1.
Rickshaw
–
Rickshaw began as a two or three-wheeled passenger cart, called a pulled rickshaw, generally pulled by one man with one passenger. The first known use of the term was in 1887, over time, cycle rickshaws, auto rickshaws, and electric rickshaws were invented. Pulled rickshaws created a form of transportation, and a source of employment for male laborers. Their appearance was related to newly acquired knowledge of ball-bearing systems and their popularity declined as cars, trains and other forms of transportation became widely available. Auto rickshaws are becoming popular in some cities in the 21st century as an alternative to taxis because of their low cost. The word rickshaw originates from the Japanese word jinrikisha, which literally means human-powered vehicle, rickshaws were invented in Japan about 1869, after the lifting of a ban on wheeled vehicles from the Tokugawa period, and at the beginning of a rapid period of technical advancement in Japan. There are several theories about the inventor, jonathan Scobie, an American missionary to Japan, is also said to have invented the rickshaw around 1869 to transport his invalid wife through the streets of Yokohama. An American blacksmith Albert Tolman is said to have invented the rickshaw, or man drawn lorry, in 1846 in Worcester, Massachusetts, for a South American bound missionary. In New Jersey, the Burlington County Historical Society claims an 1867 invention by carriage maker James Birch, Japan historian Seidensticker wrote of the theories, Though the origins of the rickshaw are not entirely clear, they seem to be Japanese, and of Tokyo specifically. The most widely accepted theory offers the name of three inventors, and gives 1869 as the date of invention, the vehicle had a wooden carriage that rode on superior Western wheels and was a dramatic improvement over earlier modes of transportation. Whereas the earlier sedan chairs required two people, the rickshaw generally only required one, more than one person was required for hilly or mountainous areas. It also provided a ride for the passenger. Other forms of vehicles at the time were drawn by animals or were wheelbarrows, the Powerhouse Museum has had a rickshaw in its collection for 120 years. Finished in black lacquer-ware over timber, it was drawn by a single rickshaw runner and it became an inexpensive, popular mode of transportation across Asia. Peasants who migrated to large Asian cities often worked first as a rickshaw runner and it was the deadliest occupation in the East, the most degrading for human beings to pursue. Starting in 1870, the Tokyo government issued a permit to build and sell 人力車 to the trio that are believed in Asia to be the inventors, Izumi Yosuke, Takayama Kosuke. In order to operate a rickshaw in Tokyo, a seal was required from these men, by 1872, they replaced the palanquins and became the main mode of transportation in Japan, with about 40,000 rickshaws in service. At that time man-power was much cheaper than horse-power, horses were only used by the military
2.
Maiko
–
A maiko is an apprentice geiko in Kyoto, western Japan. Their jobs consist of performing songs, dances, and playing the shamisen or the koto for visitors during feasts. Maiko are usually aged 15 to 20 years old and become geiko after learning how to dance the traditional dances, play the shamisen. Maiko originated from women who served green tea and dango to people who visited the Kitano Tenman-gū or Yasaka Shrine at teahouses in the town about 300 years ago. At first, women served only green tea and dango, but they started to perform songs. During their career a maiko will wear different kinds of nihongami depending on rank, formality and they decorate their hairstyles with seasonal kanzashi. Maiko, unlike geiko, use their own hair and not wigs and they go to the nihongami hairdresser once a week, meaning that they have to sleep on a takamakura in order to maintain it. Wareshinobu is worn by junior maiko for the first 2-3 years, a mage is made by inserting two red kanako and is then decorated with a kanaokodome in the center of the mage. Its worn for misedashi where they will wear formal kanzashi made out of tortoise shell, silver and red miokuri, ofuku is the default hairstyle for senior maiko. It looks similar to wareshinobu, but the mage has a different shape. The color of the changes as the maiko gets older. Right after switching hairstyles it will be red, then pink, sometimes colors such as green, yellow or orange are seen, although it is quite rare. Yakko Shimada is worn by senior maiko for Shigyoshiki, Hassaku, the mage is quite big and is parted with a hatsuyori kanzashi. For winter the hatsuyori will be mainly coral with one jade bead and it also has a long kanako that can be many colors, although red most common. Katsuyama is worn by senior maiko during Gion Matsuri. The mage resembles Yakko Shimada in both shape and in that it has a long kanako that can be red, pink or blue if the maiko is very senior, on either side of the mage are bon-ten. It is said that the hairstyle was created by the oiran Katsuyama from the Edo period and it used to be a popular hairstyle for married women. Sakkou is the last hairstyle worn by maiko before becoming full fledged geiko and it is the most elaborate and expensive of all the hairstyles
3.
