, in 1272, Floris V, Count of Holland, granted city rights to Gouda, which by then had become an important location. City-canals or grachten were dug and served as transport ways through the town, great fires in 1361 and 1438 destroyed the city. In 1572, the city was occupied by Les Gueux who also committed arson and destruction, in 1577 the demolition of Castle Gouda began. In 1551 was founded the oldest still functioning inn De Zalm, located on Markt 34, near the historic Waag building. In 1574,1625,1636, and 1673, Gouda suffered from plague epidemics, of which the last one was the most severe,2995 persons died. In the last quarter of the 16th century, Gouda had serious economic problems and it recovered in the first half of the 17th century and even prospered between 1665 and 1672. But its economy collapsed again when war broke out in 1672, after 1700, Gouda enjoyed a period of progress and prosperity until 1730. Then another recession followed, resulting in a period of decline that lasted well into the 19th century. Gouda was one of the poorest cities in the country during that period, starting in 1830, demolition of the city walls began. The last city gate was torn down in 1854, only from the second half of the 19th century onward did Gouda start to profit from an improved economic condition. New companies, such as Stearine Kaarsenfabriek and Machinale Garenspinnerij, acted as the impetus to its economy, in 1855, the railway Gouda-Utrecht began to operate. In the beginning of the 20th century, large-scale development began, first the new neighbourhoods Korte Akkeren, Kort Haarlem and Kadebuurt were built, followed by Oosterwei, Bloemendaal, and Goverwelle after World War II
23.
Woerden
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Woerden is a city and a municipality in the central Netherlands. The river Oude Rijn used to flow through the city center of Woerden, the city has a long and rich history in cheese making and trading, for years Gouda cheese for domestic and international use has been produced in this region. Woerden still holds its authentic cheese market at the place in its center. Woerden is situated on the river Oude Rijn, near the confluence with the former Linschoten stream. Here, at the highest spot, the Romans built a castellum, as part of the limes of the Roman Empire, the first castellum was built in the 40s AD, and was destroyed in 69 AD during the Batavian rebellion. In 70 AD the castellum was rebuilt, and the Romans remained until 402 AD, the Castellum was located at the present site of the medieval Petruschurch and surrounding church yard. During construction work on a new parking facility in the city center of Woerden, the remains of numerous old Roman buildings. During field research, a lot known about the Roman time in Woerden, the location of the castellum, the zone of defense waters with the entrance road. Little is known about the period after the Romans left for good in 402 AD and it may be assumed that people continued to live here, but there is no archeological evidence. The area was contested between Frisians and Franks, Frankish King Dagobert I conquered the area around 630, and a small church was built in nearby Utrecht. Around 650 the Frisians came back, destroyed the Frankish church in Utrecht, then, in 689 king Redbad was defeated by Frankish Duke Pippin of Herstal in the battle of Dorestad and the Franks regained control of the area. King Redbad reconquered Utrecht after Pippin died in 714, but the Frisian victory was short-lived, in 734 Charles Martel went on to vanquish the Frisians, in the Battle of the Boarn. Liudger reports that Boniface preached in Wyrda, referring to Wierde, around 850 the Bishop had to leave once more, this time because of Viking marauders. Bishop Balderik returned to Utrecht in 918, after the Viking threat subsided. e, the Bishop of Utrecht received land grants, first from the Frankish kings, and later from the Kings of Germany, in particular Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor. In 1024 AD the bishops were made Princes of the Holy Roman Empire, around 1000 AD settlement was limited to the river banks, further inland were undeveloped bogs. The bishops used their new authority to stimulate reclamation of this wilderness, by about 1300 AD the reclamation process had been completed. In the mean time a competing realm had developed to the west, first known as West Frisia it became known as Holland when Floris II, Count of Holland moved his court to Leiden in 1101. The Counts of Holland expanded their influence, and by 1165 they built a fort called Svadeburg, near present-day Zwammerdam, around 1160 Bishop Godfrey van Rhenen built a castle in Woerden
24.
Frederick William II of Prussia
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Frederick William II was King of Prussia, from 1786 until his death. He was in personal union the Prince-elector of Brandenburg and sovereign prince of the Canton of Neuchâtel, pleasure-loving and indolent, he is seen as the antithesis to his predecessor, Frederick II. Under his reign, Prussia was weakened internally and externally, and his religious policies were directed against the Enlightenment and aimed at restoring a traditional Protestantism. However, he was a patron of the arts and responsible for the construction of notable buildings. Frederick William was born in Berlin, the son of Prince Augustus William of Prussia and his mothers elder sister, Elisabeth, was the wife of Augustus Williams brother King Frederick II. Frederick William became heir-presumptive to the throne of Prussia on his fathers death in 1758, the boy was of an easy-going and pleasure-loving disposition, averse to sustained effort of any kind, and sensual by nature. His marriage with Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Lüneburg, daughter of Charles I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg and he then married Frederika Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt, daughter of Ludwig IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt on 14 July 1769 also in Charlottenburg. He also was a talented cellist, for his part, Frederick William, who had never been properly introduced to diplomacy and the business of rulership, resented his uncle for not taking him seriously. The misgivings of Frederick II appear justified in retrospect, Frederick William also terminated his predecessors state monopolies for coffee and tobacco and the sugar monopoly. However, under his reign the codification known as Allgemeines Preußisches Landrecht, initiated by Frederick II, on 26 August 1786 Wöllner was appointed privy councillor for finance, and on 2 October 1786 was ennobled. Though not in name, he in fact prime minister, in all internal affairs it was he who decided. Bischoffswerder, too, still a major, was called into the king′s counsels. From this position Wöllner pursued long lasting reforms concerning religion in the Prussian state, the king proved eager to aid Wöllners crusade. On 18 December 1788 a new law was issued, to secure the orthodoxy of all published books. This forced major Berlin journals like Christoph Friedrich Nicolais Allgemeine Deutsche Bibliothek, moreover, people like Immanuel Kant were forbidden to speak in public on the topic of religion. Finally, in 1791, a Protestant commission was established at Berlin to watch over all ecclesiastical, although Wöllners religious edict had many critics, it was an important measure which, in fact, proved an important stabilizing factor for the Prussian state. The edict was also a step forward regarding the rights of Jews, Mennonites, and Herrnhut brethren. But far more fateful for Prussia was the attitude towards the army
25.
