1.
Spanish colonization of the Americas
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The Colonial expansion under the crown of Castile was initiated by the Spanish conquistadores and developed by its administrators and missionaries. The motivations for colonial expansion were trade and the spread of the Catholic faith through indigenous conversions and it is estimated that during the colonial period, a total of 18.6 million Spaniards settled in the Americas and a further 3.5 million immigrated during the post-colonial era. Spains loss of these last territories politically ended the Spanish rule in the Americas, the Catholic Monarchs Isabella of Castile, Queen of Castile and her husband King Ferdinand, King of Aragon, pursued a policy of joint rule of their kingdoms and created a single Spanish monarchy. Even though Castile and Aragon were ruled jointly by their respective monarchs, the Catholic Monarchs gave official approval for the plans of Genoese mariner Christopher Columbus for a voyage to reach India by sailing West. The funding came from the queen of Castile, so the profits from Spanish expedition flowed to Castile, in the extension of Spanish sovereignty to its overseas territories, authority for expeditions of discovery, conquest, and settlement resided in the monarchy. Columbus made four voyages to the West Indiesas the monarchs granted Columbus the governorship of the new territories and he founded La Navidad on the island later named Hispaniola, in what is present day Haiti on his first voyage. After its destruction by the indigenous Taino people, the town of Isabella was begun in 1493, in 1496 his brother, Bartholomew, founded Santo Domingo. By 1500, despite a death rate, there were between 300 and 1000 Spanish settled in the area. The local Taíno people continued to resist, refusing to plant crops, the first mainland explorations were followed by a phase of inland expeditions and conquest. In 1500 the city of Nueva Cádiz was founded on the island of Cubagua, Venezuela, the Spanish founded San Sebastian de Uraba in 1509 but abandoned it within the year. There is indirect evidence that the first permanent Spanish mainland settlement established in the Americas was Santa María la Antigua del Darién, the Spanish conquest of Mexico is generally understood to be the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire which was the base for later conquests of other regions. Later conquests were protracted campaigns with less spectacular results than conquest of the Aztecs, but not until the Spanish conquest of Peru was the conquest of the Aztecs matched in scope by the victory over the Inca empire in 1532. The Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire was led by Hernán Cortés, the victory over the Aztecs was relatively quick, from 1519 to 1521, and aided by his Tlaxcala and other allies from indigenous city-states or altepetl. These polities allied against the Aztec empire, to which they paid tribute following conquest or threat of conquest, leaving the political hierarchy. The Spanish conquest of Yucatán was a longer campaign, from 1551 to 1697, against the Maya peoples in the Yucatán Peninsula of present-day Mexico. When Hernán Cortés landed ashore at present day Veracruz and founded the Spanish city there on April 22,1519, Spain colonized and exerted control of Alta California through the Spanish missions in California until the Mexican secularization act of 1833. It was the first step in a campaign that took decades of fighting to subdue the mightiest empire in the Americas. In the following years Spain extended its rule over the Empire of the Inca civilization, in the following years the conquistadors and indigenous allies extended control over Greater Andes Region
2.
New Spain
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New Spain was a colonial territory of the Spanish Empire, in the New World north of the Isthmus of Panama. It was established following the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in 1521, after 1535 the colony was governed by the Viceroy of New Spain, an appointed minister of the King of Spain, who ruled as monarch over the colony. The capital of New Spain was Mexico City and it developed highly regional divisions, which reflect the impact of climate, topography, the presence or absence of dense indigenous populations, and the presence or absence of mineral resources. The areas of central and southern Mexico had dense indigenous populations with complex social, political, silver mining not only became the engine of the economy of New Spain, but vastly enriched Spain, and transformed the global economy. New Spain was the New World terminus of the Philippine trade, although New Spain was a dependency of Spain, it was a kingdom not a colony, subject to the presiding monarch on the Iberian Peninsula. Every privilege and position, economic political, or religious came from him and it was on this basis that the conquest, occupation, and government of the New World was achieved. The Viceroyalty of New Spain was established in 1535 in the Kingdom of New Spain and it was the first New World viceroyalty and one of only two in the Spanish empire until the 18th century Bourbon Reforms. The Spanish Empire comprised the territories in the north overseas Septentrion, from North America, to the west of the continent, New Spain also included the Spanish East Indies. To the east of the continent, it included the Spanish West Indies and this was not occupied by many Spanish settlers and were considered more marginal to Spanish interests than the most densely populated and lucrative areas of central Mexico. To shore up its claims in North America starting in the late 18th century, Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest explored and claimed the coast of what is now British Columbia and Alaska. The indigenous societies of Mesoamerica brought under Spanish control were of unprecedented complexity, the societies could provide the conquistadors, especially Hernán Cortés, a base from which the conquerors could become autonomous, or even independent, of the Crown. As a result, the Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain, since the time of the Catholic Monarchs, central Iberia was governed through councils appointed by the monarch with particular jurisdictions. Thus, the creation of the Council of the Indies became another, the crown had set up the Casa de Contratación in 1503 to regulate contacts between Spain and its overseas possessions. A key function was to gather information about navigation to make trips less risky and they were accompanied by maps of the area discussed, many of which were drawn by indigenous artists. The Francisco Hernández Expedition, the first scientific expedition to the New World, was sent to gather information medicinal plants, an earlier Audiencia had been established in Santo Domingo in 1526 to deal with the Caribbean settlements. That Audiencia, housed in the Casa Reales in Santo Domingo, was charged with encouraging further exploration, management by the Audiencia, which was expected to make executive decisions as a body, proved unwieldy. Therefore, in 1535, King Charles V named Don Antonio de Mendoza as the first Viceroy of New Spain. After the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in 1532 opened up the vast territories of South America to further conquests, the Crown established an independent Viceroyalty of Peru there in 1540
3.
Spanish Empire
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The Spanish Empire was one of the largest empires in history. The Spanish Empire became the foremost global power of its time and was the first to be called the empire on which the sun never sets, the Spanish Empire originated during the Age of Discovery after the voyages of Christopher Columbus. Following the Spanish–American War of 1898, Spain ceded its last colonies in the Caribbean and its last African colonies were granted independence or abandoned during Decolonisation of Africa finishing in 1976. The unity did not mean uniformity, nevertheless, some historians assert that Portugal was part of the Spanish monarchy at the time, while others draw a clear distinction between the Portuguese and Spanish empires. During the 15th century, Castile and Portugal became territorial and commercial rivals in the western Atlantic. The conquest was completed with the campaigns of the armies of the Crown of Castile between 1478 and 1496, when the islands of Gran Canaria, La Palma, and Tenerife were subjugated. The Portuguese tried in vain to keep secret their discovery of the Gold Coast in the Gulf of Guinea, chronicler Pulgar wrote that the fame of the treasures of Guinea spread around the ports of Andalusia in such way that everybody tried to go there. Worthless trinkets, Moorish textiles, and above all, shells from the Canary and Cape Verde islands were exchanged for gold, slaves, ivory and Guinea pepper. The Crown officially organized this trade with Guinea, every caravel had to get a government license, the treaty delimited the spheres of influence of the two countries, establishing the principle of the Mare clausum. It was confirmed in 1481 by the Pope Sixtus IV, in the papal bull Æterni regis, thus, the limitations imposed by the Alcáçovas treaty were overcome and a new and more balanced worlds division would be reached at Tordesillas between both emerging maritime powers. Seven months before the treaty of Alcaçovas, King John II of Aragon died, Ferdinand and Isabella drove the last Moorish king out of Granada in 1492 after a ten-year war. The Catholic Monarchs then negotiated with Christopher Columbus, a Genoese sailor attempting to reach Cipangu by sailing west, Castile was already engaged in a race of exploration with Portugal to reach the Far East by sea when Columbus made his bold proposal to Isabella. Columbus discoveries inaugurated the Spanish colonization of the Americas and these actions gave Spain exclusive rights to establish colonies in all of the New World from north to south, as well as the easternmost parts of Asia. The treaty of Tordesillas was confirmed by Pope Julius II in the bull Ea quae pro bono pacis on 24 January 1506, Spains expansion and colonization was driven by economic influences, a yearning to improve national prestige, and a desire to spread Catholicism into the New World. The Catholic Monarchs had developed a strategy of marriages for their children in order to isolate their long-time enemy, the Spanish princes married the heirs of Portugal, England and the House of Habsburg. Following the same strategy, the Catholic Monarchs decided to support the Catalan-Aragonese house of Naples against Charles VIII of France in the Italian Wars beginning in 1494. As King of Aragon, Ferdinand had been involved in the struggle against France and Venice for control of Italy, these conflicts became the center of Ferdinands foreign policy as king. Only a year later, Ferdinand became part of the Holy League against France and this war was less of a success than the war against Venice, and in 1516, France agreed to a truce that left Milan in its control and recognized Spanish control of Upper Navarre
4.
Puebloans
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The Pueblo peoples speak languages from several different groups and are also divided culturally by their kinship systems and agricultural practices, although all cultivate varieties of corn. In addition to differing kinship systems, the peoples have differing marriage practices and those who have a matrilineal system, in which children are considered born into the mothers clan and her line is used for inheritance and descent, are the Hopi, Keres, Towa and Zuni. The non-Towa Tanoan have a system, with clan membership, inheritance. All the Pueblo peoples have traditional economies based on agriculture and trade, at the time of Spanish encounter beginning in the 16th century, these peoples were living in complex, multi-story villages often built around a central courtyard. The Spanish called these pueblos, meaning towns, and applied the name to all the living in such complexes. In the 21st century there are 21 surviving pueblos in the Southwest of the United States, Taos, Acoma, Zuni, and Hopi are the best-known. The main pueblos are located primarily in the states of New Mexico. Anthropologists have studied these peoples extensively and published various classifications of their subdivisions, in 1950, Fred Russell Eggan contrasted the peoples of the Eastern and Western Pueblos, based largely on their subsistence farming techniques. The Western or Desert Pueblos of the Zuñi and Hopi specialize in dry farming, in 1954, Paul Kirchhoff published a division of the Pueblo peoples into two groups based on culture, one includes the Hopi, Zuni, Keres and Jemez. They each have matrilineal kinship systems, children are considered born into their mothers clan and must marry a spouse outside it and they maintain multiple kivas for sacred ceremonies. Their creation myth tells that humans emerged from the underground and they emphasize four or six cardinal directions as part of their sacred cosmology, beginning in the north. Four and seven are considered significant in their rituals and symbolism. In contrast, the Tanoan-speaking Pueblos have a kinship system. They practice endogamy, or marriage within the clan and they have two kivas or two groups of kivas in their pueblos. Their belief system is based in dualism, the creation story recounts the emergence of the people from underwater. They use five directions, beginning in the west and their ritual numbers are based on multiples of three. The Pueblo peoples speak languages from different language families, demonstrating their diverse ethnic origins. The Hopi language is Uto-Aztecan, Zuni is an isolate, and Keresan is a dialect continuum that includes Acoma, Laguna, Santa Ana, Zia, Cochiti, Santo Domingo
5.