Human-powered transport
–
Human-powered transport is the transport of person and/or goods using human muscle power. Like animal-powered transport, human-powered transport has existed since time immemorial in the form of walking, running and swimming, modern technology has allowed machines to enhance human-power. Although motorization has increased speed and load capacity, many forms of human-powered transport remain popular for reasons of lower cost, leisure, physical exercise, human-powered transport is sometimes the only type available, especially in underdeveloped or inaccessible regions. In the 1989 Race Across America, one used a experimental device comprising a rear wheel hub, a sensor. The most efficient human-powered land vehicle is the bicycle, compared to the much more common upright bicycle, the recumbent bicycle may be faster on level ground or down hills due to better aerodynamics while having similar power transfer efficiency. Velomobiles are increasingly popular in colder and/or wetter countries due to the protection they offer against the environment, freight bicycles are used to transport cargo. Cycle rickshaws can be used as taxicabs, in 2016, AeroVelo cyclist Todd Reichert achieved the human-powered speed record of 142.04 km/h with a velomobile at Battle Mountain, Nevada. Dutch cyclist Fred Rompelberg set a 268.8 km/h speed record at the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah on October 3,1995 while cycling in the wake of a motor dragster pace-car, the wake of the pace-car reduced the aerodynamic drag against which Rompelberg pedalled to almost zero. Greg Kolodziejzyk set two world records recognized by both the International Human Powered Vehicle Association and Guinness World Records on July 17,2006 on a track in Eureka. The first record is for the most distance traveled in 24 hours by human power 1,041 km, and the second for the worlds fastest 1,000 km time trial. Both records were broken on August 6,2010 by Christian von Ascheberg who drove 1,000 km in 19 hours,27 minutes, in the same race he also raised the 12-hour record to 664.97 km, which is an average of 55.41 km/h. In 1969, artists in a small Northern California town began the Kinetic sculpture race which has grown to a 42 mi, three-day all terrain, human-powered sculpture race and it is held every year on the last weekend in May. The Pedaliante flew short distances fully under human power in 1936, the flights were deemed to be a result of the pilots significant strength and endurance, and not attainable by a typical human. Additional attempts were made in 1937 and 1938 using a catapult system, with the catapult launch, the plane successfully traveled the 1 km distance outlined by the competition, but was declined the prize due to the takeoff method. The first officially authenticated regularly feasible take-off and landing of an aircraft was made on 9 November 1961 by Derek Piggott in Southampton Universitys Man Powered Aircraft. Perhaps the best-known human-powered plane is the Gossamer Albatross, which flew across the English Channel in 1979. The current speed record is held by the Monarch B, built by a team at MIT in 1983, the first officially observed human-powered helicopter to have left the ground was the Da Vinci III in 1989. It was designed and built by students at Cal Poly San Luis Obispo in California and it flew for 7.1 seconds and reached a height of 8 in
4.