Anna Dorothea Therbusch
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Anna Dorothea Therbusch was a prominent Rococo painter born in the Kingdom of Prussia. About 200 of her works survive, and she painted at least eighty-five verified portraits, Anna Dorothea Therbusch was born in Berlin. Georg taught Anna, her sister and their brother to paint, Anna Dorothea and her elder sister Anna Rosina were hailed as Wunderkinder of painting. Anna Dorothea married Berlin innkeeper Ernst Friedrich Therbusch and gave up painting until around 1760 in order to help her husband in the restaurant, not until her spousal obligations were discharged, as a short-sighted, middle-aged woman, did she abandon her family to return to her art. Therbuschs first recorded return to painting was in 1761 in the Stuttgart court of Duke Karl Eugen and she completed eighteen paintings in the shortest time for the castle gallery. In 1762 she became a member of the Stuttgart Academy of the Arts and worked in Stuttgart. In 1765 she went to Paris, the French Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture displayed her work first, proudly supporting a female artist. Denis Diderot, the controversial and outspoken art critic and philosopher, was sympathetic to her, Anna Dorothea finally joined the Academy in 1767, lived with Diderot and met famous artists, and even painted Philipp Hackert but she remained unsuccessful in Paris. That time is, however, seen as her most creative, Paris was, and is, an expensive city and Anna Dorothea had financial difficulties. From November 1768 until early 1769, the heavily indebted painter returned to Berlin, via Brussels and the Netherlands, and became the painter in Prussia. She was portrait painter to Frederick II of Prussia, whose newly built palace of Sanssouci she decorated with mythological scenes and she also painted portraits of eight Prussian royals for Catherine II of Russia. Though Anna Dorothea never went to Russia, Russian collectors also appreciated her work and she also met the group of artists surrounding Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. She died in Berlin at the age of 61, and was buried on Dorotheenstadt cemetery and her relationship with Diderot inspired Éric-Emmanuel Schmitt to write his play Der Freigeist, also known as Der Libertin. References Sources This article was translated from its equivalent in the German Wikipedia on 20 July 2009, katharina Küster, Beatrice Scherzer and Andrea Fix, Der freie Blick. Anna Dorothea Therbusch und Ludovike Simanowiz, gottfried Sello, Malerinnen aus fünf Jahrhunderten. Ellert und Richter, Hamburg 1988, ISBN 3-89234-077-3 Anna Dorothea Therbusch in the German National Library catalogue
26.
George III of the United Kingdom
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He was concurrently Duke and prince-elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg in the Holy Roman Empire until his promotion to King of Hanover on 12 October 1814. He was the third British monarch of the House of Hanover, early in his reign, Great Britain defeated France in the Seven Years War, becoming the dominant European power in North America and India. However, many of Britains American colonies were soon lost in the American War of Independence, further wars against revolutionary and Napoleonic France from 1793 concluded in the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. In the later part of his life, George III had recurrent, although it has since been suggested that he had the blood disease porphyria, the cause of his illness remains unknown. After a final relapse in 1810, a regency was established, on George IIIs death, the Prince Regent succeeded his father as George IV. Historical analysis of George IIIs life has gone through a kaleidoscope of changing views that have depended heavily on the prejudices of his biographers and the sources available to them. Until it was reassessed in the half of the 20th century, his reputation in the United States was one of a tyrant. George was born in London at Norfolk House and he was the grandson of King George II, and the eldest son of Frederick, Prince of Wales, and Augusta of Saxe-Gotha. As Prince George was born two months prematurely and he was unlikely to survive, he was baptised the same day by Thomas Secker. One month later, he was baptised at Norfolk House. His godparents were the King of Sweden, his uncle the Duke of Saxe-Gotha, George grew into a healthy but reserved and shy child. The family moved to Leicester Square, where George and his younger brother Prince Edward, Duke of York, Family letters show that he could read and write in both English and German, as well as comment on political events of the time, by the age of eight. He was the first British monarch to study science systematically and his religious education was wholly Anglican. At age 10 George took part in a production of Joseph Addisons play Cato and said in the new prologue, What. It may with truth be said, A boy in England born, historian Romney Sedgwick argued that these lines appear to be the source of the only historical phrase with which he is associated. Georges grandfather, King George II, disliked the Prince of Wales, however, in 1751 the Prince of Wales died unexpectedly from a lung injury, and George became heir apparent to the throne. He inherited one of his fathers titles and became the Duke of Edinburgh, now more interested in his grandson, three weeks later the King created George Prince of Wales. Georges mother, now the Dowager Princess of Wales, preferred to keep George at home where she could imbue him with her moral values
27.
