1.
Ferdinand Marcos
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Ferdinand Emmanuel Edralin Marcos, Sr. was a Filipino politician who was President of the Philippines from 1965 to 1986. He ruled as a dictator under martial law from 1972 until 1981, while his regime started an unprecedented number of infrastructure projects and monuments, it also became infamous for its corruption and brutality. United States Army documents described the claim as fraudulent and absurd and he was elected President in 1965. The Philippine national debt used to fund development projects grew from $2 billion at the beginning of his term to $26 billion by the end of 1985. Based on World Bank data, Philippine Annual Gross Domestic Product grew from $5.27 billion in 1964 to $37.14 billion in 1982, by the end of 1985, GDP stood at $30.7 billion following two years of economic contraction. All in all despite the 1984–1985 recession, GDP per capita grew at a rate of 5. 8%, or more than tripled. It was only in 1992 at the beginning of the term of Fidel Ramos when GDP per capita, Martial law was ratified by 90. 77% of the voters during the Philippine Martial Law referendum,1973 though the referendum was marred with controversy. Ramos and Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile, public outrage led to the snap elections of 1986. Allegations of mass cheating, political turmoil and excesses of human rights led to the People Power Revolution in February 1986. Marcos was succeeded by Corazon Aquino, widow of the opposition leader Senator Benigno Aquino. According to source documents provided by the Presidential Commission on Good Government, a government agency created by the Aquino Government, PCGG also maintained that the Marcos family enjoyed a decadent lifestyle—taking away billions of dollars from the country in the course of their US-backed rule between 1965 and 1986. His wife Imelda Marcos, whose excesses during the couples kleptocracy made her infamous in her own right, numerous criminal graft charges have been filed against her, some of which are still ongoing, and most have been dismissed by the court due to lack of evidence. He was later baptized into the Philippine Independent Church, but was first baptized in the Roman Catholic Church at the age of three, in December 1938, Ferdinand Marcos was prosecuted for the murder of Julio Nalundasan. He was not the accused from the Marcos clan, also accused was his father, Mariano, his brother, Pio. According to two witnesses, the four had conspired to assassinate Nalundasan, with Ferdinand Marcos eventually pulling the trigger, in late January 1939, they were finally denied bail and later in the year, they were convicted. Ferdinand and Lizardo received the penalty for premeditated murder, while Mariano. The Marcos family took their appeal to the Supreme Court of the Philippines, Marcos studied law at the University of the Philippines, attending the prestigious College of Law. He excelled in both curricular and extra-curricular activities, becoming a member of the universitys swimming, boxing
2.
Gloria Macapagal Arroyo
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She was the countrys second female president, and the daughter of former President Diosdado Macapagal. Arroyo is also the first duly elected female Vice President of the Philippines, Arroyo was a former professor of economics at Ateneo de Manila University where Benigno Aquino III was one of her students. She entered government in 1987, serving as assistant secretary and undersecretary of the Department of Trade, after serving as a senator from 1992 to 1998, she was elected to the vice presidency under President Joseph Estrada, despite having run on an opposing ticket. After Estrada was accused of corruption, she resigned her position as Secretary of Social Welfare and Development and joined the growing opposition to the president. Estrada was soon forced from office by the EDSA Revolution of 2001 and she was elected to a full six-year presidential term in the controversial May 2004 Philippine elections, and was sworn in on June 30,2004. Following her presidency, she was elected to the House of Representatives, on November 18,2011, Arroyo was arrested following the filing of criminal charges against her for electoral fraud. She was held at the Veterans Memorial Medical Center in Quezon City under charges of electoral sabotage and she was rearrested while in the hospital on charges of misuse of $8.8 million in state lottery funds in October 2012. On July 19,2016, she was acquitted by the Supreme Court by a vote of 11-4 and she is a member of the Philippine Academy of the Spanish Language. She was born as Maria Gloria Macaraeg Macapagal to politician Diosdado Macapagal and his wife and she is the sister of Dr. Diosdado Boboy Macapagal, Jr. and Cielo Macapagal Salgado. She spent the first years of her life in Lubao, Pampanga, at the age of four, she chose to live with her maternal grandmother in Iligan City. She stayed there for three years, then split her time between Mindanao and Manila until the age of 11 and she is fluent in English, Tagalog, Spanish and several other Philippine languages, most importantly, Kapampangan, Ilokano, and Cebuano. In 1961, when Arroyo was just 14 years old, her father was elected as president and she moved with her family into Malacañang Palace in Manila. A municipality was named in her honor, Gloria, Oriental Mindoro and she attended Assumption Convent for her elementary and high school education, graduating valedictorian in 1964. She then earned her Bachelor of Arts degree in Economics from Assumption College, in 1968, Arroyo married lawyer and businessman Jose Miguel Arroyo of Binalbagan, Negros Occidental, whom she had met while still a teenager. They had three children, Juan Miguel, Evangelina Lourdes and Diosdado Ignacio Jose Maria and she pursued a masters degree in Economics at the Ateneo de Manila University and a Ph. D. in Economics from the University of the Philippines Diliman. From 1977 to 1987, she held teaching positions in schools, notably the University of the Philippines. She became chairperson of the Economics Department at Assumption College, in 1987, she was invited by President Corazon Aquino to join the government as Assistant Secretary of the Department of Trade and Industry. She was promoted to Undersecretary two years later, in her concurrent position as Executive Director of the Garments and Textile Export Board, Arroyo oversaw the rapid growth of the garment industry in the late 1980s
3.
Eidul Adha
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Eid al-Adha, also called the Sacrifice Feast, is the second of two Muslim holidays celebrated worldwide each year, and considered the holier of the two. It honors the willingness of Ibrahim to sacrifice his son, as an act of submission to Gods command, before he sacrificed his son God intervened by sending his angel Jibrail, who then put a sheep in his sons place. In the Islamic lunar calendar, Eid al-Adha falls on the 10th day of Dhu al-Hijjah, in the international calendar, the dates vary from year to year drifting approximately 11 days earlier each year. Eid al-Adha is the latter of the two Eid holidays, the former being Eid al-Fitr, the word Eid appears once in Al-Maida, the fifth sura of the Quran, with the meaning solemn festival. Like Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha begins with a prayer of two followed by a sermon. Eid al-Adha celebrations start after the descent of the Hujjaj, the performing the Hajj, from Mount Arafat. Eid sacrifice may take place until sunset on the 13th day of Dhu al-Hijjah, the days of Eid have been singled out in the Hadith as days of remembrance and considered the holiest days in the Islamic Calendar. Another Arabic word for sacrifice is Qurbani The Semitic root Q-R-B means to be close to someone/something, other words from the root include qarov, close, the senses of root meaning to offer suggest that the act of offering brings one closer to the receiver of the offering. The same stem is found in Hebrew and for example in the Akkadian language noun aqribtu act of offering, Eid al-Kabir, an Arabic term meaning the Greater Eid, is used in Yemen, Syria, and North Africa. The term was borrowed directly into French as Aïd el-Kebir, translations of Big Eid or Greater Eid are used in Pashto, Kashmiri, Urdu and Hindi, Tamil and Malayalam. Albanian, however, uses Bajram i vogël or the Lesser Eid as a reference to Eid al-Adha. This term is borrowed into other Indian languages, such as Tamil Bakr Īd Peru Nāl. Some names refer to the fact that the holiday occurs after the culmination of the annual Hajj, such names are used in Malaysian and Indonesian (Hari Raya Haji Hajj celebration day, Lebaran Haji, Lebaran Kaji. When this was not yet an official feast in the Philippines, when it became a legal holiday in 2009, it became officially known as Eid al-Adha. Some also reference it with local names like Kapistahan ng Pagsasakripisyo in Tagalog. Eid al-Adha has had other names outside the Muslim world, in Spanish it is known as Fiesta del Cordero or Fiesta del Borrego. According to Islamic tradition, the valley of Mecca was a dry, rocky, God instructed Abraham to bring Hagar, his Arabian wife, and Ishmael to Arabia from the land of Canaan. As Abraham was preparing for his journey back to Canaan, Hagar asked him
4.
Republic Day (Philippines)
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Philippine Republic Day, also known as Filipino-American Friendship Day, is a commemoration in the Philippines held annually on 4 July. It was formerly an official designated as Independence Day, celebrating the signing of the Treaty of Manila. The Philippine Islands were an American possession from 1898 to 1946, first as a territory, a campaign to retake the country began in October 1944, when General Douglas MacArthur landed in Leyte along with Sergio Osmeña, who succeeded to the presidency after Quezons death in 1944. The battles entailed long fierce fighting, some of the Japanese continued to fight until the surrender of the Japan on 2 September 1945. The country gained independence on 4 July 1946. Initially, the nations Independence Day holiday was held on 4 July, President Diosdado Macapagal moved it to 12 June, the date in 1898 on which Emilio Aguinaldo issued the Philippine Declaration of Independence from Spain. Philippine Republic Day was created in its place and kept as a holiday under Macapagal, in 1955, President Ramón Magsaysay had issued Presidential Proclamation №212, s. 1955, which established the observance of Philippine American Day every 15 November —the anniversary of the inauguration of the Commonwealth. After the 1935 Constitution was suspended under Martial Law and later superseded by the 1972 Constitution, it was impolitic to remind the nation of the old and this is why, when President Marcos issued Presidential Proclamation №. 1984, reference was made to Philippine–American Friendship Day, which was relegated to a holiday without mention of Republic Day. In 1996, President Fidel V. Ramos celebrated the day as Republic Day, the practice of celebrating Philippine–American Friendship Day and Republic Day as a non-working holiday was formally abolished in 1987 under President Corazon C. Section 26 of the Administrative Code of 1987 specified a list of regular holidays and nationwide special days that did not include July 4
5.
Independence Day (United States)
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It declared that the thirteen American colonies regarded themselves as a new nation, the United States of America, and were no longer part of the British Empire. Independence Day is the National Day of the United States, Congress debated and revised the wording of the Declaration, finally approving it two days later on July 4. A day earlier, John Adams had written to his wife Abigail, The second day of July,1776, I am apt to believe that it will be celebrated by succeeding generations as the great anniversary festival. It ought to be commemorated as the day of deliverance, by acts of devotion to God Almighty. It ought to be solemnized with pomp and parade, with shows, games, sports, guns, bells, bonfires, adamss prediction was off by two days. Most historians have concluded that the Declaration was signed nearly a month after its adoption, on August 2,1776, although not a signer of the Declaration of Independence, James Monroe, another Founding Father who was elected as President, also died on July 4,1831. He was the third President in a row who died on the anniversary of independence, calvin Coolidge, the 30th President, was born on July 4,1872, so far he is the only U. S. President to have been born on Independence Day. In 1777 thirteen gunshots were fired in salute, once at morning and once again as evening fell, on July 4 in Bristol, ships in port were decked with red, white, and blue bunting. In 1778, from his headquarters at Ross Hall, near New Brunswick, New Jersey, General George Washington marked July 4 with a ration of rum for his soldiers. Across the Atlantic Ocean, ambassadors John Adams and Benjamin Franklin held a dinner for their fellow Americans in Paris, in 1779, July 4 fell on a Sunday. The holiday was celebrated on Monday, July 5, in 1781 the Massachusetts General Court became the first state legislature to recognize July 4 as a state celebration. In 1783, Moravians in Salem, North Carolina, held a celebration of July 4 with a music program assembled by Johann Friedrich Peter. This work was titled The Psalm of Joy and this is recognized as the first recorded celebration and is still celebrated there today. In 1870 the U. S. Congress made Independence Day an unpaid holiday for federal employees, in 1938 Congress changed Independence Day to a paid federal holiday. Independence Day is a holiday marked by patriotic displays. Similar to other summer-themed events, Independence Day celebrations often take place outdoors, Independence Day is a federal holiday, so all non-essential federal institutions are closed on that day. Many politicians make it a point on day to appear at a public event to praise the nations heritage, laws, history, society. Families often celebrate Independence Day by hosting or attending a picnic or barbecue, many take advantage of the day off and, in some years, decorations are generally colored red, white, and blue, the colors of the American flag
6.