Taos Pueblo
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Taos Pueblo is an ancient pueblo belonging to a Tiwa-speaking Native American tribe of Puebloan people. It lies about 1 mile north of the city of Taos, New Mexico. The pueblos are considered to be one of the oldest continuously inhabited communities in the United States and this has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Taos Pueblo is a member of the Eight Northern Pueblos, whose people speak two variants of the Tanoan language, the Taos community is known for being one of the most private, secretive, and conservative pueblos. A reservation of 95,000 acres is attached to the pueblo, the pueblo was constructed in a setting backed by the Taos Mountains of the Sangre de Cristo Range. The settlement was built on side of Rio Pueblo de Taos, also called Rio Pueblo and Red Willow Creek. Its headwaters come from the nearby mountains, Taos Pueblos most prominent architectural feature is a multi-storied residential complex of reddish-brown adobe, built on either side of the Rio Pueblo. The Pueblos website states it was built between 1000 and 1450. The pueblo was designated a National Historic Landmark on October 9,1960, in 1992 it was designated as a UNESCO Heritage Site. As of 2006, about 150 people live in the historic complex full-time, in the Tanoan language of Taos, the pueblo is referred to as the village in either tə̂otho in the village or tə̂obo to/toward the village. The proper name of the pueblo is ȉałopháymųp’ȍhə́othə̀olbo at red willow canyon mouth and this name is more commonly used in ceremonial contexts and is less common in everyday speech. The name Taos in English was borrowed from Spanish Taos, Spanish Taos is probably a borrowing of Taos tə̂o- village which was heard as tao to which the plural -s was added although in the modern language Taos is no longer a plural noun. The idea that the Spanish Taos is from tao, cross of the order of San Juan de los Caballeros, is unlikely, Taos is a derivative of spanish slang for a tiwa word meaning place down by the red willows. Most archeologists believe that the Taos Indians, along with other Pueblo Indians, the dwellings of that region were inhabited by the Ancestral Puebloans. A long drought in the area in the late 13th century may have caused them to move to the Rio Grande, throughout its early years, Taos Pueblo was a central point of trade between the native populations along the Rio Grande and their Plains Tribes neighbors to the northeast. Taos Pueblo hosted a fair each fall after the agricultural harvest. Around 1620, Spanish Jesuits oversaw construction of the first Catholic Church in the pueblo, reports from the period indicate that the native people of Taos resisted the building of the church and imposition of the Catholic religion. Throughout the 1600s, cultural tensions grew between the populations of the Southwest and the increasing Spanish colonial presence
6.
Picuris Pueblo, New Mexico
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Picuris Pueblo is a census-designated place in Taos County, New Mexico, United States. The population was 86 at the 2000 census, the Pueblo people are from the Tiwa ethnic group of Native Americans. Picurís Pueblo is a member of the Eight Northern Pueblos, the Pueblo of the Picuris is a federally recognized tribe, whose headquarters is in Peñasco, New Mexico. Their own name for their pueblo is Pinguiltha, meaning mountain warrior place or mountain pass place and they speak the Picuris language, a dialect of the Northern Tiwa language, part of the Tanoan language family. Their tribal officers, led by a governor, are elected every two years. Located within the Pueblo are the San Lorenzo de Picurís church and the Picuris Pueblo Museum, Picuris is particularly known for its micaceous pottery. Excavated dwellings are located within the pueblo, self-guided tours and permits for photography within the pueblo are available to visitors. Visitors may fish for trout at Pu-La Lake by contacting the Picurís Pueblo Fish & Game, there are also picnic and campground facilities. The Picuris people previously lived in an earlier, larger village of about 3,000 people now known as Pot Creek and they migrated to the present location along the Rio Pueblo de Taos about 1250 CE. In the 15th century it was one of the largest Tiwa pueblos, influenced by Apache and other Plains Indian cultures, following this period the people of the pueblo were dispersed and had abandoned their pueblo until 1706. At that time joined with the Spanish to fight against attacks by Comanche and Apache tribes. Then, the Picuris pueblo people settled into a peaceful period, Spanish explorer Don Juan de Oñate named the pueblo Pikuria - which means those who paint. The pueblo was influenced by the Spanish, particularly adoption of Christian religious practices and letting go of traditional rituals, the San Lorenzo de Picurís church was built of adobe by 1776 and was restored in the 21st century. Having been influenced by the Spanish and then the Americans for centuries and they resumed their traditional customs, which are performed throughout the year, and became self-governing again in the mid 1920s. The pueblo maintains a herd of buffalo. In 1990,147 of the 1,882 enrolled tribal members lived in the pueblo, however and it is now one of the smallest Tiwa pueblos. Children attend school in a nearby town, most of the adults are employed off of the reservation. In 1991, the tribe opened the four-star Hotel Santa Fe and their major feast day is San Lorenzos Day on August 10, during which people of all ages engage in races and the Sunset Dance held on August 9
7.
Jemez Pueblo, New Mexico
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Jemez Pueblo is a census-designated place in Sandoval County, New Mexico, United States. The population was 1,953 at the 2000 census and it is part of the Albuquerque Metropolitan Statistical Area. The CDP is named after the pueblo at its center, among Pueblo members it is known as Walatowa. Jemez Pueblo is located at 33°36′39″N 106°44′39″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 5.3 km². There is no water on this piece of land and it seems that a significant part of the Jemez Pueblo population originates from the surviving remnant of the Pecos Pueblo population who fled to Jemez Pueblo in 1838. As of the census of 2000, there were 1,953 people,467 households, the population density was 957.0 people per square mile. There were 499 housing units at a density of 244.5 per square mile. The racial makeup of the CDP was 0. 41% White,99. 13% Native American,0. 31% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 95% of the population. 9. 9% of all households were made up of individuals and 2. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 4.18 and the average family size was 4.45. In the CDP, the population was out with 35. 0% under the age of 18,11. 1% from 18 to 24,28. 8% from 25 to 44,18. 4% from 45 to 64. The median age was 28 years, for every 100 females there were 94.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.9 males, the median income for a household in the CDP was $28,889, and the median income for a family was $30,880. Males had an income of $20,964 versus $17,262 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $8,045, about 27. 2% of families and 25. 5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 27. 1% of those under age 18 and 34. 6% of those age 65 or over. As much as 70% of the 1,890 Jemez people were living on their lands in the early 1970s. Running, an old Jemez pastime and ceremonial activity, grew more popular than it had been before World War II. Prior to the advent of television at Jemez, tales of running feats had been a form of entertainment on winter nights. Races continued to hold their place as the years passed, their purpose being to assist the movement of the sun and moon or to hasten the growth of crops
8.
Santa Clara Pueblo, New Mexico
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Santa Clara Pueblo is a census-designated place in Rio Arriba County, New Mexico, United States. The population was 980 at the 2000 census, although, approximately 3,800 reside on the reservation, santa Clara Pueblo was established about 1550. The pueblo is a member of the Eight Northern Pueblos, the pueblo is on the Rio Grande, between Ohkay Owingeh to the north and San Ildefonso Pueblo to the south. Santa Clara Pueblo is famous for producing hand-crafted pottery, specifically blackware and redware with deep engravings, the pueblo is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Santa Clara Pueblo is located at 35°58′16″N 106°5′21″W, about 1.5 miles south of Española on NM30, according to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 2.1 square miles, all of it land. Pueblo peoples lived in the area for millennia before they met Juan de Oñate, Pueblo archaeology shows that Ancient Pueblo Peoples lived in the general region as far back as 1200BC. First visited in 1541, a segment of Francisco Vásquez de Coronados expeditionary force met with the residents of the nearby Caypa pueblo. After annexation of the region into the Spanish Kingdom, and as part of the 1601 expansion of Oñates colonial capital, fray Alonso de Benavides established a mission in 1628. History shows that the mission was abandoned on the lead up to the revolt, the pueblo would join forces with others and would fight against the Spanish royal government in 1680 in the Great Pueblo Revolt. The original and unoccupied chapel was destroyed, two other chapel buildings would be constructed there. The current church replaced the former in 1918, in 1782, a small pox outbreak decimated the population. The eighth section of the Act of July 22,1854 mandated a census of the newly acquired possessions of the US government. In review of the title, the pueblo presented a Spanish Royal decree dated October 15,1713 that the title to land. Though lost, the decree on the papers, if ever they existed, assured protection of the pueblos right to protection of their homelands from encroachment. The result of the research led the pueblo community to be of the first recognized by Congress. Pueblo potters are known for their black polished and red polychrome pottery, as of the census of 2000, there were 980 people,349 households, and 254 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 471.6 people per square mile, there were 400 housing units at an average density of 192.5 per square mile. The racial makeup of the CDP was 6. 53% White,85. 61% Native American,0. 10% Asian,0. 10% Pacific Islander,6. 12% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 17. 45% of the population
9.