Princess Louise of Orange-Nassau
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She was known in the family as Loulou. Louise was the daughter of William V, Prince of Orange and she was interested in music, theater and writing, participated in amateur theater and was instructed in music by Johan Colizzi. Louise was at one point proposed to by the prince of Prussia. The marriage was seen as a gesture of gratitude and alliance between the House of Orange and the Duke of Brunswick, who had assisted her parents during the Dutch rebellion in 1787. Louise was not forced to agree, but reportedly, she accepted well aware of the fact that it was difficult for her to find another spouse of suitable rank. The wedding was conducted 14 October 1790 in Haag, and the spouse settled in Brunswick, louise was reportedly homesick in Brunswick, experienced a difficulty to adapt to new customs and missed the more vivid culture life in the Netherlands. She started a correspondence with her mother, her governess and former tutor which is preserved and regarded as an important source of life at the Brunswick court. Her spouse was born mentally restricted as well as blind and she was more of a nurse than a spouse to him. In 1791, she commented in a letter in which she expressed no lamentation about the fact that her marriage was childless and rather seemed pleased with it. The fact that the heir of the Duchy had not children and was not expected to have any, when her parents was forced to flee the Netherlands in 1795, she lost her personal income and became financially dependent on her in-laws. The Swedish Princess Hedwig Elizabeth Charlotte described her, as well as her family, at the time of her visit in August,1799, Our cousin, the Duke, arrived immediately the next morning. As a noted military man he has won victories, he is witty, literal and a pleasant acquaintance. He is said to be strict, but a good father of the nation who attends to the needs of his people. After he left us, I visited the Dowager Duchess, the aunt of my consort and she is an agreeable, highly educated and well respected lady, but by now so old that she has almost lost her memory. From her I continued to the Duchess, sister to the King of England and she looked very simple, like a vicars wife, has I am sure many admirable qualities and are very respectable, but completely lacks manners. She makes the strangest questions without considering how difficult and unpleasant they can be, both the Hereditary Princess as well as Princess Augusta — sister of the sovereign Duke — came to her while I was there. The former is delightful, mild, lovable, witty and clever, not a beauty, in addition, she is said to be admirably kind to her boring consort. The Princess Augusta is full of wit and energy and very amusing, the Duchess and the Princesses followed me to Richmond, the country villa of the Duchess a bit outside of town
28.
Frederick the Great
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Frederick II was King of Prussia from 1740 until 1786, the longest reign of any Hohenzollern king. Frederick was the last titled King in Prussia and declared himself King of Prussia after achieving full sovereignty for all historical Prussian lands, Prussia had greatly increased its territories and became a leading military power in Europe under his rule. He became known as Frederick the Great and was affectionately nicknamed Der Alte Fritz by the Prussian, in his youth, Frederick was more interested in music and philosophy than the art of war. Upon ascending to the Prussian throne, he attacked Austria and claimed Silesia during the Silesian Wars, winning acclaim for himself. Near the end of his life, Frederick physically connected most of his realm by conquering Polish territories in the First Partition of Poland and he was an influential military theorist whose analysis emerged from his extensive personal battlefield experience and covered issues of strategy, tactics, mobility and logistics. Considering himself the first servant of the state, Frederick was a proponent of enlightened absolutism and he modernized the Prussian bureaucracy and civil service and pursued religious policies throughout his realm that ranged from tolerance to segregation. He reformed the system and made it possible for men not of noble stock to become judges. Frederick also encouraged immigrants of various nationalities and faiths to come to Prussia, some critics, however, point out his oppressive measures against conquered Polish subjects during the First Partition. Frederick supported arts and philosophers he favored, as well as allowing complete freedom of the press, Frederick is buried at his favorite residence, Sanssouci in Potsdam. Because he died childless, Frederick was succeeded by his nephew, Frederick William II, son of his brother, historian Leopold von Ranke was unstinting in his praise of Fredericks Heroic life, inspired by great ideas, filled with feats of arms. Immortalized by the raising of the Prussian state to the rank of a power, Johann Gustav Droysen was even more extolling. However, by the 21st century, a re-evaluation of his legacy as a great warrior, Frederick, the son of Frederick William I and his wife, Sophia Dorothea of Hanover, was born in Berlin on 24 January 1712. The birth of Frederick was welcomed by his grandfather, Frederick I, with more than usual pleasure, with the death of his father in 1713, Frederick William became King of Prussia, thus making young Frederick the crown prince. The new king wished for his sons and daughters to be educated not as royalty and he had been educated by a Frenchwoman, Madame de Montbail, who later became Madame de Rocoulle, and he wished that she educate his children. However, he possessed a violent temper and ruled Brandenburg-Prussia with absolute authority. As Frederick grew, his preference for music, literature and French culture clashed with his fathers militarism, in contrast, Fredericks mother Sophia was polite, charismatic and learned. Her father, George Louis of Brunswick-Lüneburg, succeeded to the British throne as King George I in 1714, Frederick was brought up by Huguenot governesses and tutors and learned French and German simultaneously. Although Frederick William I was raised a Calvinist, he feared he was not of the elect, to avoid the possibility of Frederick being motivated by the same concerns, the king ordered that his heir not be taught about predestination
29.