President of the Philippines
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The President of the Philippines is the head of state and head of government of the Philippines. The President leads the executive branch of the Philippine government and is the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, Filipinos refer to their President as Pangulo or Presidente. The President serves a single, fixed, six-year term without possibility of re-election, in Filipino, one of the two official languages of the Philippines, the President is referred to as Pangulo. In the other languages of the Philippines such as the Visayan languages. Depending on the chosen for these terms, a number of persons could alternatively be considered the inaugural holder of the office. Andrés Bonifacio could be considered the first President of a united Philippines since he was the third Supreme President of the Katipunan and its Supreme Council, led by the Supreme President, coordinated provincial and district councils. When the Katipunan started a revolt against the Spanish colonial government in August 1896. While the term Katipunan remained, Bonifacios government was known as the Tagalog Republic. Bonifacios revolutionary government never controlled territory for any significant period. Some historians contend that including Bonifacio as a past president would imply that Macario Sacay, in March 1897, during the Philippine Revolution against Spain Emilio Aguinaldo was elected president of the revolutionary government at the Tejeros Convention. The new government was meant to replace the Katipunan, though the latter was not formally abolished until 1899, Aguinaldo was again elected President at Biak-na-Bato in November, leading the Republic of Biak-na-Bato. Aguinaldo therefore signed the Pact of Biak-na-Bato and went into exile in Hong Kong at the end of 1897, in April 1898, the Spanish–American War broke out, and the Asiatic Squadron of the United States Navy sailed for the Philippines. At the Battle of Manila Bay on May 1,1898 the American Navy decisively defeated the Spanish Navy effectively ending Spanish rule in the Philippines, aquinaldo subsequently returned to the Philippines aboard a U. S. Navy vessel and renewed the revolution. He formed a government on May 24,1898 and issued the Philippine Declaration of Independence on June 12,1898. On June 23,1898, Aguinaldo transformed his government into a revolutionary government. On January 23,1899, he was then elected President of the First Philippine Republic, consequently, this government is also called the Malolos Republic. The First Philippine Republic was short-lived and never internationally recognized, the Philippines was transferred from Spanish to American control by the Treaty of Paris of 1898, signed in December of that year. The Philippine–American War broke out between the United States and Aguinaldos government and his government effectively ceased to exist on April 1,1901, after he pledged allegiance to the United States following his capture by U. S. forces in March
7.
Diosdado Macapagal
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Diosdado Pangan Macapagal was the ninth President of the Philippines, serving from 1961 to 1965, and the sixth Vice-President, serving from 1957 to 1961. He also served as a member of the House of Representatives and he is the father of Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, who was the 14th President of the Philippines from 2001 to 2010. A native of Lubao, Pampanga, Macapagal graduated from the University of the Philippines and University of Santo Tomas and he first won election in 1949 to the House of Representatives, representing a district in his home province of Pampanga. In 1957, he became Vice-President under the rule of President Carlos P. García, Diosdado Macapagal was also a reputed poet in the Chinese language, though his poetic oeuvre was eclipsed by his political biography. As President, Macapagal worked to suppress graft and corruption and to stimulate the Philippine economy and he introduced the countrys first land reform law, placed the peso on the free currency exchange market, and liberalized foreign exchange and import controls. Many of his reforms, however, were crippled by a Congress dominated by the rival Nacionalista Party and he stood for re-election in 1965, and was defeated by Ferdinand Marcos, who subsequently ruled for 21 years. He died of heart failure, pneumonia, and renal complications, in 1997, Diosdado Macapagal was born on September 28,1910, in Lubao, Pampanga, the third of four children in a poor family. His father, Urbano Macapagal, was a poet who wrote in the local Pampangan language and he is a distant descendant of Don Juan Macapagal, a prince of Tondo, who was a great-grandson of the last reigning Lakan of the Kingdom of Tondo, Lakan Dula. The family earned extra income by raising pigs and accommodating boarders in their home, due to his roots in poverty, Macapagal would later become affectionately known as the Poor boy from Lubao. Diosdado Macapagal was also a poet in the Spanish language although his poet work was eclipsed by his political biography. Macapagal excelled in his studies at public schools, graduating valedictorian at Lubao Elementary School. While in law school, he gained prominence as an orator, however, he was forced to quit schooling after two years due to poor health and a lack of money. Returning to Pampanga, he joined boyhood friend Rogelio de la Rosa in producing and starring in Tagalog operettas patterned after classic Spanish zarzuelas and it was during this period that he married his friends sister, Purita de la Rosa in 1938. He had two children with de la Rosa, Cielo and Arturo, Macapagal raised enough money to continue his studies at the University of Santo Tomas. He also gained the assistance of philanthropist Honorio Ventura, the Secretary of the Interior at the time, after receiving his Bachelor of Laws degree in 1936, he was admitted to the bar, topping the 1936 bar examination with a score of 89. 95%. He later returned to his alma mater to take up studies and earn a Master of Laws degree in 1941, a Doctor of Civil Law degree in 1947. After passing the bar examination, Macapagal was invited to join an American law firm as a practicing attorney and he was assigned as a legal assistant to President Manuel L. Quezon in Malacañang Palace. After the war, Macapagal worked as an assistant attorney with one of the largest law firms in the country, Ross, Lawrence, Selph and Carrascoso
8.
Ramon Magsaysay
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Ramon del Fierro Magsaysay, Sr. was the seventh President of the Republic of the Philippines, serving from December 30,1953 until his death in an aircraft disaster. An automobile mechanic, Magsaysay was appointed governor of Zambales after his outstanding service as a guerilla leader during the Pacific War. He then served two terms as Liberal Party congressman for Zambales before being appointed as Secretary of National Defense by President Elpidio Quirino and he was elected President under the banner of the Nacionalista Party. He was the first Philippine President born during the 20th century, Ramon del Fierro Magsaysay was born in Iba, Zambales on August 31,1907 to Exequiel Magsaysay y de los Santos, a blacksmith, and Perfecta del Fierro y Quimson, a schoolteacher. He spent his school life somewhere in Castillejos and his high school life at Zambales Academy in San Narciso. After high school, Magsaysay entered the University of the Philippines in 1927 and he worked as a chauffeur to support himself as he studied engineering, and later, he transferred to the Institute of Commerce at José Rizal College, where he received a baccalaureate in commerce. He then worked as a mechanic in a bus company. At the outbreak of World War II, he joined the pool of the 31st Infantry Division of the Philippine Army. When Bataan surrendered in 1942, Magsaysay escaped to the hills, There he organised the Western Luzon Guerrilla Forces, and was commissioned captain on April 5,1942. Magsaysay was among those instrumental in clearing the Zambales coast of the Japanese prior to the landing of American forces together with the Philippine Commonwealth troops on January 29,1945. He was married to Luz Magsaysay on June 16,1933, several of Magsaysays relatives became prominent public figures in their own right, Ramon Magsaysay, Jr. In the so-called dirty election of 1949, he was re-elected to a term in the House of Representatives. During both terms he was Chairman of the House National Defense Committee, in early August 1950, he offered President Elpidio Quirino a plan to fight the Communist guerillas, using his own experiences in guerrilla warfare during World War II. After some hesitation, Quirino realized that there was no alternative and he intensified the campaign against the Hukbalahap guerillas. This success was due in part to the methods he took up from a former advertising expert and CIA agent. In the counterinsurgency the two utilized deployed soldiers distributing relief goods and other forms of aid to outlying, provincial communities, prior to Magsaysays appointment as Defense Secretary, rural citizens perceived the Philippine Army with apathy and distrust. However, Magsaysays term enhanced the Armys image, earning them respect, in June 1952, Magsaysay made a goodwill tour to the United States and Mexico. He visited New York, Washington, D. C. by 1953, President Quirino thought the threat of the Huks was under control and Secretary Magsaysay was becoming too weak
9.
Commonwealth of the Philippines
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It replaced the Insular Government, a United States territorial government, and was established by the Tydings–McDuffie Act. The Commonwealth was designed as an administration in preparation for the countrys full achievement of independence. During its more than a decade of existence, the Commonwealth had a strong executive and its legislature, dominated by the Nacionalista Party, was at first unicameral, but later bicameral. In 1937, the government selected Tagalog–the language of Manila and its surrounding provinces–as the basis of the national language, womens suffrage was adopted and the economy recovered to its pre-Depression level before the Japanese occupation in 1942. The Commonwealth government went into exile from 1942 to 1945, when the Philippines was under Japanese occupation, in 1946, the Commonwealth ended and the Philippines claimed full sovereignty as provided for in Article XVIII of the 1935 Constitution. The Commonwealth of the Philippines was also known as the Philippine Commonwealth and it had official names in Tagalog, Kómonwélt ng Pilipinas and Spanish, Mancomunidad de Filipinas. The 1935 constitution specifies the Philippines as the short form name and uses the Philippine Islands only to refer to pre-1935 status. Under the Insular Government, both terms had official status, the pre-1935 U. S. territorial administration, or Insular Government, was headed by a governor general who was appointed by the president of the United States. In December 1932, the U. S. Congress passed the Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act with the premise of granting Filipinos independence, provisions of the bill included reserving several military and naval bases for the United States, as well as imposing tariffs and quotas on Philippine exports. The bill, however, was opposed by the then Philippine Senate President Manuel L. Quezon and was rejected by the Philippine Senate. A Constitutional Convention was convened in Manila on July 30,1934, on February 8,1935, the 1935 Constitution of the Commonwealth of the Philippines was approved by the convention by a vote of 177 to 1. The constitution was approved by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on March 23,1935, on 17 September 1935, presidential elections were held. Candidates included former president Emilio Aguinaldo, the Iglesia Filipina Independiente leader Gregorio Aglipay, Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña of the Nacionalista Party were proclaimed the winners, winning the seats of president and vice-president, respectively. The Commonwealth Government was inaugurated on the morning of November 15,1935, the event was attended by a crowd of around 300,000 people. The new government embarked on ambitious nation-building policies in preparation for economic, a proper evaluation of the policies effectiveness or failure is difficult due to Japanese invasion and occupation during World War II. Japan launched an attack on the Philippines on December 8,1941. The Commonwealth government drafted the Philippine Army into the U. S. Army Forces Far East, Manila was declared an open city to prevent its destruction, and it was occupied by the Japanese on January 2,1942. Meanwhile, battles against the Japanese continued on the Bataan Peninsula, Corregidor and this government participated in the Pacific War Council as well as the Declaration by United Nations
10.
Constitution of the Philippines
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The Constitution of the Philippines is the constitution or supreme law of the Republic of the Philippines. Its final draft was completed by the Constitutional Commission on October 12,1986 and was ratified by a plebiscite on February 2,1987. Three other constitutions have effectively governed the country in its history, the 1935 Commonwealth Constitution, the 1973 Constitution, ruling by decree during the early part of her tenure and as a president installed via the People Power Revolution, President Corazon C. Aquino issued Proclamation No. Often called the Freedom Constitution, this constitution was intended as a temporary constitution to ensure the freedom of the people. A constitutional assembly was called to draft a new constitution for the country. The Commission elected Cecilia Muñoz-Palma, a former Associate Justice of the Supreme Court, lino Brocka, a film director and political activist who was member of the Commission, walked out before the constitutions completion, and two other delegates dissented from the final draft. The Commission finished the draft on October 12,1986. The constitution was ratified by a plebiscite on February 2,1987. The Constitution contains a preamble and eighteen self-contained articles with a numbering that resets for every article. The preamble introduces the constitution and the source of sovereignty, the people and it follows the pattern in past constitutions, including an appeal to God. The waters around, between, and connecting the islands of the archipelago, regardless of their breadth and dimensions, article 2 lays out the basic social and political creed of the Philippines, particularly the implementation of the constitution and sets forth the objectives of the government. S. Similar to U. S. jurisprudence and other common law jurisdictions, article 4 defines the citizenship of Filipinos. It enumerates two kinds of citizens, natural-born citizens and naturalized citizens, natural-born citizens are those who are citizens from birth without having to perform any act to acquire or perfect Philippine citizenship. The Philippines follows a jus sanguinis system where citizenship is acquired through a blood relationship with Filipino citizens. Article 5 provides for the qualification to vote and for a system of the secrecy of the ballot and absentee voting, article 6 provides for a bicameral legislature called the Congress composed of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Article 7 provides for a form of government where the executive power is vested on the President. It provides for the qualification, terms of office, election and it also provides for a Vice President and for the presidential line of succession. Article 8 vests the judicial power upon the Supreme Court and other courts as may be established by law
11.