Cart
–
A cart is a vehicle designed for transport, using two wheels and normally pulled by one or a pair of draught animals. A handcart is pulled or pushed by one or more people and it is different from a dray or wagon, which is a heavy transport vehicle with four wheels and typically two or more horses, or a carriage, which is used exclusively for transporting humans. Over time, the cart has come to mean nearly any small conveyance, from shopping carts to golf carts, without regard to number of wheels, load carried. The draught animals used for carts may be horses or ponies, mules, oxen, water buffalo or donkeys, carts have been mentioned in literature as far back as the second millennium B. C. The Indian sacred book Rigveda states that men and women are as equal as two wheels of a cart, hand-carts pushed by humans have been used around the world. In the 19th century, for instance, some Mormons travelling across the plains of the United States between 1856 and 1860 used handcarts, the history of the cart is closely tied to the history of the wheel. Larger carts may be drawn by animals, such as horses, mules and they have been in continuous use since the invention of the wheel, in the 4th millennium BC. Carts may be named for the animal that pulls them, such as horsecart or oxcart, in modern times, horsecarts are used in competition while draft horse showing. A dogcart, however, is usually a cart designed to carry hunting dogs, the term cart is also used for various kinds of lightweight, two-wheeled carriages, some of them sprung carts, especially those used as open pleasure or sporting vehicles. They could be drawn by a horse, pony or dog, the name survives today as a milkfloat. The seat is adjustable fore-and-aft to keep the vehicle balanced for two or four people, carts have many different shapes, but the basic idea of transporting material remains. Carts may have a pair of shafts, one each side of the draught animal that supports the forward-balanced load in the cart. The shafts are supported by a saddle on the horse, alternatively, the cart may have a single pole between a pair of animals. The draught traces attach to the axle of the vehicle or to the shafts, the traces are attached to a collar, to a yoke or to a harness on dogs or other light animals. Traces are made from a range of materials depending on the load, heavy draught traces are made from iron or steel chain. Lighter traces are often leather and sometimes rope, but plaited horse-hair. The dray is often associated with the transport of barrels, particularly of beer, of the cart types not animal-drawn, perhaps the most common example today is the shopping cart, which has also come to have a metaphorical meaning in relation to online purchases. Shopping carts first made their appearance in Oklahoma City in 1937, in golf, both manual push or pull and electric golf trolleys are designed to carry a golfers bag, clubs and other equipment
5.
Cycle rickshaw
–
The cycle rickshaw is a small-scale local means of transport, it is also known by a variety of other names such as bike taxi, velotaxi, pedicab, bikecab, cyclo, beca, becak, trisikad, or trishaw. As opposed to rickshaws pulled by a person on foot, cycle rickshaws are human-powered by pedaling, another type of rickshaw is the auto rickshaw. They are a type of tricycle designed to carry passengers on a for-hire basis, Cycle rickshaws are widely used in major cities around the world, but most commonly in cities of South, Southeast and East Asia. The first cycle rickshaws were built in the 1880s, and they were first used widely in 1929 in Singapore, six years later they outnumbered pulled rickshaws. By 1950 cycle rickshaws were found in south and east Asian country. By the late 1980s there were an estimated 4 million cycle rickshaws in the world, the vehicle is generally pedal-driven by a driver, though some are equipped with an electric motor to assist the driver. The vehicle is usually a tricycle, though some models exist. Some cycle rickshaws have gas or electric motors, the configuration of driver and passenger seats varies. Generally the driver sits in front of the passengers to pedal the rickshaw, there are some designs, though, where the cyclist driver sits behind the passengers. In many Asian countries, like India and China, the seat is located behind the driver, while in Indonesia, Malaysia. In the Philippines, the seats are usually located beside the driver in a side car. Similarly, in the trishaw in Singapore and the sai kaa in Burma the passengers sit alongside the driver, the cycle rickshaw is a small-scale local means of transport, it is also known by a variety of other names, such as, velotaxi and bikecab. Cyclo is used in Vietnam and Cambodia, Pedicab is used in the United Kingdom and United States. In Buffalo, New York, this type of vehicle is known as a bike taxi, beca, becak, trisikad, or trishaw are non-English names used in Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore. Cycle rickshaws are used in Asian countries, but also in countries outside Asia, such as large European, Cycle rickshaws used outside Asia often are mechanically more complex, having multiple gears, more powerful brakes, and in some cases electrical motors to provide additional power. In Madagascar rickshaws, including cycle rickshaws or cyclo-pousse, are a form of transportation in a number of cities. Rickshaws are known as pousse-pousse, meaning push-push, reportedly for the pulled rickshaws that required a person to push the vehicles up hills. Cycles are more common in the areas, like Toamasina
6.