Kewa Pueblo, New Mexico
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Kewa Pueblo, formerly known as Santo Domingo Pueblo, is an Indian pueblo and a census-designated place in Sandoval County, New Mexico, in the United States. The pueblo is located approximately 25 miles southwest of Santa Fe, interstate 25 runs 4 miles to the east of the community. As of the 2000 census, the CDP population was 2,550 and is nearly 99% Native American, the CDP is part of the Albuquerque Metropolitan Statistical Area. The population of the pueblo is composed of Native Americans who speak Keres, the Pueblo celebrates an annual feast day on August 4 to honor their patron saint, Saint Dominic. More than 2,000 pueblo people participate in the traditional corn dances held at this time, in the 17th century, the Spanish conquistadores named the pueblo as Santo Domingo. Its earliest recorded name was Gipuy, according to Pueblo Council members, the local name in their Keres language has always been Kewa. In 2009, the officially changed its name to Kewa Pueblo, altering its seal, signs. Kewa Pueblo is located at 35°30′52″N 106°21′48″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 2.0 square miles, all of it land. As of the census of 2000, there were 2,550 people,446 households, the population density was 1,273.9 people per square mile. There were 475 housing units at a density of 237.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the CDP was 98. 71% Native American,0. 24% White,0. 04% Pacific Islander,0. 78% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 18% of the population. 7. 8% of all households were made up of individuals and 1. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 5.72 and the average family size was 6.02. In the CDP, the population was out with 37. 0% under the age of 18,11. 6% from 18 to 24,28. 7% from 25 to 44,16. 4% from 45 to 64. The median age was 26 years, for every 100 females there were 106.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100.6 males, the median income for a household in the CDP was $26,563, and the median income for a family was $28,382. Males had an income of $20,878 versus $17,768 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $6,038, about 36. 5% of families and 36. 1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 43. 7% of those under age 18 and 27. 5% of those age 65 or over. The pueblo plays a role in Spanish colonial history
10.
Tesuque, New Mexico
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Tesuque is a census-designated place in Santa Fe County, New Mexico, United States. It is part of the Santa Fe, New Mexico, Metropolitan Statistical Area, the population was 909 at the 2000 census. The area is located near Tesuque Pueblo, a member of the Eight Northern Pueblos, the town of Tesuque is separate from the pueblo. The pueblo was listed as a district on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973. Tesuque is located at 35°44′46″N 105°55′20″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 7.0 square miles, all land. Camel Rock is a locally-famous and distinctive rock formation and landmark, routes 84/285 across from the Camel Rock Casino, which is also owned by Tesuque Pueblo. As of the census of 2000, there were 909 people,455 households, the population density was 130.6 people per square mile. There were 541 housing units at a density of 77.7 per square mile. The racial makeup of the CDP was 75. 25% White,0. 44% African American,0. 44% Native American,0. 77% Asian,18. 37% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 35. 64% of the population. 38. 2% of all households were made up of individuals and 8. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.00 and the average family size was 2.61. In the CDP, the population was out with 14. 7% under the age of 18,4. 7% from 18 to 24,23. 8% from 25 to 44,41. 3% from 45 to 64. The median age was 48 years, for every 100 females there were 89.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.6 males, the median income for a household in the CDP was $36,029, and the median income for a family was $80,043. Males had an income of $43,833 versus $42,650 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $52,473, about 7. 3% of families and 12. 6% of the population were below the poverty line, including none of those under age 18 and 29. 5% of those age 65 or over. Lynne and Dennis Comeau, shoe designers, armistead Maupin, author who bought the Comeau estate. Eliot Porter, nature photographer who lived in Tesuque from 1946 until his death in 1990, carol Jean Vigil, New Mexicos first female Native American state court judge. Tesuque is mentioned in Willa Cathers 1927 novel Death Comes for the Archbishop, there is a passing mention of Tesuque in chapter 6 of the 1932 novel Brave New World by Aldous Huxley
11.
Ohkay Owingeh, New Mexico
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Ohkay Owingeh is a pueblo and census-designated place in Rio Arriba County, New Mexico, United States of America. Its elevation is 5,663 feet and it is located at 36°03′12″N 106°04′08″W, one of its boundaries is contiguous with Española, about 25 miles north of Santa Fe. Ohkay Owingeh was previously known as San Juan Pueblo until returning to its name in November 2005. The Tewa name of the pueblo means place of the strong people, Ohkay Owingeh has the ZIP code 87566 and the U. S. Postal Service prefers that name for addressing mail, but accepts the alternative name San Juan Pueblo. This ZIP Code Tabulation Area had a population of 3,357 at the 2000 Census, the entire pueblo has a population of 6,748. The pueblo was founded around 1200 AD during the Pueblo III Era, by tradition, the Tewa people moved here from the north, perhaps from the San Luis Valley of southern Colorado, part of a great migration spanning into the Pueblo IV Era. In March 1598, conquistador Oñate traveled from north central México, accompanied by a caravan of Catholic missionaries, a soldiers, colonists. The expedition included cattle, sheep, goats, oxen and horses, the people who met him that day, it is written, were hospitable and offered Yuque Yunque pueblo as guest quarters to Oñate and his party. In royal gesture, he baptized and renamed Caypa pueblo San Juan de los Caballeros and he then established the first Spanish-Catholic capital of Santa Fe de Nuevo México at Yuque Yunque pueblo. In local history, it is said the event united the two fragmented families of Caypa and Yuque Yunque, since their arrival from earlier homelands in the northwest, the two pueblos had been divided by the river, split until the expedition partys arrival. When the community offered Yuque Yunque pueblo on the west bank to Oñate, the Spanish capital would be moved in 1610 to La Villa Real de la Santa Fe de San Francisco de Asís. Popé was a man who rose to be of the most regarded leaders of American Indian history. He would play a role in the Pueblo revolt in 1680. The community was formally known as the San Juan Indian Reservation. Ohkay Owingeh is the headquarters of the Eight Northern Indian Pueblos Council, and it is one of the largest Tewa-speaking pueblos. The annual Pueblo Feast Day is June 24, for all pueblos, the actual feast day includes a Catholic mass that is held in the morning. Because of historical relations with the Catholic Church, all pueblos have a church located near the center of the village, most Pueblo people practice aspects of both the Catholic religion and Pueblo belief systems. The tribe owns the OhKay Casino and the Oke-Oweenge Crafts Cooperative, which showcases redware pottery, weaving, painting, and other artwork from the eight northern pueblos
12.
Antonio de Otermin
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Antonio de Otermin was the Spanish Governor of the northern New Spain province of Santa Fe de Nuevo México, today the U. S. states of New Mexico and Arizona, from 1678 to 1682. He was governor at the time of the Pueblo Revolt, during which the religious leader Popé led the Pueblo people in a military ouster of the Spanish colonists and it is not known when or where he was born. It is assumed that he was roughly between 1620 and 1630 in the family home Otermín, which in this time was recorded as Otromin House. It is located on the foothills of the Massif de Aralar, on the Gipuzkoa side is the house Otromin Haundi, which, by its size and name, was the ancestral home of the Otromin. Otermin was appointed governor of New Mexico in 1678, on August 9,1680, two Pueblo leaders of the Galisteo Basin, allies of the Spanish, sent to Otermin the news of a rebellion of the Pueblo Amerindian against the Spanish. According to the message were two men from Tesuque who planned the attack on the Spanish cities and Franciscan missions, because of that, he ordered the arrest of the messengers of the people. When the news about the arrest of the messengers was spread among the Pueblo, in the Pueblo Revolt, Popés forces besieged Santa Fe, surrounding the city and cutting off its water supply. Otermin assembled a council of war decided to make a surprise attack on the Pueblo. On August 20, settlers and soldiers abandoned their fortified enclave, however, the important number of weapons of the Pueblo was a fact and although the Otermin´s army managed to defeat many Puebloans, the number of his soldiers killed was even greater. In fact, the Pueblo victory over the Otermin´s government was such that, according to reports from the Pueblo captives, so, Otermin surrendered their arms to the settlers and, on August 21, they headed en masse at the Isleta Pueblo. After their arrival, they met another group of refugees who had arrived there a few weeks before them, more late, to three days of his arrived, Otermin obtained the degree of lieutenant governor. On September 13, the number of refugees from Santa Fe overtook those from Isleta, now, the insurgent population was already very large for fight against the Puebloans. Five days later the settlers arrived to Salinetas, north of El Paso del Norte, here lived up until the first week of October. At La Salineta was organized a meeting, so the number of persons accompanying to Otermin were,1,946, thus, by October 9 the refugees already had arrived to two leagues downriver from the Guadalupe mission. On September 16 came a group Queres warriors from Cochiti and Santo Domingo led by mestizo Alonso de Catiti, whose brother was with the defenders of the house in Santa Fe. He informed to the Spanish that the attackers of Santa Fe were 2,500 people, Otermin then blocked the Casa Real, cutting the water supply, so the women and children, after exhausting their supplies in a few days, began to die of thirst. New Mexico was already in hard of Puebloans, in November 1681 Otermin attempted to return to New Mexico, burning both Isleta Pueblo and Sandia Pueblo. He returned to modern Isleta del Sur, near El Paso, with some prisoners, in Isleta Pueblo, the settlers were attacked by the Puebloans, but they were defeated
13.
Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
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The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire was one of the most significant events in the Spanish colonization of the Americas. Many of those on the Cortés expedition of 1519 had never seen combat before, in fact, Cortés had never commanded men in battle before. However, there was a generation of Spaniards who participated in expeditions in the Caribbean and Tierra Firme, learning strategy. The Spanish conquest of Mexico had antecedents with established practices, in their advance, the allies were tricked and ambushed several times by the people they encountered. When Cortés left Tenochtitlan to return to the coast and deal with the expedition of Pánfilo de Narváez, Alvarado allowed a significant Aztec feast to be celebrated in Tenochtitlan and on the pattern of the earlier massacre in Cholula, closed off the square and massacred the celebrating Aztec noblemen. The biography of Cortés by Francisco López de Gómara contains a description of the massacre, the Alvarado massacre at the Main Temple of Tenochtitlan precipitated rebellion by the population of the city. When the captured emperor Motecuhzoma II, now seen as a puppet of the invading Spaniards, attempted to calm the outraged populace. Cortés had returned to Tenochtitlan and his men fled the city during the Noche Triste in June,1520. The Spanish, Tlaxcalans and reinforcements returned a year later on August 13,1521 to a civilization that had wiped out by famine. This made it easier to conquer the remaining Aztecs, the fall of the Aztec Empire was the key event in the formation of the Spanish overseas empire, with New Spain, which later became Mexico, a major component. The Spanish conquerors could and did write accounts that narrated the conquest from the first landfalls in Mexico to the victory over the Mexica in Tenochtitlan on August 13,1521. Indigenous accounts are from particular native viewpoints and as the events had a impact on their polity. All accounts of the conquest, Spanish and indigenous alike, have biases, in general, Spanish accounts do not credit their indigenous allies support. Individual conquerors accounts exaggerate that individuals contribution to the conquest, downplaying other conquerors, indigenous allies accounts stress their loyalty to the Spanish and their particular aid as being key to the Spanish victory. Their accounts are similar to Spanish conquerors accounts contained in petitions for rewards and these were almost immediately published in Spain and later in other parts of Europe. Interestingly, Cortéss right-hand man, Pedro de Alvarado did not write at any length about his actions in the New World, two letters to Cortés about Alvarados campaigns in Guatemala are published in The Conquistadors. Rather than it being a petition for rewards for services, as many Spanish accounts were, the account was used by eighteenth-century Jesuit Francisco Javier Clavijero in his descriptions of the history of Mexico. On the indigenous side, the allies of Cortés, particularly the Tlaxcalans, wrote extensively about their services to the Spanish Crown in the conquest, the most important of these are the pictorial Lienzo de Tlaxcala and the Historia de Tlaxcala by Diego Muñoz Camargo
14.
Spanish conquest of Chiapas
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Soconusco had been incorporated into the Aztec Empire, centred in Valley of Mexico, and paid the Aztecs tribute. News of strangers first arrived in the region as the Spanish penetrated, in the early 1520s, several Spanish expeditions crossed Chiapas by land, and Spanish ships scouted the Pacific coast. The first highland colonial town in Chiapas, San Cristóbal de los Llanos, was established by Pedro de Portocarrero in 1527, within a year, Spanish dominion extended over the upper drainage basin of the Grijalva River, Comitán, and the Ocosingo valley. Encomienda rights were established, although in the stages of conquest these amounted to little more than slave-raiding rights. Excessive Spanish demands for tribute and labour caused a rebellion by the indigenous inhabitants, the conquistadores launched punitive raids, but the natives abandoned their towns and fled to inaccessible regions. The Mexican state of Chiapas occupies the extreme southeast of Mexico, to the west, it borders with the Mexican states of Oaxaca and Veracruz, and to the north with Tabasco. It borders on the east with Guatemala, the border consists of 260 kilometres of Pacific coastline. Chiapas is geographically and culturally diverse and it features two principal highland regions, to the south is the Sierra Madre de Chiapas and in central Chiapas are the Montañas Centrales. They are separated by the Depresión Central, containing the drainage basin of the Grijalva River, the Sierra Madre highlands gain altitude from west to east, with the highest mountains near the Guatemalan border. The littoral zone of Soconusco lies to the south of the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, and consists of a coastal plain. Although the entire coastal strip is referred to as Soconusco, Soconusco proper is the southeastern portion characterised by a humid tropical climate. The northwestern portion of the coastal strip featuring a drier climate was historically referred to as El Despoblado, the Depresión Central consists of a drainage basin some 200 kilometres long and varying in width from 30 to 60 kilometres. The Grijalva River is fed by drainage from the Cuchumatanes mountains of Guatemala, the wide plains feature a hot climate with moderate rainfall. This region of high plains blocks the passage of the Grijalva River, los Chimalapas is another highland region at the northern extreme of the Meseta Central and bordering with Oaxaca, it is considered the first upthrust of the Sierra Madre. The Central Highlands rise sharply to the north of the Grijalva, to an altitude of 2,400 metres. They are cut by valleys running parallel to the Pacific coast. At the eastern end of the Central Highlands is the Lacandon Forest, the earliest human inhabitants of Chiapas were foragers living in the northern highlands and along the coastal strip from approximately 6000 BC until about 2000 BC. For approximately the last two millennia BC, the majority of the territory that is now covered by the state of Chiapas was occupied by Zoque-speaking peoples
15.
Spanish conquest of Guatemala
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Before the conquest, this territory contained a number of competing Mesoamerican kingdoms, the majority of which were Maya. Many conquistadors viewed the Maya as infidels who needed to be converted and pacified. Several Spanish expeditions followed in 1517 and 1519, making landfall on various parts of the Yucatán coast, the Spanish conquest of the Maya was a prolonged affair, the Maya kingdoms resisted integration into the Spanish Empire with such tenacity that their defeat took almost two centuries. Pedro de Alvarado arrived in Guatemala from the newly conquered Mexico in early 1524, commanding a force of Spanish conquistadors and native allies. Geographic features across Guatemala now bear Nahuatl placenames owing to the influence of these Mexican allies, the Kaqchikel Maya initially allied themselves with the Spanish, but soon rebelled against excessive demands for tribute and did not finally surrender until 1530. In the meantime the other major highland Maya kingdoms had each been defeated in turn by the Spanish and allied warriors from Mexico, Spanish and native tactics and technology differed greatly. The Spanish viewed the taking of prisoners as a hindrance to outright victory, whereas the Maya prioritised the capture of live prisoners and of booty. The Maya preferred raiding and ambush to large-scale warfare, using spears, arrows and wooden swords with inset obsidian blades, in response to the use of Spanish cavalry, the highland Maya took to digging pits and lining them with wooden stakes. These letters were despatched to Tenochtitlan, addressed to Cortés but with an audience in mind. Gonzalo wrote an account that mostly supports that of Pedro de Alvarado, Pedro de Alvarados brother Jorge wrote another account to the king of Spain that explained it was his own campaign of 1527–1529 that established the Spanish colony. His account was finished around 1568, some 40 years after the campaigns it describes, Hernán Cortés described his expedition to Honduras in the fifth letter of his Cartas de Relación, in which he details his crossing of what is now Guatemalas Petén Department. Dominican friar Bartolomé de las Casas wrote a critical account of the Spanish conquest of the Americas. The Brevísima Relación de la Destrucción de las Indias was first published in 1552 in Seville, other accounts were in the form of questionnaires answered before colonial magistrates to protest and register a claim for recompense. A letter from the defeated Tzutujil Maya nobility of Santiago Atitlán to the Spanish king written in 1571 details the exploitation of the subjugated peoples, Francisco Antonio de Fuentes y Guzmán was a colonial Guatemalan historian of Spanish descent who wrote La Recordación Florida, also called Historia de Guatemala. The book was written in 1690 and is regarded as one of the most important works of Guatemalan history, field investigation has tended to support the estimates of indigenous population and army sizes given by Fuentes y Guzmán. Christopher Columbus discovered the New World for the Kingdom of Castile, private adventurers thereafter entered into contracts with the Spanish Crown to conquer the newly discovered lands in return for tax revenues and the power to rule. In the first decades after the discovery of the new lands and they heard rumours of the rich empire of the Aztecs on the mainland to the west and, in 1519, Hernán Cortés set sail with eleven ships to explore the Mexican coast. By August 1521 the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan had fallen to the Spanish, a single soldier arriving in Mexico in 1520 was carrying smallpox and thus initiated the devastating plagues that swept through the native populations of the Americas
16.
Yaqui Wars
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The Yaqui Wars, were a series of armed conflicts between New Spain, and the later Mexican republic, against the Yaqui Native Americans. The period began in 1533 and lasted until 1929, the Yaqui Wars, along with the Caste War against the Maya, were the last conflicts of the centuries long Mexican Indian Wars. Over the course of nearly 400 years, the Spanish and the Mexicans repeatedly launched military campaigns into Yaqui territory which resulted in several serious battles and some infamous massacres. The cause of the conflicts was like many of the Indian Wars in history, in 1684, following this, the Spanish gradually began settling on Yaqui land and by 1740, the natives were ready to resist. Some minor conflicts from before dated back to 1533 but in 1740 the Yaquis united their tribe with the neighboring Mayo, Opata, during the Mexican War of Independence from Spain the Yaqui did not participate on either side. It was when Occidente passed a law in 1825 making the Yaqui its citizens and subjecting them to taxes that the Yaqui decided to go to war, the first fighting was at Rahum. The movement was encouraged by Pedro Leyva, a Catholic priest, the Yaqui coalesced around Juan Banderas as their leader. Banderas managed to get the Mayos, Opatas and Pimas to join in the war against the Mexican government, Occidente was so affected by the war that the capital was moved from Cosala to Fuerte. In 1827 Banderas forces were defeated by Mexicans in the vicinity of Hermosillo and this defeat was partly due to the Yaquis having primarily bows and arrows, while the Mexicans had guns. After this defeat, Banderas negotiated a peace with Occidente, in which he was granted pardon, and recognized as captain-general of the Yaqui town, and was given a salary. In 1828 the office of captain-general was abolished, and Occidente government reasserted its right to tax the Yaqui, in 1832 Banderas renewed the war against the Mexican authorities, in cooperation with Dolores Gutiérrez, a chief of the Opata. In 1833 Banderas and Gutiérrez were executed after their forces were defeated in a battle near Buenavista, there were other leaders who continued resisting, so the wars continued. One incident in 1868 was a massacre by Mexican soldiers of about 120 Yaqui men, women and children, some 400 of the Yaqui prisoners were held inside a church which was then bombarded by artillery. Affairs such as this many of the natives to emigrate. Some warriors fled from their occupied pueblos along the Rio Yaqui, in 1834 Yaqui at Torim tried to drive the Mexican settlers from that location. The Mexican forces in this fighting were led by a Yaqui, Juscamea continued to cooperate with the Mexican government until 1840 when he was killed by anti-Mexican Yaquis in fighting at Horcasitas. During the 1830s and 1840s the Yaqui often allied with Manuel Gándara in his struggle against José de Urrea for control of Sonora, in 1838 this led to Urrea capturing the coastal salt deposits of the Yaqui and transferring them to state control. In 1857 Gándara was removed from power by Ignacio Pesqueira, the Yaqui under the leadership of Mateo Marquin, also known as Jose Maria Barquin, were among the chief allies of Gándara in his attempt to regain control of Sonora
17.