Corazon Aquino
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Aquino was the most prominent figure of the 1986 People Power Revolution, which toppled the 21-year authoritarian rule of President Ferdinand E. Marcos and restored democracy to the Philippines. She was named Time magazines Woman of the Year in 1986, prior to this, she had not held any other elective office. A self-proclaimed plain housewife, she was married to Senator Benigno Aquino and she emerged as leader of the opposition after her husband was assassinated on August 21,1983 upon returning to the Philippines from exile in the United States. In late 1985, Marcos called for elections, and Aquino ran for president with former senator Salvador Laurel as her Vice-President. Defections from the Armed Forces and the support of the local Catholic hierarchy led to the People Power Revolution that ousted Marcos, as President, Aquino oversaw the promulgation of the 1987 Constitution, which limited the powers of the Presidency and re-established the bicameral Congress. Her administration gave strong emphasis and concern for civil liberties and human rights and her economic policies centred on restoring economic health and confidence and focused on creating a market-oriented and socially responsible economy. Aquino faced several coup attempts against her government and various natural calamities until the end of her term in 1992 and she was succeeded as President by Fidel V. Ramos, and returned to civilian life while remaining public about her opinions on political issues. In 2008, Aquino was diagnosed with cancer from which she died on August 1,2009. She was survived by her son, Benigno Aquino III, who was President of the Philippines from June 30,2010 to June 30,2016. Throughout her life, Aquino was known to be a devout Roman Catholic, Maria Corazon Sumulong Cojuangco was born on January 25,1933 in Tarlac and was the sixth of eight children of José Cojuangco, a former congressman, and Demetria Cojuangco, a pharmacist. Her siblings were Pedro, Josephine, Teresita, Jose Jr. both Aquinos parents came from prominent clans. Her father was a prominent Tarlac businessman and politician, and her grandfather, as a young girl, Aquino spent her elementary school days at St. Scholasticas College in Manila, where she graduated on top of her class as valedictorian. She transferred to Assumption Convent to pursue high school studies, afterwards, she and her family went to the United States and attended the Assumption-run Ravenhill Academy in Philadelphia. In 1949, she graduated from Notre Dame Convent School in New York and she then pursued her college education in the U. S. graduating from the College of Mount Saint Vincent in 1953 in New York, with a major in French and minor in mathematics. During her stay in the United States, Aquino volunteered for the campaign of U. S, republican presidential candidate Thomas Dewey against then Democratic U. S. President Harry S. Truman during the 1948 U. S. After graduating from college, she returned to the Philippines and studied law at Far Eastern University in 1953 and she later met Benigno Ninoy S. Aquino, Jr. —son of the late Speaker Benigno S. Aquino, Sr. and a grandson of General Servillano Aquino. She discontinued her law education and married Ninoy in Our Lady of Sorrows church in Pasay on October 11,1954, the couple raised five children, Maria Elena, Aurora Corazon, Benigno Simeon III, Victoria Elisa and Kristina Bernadette. Aquino had initially had difficulty adjusting to life when she and her husband moved to Concepcion
12.
New Year's Day
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New Years Day, also called simply New Years or New Year, is observed on January 1, the first day of the year on the modern Gregorian calendar as well as the Julian calendar. In pre-Christian Rome under the Julian calendar, the day was dedicated to Janus, god of gateways and beginnings, other global New Years Day traditions include making New Years resolutions and calling ones friends and family. Mesopotamia instituted the concept of celebrating the new year in 2000 BC, celebrated new year around the time of the vernal equinox, the early Roman calendar designated March 1 as the new year. The calendar had just ten months, beginning with March and that the new year once began with the month of March is still reflected in some of the names of the months. September through December, our ninth through twelfth months, were positioned as the seventh through tenth months. Roman legend usually credited their second king Numa with the establishment of the months of January and February and these were first placed at the end of the year, but at some point came to be considered the first two months instead. The January Kalends came to be celebrated as the new year at some point after it became the day for the new consuls in 153 BC. Romans had long dated their years by these consulships, rather than sequentially, still, private and religious celebrations around the March new year continued for some time and there is no consensus on the question of the timing for January 1s new status. Once it became the new year, however, it became a time for family gatherings, in AD567, the Council of Tours formally abolished January 1 as the beginning of the year. These days were also astronomically and astrologically significant since, at the time of the Julian reform, March 25 had been understood as the spring equinox and December 25 as the winter solstice. Medieval calendars nonetheless often continued to display the months running from January to December, among the 7th century pagans of Flanders and the Netherlands, it was the custom to exchange gifts on the first day of the new year. This custom was deplored by Saint Eligius, who warned the Flemish and Dutch, make vetulas, little deer or iotticos or set tables at night or exchange New Year gifts or supply superfluous drinks. Because of the leap year error in the Julian calendar, the date of Easter had drifted backward since the First Council of Nicaea decided the computation of the date of Easter in 325, by the sixteenth century, the drift from the observed equinox had become unacceptable. In 1582, Pope Gregory XIII declared the Gregorian calendar widely used today, the Gregorian calendar reform also restored January 1 as New Years Day. Although most Catholic countries adopted the Gregorian calendar almost immediately, it was gradually adopted among Protestant countries. The British, for example, did not adopt the reformed calendar until 1752, until then, the British Empire – and its American colonies – still celebrated the new year on 25 March. Most nations of Western Europe officially adopted 1 January as New Years Day somewhat before they adopted the Gregorian Calendar, in Tudor England, New Years Day, along with Christmas Day and Twelfth Night, was celebrated as one of three main festivities among the twelve days of Christmastide. There, until the adoption of the Gregorian Calendar in 1752, Pope Gregory acknowledged 1 January as the beginning of the new year according to his reform of the Catholic Liturgical Calendar
13.
Maundy Thursday
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The English chrism derives from Koine Greek via Latin and Old French. In Greek, khrîsma was originally the verbal noun of χρίειν, by extension, along with khrîma, khrîstai, and later khrísma, it came to be used for the anointing oil or ointment itself. Khrísma came into Latin as chrisma, which appears in the works of Tertullian and this was adopted directly into Old English as crisma, which developed into Middle English crisme and various related spellings. In Old French, the original Latin was conflated with cramum, developing into cresme, the spelling chrism after the Latin original was generally adopted in the 16th century, after which cream came to be restricted to its present meaning. The Proto-Indo-European root from which the Greek term derived has been reconstructed as *ghrei- and this is cognate with Sanskrit ghṛtə and Hindi ghī, as well as Lithuanian grejù, griẽti, Middle Low German grēme, Old English grīma, English grime, and possibly Phrygian gegreimenan. Multiple early Christian documents discuss the ordinance or several ceremonies. explained in the Apostolical Constitutions of chrism, including documents by Theophilus, cyril states that the ointment is the seal of the covenants of baptism and God’s promises to the Christian who is anointed. He says, Having been counted worthy of this Holy Chrism, ye are called Christians, for before you were deemed worthy of this grace, ye had properly no right to this title, but were advancing on your way towards being Christians. Chrism is essential for the Catholic Sacrament of Confirmation/Chrismation, and is used in the sacraments of Baptism. Those to be confirmed or chrismated, after receiving the laying on of hands, are anointed on the head by the bishop or priest, in baptism, if the person baptized is not to be immediately confirmed or chrismated, the minister anoints them with chrism. Newly ordained priests are anointed with chrism on the palms of their hands and it is also used in the consecration of objects such as churches and altars. Before the reforms of the Second Vatican Council, chrism had to be used to consecrate patens and chalices as well. The Sign of the Cross would be made with the chrism on the parts the chalice and paten where the Eucharist would rest. The chalice and paten would need to be consecrated with the chrism again if they were re-gilded and this ritual could only be performed by a Bishop or a priest with the faculties to do so. According to the rubrics, a simple blessing suffices, however, it is still permitted that the bishop performs the consecration with chrism. Chrism is made of oil and is scented with a sweet perfume. The oil of catechumens and the oil of the sick are blessed at this Mass. These holy oils are stored in special vessels known as chrismaria. When the oils are distributed to a priest for him to use in his ministry they are kept in a vessel with three compartments, known as an oil stock
14.
Triduum
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A triduum is a religious observance lasting three days. The best-known example today is the liturgical Paschal Triduum, ecclesiastical approval has been granted for tridua in honour of the Trinity, the Eucharist and Saint Joseph. Novena This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles
15.
Holy Week
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Holy Week in Christianity is the week just before Easter. In the West, it is also the last week of Lent, and includes Palm Sunday, Holy Wednesday, Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, and Holy Saturday. It does not include Easter Sunday, although traditions observing the Easter Triduum may overlap or displace part of Holy Week or Easter itself within that additional liturgical period, Holy Week in the Christian year is the week immediately before Easter. In this text, abstinence from flesh is commanded for all the days, dionysius Alexandrinus in his canonical epistle, refers to the 91 fasting days implying that the observance of them had already become an established usage in his time. The Codex Theodosianus, however, is explicit in ordering that all actions at law should cease, of the particular days of the great week the earliest to emerge into special prominence was naturally Good Friday. Next came the Sabbatum Magnum with its vigil, which in the church was associated with an expectation that the second advent would occur on an Easter Sunday. Other writings that refer to related traditions of the early Church include, most notably, The Pilgrimage of Etheria, today, in the Western Christian Church, among Lutherans, Anglicans, Methodists, Presbyterians and Roman Catholics, the liturgies used for Holy Week are nearly identical. Holy Week begins with Palm Sunday, which may also be known as Passion Sunday in some denominations, traditionally, Palm Sunday commemorates the Triumphal entry into Jerusalem, one of the few events described in all four canonical gospels. As described in the accounts, Jesuss entry into Jerusalem was noted by the present who shouted praises. In the Roman Rite, before 1955 it was simply as Palm Sunday. From 1955 to 1971 it was called Second Sunday in Passiontide or Palm Sunday, among Lutherans and Anglicans, the day is known as the Sunday of the Passion, Palm Sunday. In many liturgical denominations, to commemorate the Messiahs entry into Jerusalem to accomplish his paschal mystery, immediately following this great time of celebration over the entrance of Jesus into Jerusalem, he begins his journey to the cross. The blessing is followed by a procession or solemn entrance into the church. The Mass or service of worship includes a reading of the Passion. The palms were then blessed with five prayers, and a procession went out of the church and on its return included a ceremony for the reopening of the doors, after this the normal Mass was celebrated. The days between Palm Sunday and Holy Thursday are known as Holy Monday, Holy Tuesday, and Holy Wednesday. Among them On Monday, some observe the anointing of Jesus at Bethany, other events which the Gospels tell of which may have occurred on this day include cursing the fig tree and the Cleansing of the Temple. On Tuesday, some observe Jesus predictions of his own death, as described in, on Wednesday, some observe the story of Judas arranging his betrayal of Jesus with the high priests
16.