Auto rickshaw
–
Most have three wheels and do not tilt. An exception is in Cambodia, where two different types of vehicles are called tuk-tuks, one of which has four wheels and is composed of a motorcycle, Japan has exported three-wheelers to Thailand since 1934. Moreover, The Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications of Japan donated about 20,000 used three-wheelers to Southeast Asia, in Japan, three-wheelers went out of use in the latter half of the 1960s. Auto rickshaws in Southeast Asia started from the production of the Daihatsu Midget which was introduced in 1957. There are many different auto rickshaw types, designs, and variations, Daihatsu E-series engines are common in newer models. Together with the recent boom of recreational facilities in Gaza for the residents, donkey carts have all. Due to the ban by Egypt and Israel on the import of most motorised vehicles, in Madagascar, man-powered rickshaws are a common form of transportation in a number of cities, especially Antsirabe. They are known as posy from pousse-pousse, meaning push-push, cycle rickshaws took off since 2006 in a number of flat cities like Toamasina and replaced the major part of the posy, and are now threatened by the auto rickshaws, introduced in 2009. Provincial capitals like Toamasina, Mahajanga, Toliara, and Antsiranana are taking to them rapidly and they are known as bajaji in the north and tuk-tuk or tik-tik in the east, and are now licensed to operate as taxis. They are not yet allowed an operating licence in the congested, tuk-tuks, introduced in Durban in the late 1980s enjoyed growing popularity in recent years, particularly in Gauteng. In Cape Town they are used to deliver groceries and, more recently, Rickshaws are locally known as bajaji and are a common mode of transportation in Dar es Salaam. Auto rickshaws are one of the popular modes of transport in Bangladesh mainly due to their size. They are best suited to narrow, crowded streets, and are thus the means of covering longer distances within urban areas. Two-stroke engines had been identified as one of the sources of air pollution in Dhaka. Thus, since January 2003, traditional auto rickshaws were banned from the capital, all CNGs are painted green to signify that the vehicles are eco-friendly and that each one has a meter built-in. In Cambodia, the term refers to a passenger-carrying remorque pulled by a motorcycle. It is a widely used form of transportation in the capital of Phnom Penh, in Phnom Penh and other Cambodian cities tuk-tuk fares are negotiated with the driver, while at Angkor Wat they are typically rented on daily basis. Cambodian cities have a lower volume of automobile traffic than Thai cities
7.
Natural rubber
–
Natural rubber, also called India rubber or caoutchouc, as initially produced, consists of polymers of the organic compound isoprene, with minor impurities of other organic compounds, plus water. Malaysia and Indonesia are two of the leading rubber producers, forms of polyisoprene that are used as natural rubbers are classified as elastomers. Currently, rubber is harvested mainly in the form of the latex from the tree or others. The latex is a sticky, milky colloid drawn off by making incisions in the bark, the latex then is refined into rubber ready for commercial processing. In major areas, latex is allowed to coagulate in the collection cup, the coagulated lumps are collected and processed into dry forms for marketing. Natural rubber is used extensively in many applications and products, either alone or in combination with other materials, in most of its useful forms, it has a large stretch ratio and high resilience, and is extremely waterproof. The major commercial source of rubber latex is the Pará rubber tree. This species is preferred because it grows well under cultivation, a properly managed tree responds to wounding by producing more latex for several years. Congo rubber, formerly a source of rubber, came from vines in the genus Landolphia. These cannot be cultivated, and the drive to collect latex from wild plants was responsible for many of the atrocities committed under the Congo Free State. The latex exhibits the quality as the natural rubber from rubber trees. In the wild types of dandelion, latex content is low, in Nazi Germany, research projects tried to use dandelions as a base for rubber production, but failed. In collaboration with Continental Tires, IME began a pilot facility, many other plants produce forms of latex rich in isoprene polymers, though not all produce usable forms of polymer as easily as the Pará. Some of them require more processing to produce anything like usable rubber. Some produce other desirable materials, for example gutta-percha and chicle from Manilkara species, the term gum rubber is sometimes applied to the tree-obtained version of natural rubber in order to distinguish it from the synthetic version. The first use of rubber was by the cultures of Mesoamerica. The earliest archeological evidence of the use of latex from the Hevea tree comes the Olmec culture. The Pará rubber tree is indigenous to South America, charles Marie de La Condamine is credited with introducing samples of rubber to the Académie Royale des Sciences of France in 1736
8.