Chichimeca War
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The Chichimeca War was a military conflict waged between Spanish colonizers and their Indian allies against a confederation of Chichimeca Indians. It was the longest and most expensive conflict between Spaniards and the peoples of New Spain in the history of the colony. The Chichimeca wars began eight years after the Mixtón War of 1540–42 and it can be considered as a continuation of the rebellion as the fighting did not come to a halt in the intervening years. Unlike in the Mixtón rebellion, the Caxcanes were now allied with the Spanish, the war was fought in the Bajío region known as La Gran Chichimeca, specifically in the Mexican states of Zacatecas, Guanajuato, Aguascalientes, Jalisco, and San Luis Potosí. On September 8,1546 Indians near the Cerro de la Bufa in what would become the city of Zacatecas showed the Spaniard Juan de Tolosa several pieces of silver-rich ore, news of the silver strike soon spread across Spanish Mexico. The dream of quick wealth triggered multitudes of people to migrate from southern Mexico to the city of Zacatecas in the heartland of La Gran Chichimeca, soon the mines of San Martín, Chalchihuites, Avino, Sombrerete, Fresnillo, Mazapil, and Nieves were established. The Chichimeca nations resented the intrusions by the Spanish and their Indian laborers, disobeying the Viceroy, Spanish soldiers soon began raiding native settlements of both friendly and unfriendly Indians to acquire slaves for the mines. To supply and communicate with the mines in and near Zacatecas, new roads were built from Querétaro, the slow-moving caravans of carts and wagons full of goods along the roads were a tempting target for Chichimeca raiders. The Chichimecas were nomadic and semi-nomadic people who occupied the large desert basin stretching from present day Saltillo and Durango in the north to Querétaro, in favored areas some of the Chichimeca grew corn and other crops. Their numbers are difficult to estimate, although based on the density of nomadic populations they probably numbered 30,000 to 60,000. The Chichimecas lived in rancherias of crude shelters or caves, frequently moving from one area to another to take advantage of seasonal foods and hunting. The characteristics most noted about them by the Spanish was that women and men wore few if any clothes, grew their hair long, and painted and tattooed their bodies. They were often accused of cannibalism, the Chichimecas were not a single tribe or a united nation, but consisted or four different ethnic groups, Guachichiles, Pames, Guamares, and Zacatecos. None of these groups were united but rather consisted of many different independent tribes. Their territories overlapped and other Indian groups also joined one or another of the Chichimeca groups in raiding on occasion, the Guachichiles’ territory centered on the area around what would become the city of San Luis Potosí. They seem to have been the most numerous of the four ethnic groups and their name meant ‘head colored red” and they colored both their skin and clothing that color. Living in close proximity to the road between Querétaro and Zacatecas, they were the most feared of the Indian raiders. The Pames lived north of Querétaro and south and east of the Guachichiles and they were the least warlike and dangerous of the Chichimecas – primarily raiders of livestock
18.
Acaxee Rebellion
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The Acaxee Rebellion was an insurrection against Spanish rule in Mexico by Acaxee Indians in 1601. Their territory was about 125 miles north to south and 50 miles east to west, the area was called Topia and Tepehuana by the Spaniards. The Acaxee and their neighbors shared common features of culture identified by scholar Susan M, an epidemic swept the region in 1576-1577, killing many thousands of Indians including possibly many Acaxee, and additional epidemics broke out in 1590 and 1596-1597. Thus, by the time of the rebellion the Acaxee probably numbered only a few thousand, furthermore, their capacity to resist the Spanish was adversely impacted by their endemic warfare with the Xixime to their south and the Tepehuan to the east. The Spanish discovered silver deposits in Acaxee territory in the 1580s, several hundred Spaniards, black and Indian slaves, and Indian laborers migrated into the Acaxee country. They needed additional labor to work in the mines, through the Encomienda system the Indians were forced to work in Spanish mines. However, the nature of the Acaxee settlements was a hindrance to utilizing Indian labor. Jesuit missionaries assisted in concentrating the Indians in larger settlements for easier exploitation, in the “Peace by Purchase” plan to resolve the Chichimeca War in 1590 the Spanish had recognized the utility of missionaries in the pacification of the northern frontiers of Nueva Espana. The Jesuits were relative newcomers to Mexico and the Indians of Sinaloa, in 1600, the missionary Hernando de Santarén toured the region with a local encomendero, Captain Diego de Avila. In return, the Spaniards promised to them from their enemies and provide tools, seeds. Indians who resisted the Spanish demands were beaten, an Indian leader named Perico initiated the rebellion in late 1601. Using a mixture of Spanish and Indian religious practices, he promised his followers that the Spanish could be exterminated, the rebellion was characterized by messianic leadership and promises of millennial redemption during a period of violent disruption and catastrophic demographic decline due to disease. The rebellion aimed “to restore pre-Columbian social and religious elements that had destroyed by the Spanish conquest. ”Indian attacks over the first few weeks killed about 50 Spaniards. The Acaxee burned Spanish mining camps and buildings, including 40 churches, the siege was raised when reinforcements arrived from Durango. The priest Santarén led a delegation but several members of his group were killed as were members of another delegation led by a bishop. The Acaxee took up positions in the mountains and shut down most silver mining. In 1603, the Spaniards gathered an army of encomenderos and Indian allies and suppressed the Acaxee, executing Perico and 48 of their leaders, defiance and Deference in Mexicos Colonial North, Indians Under Spanish Rule in Nueva Vizcaya. University of Texas Press, Austin, TX
19.
Acoma Massacre
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The Acoma Massacre was fought in January 1599 between Spanish conquistadors and Acoma Native Americans in what is now New Mexico. Several hundred survivors were enslaved or otherwise severely punished. Relations between the Spanish and the Acoma people had been peaceful for several decades after the two groups first came into contact around 1540. In 1598, the Acoma leader, Zutacapan, learned that the Spanish intended to conquer Acoma Pueblo, accordingly, Don Oñate sent his nephew, Captain Juan de Zaldívar, to the pueblo to consult with Zutacapan. When Zaldivar arrived on December 4,1598, one of the first things he did was to take sixteen of his men up the mesa on which the pueblo was located to demand food from the natives. After being denied the food they had demanded, the Spaniards allegedly attacked some Acoma women, a fight ensued, leaving Zaldivar and eleven of his men dead. When Oñate learned of the incident, he ordered Juan de Zaldivars brother, Vicente de Zaldívar, to lead an expedition to punish the Acoma and set an example for other pueblos. Taking about seventy men, Vincente de Zaldivar left San Juan Pueblo in late December or early January, the battle began the following morning, January 22. For the first two days the Spanish and Acoma skirmished inconclusively until Zaldivar developed a plan to breach the pueblo using a small cannon, on the third day, Zalvidar and twelve of his men ascended the mesa and opened fire on the pueblo with the cannon. After some time, several Acoma homes caught on fire and were destroyed while the conquistadors stormed through the settlement, there were an estimated 6,000 natives living at or around the Acoma Pueblo in 1599, at least 2,000 of whom were warriors. Of the 2,000, about 500 were killed in the battle, some 500 prisoners were taken and later sentenced to a variety of punishments. Don Oñate ordered that every male above the age of twenty-five would have his foot cut off. However, only men actually received amputations. Males between the age of twelve and twenty-five were also enslaved for twenty years along with all of the females above the age of twelve, many of these natives were dispersed among the residences of government officials or at Jesuit missions. Sixty of the youngest women were deemed not guilty and sent to Mexico City where they were parceled out among Catholic convents. Two Hopi men were taken prisoner at the pueblo, after each had one of his hands cut off, several Acomas escaped capture by the Spanish in 1599 and by 1601 they had rebuilt their pueblo, which still stands. The massacre remains an issue in the United States. In 1998, during the 400-year anniversary of Spains founding of New Mexico colony and they later issued a statement about the incident, We took the liberty of removing Oñates right foot on behalf of our brothers and sister of Acoma Pueblo
20.