Mass of the Lord's Supper
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The Mass of the Lords Supper is the Catholic Mass celebrated on the evening of Holy Thursday. It inaugurates the Easter Triduum, and commemorates the Last Supper of Jesus with his disciples, many Anglican churches celebrate the Mass of the Lords Supper. Depending on the jurisdiction, these rites are found in the Book of Common Prayer, the Mass begins as usual, with the exception that the tabernacle, wherever placed, should be empty. At the singing of the Gloria in Excelsis Deo, all the bells may be rung, afterwards. The Liturgy of the Word consists of the readings, Exodus 12, 1-8, 11-14. Sufficient hosts are consecrated for the faithful to receive Communion both at that Mass and on the day, Good Friday. The hosts intended for the Good Friday service are not placed in the tabernacle, as is usual, the procession is led by a cross-bearer accompanied by two servers with lit candles, other servers with lit candles follow and a thurifer immediately precedes the priest. On arrival at the altar of repose, the priest places the vessel with the Blessed Sacrament in the tabernacle there and he then incenses it and closes the tabernacle door. After a period of adoration, he and the servers depart in silence, the continuation of Eucharistic adoration is encouraged, but if continued after midnight should be done without outward solemnity. The Blessed Sacrament remains in the place until the Holy Communion part of the Good Friday liturgical service. This was done to the accompaniment of Psalm 21 preceded and followed by the antiphon Diviserunt sibi vestimenta mea, since 1955, the altar is stripped bare without ceremony later. In Rome at that time a Mass was celebrated at which penitents were reconciled with a view to participation in the Easter celebrations, the Jerusalem custom spread and in seventh-century Rome the Pope celebrated a Mass of the Lords Supper on this day as well as the Mass of Reconciliation. By the eighth century, the Masses became three, one for reconciliation, one for blessing the holy oils and a third for the Last Supper, the last two were in reduced form, being without Liturgy of the Word. Pope Pius Vs reforms in 1570 forbade the celebration of Mass after noon, by the twelfth century it was found in the Roman liturgy as a separate service. Pope Pius V included this rite in his Roman Missal, placing it after the text of the Mass of the Lords Supper. He did not make it part of the Mass, but indicated that it was to place at a suitable hour after the stripping of the altars. The 1955 revision by Pope Pius XII inserted the rite into the Mass
17.
Last Supper
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The Last Supper is the final meal that, in the Gospel accounts, Jesus shared with his Apostles in Jerusalem before his crucifixion. The Last Supper is commemorated by Christians especially on Maundy Thursday, the Last Supper provides the scriptural basis for the Eucharist, also known as Holy Communion or The Lords Supper. The First Epistle to the Corinthians contains the earliest known mention of the Last Supper, during the meal Jesus predicts his betrayal by one of the Apostles present, and foretells that before the next morning, Peter will deny knowing him. Scholars have looked to the Last Supper as the source of early Christian Eucharist traditions, others see the account of the Last Supper as derived from 1st-century eucharistic practice as described by Paul in the mid-50s. The term Last Supper does not appear in the New Testament, most Protestants use the term Lords Supper, stating that the term last suggests this was one of several meals and not the meal. The term Lords Supper refers both to the event and the act of Holy Communion and Eucharistic celebration within their liturgy. Evangelical Protestants also use the term Lords Supper, but most do not use the terms Eucharist or the word Holy with the name Communion, the Eastern Orthodox use the term Mystical Supper which refers both to the biblical event and the act of Eucharistic celebration within liturgy. The last meal that Jesus shared with his disciples is described in all four canonical Gospels and this meal later became known as the Last Supper. The Last Supper was likely a retelling of the events of the last meal of Jesus among the early Christian community, after the meal, Jesus is betrayed, arrested, tried, and then crucified. In Matthew 26, 24-25, Mark 14, 18-21, Luke 22, 21-23 and John 13, 21-30 during the meal and it would be better for him if he had not been born. In Matthew 26, 23-25 and John 13, 26-27, Judas is specifically identified as the traitor. In the Gospel of John, when asked about the traitor, Jesus states, “It is the one to whom I will give this piece of bread when I have dipped it in the dish. ”Then, dipping the piece of bread, he gave it to Judas, the son of Simon Iscariot. As soon as Judas took the bread, Satan entered into him, in the course of the Last Supper, Jesus divides up some bread, says a prayer, and hands the pieces of bread to his disciples, saying this is my body. He then takes a cup of wine, offers another prayer, and hands it around, saying this is my blood of the everlasting covenant, finally, according to Paul and Luke, he tells the disciples do this in remembrance of me. This event has been regarded by Christians of most denominations as the institution of the Eucharist, there is recorded celebration of the Eucharist by the early Christian community in Jerusalem. The institution of the Eucharist is recorded in the three Synoptic Gospels and in Pauls First Epistle to the Corinthians, the words of institution differ slightly in each account. In addition, Luke 22, 19b-20 is a text which does not appear in some of the early manuscripts of Luke. Some scholars, therefore, believe that it is an interpolation, a comparison of the accounts given in the Gospels and 1 Corinthians is shown in the table below, with text from the ASV
18.
Good Friday
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Good Friday is a Christian holiday commemorating the crucifixion of Jesus Christ and his death at Calvary. It is observed during Holy Week as part of the Paschal Triduum on the Friday preceding Easter Sunday and it is also known as Holy Friday, Great Friday, Black Friday, or Easter Friday, though the last term properly refers to the Friday in Easter week. The date of the holiday on the Gregorian calendar varies from one year to the next and it is a widely instituted legal holiday in many national governments around the world, including in most Western countries as well as in 12 U. S. states. Some countries, such as Germany, have laws prohibiting certain acts, such as dancing and horse racing, the etymology of the term good in the context of Good Friday is contested. Some sources claim good to mean pious or holy, while others contend that it is a corruption of God Friday. In German-speaking countries, Good Friday is generally referred to as Karfreitag, the Kar prefix is an ancestor of the English word care in the sense of cares and woes, it meant mourning. The day is known as Stiller Freitag and Hoher Freitag. According to the accounts in the Gospels, the Temple Guards, guided by Jesus disciple Judas Iscariot, Judas received money for betraying Jesus and told the guards that whomever he kisses is the one they are to arrest. Following his arrest, Jesus was taken to the house of Annas, there he was interrogated with little result and sent bound to Caiaphas the high priest where the Sanhedrin had assembled. Conflicting testimony against Jesus was brought forth by many witnesses, to which Jesus answered nothing. Finally the high priest adjured Jesus to respond under solemn oath, saying I adjure you, by the Living God, to us, are you the Anointed One. Jesus testified ambiguously, You have said it, and in time you see the Son of Man seated at the right hand of the Almighty. The high priest condemned Jesus for blasphemy, and the Sanhedrin concurred with a sentence of death, Peter, waiting in the courtyard, also denied Jesus three times to bystanders while the interrogations were proceeding just as Jesus had predicted. In the morning, the assembly brought Jesus to the Roman governor Pontius Pilate under charges of subverting the nation, opposing taxes to Caesar. Pilate questioned Jesus and told the assembly there was no basis for sentencing. Upon learning that Jesus was from Galilee, Pilate referred the case to the ruler of Galilee, King Herod, Herod questioned Jesus but received no answer, Herod sent Jesus back to Pilate. Pilate told the assembly that neither he nor Herod found guilt in Jesus, under the guidance of the chief priests, the crowd asked for Barabbas, who had been imprisoned for committing murder during an insurrection. Pilate asked what they would have him do with Jesus, and they demanded, pilates wife had seen Jesus in a dream earlier that day, and she forewarned Pilate to have nothing to do with this righteous man
19.
Passion of Jesus
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Those parts of the four Gospels that describe these events, as well as the non-canonical Gospel of Peter, are known as the Passion narratives. In the liturgical calendar of the Roman Catholic Church, the Passion is commemorated in Holy Week, beginning on Friday of Sorrows, the Palm Sunday and culminating on his death on Good Friday. The word passion has taken on a more general application and now may also apply to accounts of the suffering and death of Christian martyrs. The accounts of the Passion are found in the four gospels, Matthew, Mark, Luke. Three of these, Matthew, Mark, and Luke, known as the Synoptic Gospels, the Gospel of John accounts varies slightly. The events include, The conspiracy against Jesus by the Jewish Sanhedrin priests, triumphal entry into Jerusalem, his anger and outburst at the Cleansing of the Temple A meal a few days before Passover. He says that for this she always be remembered. In Jerusalem, the Last Supper shared by Jesus and his disciples, Jesus gives final instructions, predicts his betrayal, and tells them all to remember him. On the path to Gethsemane after the meal, Jesus tells them they will all fall away that night, after Peter protests he will not, Jesus says Peter will deny him three times before the cock crows. Gethsemane, later that night, Jesus prays, meanwhile, the disciples rest, during the arrest in Gethsemane, someone takes a sword and cuts off the ear of the high priests servant, Malchus. The high priests palace, later that night, According to Matthews Gospel, the court then spat in his face and struck him with their fists. They then send him to Pontius Pilate, According to the synoptic gospels, the high priest who examines Jesus is Caiaphas, in John, Jesus is also interrogated by Annas, Caiaiphas father-in-law. The courtyard outside the high palace, the same time. Peter has followed Jesus and joined the mob awaiting Jesus’ fate, they suspect he is a sympathizer, suddenly, the cock crows and Peter remembers what Jesus had said. Pilate, the Roman governor, examines Jesus, decides he is innocent, the Jewish leaders and the crowd demand Jesus’ death, Pilate gives them the choice of saving Barabbas, in response to the screaming mob Pilate sends Jesus out to be crucified. According to the Gospel of Matthew, Judas, the betrayer, is filled with remorse, when the high priests say that that is his affair, Judas throws the money into the temple, goes off, and hangs himself. Golgotha, a hill outside Jerusalem, later morning through mid afternoon, the Gospel of Luke states that Pilate sends Jesus to be judged by Herod Antipas because as a Galilean he is under his jurisdiction. Herod is excited at first to see Jesus and hopes Jesus will perform a miracle for him, he asks Jesus several questions, Herod then mocks him and sends him back to Pilate after giving him an elegant robe to wear
20.
Crucifixion of Jesus
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The crucifixion of Jesus occurred in 1st century Judea, most probably between the years 30 and 33 AD. According to the gospels, Jesus, the Christ, was arrested, tried, and sentenced by Pontius Pilate to be scourged. Jesus was stripped of his clothing and offered wine mixed with gall to drink and he was then hung between two convicted thieves and according to Marks Gospel, died some six hours later. During this time, the soldiers affixed a sign to the top of the cross stating Jesus of Nazareth and they then divided his garments among them, but cast lots for his seamless robe. After Jesus death they pierced his side with a spear to be certain that he had died, the Bible describes seven statements that Jesus made while he was on the cross, as well as several supernatural events that occurred. Collectively referred to as the Passion, Jesus suffering and redemptive death by crucifixion are the aspects of Christian theology concerning the doctrines of salvation. The baptism of Jesus and his crucifixion are considered to be two historically certain facts about Jesus, bart Ehrman states that the crucifixion of Jesus on the orders of Pontius Pilate is the most certain element about him. John Dominic Crossan states that the crucifixion of Jesus is as certain as any historical fact can be, eddy and Boyd state that it is now firmly established that there is non-Christian confirmation of the crucifixion of Jesus. Craig Blomberg states that most scholars in the third quest for the historical Jesus consider the crucifixion indisputable. Christopher M. Tuckett states that, although the reasons for the death of Jesus are hard to determine, one of the indisputable facts about him is that he was crucified. While scholars agree on the historicity of the crucifixion, they differ on the reason, geza Vermes also views the crucifixion as a historical event but provides his own explanation and background for it. John P. Meier views the crucifixion of Jesus as historical fact and states that, based on the criterion of embarrassment, Christians would not have invented the painful death of their leader. Meier states that a number of criteria, e. g. the criterion of multiple attestation. The crucified man was identified as Yehohanan ben Hagkol and probably died about 70 AD, the analyses at the Hadassah Medical School estimated that he died in his late 20s. The earliest detailed accounts of the death of Jesus are contained in the four canonical gospels, there are other, more implicit references in the New Testament epistles. In the synoptic gospels, Jesus predicts his death in three separate episodes, all four Gospels conclude with an extended narrative of Jesus arrest, trial, crucifixion, burial, and accounts of resurrection. In each Gospel these five events in the life of Jesus are treated with more detail than any other portion of that Gospels narrative. Scholars note that the reader receives an almost hour-by-hour account of what is happening, after being flogged, Jesus was mocked by Roman soldiers as the King of the Jews, clothed in a purple robe, crowned with thorns, beaten and spat on
21.