Pneumatics
–
Pneumatics is a branch of engineering that makes use of gas or pressurized air. Pneumatic systems used in industry are commonly powered by compressed air or compressed inert gases, a centrally located and electrically powered compressor powers cylinders, air motors, and other pneumatic devices. A pneumatic system controlled through manual or automatic solenoid valves is selected when it provides a lower cost, more flexible, pneumatics also has applications in dentistry, construction, mining, and other areas. Pneumatic systems in fixed installations, such as factories, use compressed air because a sustainable supply can be made by compressing atmospheric air, the air usually has moisture removed, and a small quantity of oil is added at the compressor to prevent corrosion and lubricate mechanical components. Factory-plumbed pneumatic-power users need not worry about poisonous leakage, as the gas is usually just air, smaller or stand-alone systems can use other compressed gases that present an asphyxiation hazard, such as nitrogen—often referred to as OFN when supplied in cylinders. Any compressed gas other than air is an asphyxiation hazard—including nitrogen, compressed oxygen would not asphyxiate, but is not used in pneumatically-powered devices because it is a fire hazard, more expensive, and offers no performance advantage over air. Carbon dioxide is an asphyxiant and can be a hazard if vented improperly. The origins of pneumatics can be traced back to the first century when ancient Greek mathematician Hero of Alexandria wrote about his inventions powered by steam or the wind, german physicist Otto von Guericke went a little further. He invented the pump, a device that can draw out air or gas from the attached vessel. He demonstrated the vacuum pump to separate the pairs of copper hemispheres using air pressures, the field of pneumatics has changed considerably over the years. It has moved from small handheld devices to large machines with multiple parts that serve different functions, both pneumatics and hydraulics are applications of fluid power. Pneumatics uses an easily compressible gas such as air or a suitable pure gas—while hydraulics uses relatively incompressible liquid media such as oil, most industrial pneumatic applications use pressures of about 80 to 100 pounds per square inch. Hydraulics applications commonly use from 1,000 to 5,000 psi, simplicity of design and control—Machines are easily designed using standard cylinders and other components, and operate via simple on-off control. Reliability—Pneumatic systems generally have long operating lives and require little maintenance, because gas is compressible, equipment is less subject to shock damage. Gas absorbs excessive force, whereas fluid in hydraulics directly transfers force, compressed gas can be stored, so machines still run for a while if electrical power is lost. Safety—There is a low chance of fire compared to hydraulic oil. Newer machines are usually overload safe, liquid does not absorb any of the supplied energy. Capable of moving much higher loads and providing much higher due to the incompressibility
9.
Tire
–
A tire or tyre is a ring-shaped vehicle component that covers the wheels rim to protect it and enable better vehicle performance. Most tires, such as those for automobiles and bicycles, provide traction between the vehicle and the road providing a flexible cushion that absorbs shock. The materials of modern tires are synthetic rubber, natural rubber, fabric and wire, along with carbon black. They consist of a tread and a body, the tread provides traction while the body provides containment for a quantity of compressed air. Before rubber was developed, the first versions of tires were bands of metal fitted around wooden wheels to prevent wear and tear. Pneumatic tires are used on many types of vehicles, including cars, bicycles, motorcycles, buses, trucks, heavy equipment, and aircraft. Metal tires are used on locomotives and railcars, and solid rubber tires are still used in various non-automotive applications, such as some casters, carts, lawnmowers. The etymology of tire is that the word is a form of attire. The spelling tyre does not appear until the 1840s when the English began shrink fitting railway car wheels with malleable iron, nevertheless, traditional publishers continued using tire. The Times newspaper in Britain was still using tire as late as 1905, the spelling tyre began to be commonly used in the 19th century for pneumatic tires in the UK. However, over the course of the 20th century, tyre became established as the standard British spelling, the earliest tires were bands of leather, then iron, placed on wooden wheels, used on carts and wagons. The tire would be heated in a fire, placed over the wheel and quenched, causing the metal to contract. A skilled worker, known as a wheelwright, carried out this work, the outer ring served to tie the wheel segments together for use, providing also a wear-resistant surface to the perimeter of the wheel. The word tire thus emerged as a variant spelling to refer to the bands used to tie wheels. The first patent for what appears to be a standard pneumatic tire appeared in 1847 lodged by the Scottish inventor Robert William Thomson, however, this never went into production. The first practical pneumatic tire was made in 1888 on May Street, Belfast, by Scots-born John Boyd Dunlop and it was an effort to prevent the headaches of his 10-year-old son Johnnie, while riding his tricycle on rough pavements. His doctor, John, later Sir John Fagan, had prescribed cycling as an exercise for the boy, Fagan participated in designing the first pneumatic tires. In Dunlops tire patent specification dated 31 October 1888, his interest is only in its use in cycles, in September 1890, he was made aware of an earlier development but the company kept the information to itself
10.