Ewald Friedrich von Hertzberg
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Ewald Friedrich Graf von Hertzberg was a Prussian statesman. Hertzberg, who came of a family which had been settled in Pomerania since the 13th century, was born at Lottin near Neustettin. In addition to this study, he was also interested while at the university in historical and philosophical studies. A first thesis for his doctorate, entitled Jus publicum Brandenburgicum, was not printed, in 1752 he married Baroness Marie von Knyphausen, a marriage which was happy, but childless. For more than forty years Hertzberg played a part in the Prussian foreign office. In this capacity he had a influence on Prussian policy. At the beginning of the Seven Years War he took part as a writer in the Hohenzollern-Habsburg quarrel. After the defeat at Kolin he hastened to Pomerania in order to organize the defence there and collect the necessary troops for the protection of the fortresses of Stettin. You have made peace as I made war, one against many, in the later years, too, of Frederick the Greats reign, Hertzberg played a considerable part in foreign policy. In 1772, in a memoir based upon comprehensive historical studies and he also took part successfully as a publicist in the negotiations concerning the question of the Bavarian succession and those of the peace of Teschen. In 1780 he failed to uphold Prussian interests at the election of the bishop of Münster, in 1784 appeared Hertzbergs memoir containing a thorough study of the Fürstenbund. He championed this latest creation of Frederick the Greats mainly with a view to a reform of the empire. By upholding the Fürstenbund Hertzberg made many enemies, prominent among whom was the kings brother, though the Fürstenbund failed to effect a reform of the empire, it at any rate prevented the fulfilment of Emperor Joseph IIs old desire for the incorporation of Bavaria with Austria. The last act of state in which Hertzberg took part under Frederick the Great was the treaty concluded in 1785 between Prussia and the United States. With Frederick, especially in his years, Hertzberg stood in very intimate personal relations and was often the kings guest at Sanssouci. Under Frederick William II his influential position at the court of Berlin was at first unshaken, in this attack Mirabeau seems to have been influenced by Hertzbergs personal enemies at the court. Hertzbergs political system remained on the whole the same under Frederick William II as it had been under his predecessor and his diplomacy was directed also against Austrias old ally, France. The success of intervention, which was the practical realization of a plan very characteristic of Hertzberg
30.
Count Karl-Wilhelm Finck von Finckenstein
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Karl Wilhelm Finck von Finckenstein was a Count of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, a Prussian diplomat, and later Prime Minister of Prussia. He was the son of Count Albrecht Konrad Finck von Finckenstein, who was a Field Marshal and also Governor of the Crown Prince of Prussia, Finckenstein studied in Geneva, after which he travelled in France and the Low Countries. In 1735 he was appointed to the Prussian diplomatic service, Frederick II, who became king in 1740, knew Finckenstein well from his own childhood and had great confidence in him. In 1740 Frederick sent him as minister to Sweden, then to Denmark, in 1744 he was sent again to Sweden, when Fredericks sister Louisa Ulrika married Adolf Frederick of Sweden. In 1747, Finckenstein was made a Minister of state, and he returned to Prussia in 1749, where he became a Cabinet Minister and henceforth the most trusted advisor to the King. During the Seven Years War, Frederick issued a decree on 10 January 1757, in the case of his death or capture. After the end of the Seven Years War, Finckenstein had sole control of Prussias foreign relations and this continued after Fredericks death in 1786, under his successor Frederick William II, and right up to Finckensteins death in 1800. The Treaty was signed to free trade and commerce and became a benchmark for subsequent free trade agreements. It was the first one signed by a European power with the United States after the American Revolutionary War, the Kingdom of Prussia became therefore one of the first nations to officially recognize the young American Republic. Additionally, the Treaty demanded the unconditionally humane treatment of war prisoner, Finckenstein died on 3 January 1800. He was 85 years old, and had been a State Minister for 53 years and he was a knight of the Order of the Black Eagle, the highest Prussian order
31.