Navajo Wars
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These conflicts ranged from small-scale raiding to large expeditions mounted by governments into territory controlled by the Navajo. Facundo Melgares, the last Spanish governor of New Mexico before independence in 1821, in October 1821 he sued for peace. 1582, Espejo-Beltrain found here peaceful Indian mountaineers called Querechos and this party did not linger around Acoma because the Querechose who carried on trade with the Pueblo were known to come to their aid in times of conflict. 1630, Fray Benevides arranges a peace between the Tewas and Navajo,1638, Governor Luis de Rosa encourages Navajo to raid the missions of his political enemy the Franciscan friars. 1641–42, Franciscan friars mount a campaign against Navajo, burning corn, taking prisoners. 1644–47, Spanish fight Navajo living along the San Juan River,1659, Bernardo Lopez sends 40 Spanish soldiers and 800 allies into Navajo land. 1661, Lopez sanctions killing and capture of Navajo as slaves who came to Tewa to trade,1669, Spanish attack Navajo near Acoma. 1677–78, Navajo actively raiding Spanish pueblos, Spanish mount three different scorched earth and slave gathering campaigns. Start of Great Southwestern Revolt against Spanish,1691, Navajo alert Pueblos and Apaches that Spanish force was on its way. 1696, Navajo said to be inciting other tribes, combined with Texas in revolt, 1698–1699, End of Great Southwestern Revolt, Spanish boundaries remain constant. Melgaress successor, Governor José Antonio Vizcarra met Navajo leaders at Paguate on 12 February 1823 and his terms essentially stated that the Spanish would settle the Navajo in pueblos and energetically convert them to the Catholic religion. The Navajo were not interested in either of these proposals and they rejected the treaty and renewed the fight. Six New Mexicans were killed at Socorro in April and eight more at Sabinal in May, on 18 June 1823, Vizcarra led 1,500 troops in a 74-day expedition against the Navajo of western New Mexico. His route took him through the Chuska Mountains to the Hopi mesas in what is now Arizona, then north towards Utah, reaching Oljeto Creek in what is now San Juan County, thirty three Navajo were killed, of whom eight were women, and about 30 were captured. The expedition reached Canyon de Chelly in what is now eastern Arizona, in retaliation for Vizcarras expedition, the Navajo raied Socorro again, and attacked Tome, Albuquerque and reached the outskirts of Santa Fe. The U. S. military assumed control of the southwest from Mexico by 1846. And raids continued between the Navajo and the New Mexican civilians, the treaty was not honored by young Navajo raiders who continued to steal stock from New Mexican villages and herders. On August 16,1849 the US Army began an expedition into the heart of Navajo country on a reconnaissance to impress the Navajo with the might of the U. S. military
21.
Pima Revolt
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The revolt culminated from decades of low-level violence by the local Spanish settlers against Indians beginning in 1684. The period was characterized by local Indians gradual loss of autonomy, however, the colonial province of Sonora was characterized by a larger native population, and more frequent conflict between them and the Spaniards. The Pima Indian Revolt was directly preceded by the Seri Revolt of Seri Indians in Sonora, the initial act of rebellion was the massacre of 18 settlers lured to Oacpicagiguas home in Sáric. In the ensuing three months, Oacpicagigua and more than a hundred men attacked the mission at Tubutama, and other Spanish settlements. Oacpicagigua surrendered to Captain José Díaz del Carpio on March 18,1752 after a negotiated peace, when the Pima leaders laid the blame for the revolt on Jesuit missionaries they were pardoned by the colonial governor Ortiz Parrilla. Small scale conflict soon began again, however, and Oacpicagigua eventually died in a Spanish prison in 1755, tubac Through Four Centuries, An Historical Resume and Analysis. Pp. CHAPTER V, THE PIMA REVOLT OF1751
22.
New Mexico
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New Mexico is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States of America. It was admitted to the Union as the 47th state on January 6,1912 and it is usually considered one of the Mountain States. New Mexico is fifth by area, the 36th-most populous, inhabited by Native Americans for thousands of years before European exploration, New Mexico was colonized by the Spanish in 1598 Imperial Spanish viceroyalty of New Spain. Later, it was part of independent Mexico before becoming a U. S. territory and eventually a U. S. state as a result of the Mexican–American War. Among U. S. states, New Mexico has the highest percentage of Hispanics, the major Native American nations in the state are Navajo, Pueblo, and Apache peoples. The demography and culture of the state are shaped by these strong Hispanic and Native American influences and its scarlet and gold colors are taken from the royal standards of Spain, along with the ancient sun symbol of the Zia, a Pueblo-related tribe. New Mexico, or Nuevo México in Spanish, is incorrectly believed to have taken its name from the nation of Mexico. The name simply stuck, even though the area had no connection to Mexico or the Mexica Indian tribes, Mexico, formerly a part of New Spain, adopted its name centuries later in 1821, after winning independence from Spanish rule. New Mexico was a part of the independent Mexican Empire and Federal Republic of Mexico for 27 years,1821 through 1848, New Mexico and Mexico developed as neighboring Spanish-speaking communities under Spanish rule, with relatively independent histories. The states total area is 121,412 square miles, the eastern border of New Mexico lies along 103° W longitude with the state of Oklahoma, and 2.2 miles west of 103° W longitude with Texas. On the southern border, Texas makes up the eastern two-thirds, while the Mexican states of Chihuahua and Sonora make up the western third, the western border with Arizona runs along the 109°03 W longitude. The southwestern corner of the state is known as the Bootheel, the 37° N latitude parallel forms the northern boundary with Colorado. The states New Mexico, Colorado, Arizona, and Utah come together at the Four Corners in the corner of New Mexico. New Mexico, although a state, has very little water. Its surface water area is about 250 square miles, the New Mexican landscape ranges from wide, rose-colored deserts to broken mesas to high, snow-capped peaks. Despite New Mexicos arid image, heavily forested mountain wildernesses cover a significant portion of the state, the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, the southernmost part of the Rocky Mountains, run roughly north-south along the east side of the Rio Grande in the rugged, pastoral north. The most important of New Mexicos rivers are the Rio Grande, Pecos, Canadian, San Juan, the Rio Grande is tied for the fourth-longest river in the United States. Tourists visiting these sites bring significant money to the state, other areas of geographical and scenic interest include Kasha-Katuwe Tent Rocks National Monument and the Gila Wilderness in the southwest of the state
23.
Franciscans
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The Franciscans are a group of related mendicant religious orders within the Catholic Church, founded in 1209 by Francis of Assisi. These orders include the Order of Friars Minor, the Order of Saint Clare, Francis began preaching around 1207 and traveled to Rome to seek approval from the Pope in 1209. The original Rule of Saint Francis approved by the Pope disallowed ownership of property, the austerity was meant to emulate the life and ministry of Jesus Christ. Franciscans traveled and preached in the streets, while boarding in church properties, Saint Clare, under Franciss guidance, founded the Poor Clares in 1212, which remains a Second Order of the Franciscans. The extreme poverty required of members was relaxed in final revision of the Rule in 1223, the degree of observance required of members remained a major source of conflict within the order, resulting in numerous secessions. The Order of Friars Minor, previously known as the Observant branch, is one of the three Franciscan First Orders within the Catholic Church, the others being the Capuchins and Conventuals. The Order of Friars Minor, in its current form, is the result of an amalgamation of smaller orders completed in 1897 by Pope Leo XIII. The latter two, the Capuchin and Conventual, remain distinct religious institutes within the Catholic Church, observing the Rule of Saint Francis with different emphases, Franciscans are sometimes referred to as minorites or greyfriars because of their habit. In Poland and Lithuania they are known as Bernardines, after Bernardino of Siena, the name of original order, Friars Minor, means lesser brothers, and stems from Francis of Assisis rejection of extravagance. Francis was the son of a cloth merchant, but gave up his wealth to pursue his faith more fully. Francis adopted of the tunic worn by peasants as the religious habit for his order. Those who joined him became the original Order of Friars Minor and they all live according to a body of regulations known as the Rule of St Francis. First Order The First Order or the Order of Friars Minor are commonly called simply the Franciscans and this Order is a mendicant religious order of men, some of whom trace their origin to Francis of Assisi. Their official Latin name is the Ordo Fratrum Minorum, St. Francis thus referred to his followers as Fraticelli, meaning Little Brothers. Franciscan brothers are informally called friars or the Minorites and they all live according to a body of regulations known as the Rule of St Francis. These are The Order of Friars Minor, known as the Observants, most commonly simply called Franciscan friars, official name, the Order of Friars Minor Capuchin or simply Capuchins, official name, Friars Minor Capuchin. The Conventual Franciscans or Minorites, official name, Friars Minor Conventual, Second Order The Second Order, most commonly called Poor Clares in English-speaking countries, consists of religious sisters. The order is called the Order of St. Clare, but in the century, prior to 1263, this order was referred to as The Poor Ladies, The Poor Enclosed Nuns
24.
Catholic
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The use of terms catholicism and catholicity is closely related to the use of term Catholic Church. The earliest evidence of the use of term is the Letter to the Smyrnaeans that Ignatius of Antioch wrote in about 108 to Christians in Smyrna. In 380, Emperor Theodosius I limited use of the term Catholic Christian exclusively to those who followed the faith as Pope Damasus I of Rome. Numerous other early writers including Cyril of Jerusalem, Augustine of Hippo further developed the use of the term catholic in relation to Christianity. In Christian theology, and specially in ecclesiology, terms Catholicism, when used with small c, terms catholicism and catholicity generally designate theological doctrine of the catholicity of the Church without denominational connotations. A common belief in Catholicism is institutional continuity with the early Christian church founded by Jesus Christ, many churches or communions of churches identify singularly or collectively as the authentic church. The Bishop of Rome was also considered to have the right to convene ecumenical councils, when the Imperial capital moved to Constantinople, Romes influence was sometimes challenged. The first great rupture in the Church followed this Council and they are often called Ancient Oriental Churches. The next major break was after the Council of Chalcedon and this Council repudiated Eutychian Monophysitism which stated that the divine nature completely subsumed the human nature in Christ. This Council declared that Christ, though one person, exhibited two natures without confusion, without change, without division, without separation and thus is both fully God and fully human, the next great rift within Christianity was in the 11th century. This division between the Western Church and the Eastern Church is called the East–West Schism, several eastern churches reunited, constituting some of the Eastern Catholic Churches. Liturgical and canonical practices vary between all these particular Churches constituting the Roman and Eastern Catholic Churches, in all these cases the beliefs and practices of Catholicism would be identical with the beliefs and practices of the Church in question. However, in Roman Catholicism, the term catholic is understood as to cover those who recognize and are in standing with the Magisterium. The sense given to the word by those who use it to distinguish their position from a Calvinistic or Puritan form of Protestantism. It is then meaningful to attempt to draw up a list of common characteristic beliefs, the Roman Catholic Church includes the 23 rites who recognize the Magisterium. Belief in the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist, the belief that Christ is made manifest in the elements of Holy Communion, possession of the threefold ordained ministry of Bishops, Priests and Deacons. Belief that the Church is the vessel and deposit of the fullness of the teachings of Jesus and this teaching is preserved in both written scripture and in unwritten tradition, neither being independent of the other. A belief in the necessity and efficacy of sacraments, liturgical and personal use of the Sign of the Cross The use of sacred images, candles, vestments and music, and often incense and water, in worship
25.