Upholstery coil springs
–
Upholstery coil springs are an important part of most modern upholstery. The consumer usually never sees the construction features of an upholstered piece, the overall quality of the materials and construction techniques used dictate the comfort level of an upholstered piece and its ability to satisfy the consumer over the long term. A basic upholstered piece is composed of a frame, springs, foam, cushioning, padding, Coil springs are individual coils, open at both ends. They may be knotted at one end, when attached to webbing and twine-tied at the top, they form the springy platform on which the loose cushion rests. 15th century Coil springs invented and used in locks,1763 R. Tradwell received patent No.792 for the coil spring, used in automotive suspension. In 1763 R. Tredwell was issued the first patent for the coil spring, the main advantage of coil springs was that they did not have to be spread apart and be lubricated periodically to keep them from squeaking, as leaf springs did. 1857 The Steel Coil Spring With the industrial revolution came the steel coil spring and it was first patented in America for use in a chair seat in 1857. 1871 Heinrich Westphal invents the innerspring mattress Heinrich Westphal was credited with inventing the innerspring mattress in 1871, Heinrich lived in Germany and never profited from his invention dying in poverty
11.
Tartan
–
Tartan is a pattern consisting of criss-crossed horizontal and vertical bands in multiple colours. Tartans originated in woven wool, but now they are made in other materials. Tartan is particularly associated with Scotland, Scottish kilts almost always have tartan patterns. Tartan is often called plaid in North America, but in Scotland, Tartan is made with alternating bands of coloured threads woven as both warp and weft at right angles to each other. The weft is woven in a simple twill, two over—two under the warp, advancing one thread at each pass and this forms visible diagonal lines where different colours cross, which give the appearance of new colours blended from the original ones. The resulting blocks of colour repeat vertically and horizontally in a pattern of squares and lines known as a sett. The Dress Act of 1746 attempted to bring the clans under government control by banning the tartan. When the law was repealed in 1782, it was no longer ordinary Highland dress, until the middle of the nineteenth century, the highland tartans were only associated with either regions or districts, rather than any specific Scottish clan. Today tartan is no longer limited to textiles, but is used on non-woven mediums, such as paper, plastics, packaging, the English word tartan is most likely derived from the French tartarin meaning Tartar cloth. It has also suggested that tartan may be derived from modern Scottish Gaelic tarsainn. Today tartan usually refers to coloured patterns, though originally a tartan did not have to be made up of any pattern at all, as late as the 1830s tartan was sometimes described as plain coloured. Patterned cloth from the Gaelic-speaking Scottish Highlands was called breacan, meaning many colours, over time the meanings of tartan and breacan were combined to describe certain type of pattern on a certain type of cloth. The pattern of a tartan is called a sett, the sett is made up of a series of woven threads which cross at right angles. Today tartan is used to describe the pattern, not limited to textiles. In North America the term plaid is commonly used to describe tartan, the word plaid, derived from the Scottish Gaelic plaide, meaning blanket, was first used of any rectangular garment, sometimes made up of tartan, particularly that which preceded the modern kilt. In time, plaid was used to describe blankets themselves, each thread in the warp crosses each thread in the weft at right angles. Thus, a set of two base colours produces three different colours including one mixture and this means that the more stripes and colours used, the more blurred and subdued the tartans pattern becomes. The sequence of threads, known as the sett, starts at an edge, in diagram A, the sett reverses at the first pivot, then repeats, then reverses at the next pivot, and will carry on in this manner horizontally
12.