Friedrich Wilhelm von Thulemeyer
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Friedrich Wilhelm von Thulemeyer or Frederick William von Thulemeier was born or baptized on November 9,1735. He died July 6,1811, also in Berlin, in 1763 he was sent by Frederick the Great as a diplomat in the Republic of the Seven United Provinces. In 1784/85 he was one of the architects of a trade relations between the US and Prussia, in 1788 he became justice minister under Friedrich Wilhelm II of Prussia. Of particular importance is - even today - his collection of music prints, Thulemeyer was the son of Wilhelm Heinrich von Thulemeyer, a royal Prussian Minister of State and War and a member of the Tabakskollegium. His family can be traced back to around 1560, located in the Principality of Lippe and his mother, Ernestine von Schilden, came from Hanover. When his father died his mother was only 34. The young Thulemeyer was educated at public expense, most probably on the royal Joachimsthalsches Gymnasium, Thulemeyer studied law in Frankfurt and was trained by a Mr. Passavant. According to Von Putkamer he moved to Paris after finishing his studies, in 1763 he obtained a post in The Hague. On behalf of Frederick the Great, he was involved to arrange a marriage between the prince William V of Orange and the sixteen-year-old Wilhelmine of Prussia, Thulemeyer was poorly rewarded and had difficulties to pay his expenses. Around 1782 or before he made acquaintance with a rich widow Agatha Theodora Geelvinck who paid for his expensives and she came from a powerful and very rich family of burgemeesters from Amsterdam and lived almost next to the French Embassy. Both her brothers Nicolaas Geelvinck, Joan Geelvinck and her daughter Constancia van Lynden van Hoevelaken had either close relations with the Patriots or with the stadholder, Frederick the Great did not allow to marry her, may be while his independence was in danger. Thulemeyer did improve his situation and moved to an elegant house near the Binnenhof. The rumours about his venality did not diminish, Thulemeyer dealt with the free ports of Emden and Stettin to set up trade. In the mean time the decisions of the stadholder were amazingly controversial, the stadholdarian family left the Hague and after a year settled down in Nijmegen, not far from the border. In October 1786 Johann Eustach of Görtz was sent to The Hague, moderate the revolution, disband the Free corps and accept a Franco-Prussian mediation even if it meant the return of the Stadholder to The Hague. Her path was blocked outside Schoonhoven by members of the Free Corps from Gouda, the princess was helt at a farm in Goejanverwellesluis until further advice was received. She and her accompany were treated well and offered wine, beer, the princess was told that she could not proceed without permission from Estates of Holland. The princess waited in vain and returned after a day or two, back to her husband, within a few days her brother, Frederick William II of Prussia the new king of Prussia, called for satisfaction
32.
States General of the Netherlands
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The States General is the bicameral legislature of the Netherlands, consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The parliament meets at the Binnenhof in The Hague, the States General originated in the 15th century as an assembly of all the provincial states of the Burgundian Netherlands. The States General were replaced by the National Assembly after the Batavian Revolution of 1795, only to be restored in 1814, the States General was divided into a Senate and a House of Representatives in 1815, with the establishment of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. On exceptional occasions, the two form a joint session known as the United Assembly. The President of the Senate serves as President of the States General during a United Assembly, ankie Broekers-Knol has been President of the Senate since 2013. The archaic Dutch word staten originally related to the classes in which medieval European societies were stratified, the clergy, the nobility. The word eventually came to mean the political body in which the estates were represented. Each province in the Habsburg Netherlands had its own staten and these representative bodies in turn were represented in the assembly that came to be known as Staten-Generaal, or Algemene Staten. The English word states may have a meaning as the Dutch word staten. The English phrases States General is probably a translation of the Dutch word. Historically, the term was used for the name of other national legislatures as, for example, the Catalan and Valencian Generalitat. Several geographic place names are derived from the States General, in 1609, Henry Hudson established Dutch trade in Staten Island, New York City and named the island Staaten Eylandt after the States General. Isla de los Estados, now an Argentine island, was named after this institution. Abel Tasman originally gave the name Staten Landt to what would become New Zealand, Staaten River is a river in the Cape York Peninsula, Australia. Later, regular sessions were held at Coudenberg in Brussels, Brabant, the next important event was the convocation of the States General by the ducal Council for 3 February 1477 after the death of Charles the Bold. In this session the States General forced the grant of the Great Privilege by Mary of Burgundy in which the right of the States General to convene on their own initiative was recognised, in 1576 the States General as a whole, however, openly rebelled against the Spanish crown. In 1579 the States General split as a number of provinces, united in the Union of Arras returned to obedience, while other provinces. After the Act of Abjuration in 1581 the northern States General replaced Philip II as the authority of the northern Netherlands
33.
Givet
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Givet is a commune in the Ardennes department in northern France very close to the Belgian border. It lies on the river Meuse where Emperor Charles V built the fortress of Charlemont and it borders the French municipalities of Fromelennes to the east and Rancennes to the south and Foisches to the southeast. Later on, another building was added to the fort, the Caserne Rougé, the towns history claims that Saint Hubert lived there in 720 and performed a miracle. The town has changed several times since the Roman era before becoming part of France in 1678. In World War II, Givet was occupied by the Germans on May 12,1940, the city was liberated September 7,1944. By December 1944,11,000 American soldiers were billeted in the ancient Charlemont fortress, the German Ardennes Offensive targeted Givet and its crossing of the Meuse. The British, under Montgomery, organized a defense, and on 24 December. Communes of the Ardennes department INSEE Official Web site Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Givet