Rio Grande
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The Rio Grande is one of the principal rivers in the southwest United States and northern Mexico. The Rio Grande begins in south-central Colorado in the United States, along the way, it forms part of the Mexico–United States border. According to the International Boundary and Water Commission, its length was 1,896 miles in the late 1980s. Depending on how it is measured, the Rio Grande is the fourth- or fifth-longest river system in North America. The river serves as part of the border between the U. S. state of Texas and the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León. A very short stretch of the river serves as part of the boundary between the U. S. states of Texas and New Mexico. Since the mid–20th century, heavy consumption of farms and cities along with many large diversion dams on the river has left only 20% of its natural discharge to flow to the Gulf. Near the rivers mouth, the heavily irrigated lower Rio Grande Valley is an important agricultural region, the Rio Grande is one of 19 Great Waters recognized by Americas Great Waters Coalition. The Rio Grandes watershed covers 182,200 square miles, many endorheic basins are situated within, or adjacent to, the Rio Grandes basin, and these are sometimes included in the river basins total area, increasing its size to about 336,000 square miles. The Rio Grande rises in the part of the Rio Grande National Forest in the U. S. state of Colorado. The river is formed by the joining of several streams at the base of Canby Mountain in the San Juan Mountains and it then continues on a southerly route through the desert cities of Albuquerque, and Las Cruces to El Paso, Texas and Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua. In the Albuquerque area, the river flows past a number of historic Pueblo villages, including Sandia Pueblo, below El Paso, it serves as part of the border between the United States and Mexico. The official river border measurement ranges from 889 miles to 1,248 miles, a major tributary, the Rio Conchos, enters at Ojinaga, Chihuahua, below El Paso, and supplies most of the water in the border segment. Other well-known tributaries include the Pecos and the smaller Devils, which join the Rio Grande on the site of Amistad Dam. Despite its name and length, the Rio Grande is not navigable by ocean-going ships, in New Mexico, the river flows through the Rio Grande rift from one sediment-filled basin to another, cutting canyons between the basins and supporting a fragile bosque ecosystem on its flood plain. From El Paso eastward, the flows through desert. Although irrigated agriculture exists throughout most of its stretch, it is extensive in the subtropical Lower Rio Grande Valley. The river ends in a small, sandy delta at the Gulf of Mexico, during portions of 2001 and 2002, the mouth of the Rio Grande was blocked by a sandbar
26.
Acoma Pueblo
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Acoma Pueblo is a Native American pueblo approximately 60 miles west of Albuquerque, New Mexico in the United States. Three villages make up Acoma Pueblo, Sky City, Acomita, the Acoma Pueblo tribe is a federally recognized tribal entity. The historical land of Acoma Pueblo totaled roughly 5,000,000 acres, the community retains only 10% of this land, making up the Acoma Indian Reservation. Acoma Pueblo is a National Historic Landmark, according to the 2010 United States Census,4,989 people identified as Acoma. The Acoma have continuously occupied the area for more than 800 years, Acoma tribal traditions estimate that they have lived in the village for more than two thousand years. The English name Acoma was borrowed from Spanish Ácoma or Acóma, the Spanish name was borrowed from the Acoma word ʔáák’u̓u̓m̓é meaning person from Acoma Pueblo. ʔáák’u̓u̓m̓é itself is derived from ʔáák’u, the name does not have any meaning in the modern Acoma language. Some tribal authorities connect it to the similar word háák’u preparedness, place of preparedness, the name does not mean sky city. Other tribal elders assert that it means place that always was while outsiders say it means people of the white rock, Acoma has been spelled in various other ways in historical documents. ákuma, ákomage, Acus, Acux, Aacus, Hacús, Vacus, Vsacus, Yacco, Acco, Acuca, Acogiya, Acuco, Coco, Suco, Akome, Acuo, Ako, the Spanish mission name was San Esteban de Acoma. Pueblo is the Spanish word for ‘village’ or ‘small town. ’ In general usage, the Acoma language is classified in the western division of the Keresan language family. In contemporary Acoma Pueblo culture, most people speak both Acoma and English, Pueblo people are believed to have descended from the Anasazi, Mogollon, and other ancient peoples. These influences are seen in the architecture, farming style, in the 13th century, the Anasazi abandoned their canyon homelands due to climate change and social upheaval. For upwards of two centuries, migrations occurred in the area, the Acoma Pueblo emerged by the thirteenth century. This early founding date makes Acoma Pueblo one of the earliest continuously inhabited communities in the United States, the Pueblo is situated on a 365 feet mesa, about 60 miles west of Albuquerque, New Mexico. The isolation and location of the Pueblo has sheltered the community for more than 1,200 years and they sought to avoid conflict with the neighboring Navajo and Apache peoples. The first mention of Acoma was in 1539, the slave Estevanico was the first non-Indian to visit Acoma and reported it to Fray Marcos de Niza who related the information to the viceroy of New Spain after the end of his expedition. Acoma was called the independent Kingdom of Hacus and he called the Acoma people encaconados, which meant that they had turquoise hanging from their ears and noses
27.
Encomienda
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The encomienda was a labor system, rewarding conquerors with the labor of particular groups of people. It was first established in Spain during the Roman period, and it was applied on a much larger scale during the Spanish colonization of the Americas and the Philippines. Conquered peoples were considered vassals of the Spanish monarch and the award of an encomienda was a grant from the crown to a particular individual. In the encomienda, the Spanish crown granted a person a specified number of natives from a community, with the indigenous leaders in charge of mobilizing the assessed tribute. In return, the natives would provide tributes in the form of metals, maize, wheat, in the first decade of Spanish presence in the Caribbean, Spaniards divided up the natives, who in some cases were worked relentlessly. With the ouster of Christopher Columbus, the Spanish crown sent a governor, Fray Nicolás de Ovando. In many cases natives were forced to do hard labor and subjected to extreme punishment, however, Queen Isabella of Castile had forbidden Indian slavery and deemed the indigenous free vassals of the crown, allowing many natives and Spaniards to appeal to the Real Audiencias. In the former Inca Empire, for example, the system continued the Incaic traditions of extracting tribute in the form of labor, the heart of encomienda and encomendero lies in the Spanish verb encomendar, to entrust. The encomienda was based on the Reconquista institution in which adelantados were given the right to extract tribute from Muslims or other peasants in areas that they had conquered and resettled. The encomienda system in Spanish America differed from the Peninsular institution in that encomenderos did not own the land on which the natives lived, the system did not entail any direct land tenure by the encomendero, Indian lands were to remain in the possession of their communities. This right was protected by the crown of Castile because the rights of administration in the New World belonged to this crown. The first grantees of the encomienda or encomenderos were usually conquerors who received grants of labor by virtue of participation in a successful conquest. Later, some receiving encomiendas in New Spain were not conquerors themselves but were well connected that they received grants. He designated as pobladores antiguos, a group of undetermined number of encomenderos in New Spain, holders of encomiendas also included women and indigenous notables. The daughter of Doña Marina and conqueror Juan Jaramillo, Doña Maria Jaramillo, two of Moctezumas daughters, Doña Isabel Moctezuma and her younger sister, Doña Leonor Moctezuma, were granted extensive encomiendas in perpetuity by Hernan Cortes. Doña Leonor Moctezuma married in succession two Spaniards, and left the encomiendas to her daughter by her second husband, vassal Inca rulers established after the conquest also sought and were granted encomiendas. Indeed, the settler-conquistadors knew the fury of the aroused Indian lords, voyagers, explorers, initially, the encomienda system was devised to meet the needs of the early agricultural economies in the Caribbean. Later it was adopted to the economy of Peru and Upper Peru
28.
Theocracy
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Theocracy is a form of government in which a deity is the source from which all authority derives. The Oxford English Dictionary has this definition,1, a system of government in which priests rule in the name of God or a god. The commonwealth of Israel from the time of Moses until the election of Saul as King, an ecclesiocracy is a situation where the religious leaders assume a leading role in the state, but do not claim that they are instruments of divine revelation. For example, the prince-bishops of the European Middle Ages, where the bishop was also the temporal ruler, religiously endorsed monarchies fall between theocracy and ecclesiocracy, according to the relative strengths of the religious and political organs. Most forms of theocracy are oligarchic in nature, involving rule of the many by the few, some of whom so anointed under claim of divine commission. In some religions, the ruler, usually a king, was regarded as the favorite of God who could not be questioned, sometimes even being the descendant of. Today, there is also a form of government where clerics have the power, taken literally or strictly, theocracy means rule by God or gods and refers primarily to an internal rule of the heart, especially in its biblical application. The common, generic use of the term, as defined above in terms of rule by a church or analogous religious leadership, in a pure theocracy, the civil leader is believed to have a personal connection with the civilizations religion or belief. For example, Moses led the Israelites, and Muhammad led the early Muslims, there is a fine line between the tendency of appointing religious characters to run the state and having a religious-based government. According to the Holy Books, Prophet Joseph was offered an essential governmental role just because he was trustworthy, wise and knowledgeable. As a result of the Prophet Josephs knowledge and also due to his ethical and genuine efforts during a critical economic situation, when religions have a holy book, it is used as a direct message from God. Law proclaimed by the ruler is also considered a divine revelation, as to the Prophet Muhammad ruling, The first thirteen of the Prophets twenty-three year career went on totally apolitical and non-violent. Yet, interestingly, the Prophet did not establish a theocracy in Medina, instead of a polity defined solely by Islam, he founded a territorial polity based on religious pluralism. This is evident in a document called the ’Charter of Medina’, according to the Quran, Prophets were not after power or material resources. ”While, in theocracy many aspects of the holy book are overshadowed by material powers. Due to be considered divine, the regime entitles itself to interpret verses to its own benefit and abuse them out of the context for its political aims. An ecclesiocracy, on the hand, is a situation where the religious leaders assume a leading role in the state. For example, the prince-bishops of the European Middle Ages, where the bishop was also the temporal ruler, religiously endorsed monarchies fall between these two poles, according to the relative strengths of the religious and political organs. Theocracy is distinguished from other, secular forms of government that have a religion, or are influenced by theological or moral concepts
29.