Jesus
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In Christology, the Person of Christ refers to the study of the human and divine natures of Jesus Christ as they co-exist within one person. There is no discussion in the New Testament regarding the dual nature of the Person of Christ as both divine and human. Hence, since the days of Christianity theologians have debated various approaches to the understanding of these natures. In the period following the Apostolic Age, specific beliefs such as Arianism and Docetism were criticized. On the other end of the spectrum, Docetism argued that Jesus physical body was an illusion, docetic teachings were attacked by St. Ignatius of Antioch and were eventually abandoned by proto-orthodox Christians. However, after the First Council of Nicaea in 325 the Logos, historically in the Alexandrian school of christology, Jesus Christ is the eternal Logos paradoxically humanized in history, a divine Person who became enfleshed, uniting himself to the human nature. The views of these schools can be summarized as follows, Alexandria, Antioch, Logos assumes a specific human being The First Council of Ephesus in 431 debated a number of views regarding the Person of Christ. At the same gathering the council debated the doctrines of monophysitism or miaphysitism. The council rejected Nestorianism and adopted the term hypostatic union, referring to divine, the language used in the 431 declaration was further refined at the 451 Council of Chalcedon. However, the Chalcedon creed was not accepted by all Christians, because Saint Augustine died in 430 he did not participate in the Council of Ephesus in 431 or Chalcedon in 451, but his ideas had some impact on both councils. On the other hand, the major theological figure of the Middle Ages. The Third Council of Constantinople in 680 held that both divine and human wills exist in Jesus, with the divine will having precedence, leading and guiding the human will. John Calvin maintained that there was no element in the Person of Christ which could be separated from the person of The Word. Calvin also emphasized the importance of the Work of Christ in any attempt at understanding the Person of Christ, the study of the Person of Christ continued into the 20th century, with modern theologians such as Karl Rahner and Hans von Balthasar. Balthasar argued that the union of the human and divine natures of Christ was achieved not by the absorption of human attributes, thus in his view the divine nature of Christ was not affected by the human attributes and remained forever divine
22.
Passion Play
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The Passion Play or Easter pageant is a dramatic presentation depicting the Passion of Jesus Christ, his trial, suffering and death. It is a part of Lent in several Christian denominations. The development of the Passion Play was about the same as that of the Easter Drama and it originated in the ritual of the Church, which prescribes, among other things, that the Gospel on Good Friday should be sung in parts divided among various persons. Thus, the Benedictbeurn Passion Play is still composed of Latin ritual sentences in prose and of church hymns. Yet even this oldest of the Passion Plays already shows a tendency to break away from the ritual and to adopt a more dramatic form. From these humble beginnings the Passion Play developed very rapidly, since in the century it was at a stage of development which could not have been reached except by repeated practice. From this second period we have the Vienna Passion, the St. Gall Passion, the oldest Frankfort Passion, all four Plays, as they are commonly called, are written in rhyme, principally in German. The oldest Frankfort Passion play, that of Canon Baldemar von Peterwell, of this play only the Ordo sive Registrum has come down to us, a long roll of parchment for the use of the director, containing stage directions and the first words of the dialogues. The plays based on this list of directions lead us to the period in which the Passion Play reached its highest development, during this period the later Frankfort Passion Play, the Alsfelder, and the Friedberger originated. Nearly all these Passion Plays have some relation to those coming from the Tyrol, some contributing to, others taking from and these, again, are founded upon the Tyrolese Passion play which originated during the transition period of the fourteenth to the fifteenth century. Historian J. E. Wackernell, with the aid of the plays that have reached us, has reconstructed this period, in Tyrol the Passion Plays received elaborate cultivation, at Bolzano they were presented with great splendour and, in 1514, lasted no less than seven days. Here, too, the innovation of placing the female roles in the hands of women was introduced, the citizens and civil authorities considered it a point of honour to render the production as rich and diversified as possible. Ordinarily the preparations for the play were in the hands of a spiritual brotherhood, people of the most varied classes took part in the production, and frequently the number of actors was as high as two hundred and even greater. If was undoubtedly no small task to drill the performers, particularly since the stage arrangements were very primitive. The stage was a structure, almost as broad as it was long, elevated but slightly above the ground. A house formed the background, an attached to the house represented Heaven. Under the balcony three crosses were erected, sometimes the stage was divided into three sections by doors. Along the sides of the stage, taken lengthwise, stood the houses required for the production, they were indicated by fenced-in spaces, or by four posts upon which a roof rested
23.
Pasyon
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The Pasyón is a Philippine epic narrative of the life of Jesus Christ, focused on his Passion, Death, and Resurrection. In stanzas of five lines of eight each, the standard elements of epic poetry are interwoven with a colourful. The uninterrupted recitation or Pabasa of the epic is a popular Filipino Catholic devotion during the Lenten season. The text is an adaptation of the pre-Hispanic Filipino art of chanting epic poems as a part of oral tradition, after Christianity was introduced by the Spanish, the Passion cycle was adapted into this native narrative form. The indigenous form of the Pasyón was first written down by Gaspar Aquino de Belén in Ang Mahal na Pasión ni Jesu Christong Panginoon Natin na Tola, written in 1703 and approved in 1704. An 1852 erudition by Aniceto de Merced, El libro de la vida did not prove popular with the masses, the most popular Tagalog version of the Pasyón is the Casaysayan nang Pasiong Mahal ni Jesucristong Panginoon Natin na Sucat Ipag-alab nang Puso nang Sinomang Babasa. This version is known as the Pasyóng Genesís as the Genesis creation narrative precedes the sections concerning Mary. Another name for the text is Pasyóng Pilapil, after the foreword by a certain Dr Mariano Pilapil found in the 1814 printing, a widely-circulated version of the Pasyóng Genesís is the 1949 edition whose title begins with Awit at Salaysay. Instead of Casaysayan, and was published by Ignacio Luna and Sons, the Pasyón is normally heard during Holy Week in the Philippines, where its recitation is known as the Pabása. The rite can span several days, extending no later than Black Saturday, readers chant the Pasyón from beginning to end without pause, this non-stop recitation is facilitated by devotees chanting in shifts. The chanters usually perform the rite as a panatà, or votive offering in request or thanksgiving, devotees are frequently older women and some men, but in recent years the youth have shown an increased interest in the custom. The Pasyón is almost always chanted facing an altar with religious icons, particularly related to the suffering. Temporary altars are often erected within the home or inside an outdoor booth decorated with palm leaves, the Pabasa may also be performed at a local visita/kapilya or some other communal area. As per Filipino etiquette, the host of the Pabasa is responsible for feeding the shifts of chanters as well as other guests, there are various traditional settings or tono for the Pasyón that have been passed down through the centuries. Recent innovations include setting the epic to popular ballads, pop music, instrumental accompaniment to the Pabasa, while common, is by no means uniform in practise, the guitar and keyboard are common instruments. Full text of the Pasyón at Commons Listen to the Pasyón online
24.
Bataan Day
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Araw ng Kagitingan, also known as Bataan Day or Bataan and Corregidor Day, is a national observance in the Philippines which commemorates the fall of Bataan during World War II. It falls on April 9, although in 2009 it would have coincided with Maundy Thursday, official instruments designating of this holiday have specified several different names. In 1961, Congress passed Republic Act 3022 declaring April 9 of every year as Bataan Day, in 1987, Executive Order 203 revised all national holidays in the Philippines, renaming the April 9 holiday as Araw ng Kagitingan. Less than a later, another executive order revised the holidays anew. In 2007, Congress passed Republic Act No, the majority of these prisoners of war had their belongings confiscated before being forced to endure the infamous 140-kilometre Bataan Death March to Camp ODonnell in Capas, Tarlac. The few who were lucky enough to travel by truck to San Fernando, prisoners were beaten randomly and often denied promised food and water. Those who fell behind were usually executed or left to die, with the sides of the roads becoming littered with dead bodies and those moaning for help. Only some 54,000 of the 76,000 prisoners reached their destination, approximately 5, 000-10,000 Filipino and 600-650 American prisoners-of-war died before they could reach Camp ODonnell. In Maywood, Illinois the second Sunday in September is remembered as Bataan Day, Maywood provided Illinois National Guard soldiers of the 192nd Tank Battalion who served on Bataan. 2012 marked the 70th anniversary of the Fall of Bataan, which was commemorated at Mount Samat Shrine in Pilár, incumbent President Benigno S. Aquino III and former President Fidel V. Ramos attended this 2012 rites
25.
Battle of Bataan
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The Battle of Bataan was a battle that represented the most intense phase of Imperial Japans invasion of the Philippines during World War II. In January 1942, forces of the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy invaded Luzon along with several islands in the Philippine Archipelago after the bombing of the American naval base at Pearl Harbor, by this time, the Japanese controlled nearly all of Southeast Asia. The Bataan peninsula and the island of Corregidor were the only remaining Allied strongholds in the region, despite a lack of supplies, Filipino and American forces managed to fight the Japanese for three months, engaging them initially in a fighting retreat southward. As the combined Filipino and American forces made a last stand, soon afterwards, Filipino and American prisoners of war were forced into the Bataan Death March. The capture of the Philippine Islands was crucial to Japans effort to control the Southwest Pacific, seize the resource-rich Dutch East Indies, many American planes were caught on the ground and summarily destroyed. In one day, the Japanese had gained air superiority over the Philippine Islands and this forced the U. S. Asiatic Fleet to withdraw its surface ships from its naval base in Cavite and retreat southwards, leaving only the submarine force to resist the Japanese. Army air force B-17s, often with a minimal or no fighter escort, attacked Japanese ships offloading at Gonzaga, submarines of the Asiatic Fleet were also assigned to the effort. In one last coordinated action by the Far East Air Force and these air attacks and naval actions, however, did not significantly delay the Japanese assault. Each plan covered a different situation, with War Plan Orange covering an emergency involving only the United States and this made the plan politically unrealistic and completely outdated by 1941. Tactically, however, the plan was an excellent one and its provisions for defense were applicable under any local situation, under WPO-3, the mission of the Philippine garrison was to hold the entrance to Manila Bay and deny its use to Japanese naval forces. The primary task of U. S. Army forces were to prevent enemy landings and it was to be defended to the last extremity. In addition to the regular U. S. Army troops, the defenders could rely on the Philippine Army, WPO-3 made no provision for what should be done if the defenses on Bataan crumbled, because the planners presumed that within six months, the U. S. The defenders, thus reinforced, could mount a counteroffensive and drive the enemy into the sea, however, no one in a position of authority in April 1941 believed that anything like this would happen. Informed naval opinion estimated that it would require at least two years for the Pacific Fleet to fight its way across the Pacific, Army planners in early 1941 believed supplies would be exhausted within six months, if not sooner, and the garrison would fall to the enemy. General MacArthur assumed command of the Allied army in July 1941 and rejected WPO-3 as defeatist and he recommended—among other things—a coastal defense strategy that would include the entire archipelago. His recommendations were followed in the plan that was eventually approved, when the Japanese made their first landings on 10 and 12 December at the northern and southern extremities of Luzon, General MacArthur made no disposition to contest them. He correctly surmised that these landings were designed to advance air bases. He did not regard the situation as serious enough to warrant a change in his plan to oppose the main attack, the MacArthur Plan, then, remained in effect
26.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
27.
International Workers' Day
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Being a traditional European spring celebration, May Day is a national public holiday in several European countries. The date is currently celebrated specifically as Labour Day or International Workers Day in the majority of countries, some countries celebrate a Labour Day on other dates significant to them, such as the United States, which celebrates Labor Day on the first Monday of September. Beginning in the late 19th century, as the union and labour movements grew. In the United States and Canada, a September holiday, called Labor or Labour Day, was first proposed in the 1880s. In 1882, Matthew Maguire, a machinist, first proposed a Labor Day holiday on the first Monday of September while serving as secretary of the Central Labor Union of New York. Others argue that it was first proposed by Peter J. McGuire of the American Federation of Labor in May 1882, after witnessing the annual festival held in Toronto. In 1887, Oregon was the first state of the United States to make it a public holiday. By the time it became a federal holiday in 1894. Thus by 1887 in North America, Labor Day was an established, official holiday but in September,1 May was chosen to be International Workers Day to commemorate the 4 May 1886 Haymarket affair in Chicago. The police were trying to disperse an assembly during a general strike for the eight-hour workday. The police responded by firing on the workers, killing four demonstrators, the following day on 5 May in Milwaukee Wisconsin, the state militia fired on a crowd of strikers killing seven, including a schoolboy and a man feeding chickens in his yard. May Day was formally recognised as an event at the Internationals second congress in 1891. Subsequently, the May Day riots of 1894 occurred, the congress made it mandatory upon the proletarian organisations of all countries to stop work on 1 May, wherever it is possible without injury to the workers. May Day has long been a point for demonstrations by various socialist, communist and anarchist groups. May Day is one of the most important holidays in countries such as the Peoples Republic of China, North Korea, Cuba. May Day celebrations in these countries typically feature elaborate workforce parades, in 1955, the Catholic Church dedicated 1 May to Saint Joseph the Worker. Saint Joseph is the saint of workers and craftsmen, among others. It became an symbol of that period
28.