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Austrian Netherlands
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The Austrian Netherlands was the Southern Netherlands between 1714 and 1797. Austria, however, did not relinquish its claim over the province until 1797 in the Treaty of Campo Formio, the Austrian Netherlands was a noncontiguous territory that consisted of what is now western Belgium as well as greater Luxembourg, bisected by the Prince-Bishopric of Liège. The dominant languages were German, Dutch, and French, along with Picard, the result of the Barrier Treaty was that the Holy Roman emperor Charles VI did not have a lot to say about his Austrian Netherlands. This caused quite a lot of frustration with the Austrians, especially because the Dutch troops they had to allow were paid with money raised by the Austrian Netherlands themselves and this would last until empress Maria Theresa refused to pay for those troops any longer. The war of 1740-1748 showed that the fortifications manned with Dutch troops were not highly maintained, when Austria and France entered into an alliance in 1756, there was virtually no use for the barrier treaty anymore. In 1781 Emperor Joseph II of Austria unilaterally abolished the treaty, under the Treaty of Rastatt, following the War of the Spanish Succession, the surviving portions of the Spanish Netherlands were ceded to Austria. The Austrians were unconcerned with the upkeep of their province and the fortresses along the border were, by treaty, the area had, in fact, been given to Austria largely at British and Dutch insistence, as these powers feared potential French domination of the region. Charles VI attempted to use the Austrian Netherlands to compete with British, however, the agreement was later revoked by the Treaty of Versailles of 1758 and Austrian rule continued. However, the Emperors stance was far from militant, and he called off hostilities after the so-called Kettle War, known by that name because its only casualty was a kettle. In the 1780s, opposition emerged to the reforms of Emperor Joseph II, which were perceived as an attack on the Catholic Church. Resistance, focused in the autonomous and wealthy Estates of Brabant and Flanders, in the aftermath of rioting and disruption, known as the Small Revolution, in 1787, many of opponents took refuge in the neighboring Dutch Republic where they formed a rebel army. Soon after the outbreak of the French and Liège revolutions, the army crossed into the Austrian Netherlands. The rebels, supported by uprisings across the territory, soon took control over much of the territory, despite the tacit support of Prussia, the independent United Belgian States, established in January 1790, received no foreign recognition and soon became divided along ideological lines. The Vonckists, led by Jan Frans Vonck, advocated progressive and liberal government, whereas the Statists, led by Hendrik Van der Noot, were staunchly conservative, the Statists, who had a wider base of support, soon drove the Vonckists into exile through a terror. By mid-1790, Habsburg Austria ended its war with the Ottoman Empire, the new Holy Roman Emperor, Leopold II, was also a liberal and proposed an amnesty for the rebels. After defeating a Statist army at the Battle of Falmagne, the territory was soon overrun, the Austrian reestablishment was short-lived, however, and the territory was soon overrun by the French during the French Revolutionary Wars. In 1794, the armies of the French Revolution annexed the Austrian Netherlands and integrated them into the French Republic
35.
Wesel
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Wesel is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is the capital of the Wesel district, Wesel is situated at the confluence of the Lippe River and the Rhine. Suburbs of Wesel include Lackhausen, Obrighoven, Ginderich, Feldmark, Fusternberg, Büderich, Flüren, the city originated from a Franconian manor that was first recorded in the 8th century. In the 12th century, the Duke of Clèves took possession of Wesel, the city became a member of the Hanseatic League during the 15th century. Within the Duchy of Cleves, Wesel was second only to Cologne in the lower Rhine region as an entrepôt and it was an important commercial centre, a clearing station for the transshipment and trading of goods. In 1590 the Spanish captured Wesel after a four-year siege, the city changed hands between the Dutch and Spanish several times during the Eighty Years War. In 1672 a French force under Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé captured the city, Wesel was inherited by the Hohenzollerns of the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1609 but they were unable to take control of Wesel until the Treaty of Nijmegen in 1678. Although the city had been heavily fortified the Prussians evacuated the city during the Seven Years War and it was returned to Prussia at the end of the war. Friedrich Wilhelm von Dossow was the Prussian Governor of Wesel during the 18th century, Wesel was ceded to the French in 1805 under the treaty of Schönbrunn. The French heavily fortified the city constructing a fort called the Citadelle Napoleon at Büderich. Though blockaded by the Allies in 1813 the city remained in French hands until after the Battle of Waterloo, after the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century, the city became part of the Prussian Rhine Province and the Citadelle Napoleon was renamed Fort Blücher. During World War II, as a depot, Wesel became a target of Allied bombing. On the 16,17 and 19 February 1945, the town was attacked with impact and air-burst bombs, the Wehrmacht blew up bridges along the Rhine and Lippe to prevent Allied forces from advancing. The Wehrmacht also destroyed the 1, 950m-long railway bridge, the last Rhine bridge remaining in German hands, on 23 March, Wesel came under the fire of over 3,000 guns when it was bombarded anew, in preparation for Operation Plunder. The shelling was assisted by a raid of RAF bombers and a raid that night. At 2100 hours on the 23rd, ten individual bombers each dropped a 10,000 kg bomb on Wesel, before the town was finally taken by Allied troops, 97% of its structures were destroyed. In the ensuing attacks by Allied forces, the town was taken for minimal casualties, Operation Varsity – the largest airborne landings of the war – dropped 18,000 troops into the area to take the hills behind Wesel. The British 1st Commando Brigade was already attacking Wesel carried into action by LVT Buffalos, the remainder of the Allied force crossed the Rhine in more amphibious vehicles
36.