Kachina
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A kachina is a spirit being in western Pueblo religious beliefs. The western Pueblo, Native American cultures located in the southwestern United States include the Hopi, Zuni, Tewa Village, Acoma Pueblo, and Laguna Pueblo. The kachina concept has three different aspects, the supernatural being, the dancers, and kachina dolls, small dolls carved in the likeness of kachinas given as gifts to children. Kachinas are spirits or personifications of things in the real world and these spirits are believed to visit the Hopi villages during the first half of the year. A kachina can represent anything in the world or cosmos, from a revered ancestor to an element, a location, a quality. There are more than 400 different kachinas in Hopi and Pueblo culture, the local pantheon of kachinas varies in each pueblo community, there may be kachinas for the sun, stars, thunderstorms, wind, corn, insects, and many other concepts. Kachinas are understood as having humanlike relationships, they may have uncles, sisters, and grandmothers, one observer has written, The central theme of the kachina is the presence of life in all objects that fill the universe. Everything has an essence or a force, and humans must interact with these or fail to survive. The exact origin of the kachinas is not completely known, but according to one version of Hopi belief, the underworld is a concept common to all the Pueblo Indians. It is a place where the spirits or shades live, the newly born come from there, the kachinas wandered with the Hopis over the world until they arrived at Casa Grande, where both the Hopis and the kachinas settled for a while. With their powerful ceremonies, the kachinas brought rain for the crops and were in general of much help, unfortunately, all of the kachinas were killed when the Hopis were attacked by enemies and their souls returned to the underworld. Another version says that in a period, the kachinas danced for the Hopis, bringing them rain. But eventually, the Hopis came to take the kachinas for granted, losing all respect and reverence for them, so the kachinas finally left and returned to the underworld. However, before they left, the kachinas taught some of their ceremonies to a few young men and showed them how to make the masks. When the other Hopi realized their loss, they turned to the human substitute of kachinas. In many ways the Kachina Cult and its ritual are the most important ceremonial observances in the Hopi religious calendar, within Hopi religion, the kachinas are said to live on the San Francisco Peaks near Flagstaff, Arizona. To the Hopis, the name refers to the supernatural beings who visit the villages to help the Hopis with everyday activities. These spirits are then impersonated by men who dress up in costumes, wooden carvings of these spirits are also made to give to the children to help them identify the many kachinas
30.
Entheogen
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An entheogen, from Greek, literally meaning generating the divine within, is any psychoactive substance that induces a spiritual experience and is aimed at spiritual development. This terminology is often chosen to contrast with use of the same drugs. The use of entheogens was kept secret by native societies to the Western world until the 1950s, later clinical trials have shown that these substances have helped people with such mental disorders as OCD, PTSD, alcoholism, depression, and cluster headaches. In the 1960s the hippie movement escalated its use to psychedelic art and binaural beats, sensory deprivation tank, music, entheogens have been used by native tribes for hundreds of years. Some countries have legislation that allows for traditional entheogen use, entheogens have been used in a ritualized context for thousands of years. R. Gordon Wasson and Giorgio Samorini have proposed several examples of the use of entheogens that are found in the archaeological record. Evidence for the first use of entheogens may come from Tassili, Algeria, with a painting of a mushroom-man. Hemp seeds discovered by archaeologists at Pazyryk suggest early ceremonial practices by the Scythians occurred during the 5th to 2nd century BC, with the advent of organic chemistry, there now exist many synthetic drugs with similar psychoactive properties, many derived from the aforementioned plants. Semi-synthetic (e. g. LSD and synthetic drugs have also been developed, alexander Shulgin developed hundreds of entheogens in PiHKAL and TiHKAL. Most of the drugs in PiHKAL are synthetic, entheogens used by movements includes biotas like peyote, extracts like Ayahuasca, the semi-synthetic drug LSD, and synthetic drugs like DPT and 2C-B. Both Santo Daime and União do Vegetal now have members and churches throughout the world, MAPS has pursued a number of other research studies examining the effects of psychedelics administered to human subjects. In essence, all drugs that are biosynthesized in nature by cytota. To exclude non-psychoactive drugs that also are used in spiritual context. Toxicity does not affect a drugs inclusion, nor does effectiveness or potency, the substances vary from psychoactive drugs, and less often physical painful or dangerous venoms. High coffee consumption has been linked to an increase in the likelihood of experiencing auditory hallucinations, a study conducted by the La Trobe University School of Psychological Sciences revealed that as few as five cups of coffee a day could trigger the phenomenon. This is similar to how pure THC is very different than an extract that retains the many cannabinoids of the plant such as cannabidiol and cannabinol. L. E. Drugs, including some that cause physical dependence, have used with entheogenic intention, mostly in ancient times. Common recreational drugs that cause chemical dependence have a history of entheogenic use, perhaps because they could not access traditional entheogens as shamans were very secret with their sacraments who regarded non-visioning sacraments as hedonistic
31.
Inquisition
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The Inquisition was a group of institutions within the government system of the Catholic Church whose aim was to combat heresy. It started in 12th-century France to combat religious sectarianism, in particular the Cathars, other groups investigated later included the Spiritual Franciscans, the Hussites and Beguines. Beginning in the 1250s, inquisitors were generally chosen from members of the Dominican Order, the term Medieval Inquisition covers these courts up to mid-15th century. During the Late Middle Ages and early Renaissance, the concept and scope of the Inquisition significantly expanded in response to the Protestant Reformation and it expanded to other European countries, resulting in the Spanish Inquisition and Portuguese Inquisition. The Spanish and Portuguese operated inquisitorial courts throughout their empires in Africa, Asia, the institution survived as part of the Roman Curia, but in 1908 was given the new name of Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office. In 1965 it became the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, the term Inquisition comes from Medieval Latin inquisitio, which referred to any court process that was based on Roman law, which had gradually come back into usage in the late medieval period. Today, the English term Inquisition can apply to any one of several institutions that worked against heretics within the system of the Roman Catholic Church. He Inquisition, as a church-court, had no jurisdiction over Moors, generally, the Inquisition was concerned only with the heretical behaviour of Catholic adherents or converts. The overwhelming majority of sentences seem to have consisted of penances like wearing a cross sewn on ones clothes, going on pilgrimage, etc. The laws were inclusive of proscriptions against certain religious crimes, thus the inquisitors generally knew what would be the fate of anyone so remanded, and cannot be considered to have divorced the means of determining guilt from its effects. The 1578 edition of the Directorium Inquisitorum spelled out the purpose of inquisitorial penalties, quoniam punitio non refertur primo & per se in correctionem & bonum eius qui punitur, sed in bonum publicum ut alij terreantur, & a malis committendis avocentur. Such punishments had a number of opponents, although some countries punished heresy with the death penalty. In the 12th century, to counter the spread of Catharism, the Church charged councils composed of bishops and archbishops with establishing inquisitions. The first Inquisition was temporarily established in Languedoc in 1184, the murder of Pope Innocents papal legate Pierre de Castelnau in 1208 sparked the Albigensian Crusade. The Inquisition was permanently established in 1229, run largely by the Dominicans in Rome, historians use the term Medieval Inquisition to describe the various inquisitions that started around 1184, including the Episcopal Inquisition and later the Papal Inquisition. Other Inquisitions followed after these first inquisition movements, by 1256 inquisitors were given absolution if they used instruments of torture. In the 13th century, Pope Gregory IX assigned the duty of carrying out inquisitions to the Dominican Order, Most inquisitors were friars who taught theology and/or law in the universities. They used inquisitorial procedures, a legal practice adapted from the earlier Ancient Roman court procedures
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Medicine man
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A medicine man or medicine woman is a traditional healer and spiritual leader who serves a community of Indigenous people. Individual cultures have their own names, in their respective Indigenous languages, for the spiritual healers, in the ceremonial context of Indigenous North American communities, medicine usually refers to spiritual healing. Medicine men/women should not be confused with those who employ Native American ethnobotany, Native Americans tend to be quite reluctant to discuss issues about medicine or medicine people with non-Indians. In some cultures, the people not even discuss these matters with Indians from other tribes. In most tribes, medicine elders are prohibited from advertising or introducing themselves as such, as Nuttall writes, An inquiry to a Native person about religious beliefs or ceremonies is often viewed with suspicion. The term medicine man/woman, like the term shaman, has been criticized by Native Americans, as well as specialists in the fields of religion. The term medicine man/woman has also frequently used by Europeans to refer to African traditional healers. Cherokee Medicine People are considered the chosen ones within their tribe, the knowledge has been passed down for thousands of years. The Cherokee tribe is one of the first tribes to form a language to record their knowledge of formulas. Some of the information in these ledgers are in written code or backwards to prevent other people trying to use the ledger for their own purposes. A Cherokee Medicine person is not considered a doctor because they are known to have powers that could heal. The Medicine people kept their tools that used to heal other tribal members in a medicine bundle. When a Medicine Person treated their patients it was completely up to the person who was being treated if they did not want the medicine in case they had any opposed beliefs. Another way Medicine people would treat their patients was by using sweat lodges, in 1978, the American Indian Religious Freedom Act was passed, which allowed Medicine People to begin practicing again. Since practicing medicine was banned decades ago it completely faded, which is the reason why only a handful still practice this today, training a Cherokee Medicine Person takes years due to the vast amount of knowledge needed to practice. They learn secrets and formulas that they record in ledgers, when a medicine person learns new secrets and formulas it is important that they are not interrupted while recording their knowledge. It is also important that if one is not trained to use the knowledge they should not try to practice it without proper training. Another part of training is going into the mountains where they dance, sing, on the seventh day the Medicine People dance in a circle at the darkest hour to sacred songs while the drums get louder
Spanish Empire