Independence Day (Philippines)
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Since 1962, it has been the countrys National Day. The day of celebration of independence varied throughout the nations history, Bonifacio wrote Viva la independencia Filipina. Or Long Live Philippine independence on walls of the cave to express the goal of their secret society, Bonifacio also led the Cry of Pugad Lawin, which signals the beginning of Philippine Revolution. Members of the Katipunan, led by Andres Bonifacio, tore their community tax certificates in protest of Spanish conquest, in 1896 the Philippine Revolution began and in December 1897 the Pact of Biak-na-Bato, an agreement between the Spanish colonial government and the revolutionaries, established a truce. Under its terms, Emilio Aguinaldo and other leaders went into exile in Hong Kong. At the outbreak of the Spanish–American War, Commodore George Dewey sailed from Hong Kong to Manila Bay leading the Asiatic Squadron of the U. S. Navy. On May 1,1898, the Dewey defeated the Spanish in the Battle of Manila Bay, later that month, the U. S. Navy transported Aguinaldo back to the Philippines. Aguinaldo arrived on May 19,1898 in Cavite, consolidating the revolutionary forces, on June 5,1898, Aguinaldo issued a decree setting aside June 12,1898 as the day of the proclamation of independence. Led by Aguinaldo, this event took place at the Aguinaldo house located in what was known as Cavite El Viejo. The Acta de la Proclamacion de la Independencia del Pueblo Filipino was solemnly read by its author, Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista, Aguinaldo’s war counselor and special delegate. The 21-page declaration was signed by 97 Filipinos, appointed by Aguinaldo, the flag was officially unfurled for the first time at 4,20 p. It was again ratified on September 29,1898 by the Malolos Congress The Philippines failed to win recognition of its independence. The Spanish government later ceded the Philippine archipelago to the United States in the 1898 Treaty of Paris, the Philippines Revolutionary Government did not recognize the treaty and the two sides subsequently fought the Philippine–American War. The United States of America granted independence to the Philippines on July 4,1946 through the Treaty of Manila. July 4 was chosen as the date by the United States because it corresponds to the United States Independence Day, on May 12,1962, President Diosdado Macapagal issued Presidential Proclamation No. 28, which declared June 12 a special public holiday throughout the Philippines, in commemoration of our peoples declaration of their inherent and inalienable right to freedom and independence. Prior to 1964, June 12 had been observed as Flag Day in the country, in 1965 President Diosdado Macapagal issued Proclamation No. 374, which moved National Flag Day to May 28, in 1994, President Fidel V. Ramos issued Executive Order No
29.
Philippine Declaration of Independence
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The Philippine Declaration of Independence was proclaimed on June 12,1898 in Cavite II el Viejo, Philippines. In 1896, the Philippine Revolution began, in April 1898, at the outbreak of the Spanish–American War, Commodore George Dewey aboard the U. S. S. Olympia sailed from Hong Kong to Manila Bay leading the Asiatic Squadron of the U. S. Navy, on May 1,1898, the United States defeated the Spanish in the Battle of Manila Bay. Emilio Aguinaldo decided to return to the Philippines to help American forces defeat the Spaniards, the U. S. Navy agreed to transport him back aboard the USS McCulloch, and on May 19, he arrived in Cavite. Independence was proclaimed on June 12,1898 between four and five in the afternoon in Cavite at the home of General Emilio Aguinaldo some 30 kilometers South of Manila. The Act of the Declaration of Independence was prepared, written, the Declaration was signed by 98 people, among them an American army officer who witnessed the proclamation. The final paragraph states that there was a stranger who attended the proceedings, Mr. L. M. Johnson, described as a citizen of the U. S. A, the declaration was never recognized by either the United States or Spain. Later in 1898, Spain ceded the Philippines to the United States in the 1898 Treaty of Paris that ended the Spanish–American War. S, forces, and issued a statement acknowledging and accepting the sovereignty of the United States over the Philippines. This was then followed on July 2,1902, by U. S, pockets of resistance continued for several years. Following the end of World War II, the United States granted independence to the Philippines on 4 July 1946 via the Treaty of Manila,4166 designating June 12 as the countrys Independence Day. June 12 had previously been observed as Flag Day and many government buildings are urged to display the Philippine Flag in their offices, the Declaration is currently housed in the National Library of the Philippines. It is not on display but can be viewed with permission like any other document held by the National Library. During the Philippine–American War, the American government captured and sent to the United States about 400,000 historical documents. In 1958, the documents were given to the Philippine government along with two sets of microfilm of the collection, with the U. S. Federal Government keeping one set. Sometime in the 1980s or 1990s the Declaration was stolen from the National Library, the Act of Proclamation of the Independence of the Filipino People is part of a long line of declarations of independence including the United States Declaration of Independence. History of the Philippines Philippine Independence Day Parade Republic Day History of the Filipino People
30.
Public holidays in the Philippines
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This is a list of public holidays in the Philippines. The final two weeks of 2008 had the largest number of based on Presidential Proclamation 1463 with offices closed from December 25,2008 until January 4,2009. To create three-day weekends, President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo moved those holidays that fell on a Wednesday or Thursday to that weeks Friday, in 2004 she issued a proclamation making Christmas Eve as special non-working holiday and December 27, the Monday after Christmas as special non-working holiday. On July 25,2007, President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo signed into law An Act Rationalizing the Celebration of National Holidays, designating 11 Regular Holidays, specific dates or days for celebration are designated. The law provides that holidays falling on a Wednesday will be observed on the Monday of the week and that holidays falling on a Sunday, though it was allowed by RA9492, Labor Day was never moved to another date by President Arroyo at the request of labor groups. Others deplored it as presidential tinkering with history via executive fiat, the Labor Code of the Philippines specifies two types of holidays, the regular holiday and the special non-working day. There is a difference in the pay that employers are required to pay between the two type of holidays, there is also a difference in what is closed and in how the days are declared. On top of these pay rules, an employee shall be given an additional 30% if the holiday falls on his or her rest day, and an additional 30% if he or she works overtime. Independence Day was formerly celebrated on July 4–-the date of the Philippine independence from the United States in 1946, on May 12,1962, President Diosdado Macapagal issued Presidential Proclamation No. 28, which declared Tuesday, June 12 a special public holiday throughout the Philippines, in commemoration of our peoples declaration of their inherent and inalienable right to freedom and independence. In 1955, President Ramón Magsaysay issued Presidential Proclamation No,1955, which established the observance of Philippine–American Day every November 15, which was the anniversary of the 1935 inauguration of the Commonwealth of the Philippines. After the Third Republic and the abolition of the 1935 Constitution under Martial Law and this is why, when President Marcos issued Presidential Proclamation No.2346 s. 1984, reference was made to Philippine–American Friendship Day, which was relegated to a holiday without mention of Republic Day. During the administration of President Corazon C, aquino, the practice of celebrating July 4 as both Philippine–American Friendship Day and Republic Day as a non-working holiday was formally abolished. Section 26 of the Administrative Code of 1987 specified a list of regular holidays, Philippine cities, municipalities, or barangays, often observe one or more holidays. Being a predominantly Catholic country, these are usually the feasts of the one or more patron saints. Secular observances usually mark a governments founding day or the birth or death of a prominent native and these are often celebrated with parades, processions, entertainment, and feasting, as well as whatever local customs are traditional. Local holidays for the most part are only to the immediate area concerned
31.
Eid al-Fitr
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Eid al-Fitr is an important religious holiday celebrated by Muslims worldwide that marks the end of Ramadan, the Islamic holy month of fasting. The religious Eid is the first and only day in the month of Shawwal during which Muslims are not permitted to fast, the holiday celebrates the conclusion of the 29 or 30 days of dawn-to-sunset fasting during the entire month of Ramadan. The day of Eid, therefore, falls on the first day of the month of Shawwal, the date for the start of any lunar Hijri month varies based on the observation of new moon by local religious authorities, so the exact day of celebration varies by locality. Eid al-Fitr has a particular Salat consisting of two Rakats and generally offered in a field or large hall. Other Sunni schools usually have twelve Takbirs, seven in the first and this Eid al-Fitr salat is, depending on which juristic opinion is followed, Fard فرض, Mustahabb مستحب or mandoob مندوب. Muslims believe that they are commanded by Allah, as mentioned in the Quran, to continue their fast until the last day of Ramadan and pay the Zakat and fitra before offering the Eid prayers. If the moon is not observed immediately after the 29th day of the lunar month. Before the advent of Islam in Arabia, there is mention of festivals as well as some others among the Arabs, the Israelites had festivals as well, some directly prescribed in the Old Testament and others commemorating important days of their history. Eid al-Fitr was originated by the Islamic prophet Muhammad and it is observed on the first of the month of Shawwal at the end of the month of Ramadan, during which Muslims undergo a period of fasting. According to certain traditions, these festivals were initiated in Medina after the migration of Muhammad from Mecca, anas reports, When the Prophet arrived in Madinah, he found people celebrating two specific days in which they used to entertain themselves with recreation and merriment. He asked them about the nature of these festivities at which they replied that these days were occasions of fun, Eid al-Fitr is celebrated for one, two or three days. Common greetings during this holiday are the Arabic greeting ‘Eid Mubārak or ‘Eid Sa‘īd. In addition, many countries have their own greetings in the local language – in Turkey, for example, Muslims are also encouraged on this day to forgive and forget any differences with others or animosities that may have occurred during the year. It is forbidden to fast on the Day of Eid and it is customary to acknowledge this with a small sweet breakfast, preferably of date, before attending a special Eid prayer. As an obligatory act of charity, money is paid to the poor and you can speak once youve left the Masjid, or mosque or any other place you were praying. Say Eid Mubarak to other Muslims Muslims recite the following incantation in a low voice while going to the Eid prayer, Allāhu Akbar, Allāhu Akbar, lā ilāha illà l-Lāh wal-Lāhu akbar, Allahu akbar walil-Lāhi l-ḥamd. Recitation ceases when they get to the place of Eid or once the Imam commences activities, Muslims are recommended to use separate routes to and from the prayer grounds. No call to prayer is given for this Eid prayer, the Eid prayer is followed by the sermon and then a supplication asking for Allahs forgiveness, mercy, peace and blessings for all living beings across the world
32.