Armand Marc, comte de Montmorin
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Armand Marc, Count of Montmorin de Saint Herem was a French statesman. He was Minister of Foreign Affairs and the Navy under Louis XVI and he belonged to a junior branch of a noble family of Auvergne. He was gentleman-in-waiting to Louis XVI when dauphin, and was appointed ambassador to Madrid. From Madrid he was summoned to the governorship of Brittany. Montmorin was an admirer of Jacques Necker, whose influence at court he helped maintain. He retired when Necker was dismissed on 12 July 1789, but on Neckers recall after the storming of the Bastille again resumed his office, with the progress of the French Revolution, however, this attitude changed. The comte de la Marck was trying to bring Mirabeau into touch with the court, the two men were soon on the closest terms. While Montmorin continued as minister in name, Mirabeau became so in fact, Montmorin did not dare to come to a decision without consulting Mirabeau, but neither Mirabeau nor La Marck were under any illusions as to the his character. Mirabeau complained bitterly that Montmorin was slack and a poltroon, La Marck thought that Montmorins feebleness was occasionally useful in restraining Mirabeaus impetuosity. He was forced to resign office, but still continued to advise Louis, in June 1792 his papers were seized at the foreign office, without anything incriminating being discovered, in July he was denounced, and after 10 August was proscribed. He took refuge in the house of a washerwoman, but was discovered, taken before the Legislative Assembly, and imprisoned in the Abbaye, where he perished in the September massacres. His relative, Louis Victor Henri, marquis de Montmorin de Saint Herem, head of the branch of the family. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
37.
Caroline Watson
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Caroline Watson was an English stipple engraver. The daughter of the Irish engraver James Watson, she was born in London in 1760 or 1761 and she was known for her skilled worked in the stipple method. She died at Pimlico on 10 June 1814 and she was then appointed engraver to Queen. She engraved portraits of, Sir James Harris, and the Hon, mrs. Stanhope, both after Joshua Reynolds, Catherine II of Russia, after Alexander Roslin, and William Woollett, after Gilbert Stuart, and Samuel Coopers reputed portrait of John Milton. Other works were, The Marriage of St. Watson also executed a set of aquatints of the Progress of Female Virtue and Female Dissipation and she engraved several pictures belonging to the Marquess of Bute. Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Lee, Sidney, ed. Watson
38.
William Pitt the Younger
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William Pitt the Younger, PC was a British politician of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. He became the youngest Prime Minister in 1783 at the age of 24 and he left office in 1801, but was Prime Minister again from 1804 until his death in 1806. He was also the Chancellor of the Exchequer throughout his premiership, born William Pitt, he is known as the Younger to distinguish him from his father, William Pitt the Elder, who had previously served as Prime Minister. The younger Pitts prime ministerial tenure, which came during the reign of George III, was dominated by events in Europe, including the French Revolution. Pitt, although referred to as a Tory, or new Tory. He is best known for leading Britain in the wars against France. Pitt was an administrator who worked for efficiency and reform. He raised taxes to pay for the war against France. To meet the threat of Irish support for France, he engineered the Acts of Union 1800, Pitt created the new Toryism, which revived the Tory Party and enabled it to stay in power for the next quarter-century. Historian Asa Briggs points out that his personality did not endear itself to the British mind, for Pitt was too solitary, too colourless and his greatness came in the war with France, with the adversary setting the pace. Pitt reacted to become what Lord Minto called the Atlas of our reeling globe and his integrity and industry and his role as defender of the threatened nation allowed him to inspire and access all the national reserves of strength. William Wilberforce said that, For personal purity, disinterestedness and love of this country, for this he is ranked highly amongst British Prime Ministers. The Honourable William Pitt, second son of William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham, was born at Hayes Place in the village of Hayes, Pitt was from a political family on both sides. His mother, Hester Grenville, was sister to former prime minister George Grenville, according to biographer John Ehrman, Pitt inherited brilliance and dynamism from his fathers line, and a determined, methodical nature from the Grenvilles. Suffering from occasional poor health as a boy, he was educated at home by the Reverend Edward Wilson, an intelligent child, Pitt quickly became proficient in Latin and Greek. In 1773, aged fourteen, he attended Pembroke College, Cambridge, at Cambridge, Pitt was tutored by George Pretyman, who became a close personal friend. Pitt later appointed Pretyman Bishop of Lincoln then Winchester and drew upon his advice throughout his political career, while at Cambridge, he befriended the young William Wilberforce, who became a lifelong friend and political ally in Parliament. Pitt tended to socialise only with students and others already known to him
39.
Francis Osborne, 5th Duke of Leeds
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Francis Godolphin Osborne, 5th Duke of Leeds KG PC, styled Marquess of Carmarthen until 1789, was a British politician. He notably served as Foreign Secretary under William Pitt the Younger from 1783 to 1791 and he also was Governor of Scilly. As a statesman he is regarded as a failure. Leeds was the son of Thomas Osborne, 4th Duke of Leeds, by his wife Lady Mary, daughter of Francis Godolphin, 2nd Earl of Godolphin and he was educated at Westminster School and at Christ Church, Oxford. He regained this, however, two years later, historian Jeremy Black says that in terms of foreign policy, Pitt was and other leaders were disappointed. He was anti-French but did not develop an active and aggressive foreign policy, instead, King George III himself set the main lines of foreign policy before he became disabled. Pitts rejection of Osbornes anti-Russian policy was the blow and he left office in April 1791. Leeds married firstly in 1773 Lady Amelia Darcy, daughter of Robert Darcy, Lady Amelia became Baroness Darcy de Knayth and Baroness Conyers in her own right in 1778. Lord Francis Osborne, later 1st Baron Godolphin, married The Hon. Elizabeth Eden, third daughter of the 1st Baron Auckland, Lady Mary Henrietta Juliana Osborne, married Thomas Pelham, 2nd Earl of Chichester in 1801 and had issue. He married secondly Catherine, daughter of Thomas Anguish, in 1788 and had two children, Lord Sidney Godolphin Osborne, unmarried. Lady Catherine Anne Sarah Osborne, married Major John Whyte-Melville on 1 June 1819 and had issue, Leeds died in London in January 1799, aged 48, and was buried in the Osborne family chapel at All Hallows Church, Harthill, South Yorkshire. He was succeeded in the dukedom by his eldest son from his first marriage, George Osborne and his second son from his first marriage, Lord Francis Osborne, was created Baron Godolphin in 1832. The dowager Duchess of Leeds died in October 1837, aged 73, leedss Political Memoranda were edited by Oscar Browning for the Camden Society in 1884, and there are eight volumes of his official correspondence in the British Museum. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
40.