Wet season
–
The rainy season, or monsoon season, is the time of year when most of a regions average annual rainfall occurs. It usually lasts one or more months, the term green season is also sometimes used as a euphemism by tourist authorities. Areas with wet seasons are dispersed across portions of the tropics and subtropics, under the Köppen climate classification, for tropical climates, a wet season month is defined as a month where average precipitation is 60 millimetres or more. In contrast to areas with savanna climates and monsoon regimes, Mediterranean climates have wet winters, some areas with pronounced rainy seasons will see a break in rainfall mid-season, when the intertropical convergence zone or monsoon trough moves to higher latitudes in the middle of the warm season. When the wet season occurs during a season, or summer, precipitation falls mainly during the late afternoon. In the wet season, air quality improves, fresh water quality improves, rivers overflow their banks, and some animals retreat to higher ground. Soil nutrients diminish and erosion increases, the incidence of malaria increases in areas where the rainy season coincides with high temperatures, particularly in tropical areas. Some animals have adaptation and survival strategies for the wet season, often, the previous dry season leads to food shortages in the wet season, as the crops have yet to mature. In areas where the rainfall is associated with a wind shift. Further, much of the total each day occurs in the first minutes of the downpour. However, since rain forests have rainfall spread evenly through the year and it is different for places with a Mediterranean climate. This shift in the jet stream brings much of the precipitation to the region. The peninsula of Italy has weather very similar to the western United States in this regard, areas with a savanna climate in Sub-Saharan Africa, such as Ghana, Burkina Faso, Darfur, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Botswana have a distinct rainy season. Also within the climate regime, Florida and South Texas have a rainy season. Northern Guyana has two wet seasons, one in spring and the other in early winter. In western Africa, there are two rainy seasons across southern sections, but only one across the north. Within the Mediterranean climate regime, the west coast of the United States and the Mediterranean coastline of Italy, Greece, similarly, the wet season in the Negev desert of Israel extends from October through May. At the boundary between the Mediterranean and monsoon climates lies the Sonoran desert, which receives the two rainy seasons associated with each climate regime, the wet season is known by many different local names throughout the world
13.
Bagamoyo
–
Bagamoyo, Tanzania, is a town founded at the end of the 18th century. It was the capital of German East Africa and was one of the most important trading ports along the East African coast. Now, the town has about 30,000 inhabitants and is the capital of the Bagamoyo District, Bagamoyo is located at 6°26′S 38°54′E. It lies 75 kilometres north of Dar-es-Salaam on the coast of the Indian Ocean, Bagamoyo was the most important trading entrepot of the east central coast of Africa in the late 19th century. Bagamoyos history has influenced by Indian and Arab traders, by the German colonial government. About 5 km south of Bagamoyo, the Kaole Ruins with remnants of two mosques and a couple of tombs can be dated back to the 13th century, showing the importance of Islam in those early Bagamoyo times. Until the middle of the 18th century, Bagamoyo was a small and insignificant trading center where most of the population were fishermen, the main trading goods were fish, salt, and gum, among other things. In the late 18th century Muslim families settled in Bagamoyo, all of which were relatives of Shamvi la Magimba in Oman and they made their living by enforcing taxes on the native population and by trading in salt, gathered from the Nunge coast north of Bagamoyo. This explains the meaning of the word Bagamoyo which means Lay down your Heart in Swahili, the slave trade in East Africa was officially prohibited in the year 1873, but continued surreptitiously to the end of the 19th century. In 1868, Bagamoyo local rulers, known as majumbe, presented the Catholic Fathers of the Holy Ghost with land for a north of the town. This caused resistance by the native Zaramo people which was mediated by representatives of Sultan Majid and, after 1870, by Sultan Barghash. Originally the mission was intended to house children who were rescued from slavery, but it expanded to a church, a school. But Bagamoyo was not only a centre for ivory and copra. From Bagamoyo they moved out to find the source of the River Nile, some of these were Richard Francis Burton, John Hanning Speke, Henry Morton Stanley and James Augustus Grant. Although often believed so, David Livingstone had never been to Bagamoyo in his lifetime, only after his death he was laid out in the Old Churchs tower to wait for the high tide to come in and ship his body to Zanzibar. Bagamoyo was the first capital of Tanzania while serving as the German headquarters of German East Africa between 1886-1891, Dar es Salaam became the new capital of the colony in 1891. The town was apparently the birthplace of SS-Oberführer Julian Scherner, during World War I, on August 15,1916, a British air attack and naval bombardment was launched on Bagamoyo, the Germans were overrun and the German garrison taken. When the German Empire decided to build a railway from Dar es Salaam into the interior in 1905, today, Bagamoyo is a centre for dhow sailboat building
14.