Ramadan
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Ramadan is the ninth month of the Islamic calendar, and is observed by Muslims worldwide as a month of fasting to commemorate the first revelation of the Quran to Muhammad according to Islamic belief. This annual observance is regarded as one of the Five Pillars of Islam, the month lasts 29–30 days based on the visual sightings of the crescent moon, according to numerous biographical accounts compiled in the hadiths. The word Ramadan comes from the Arabic root ramiḍa or ar-ramaḍ, fasting is fardh for adult Muslims, except those who are suffering from an illness, travelling, are elderly, pregnant, breastfeeding, diabetic or going through menstrual bleeding. Fasting the month of Ramadan was made obligatory during the month of Shaban, while fasting from dawn until sunset, Muslims refrain from consuming food, drinking liquids, smoking, and engaging in sexual relations. Muslims are also instructed to refrain from behavior that may negate the reward of fasting, such as false speech. Food and drinks are served daily, before dawn and after sunset, spiritual rewards for fasting are also believed to be multiplied within the month of Ramadan. Fasting for Muslims during Ramadan typically includes the offering of salat. Chapter 2, Verse 185, of the Quran states, The month of Ramadan is that in which was revealed the Quran, a guidance for mankind, and clear proofs of the guidance, and the criterion. And whosoever of you is present, let him fast the month, and whosoever of you is sick or on a journey, a number of other days. Allah desires for you ease, He desires not hardship for you, and that you should complete the period, and that you should magnify Allah for having guided you, and that perhaps you may be thankful. It is believed that the Quran was first revealed to Muhammad during the month of Ramadan which has been referred to as the best of times, the first revelation was sent down on Laylat al-Qadr which is one of the five odd nights of the last ten days of Ramadan. According to hadith, all holy scriptures were sent down during Ramadan, the tablets of Ibrahim, the Torah, the Psalms, the Gospel and the Quran were sent down on 1st, 6th, 12th, 13th and 24th Ramadan respectively. According to the Quran, fasting was also obligatory for prior nations, God proclaimed to Muhammad that fasting for His sake was not a new innovation in monotheism, but rather an obligation practiced by those truly devoted to the oneness of God. The pagans of Mecca also fasted, but only on tenth day of Muharram to expiate sins, the ruling to observe fasting during Ramadan was sent down 18 months after Hijra, during the month of Shaban in the second year of Hijra in 624 CE. According to Philip Jenkins, Ramadan comes from the strict Lenten discipline of the Syrian churches, however, this suggestion is based on the orientalist idea that the Quran itself has Syrian origins, which was refuted by Muslim academics such as M. Al-Azami. The beginning and end of Ramadan are determined by the lunar Islamic calendar, hilāl is typically a day after the astronomical new moon. Since the new moon marks the beginning of the new month, however, to many Muslims, this is not in accordance with authenticated Hadiths stating that visual confirmation per region is recommended. The consistent variations of a day have existed since the time of Muhammad, Laylat al-Qadr, which in Arabic means the night of power or the night of decree, is considered the holiest night of the year
33.
Hajj
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It is one of the five pillars of Islam, alongside Shahadah, Salat, Zakat, and Sawm. The Hajj is the largest annual gathering of people in the world, the state of being physically and financially capable of performing the Hajj is called istitaah, and a Muslim who fulfills this condition is called a mustati. The Hajj is a demonstration of the solidarity of the Muslim people, the word Hajj means to intend a journey, which connotes both the outward act of a journey and the inward act of intentions. The pilgrimage occurs from the 8th to 12th of Dhu al-Hijjah, because the Islamic calendar is lunar and the Islamic year is about eleven days shorter than the Gregorian year, the Gregorian date of Hajj changes from year to year. Ihram is the given to the special spiritual state in which pilgrims wear two white sheets of seamless cloth and abstain from certain actions. The pilgrims then shave their heads, perform a ritual of animal sacrifice, Pilgrims can also go to Mecca to perform the rituals at other times of the year. This is sometimes called the lesser pilgrimage, or Umrah, the present pattern of Hajj was established by Muhammad. However, according to the Quran, elements of Hajj trace back to the time of Abraham, according to Islamic tradition, Abraham was ordered by God to leave his wife Hagar and his son Ishmael alone in the desert of ancient Mecca. In search of water, Hagar desperately ran seven times between the two hills of Safa and Marwah but found none, returning in despair to Ishmael, she saw the baby scratching the ground with his leg and a water fountain sprang forth underneath his foot. Later, Abraham was commanded to build the Kaaba and to people to perform pilgrimage there. The Quran refers to incidents in verses 2, 124-127 and 22. It is said that the archangel Gabriel brought the Black Stone from Heaven to be attached to the Kaaba, in pre-Islamic Arabia, a time known as jahiliyyah, the Kaaba became surrounded by pagan idols. In 630 CE, Muhammad led his followers from Medina to Mecca, cleansed the Kaaba by destroying all the pagan idols, in 632 CE, Muhammad performed his only and last pilgrimage with a large number of followers, and instructed them on the rites of Hajj. It was from this point that Hajj became one of the five pillars of Islam. During the medieval times, pilgrims would gather in big cities of Syria, Egypt and this was done in order to protect the caravan from Bedouin robbers or natural hazards, and to ensure that the pilgrims were supplied with the necessary provisions. Muslim travelers like Ibn Jubayr and Ibn Battuta have recorded detailed accounts of Hajj-travels of medieval time, the caravans followed well-established routes called in Arabic darb al-hajj, lit. Pilgrimage road, which usually followed ancient routes such as the Kings Highway, the date of Hajj is determined by the Islamic calendar, which is based on the lunar year. Every year, the events of Hajj take place in a period, starting on 8 and ending on 12 Dhu al-Hijjah
34.
Goat
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The domestic goat is a subspecies of goat domesticated from the wild goat of southwest Asia and Eastern Europe. The goat is a member of the family Bovidae and is related to the sheep as both are in the goat-antelope subfamily Caprinae. There are over 300 distinct breeds of goat, Goats are one of the oldest domesticated species, and have been used for their milk, meat, hair, and skins over much of the world. In 2011, there were more than 924 million live goats around the globe, according to the UN Food, female goats are referred to as does or nannies, intact males are called bucks or billies, and juveniles of both sexes are called kids. Goat meat from animals is called kid or cabrito, while meat from older animals is known simply as goat or sometimes called chevon. To refer to the male, Old English used bucca until ousted by hegote, hegoote in the late 12th century, nanny goat originated in the 18th century and billy goat in the 19th. Goats are among the earliest animals domesticated by humans, the most recent genetic analysis confirms the archaeological evidence that the wild Bezoar ibex of the Zagros Mountains is the likely original ancestor of probably all domestic goats today. The earliest remnants of domesticated goats dating 10,000 years before present are found in Ganj Dareh in Iran. Goat remains have been found at sites in Jericho, Choga Mami Djeitun and Çayönü. Studies of DNA evidence suggests 10,000 years BP as the domestication date, historically, goat hide has been used for water and wine bottles in both traveling and transporting wine for sale. It has also used to produce parchment. Goats are considered small livestock animals, compared to animals such as cattle, camels and horses, but larger than microlivestock such as poultry, rabbits, cavies. Each recognized breed of goats has specific weight ranges, which vary from over 140 kg for bucks of larger breeds such as the Boer, within each breed, different strains or bloodlines may have different recognized sizes. At the bottom of the range are miniature breeds such as the African Pygmy. Most goats naturally have two horns, of various shapes and sizes depending on the breed, Goats have horns unless they are polled or the horns have been removed, typically soon after birth. There have been incidents of polycerate goats, although this is a genetic rarity thought to be inherited, the horns are most typically removed in commercial dairy goat herds, to reduce the injuries to humans and other goats. Unlike cattle, goats have not been bred to be reliably polled, as the genes determining sex. Breeding together two genetically polled goats results in a number of intersex individuals among the offspring, which are typically sterile
35.
Sheep
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The sheep is a quadrupedal, ruminant mammal typically kept as livestock. Like all ruminants, sheep are members of the order Artiodactyla, although the name sheep applies to many species in the genus Ovis, in everyday usage it almost always refers to Ovis aries. Numbering a little over one billion, domestic sheep are also the most numerous species of sheep. An adult female sheep is referred to as a ewe, a male as a ram or occasionally a tup, a castrated male as a wether. Sheep are most likely descended from the wild mouflon of Europe, one of the earliest animals to be domesticated for agricultural purposes, sheep are raised for fleece, meat and milk. A sheeps wool is the most widely used animal fiber, and is harvested by shearing. Ovine meat is called lamb when from younger animals and mutton when from older ones, Sheep continue to be important for wool and meat today, and are also occasionally raised for pelts, as dairy animals, or as model organisms for science. Sheep husbandry is practised throughout the majority of the inhabited world, in the modern era, Australia, New Zealand, the southern and central South American nations, and the British Isles are most closely associated with sheep production. Sheepraising has a lexicon of unique terms which vary considerably by region. Use of the sheep began in Middle English as a derivation of the Old English word scēap. A group of sheep is called a flock, herd or mob, many other specific terms for the various life stages of sheep exist, generally related to lambing, shearing, and age. Being a key animal in the history of farming, sheep have a deeply entrenched place in human culture, as livestock, sheep are most often associated with pastoral, Arcadian imagery. Sheep figure in many mythologies—such as the Golden Fleece—and major religions, in both ancient and modern religious ritual, sheep are used as sacrificial animals. Domestic sheep are relatively small ruminants, usually with a crimped hair called wool, domestic sheep differ from their wild relatives and ancestors in several respects, having become uniquely neotenic as a result of selective breeding by humans. A few primitive breeds of sheep retain some of the characteristics of their wild cousins, depending on breed, domestic sheep may have no horns at all, or horns in both sexes, or in males only. Most horned breeds have a pair, but a few breeds may have several. Another trait unique to domestic sheep as compared to wild ovines is their variation in color. Wild sheep are largely variations of brown hues, and variation within species is extremely limited, colors of domestic sheep range from pure white to dark chocolate brown, and even spotted or piebald
36.
Cattle
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Cattle—colloquially cows—are the most common type of large domesticated ungulates. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae, are the most widespread species of the genus Bos, cattle are raised as livestock for meat, as dairy animals for milk and other dairy products, and as draft animals. Other products include leather and dung for manure or fuel, in some regions, such as parts of India, cattle have significant religious meaning. From as few as 80 progenitors domesticated in southeast Turkey about 10,500 years ago, according to an estimate from 2011, in 2009, cattle became one of the first livestock animals to have a fully mapped genome. Some consider cattle the oldest form of wealth, and cattle raiding consequently one of the earliest forms of theft. Cattle were originally identified as three species, Bos taurus, the European or taurine cattle, Bos indicus, the zebu, and the extinct Bos primigenius. The aurochs is ancestral to both zebu and taurine cattle and these have been reclassified as one species, Bos taurus, with three subspecies, Bos taurus primigenius, Bos taurus indicus, and Bos taurus taurus. Complicating the matter is the ability of cattle to interbreed with other related species. Hybrid individuals and even breeds exist, not only between taurine cattle and zebu, but also one or both of these and some other members of the genus Bos – yaks, banteng. Hybrids such as the breed can even occur between taurine cattle and either species of bison, leading some authors to consider them part of the genus Bos. However, cattle cannot successfully be hybridized with more distantly related bovines such as water buffalo or African buffalo, the aurochs originally ranged throughout Europe, North Africa, and much of Asia. In historical times, its range became restricted to Europe, breeders have attempted to recreate cattle of similar appearance to aurochs by crossing traditional types of domesticated cattle, creating the Heck cattle breed. Cattle did not originate as the term for bovine animals and it was borrowed from Anglo-Norman catel, itself from medieval Latin capitale principal sum of money, capital, itself derived in turn from Latin caput head. Cattle originally meant movable personal property, especially livestock of any kind, the word is a variant of chattel and closely related to capital in the economic sense. The term replaced earlier Old English feoh cattle, property, which today as fee. The word cow came via Anglo-Saxon cū, from Common Indo-European gʷōus = a bovine animal, compare Persian gâv, Sanskrit go-, Welsh buwch. The plural cȳ became ki or kie in Middle English, and a plural ending was often added, giving kine, kien. This is the origin of the now archaic English plural, kine, the Scots language singular is coo or cou, and the plural is kye
37.
Camel
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A camel is an even-toed ungulate within the genus Camelus, bearing distinctive fatty deposits known as humps on its back. Bactrian camels take their name from the historical Bactria region of Central Asia, the term camel is derived via Latin and Greek from Hebrew or Phoenician gāmāl. Most of the camels are dromedaries while Bactrian camels and wild Bactrian camels make up only 6% of the total camel population. Camel may also be used broadly to describe any of the seven camel-like mammals in the family Camelidae. The average life expectancy of a camel is 40 to 50 years, a full-grown adult camel stands 1.85 m at the shoulder and 2.15 m at the hump. Camels can run at up to 65 km/h in short bursts, Bactrian camels weigh 300 to 1,000 kg and dromedaries 300 to 600 kg. For instance, the speed for the one humped camel is about 40 km/hour while the two humped camel has around 27.2 km/hour. The male dromedary camel has in its throat an organ called a dulla and it resembles a long, swollen, pink tongue hanging out of the side of its mouth. Camels mate by having both male and female sitting on the ground, with the male mounting from behind, the male usually ejaculates three or four times within a single mating session. Camelids are the ungulates to mate in a sitting position. Camels do not directly store water in their humps as was commonly believed. In hot and dry environments, within 8 to 10 days only the dromedary camels might consume water which during this period the third of their bodys weight may be reduced due to the dehydration. When this tissue is metabolized, it more than one gram of water for every gram of fat processed. This fat metabolization, while releasing energy, causes water to evaporate from the lungs during respiration, overall, Camels have a series of physiological adaptations that allow them to withstand long periods of time without any external source of water. Unlike other mammals, their red cells are oval rather than circular in shape. Camels are able to withstand changes in temperature and water consumption that would kill most other animals. Their temperature ranges from 34 °C at dawn and steadily increases to 40 °C by sunset, in general, to compare between camels and the other livestock, camels lose only 1. Camels rarely sweat, even when ambient temperatures reach 49 °C, any sweat that does occur evaporates at the skin level rather than at the surface of their coat, the heat of vaporization therefore comes from body heat rather than ambient heat
38.