Subversion
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Subversion refers to an attempt to transform the established social order and its structures of power, authority, and hierarchy. Subversion refers to a process by which the values and principles of a system in place are contradicted or reversed, subversion is used as a tool to achieve political goals because it generally carries less risk, cost, and difficulty as opposed to open belligerency. Furthermore, it is a cheap form of warfare that does not require large amounts of training. A subversive is something or someone carrying the potential for some degree of subversion, in this context, a subversive is sometimes called a traitor with respect to the government in power. Subversion, however, is often a goal of comedians, artists. In this case, being subversive can mean questioning, poking fun at, satire is one of the most potent forms of subversion for artists and comics, and it can take shape in films, television, books, and even political protest. Terrorist groups generally do not employ subversion as a tool to achieve their goals, subversion is a manpower-intensive strategy and many groups lack the manpower and political and social connections to carry out subversive activities. However, actions taken by terrorists may have an effect on society. Subversion can imply the use of insidious, dishonest, monetary and this is in contrast to protest, a coup détat, or working through traditional means available in a political system to bring about change. Furthermore, external subversion is where, the aggressor state attempts to recruit and assist indigenous political, if subversion fails in its goal of bringing about a coup it is possible that the actors and actions of the subversive group could transition to insurrection, insurgency, and/or guerilla warfare. The word is present in all languages of Latin origin, originally applying to such events as the defeat of a city. As early as the 14th century, it was being used in the English language with reference to laws, the problem with defining the term subversion is that there is not a single definition that is universally accepted. Subversion — Actions designed to undermine the military, economic, psychological, subversion — A destructive, aggressive activity aimed to destroy the country, nation, or geographical area of your enemy. Defining and understanding subversion means identifying entities, structures, and things that can be subverted, furthermore, it may help to identify practices and tools that are not subversive. Institutions and morals can be subverted, but ideology on the hand cannot. The fall of a government or the creation of a new government as a result of a war is not subversion. Espionage does not count as subversion because it is not an action that leads directly to an overthrow of a government, information gathered from espionage may be used to plan and carry out subversive activities. To gain an understanding of what is considered to be subversive requires understanding the intent of taking action
41.
Agent of influence
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The term agent of influence is often used to describe both individuals and organizations engaged in influence operations. Individuals engaged in type of influence operation may serve in the fields of journalism, government, art, labor, academia. Cultural opinion makers, nationalists, and religious leaders have also targeted to serve as individual agents of influence. In addition to individual agents of influence, front organizations can serve the interests of a power in this capacity. An agent of some stature who uses his or her position to influence public opinion or decision making to produce results beneficial to the country whose intelligence service operates the agent. The Foreign Agents Registration Act was enacted in 1938, and 22 U. S. Code §611 et seq provides detailed definitions of what constitutes an agent of influence. The primary characteristic that distinguishes agents of influence from spies is the lack of control exercised by the foreign power on an agent of influence. According to Angelo Codevilla, the work of an agent of influence can be far more valuable, subtle, as witnessed in the Cold War through fellow travelers, the best agents of influence were those whose interests paralleled that of the aggressors and needed little if any coordination. Excessive efforts to control or exploit agents of influence can also have negative consequences, such agents are best seen as strategic or tactical allies, and efforts to exercise too much control over them may result in the loss of an influence asset. Excessive exploitation of these agents can lead to their exposure by forcing them to take questionably one-sided positions, as witnessed in the exposure of Norwegian Arne Treholt. Because these agents exercise influence, their positions and opinions are not wholly secret, individuals operating as an agent of influence may serve in the fields of journalism, government, art, labor, academia, or a number of other professional fields. Cultural opinion makers, nationalists, and religious leaders have also targeted to serve as individual agents of influence. The following are notable individuals that have been accused of being foreign agents of influence. The list is not exhaustive but is meant to show the range in which such agents can operate. As previously noted, proving someone is an agent of influence is among the most difficult endeavors, alger Hiss – an agent of influence and spy. At the time of his exposure he had significant support among US politicians, Arne Herløv Petersen – used as a Soviet agent of influence in Norway for over 10 years, he mainly focused on various means of manipulating Danish public opinion. Arne Treholt - he was exposed as a result of overuse as an agent of influence in taking blatantly one-sided arguments over Norway’s northern border, rose ONeal Greenhow – Confederate spy and accused agent of influence working among the British. William Stephenson – assumed British agent of influence working in the US in the era of World War II and he was accused of fostering animosity between the US and Japan in an effort to advance Russian interests
Kingdom of Prussia
Orangists
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