Mecca
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Mecca or Makkah is a city in the Hejaz region of Saudi Arabia that is also capital of the Makkah Region. The city is located 70 km inland from Jeddah in a valley at a height of 277 m above sea level. Its resident population in 2012 was roughly 2 million, although more than triple this number every year during the hajj period held in the twelfth Muslim lunar month of Dhu al-Hijjah. Mecca is home to the Kaaba, by majority description Islams holiest site, Mecca was long ruled by Muhammads descendants, the sharifs, acting either as independent rulers or as vassals to larger polities. It was conquered by Ibn Saud in 1925, during this expansion, Mecca has lost some historical structures and archaeological sites, such as the Ajyad Fortress. Today, more than 15 million Muslims visit Mecca annually, including several million during the few days of the Hajj, as a result, Mecca has become one of the most cosmopolitan cities in the Muslim world, despite the fact that non-Muslims are prohibited from entering the city. The Saudi government adopted Makkah as the spelling in the 1980s. The full official name is Makkah al-Mukarramah or Makkatu l-Mukarramah, which means Mecca the Honored, the ancient or early name for the site of Mecca is Bakkah. An Arabic language word, its etymology, like that of Mecca, is obscure, the form Bakkah is used for the name Mecca in the Quran in 3,96, while the form Mecca is used in 48,24. In South Arabic, the language in use in the portion of the Arabian Peninsula at the time of Muhammad. Other references to Mecca in the Quran call it Umm al-Qurā, another name of Mecca is Tihamah. Arab and Islamic tradition holds that the wilderness of Paran, broadly speaking, is the Tihamah, yaqut al-Hamawi, the 12th century Syrian geographer, wrote that Fārān was an arabized Hebrew word. One of the names of Mecca mentioned in the Torah, Mecca is governed by the Municipality of Mecca, a municipal council of fourteen locally elected members headed by a mayor appointed by the Saudi government. As of May 2015, the mayor of the city was Dr. Osama bin Fadhel Al-Bar, Mecca is the capital of the Makkah Region, which includes neighboring Jeddah. The provincial governor was prince Abdul Majeed bin Abdulaziz Al Saud from 2000 until his death in 2007, on 16 May 2007, prince Khalid bin Faisal Al Saud was appointed as the new governor. The early history of Mecca is still disputed, as there are no unambiguous references to it in ancient literature prior to the rise of Islam. The Roman Empire took control of part of the Hejaz in 106 AD, ruling cities such as Hegra, even though detailed descriptions were established of Western Arabia by Rome, such as by Procopius, there are no references of a pilgrimage and trading outpost such as Mecca. The first direct mention of Mecca in external literature occurs in 741 AD in the Byzantine-Arab Chronicle, claims have been made this could be a reference to the Kaaba in Mecca
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Cry of Pugad Lawin
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The Cry of Pugad Lawin, alternately and originally referred to as the Cry of Balintawak, was the beginning of the Philippine Revolution against the Spanish Empire. Originally the term Cry referred to the first clash between the Katipuneros and the Civil Guards, the cry could also refer to the tearing up of community tax certificates in defiance of their allegiance to Spain. This was literally accompanied by patriotic shouts, because of competing accounts and ambiguity of the place where this event took place, the exact date and place of the Cry is in contention. From 1908 until 1963, the stance was that the Cry occurred on August 26 in Balintawak. In 1963 the Philippine government declared a shift to August 23 in Pugad Lawin, various accounts give differing dates and places for the Cry. An officer of the Spanish guardia civil, Lt. Olegario Diaz, historian Teodoro Kalaw in his 1925 book The Filipino Revolution wrote that the event took place during the last week of August 1896 at Kangkong, Balintawak. Santiago Alvarez, a Katipunero and son of Mariano Alvarez, the leader of the Magdiwang faction in Cavite, stated in 1927 that the Cry took place in Bahay Toro, now in Quezon City on August 24,1896. Pío Valenzuela, an associate of Andrés Bonifacio, declared in 1948 that it happened in Pugad Lawin on August 23,1896. Historian Gregorio Zaide stated in his books in 1954 that the Cry happened in Balintawak on August 26,1896, fellow historian Teodoro Agoncillo wrote in 1956 that it took place in Pugad Lawin on August 23,1896, based on Pío Valenzuelas statement. Accounts by historians Milagros Guerrero, Emmanuel Encarnacion and Ramon Villegas claim the event to have taken place in Tandang Soras barn in Gulod, Barangay Banlat, Quezon City. Some of the apparent confusion is in due to the double meanings of the terms Balintawak. Balintawak referred both to a place in modern Caloocan City and a wider area which included parts of modern Quezon City. Similarly, Caloocan referred to modern Caloocan City and also an area which included modern Quezon City. Pugad Lawin, Pasong Tamo, Kangkong and other places were all in greater Balintawak. The term Cry is translated from the Spanish el grito de rebelion or el grito for short, thus the Grito de Balintawak is comparable to Mexicos Grito de Dolores. However, el grito de rebelion strictly refers to a decision or call to revolt and it does not necessarily connote shouting, unlike the Filipino sigaw. Up to the late 1920s, the Cry was generally identified with Balintawak and it was commemorated on August 26, considered the anniversary of the first hostile encounter between the Katipuneros and the Guardia Civil. The first shot of the Revolution was fired at Banlat, Pasong Tamo, then considered a part of Balintawak, not all accounts relate the tearing of cédulas in the last days of August
40.
Katipunan
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The Katipunan was a Philippine revolutionary society founded by anti-Spanish Filipinos in Manila in 1892, whose primary aim was to gain independence from Spain through revolution. The Tagalog word katipunan, literally meaning association, comes from the root word tipon and its official revolutionary name was Kataastaasan, Kagalanggalangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan. The Katipunan is also known by its acronym, KKK, being a secret organization, its members were subjected to the utmost secrecy and were expected to abide by the rules established by the society. Aspiring applicants were given standard initiation rites in order to members of the society. At first, membership in the Katipunan was only open to male Filipinos, later, the Katipunan had its own publication, Kalayaan which issued its first and last printing in March 1896. Revolutionary ideals and works flourished within the society, and Filipino literature was expanded by some of its prominent members, in planning the revolution, Bonifacio contacted Rizal for his full-fledged support for the Katipunan in exchange for a promise to rescue Rizal from his detention. In May 1896, a delegation was sent to the Emperor Meiji in order to solicit funds, the name Katipunan comes from the full Tagalog name for the society, Kataastaasan Kagalang-galang Katipunan nang mga Anak nang Bayan. The Katipunan and the Cuerpo de Compromisarios were, effectively, successor organizations of La Liga Filipina and this organization was part of the late 19th century Propaganda Movement in the Philippines. Katipunan founders Andrés Bonifacio, Ladislao Diwa, and Teodoro Plata were all members of La Liga and were influenced by the ideals of the Propaganda Movement in Spain. Marcelo H. del Pilar, another leader of the Propaganda Movement in Spain, the Katipunan had initiation ceremonies that were copied from masonic rites. It also had a hierarchy of rank that was similar to that of freemasonry, Del Pilars plan wins over that of Rizal. Del Pilar and Rizal had the end, even if each took a different road to it. Captured Katipunan members, who were members of La Liga. One group insisted on La Ligas principle of a peaceful reformation while the other espoused armed revolution, Bonifacio did establish the Katipunan when it was becoming apparent to anti-Spanish Filipinos that societies like the La Liga Filipina would be suppressed by colonial authorities. He was assisted by his two friends, Teodoro Plata and Ladislao Diwa, plus Valentín Díaz and Deodato Arellano, the Katipunan was founded along Azcarraga St. near Elcano St. in San Nicolas, Manila. Despite their reservations about the reformation that Rizal espoused, they named Rizal honorary president without his knowledge. The Katipunan, established as a secret organization, went under the name Kataas-taasang, Kagalang-galangang Katipunan ng̃ mg̃á Anak ng̃ Bayan. The rise of the Katipunan signaled the end of the crusade to secure reforms from Spain by means of a peaceful campaign, the Propaganda Movement led by Rizal, del Pilar, Jaena and others had failed its mission, hence, Bonifacio started the militant movement for independence
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Philippine Revolution
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The Philippine Revolution, also called the Tagalog War by the Spanish, was a revolution and subsequent conflict fought between the people of the Philippines and the Spanish colonial authorities. The Philippine Revolution began in August 1896, when the Spanish authorities discovered Katipunan, the Katipunan, led by Andrés Bonifacio, was a liberationist movement whose goal was independence from Spain through armed revolt. The organization began to influence much of the Philippines, Bonifacio called for an attack on the capital city of Manila. This attack failed, however, the surrounding provinces began to revolt, in particular, rebels in Cavite led by Mariano Alvarez and Emilio Aguinaldo won early victories. A power struggle among the revolutionaries led to Bonifacios death in 1897, with command shifting to Aguinaldo and that year, the revolutionaries and the Spanish signed the Pact of Biak-na-Bato, which temporarily reduced hostilities. Aguinaldo and other Filipino officers exiled themselves in Hong Kong, however, the hostilities never completely ceased. On April 21,1898, the United States launched a blockade of Cuba. On May 1, the U. S. Navys Asiatic Squadron, under Commodore George Dewey, decisively defeated the Spanish Navy in the Battle of Manila Bay, effectively seizing control of Manila. On May 19, Aguinaldo, unofficially allied with the United States, returned to the Philippines, by June, the rebels had gained control of nearly all of the Philippines, with the exception of Manila. On June 12, Aguinaldo issued the Philippine Declaration of Independence, although this signified the end date of the revolution, neither Spain nor the United States recognized Philippine independence. The Spanish rule of the Philippines officially ended with the Treaty of Paris of 1898, in the treaty, Spain ceded control of the Philippines and other territories to the United States. There was an uneasy peace around Manila, with the American forces controlling the city, in June 1899, the nascent First Philippine Republic formally declared war against the United States. The Philippines would not become an internationally recognized independent state until 1946, the main influx of revolutionary ideas came at the start of the 19th century, when the Philippines was opened for world trade. In 1809, the first English firms were established in Manila, the Philippines had been governed from Mexico since 1565, with colonial administrative costs sustained by subsidies from the galleon trade. Increased competition with foreign traders brought the trade to an end in 1815. After its recognition of Mexican independence in 1821, Spain was forced to govern the Philippines directly from Madrid, at this point, post-French Revolution ideas entered the country through literature, which resulted in the rise of an enlightened principalia class in the society. The 1868 Spanish Revolution brought the rule of Queen Isabella II to an end. The autocratic government was replaced by a government led by General Francisco Serrano
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Bonifacio Day
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Bonifacio Day is a Philippine national holiday commemorating the life of Andrés Bonifacio, one of the Philippines national heroes. It is celebrated the birth of Andrés Bonifacio the Father of the Philippine Revolution, Bonifacio Day is held on 30 November, or the Monday nearest this day to create a long weekend. Unlike, José Rizal Commemoration in Rizal Day, Bonifacio Day is celebrated on his day of birth and this is because Bonifacio was executed by his fellow revolutionaries, rather than at the hands of foreign colonizers. The holiday was first instituted with a decree and signed by Governor-General Francis Burton Harrison in 1921