Tanga, Tanzania
–
Tanga is both the name of the most northerly seaport city of Tanzania, and the surrounding Tanga Region. It is the Regional Headquarters of the region, with a population of 273,332 in 2012, Tanga is one of the largest cities in the country. It is a quiet city compared to, for example, Arusha or Moshi with a number of inhabitants. The city of Tanga sits on the Indian Ocean, near the border with Kenya, major exports from the port of Tanga include sisal, coffee, tea, and cotton. Tanga is also an important railroad terminus, connecting much of the northern Tanzanian interior with the sea, via the Tanzania Railways Corporations Link Line and Central Line, Tanga is linked to the African Great Lakes region and the Tanzanian economic capital of Dar es Salaam. The city is served by Tanga Airport, the harbour and surrounding is the centre of life in Tanga. It is stretched out several km² into the country and it has several markets in several neighborhoods. The earliest documentation about Tanga roots from the Portuguese, a trading post was established by the Portuguese as part of their East African coastal territory and controlled the region for over 200 years between 1500-1700. The Sultanate of Oman battled the Portuguese and gained control of the settlement by mid 1700 along with Mombasa, Pemba Island, the town continued to act as a Trading port for Ivory and Slaves under the sultans rule. Tanga continued to be a trading hub for slaves with the Arab world up until 1873 when the European powers abolished the slave trade. In the 19th Century growing interests by Europeans for the Scramble for Africa brought the Germans to Tanga, the Germans bought the coastal strip of mainland Tanzania from the Sultan of Zanzibar in 1891. This takeover designated Tanga into a township and was the first establishment in German East Africa, the town became the centre of German colonial administration before the establishment of Dar es Salaam in the early 20th century. Tanga was chosen in 1889 as a military post of German East Africa, the town saw rapid expansion and planned growth under the German occupation. A tram line was developed within the city to facilitate domestic transport, in 1896 the construction of the Usambara Railway began and was extended to Moshi by 1912. Roads, bridges and the railway facilitated industrial growth in the region and many buildings, the local economy was based mainly on the production of sisal, which had been brought to the colony several years earlier, and population in the area grew rapidly. As the coastal town closest to British East Africa, Tanga was on the front line at the outset of World War I, a British landing was thrown back on 4 November 1914 in the Battle of Tanga, and the town was not taken until 7 July 1916. After the War, Britain gained control of Tanganyika and continued to develop the town, in 1919 Tanga was the countries fourth largest city, however at independence it was the second largest city after Dar es Salaam. In the early stages of Independence the Port of Tanga continued to be a gateway for the export of Sisal from the region, however, following the adopting of the Ujamaa policy agriculture in the region collapsed and the city lost its value
15.
Madagascar
–
Madagascar, officially the Republic of Madagascar, and previously known as the Malagasy Republic, is an island country in the Indian Ocean, off the coast of Southeast Africa. The nation comprises the island of Madagascar, and numerous smaller peripheral islands, consequently, Madagascar is a biodiversity hotspot, over 90% of its wildlife is found nowhere else on Earth. The islands diverse ecosystems and unique wildlife are threatened by the encroachment of the growing human population. The first archaeological evidence for human foraging on Madagascar dates to 2000 BC, human settlement of Madagascar occurred between 350 BC and AD550 by Austronesian peoples arriving on outrigger canoes from Borneo. These were joined around AD1000 by Bantu migrants crossing the Mozambique Channel from East Africa, other groups continued to settle on Madagascar over time, each one making lasting contributions to Malagasy cultural life. The Malagasy ethnic group is divided into 18 or more sub-groups of which the largest are the Merina of the central highlands. Until the late 18th century, the island of Madagascar was ruled by an assortment of shifting sociopolitical alliances. Beginning in the early 19th century, most of the island was united and ruled as the Kingdom of Madagascar by a series of Merina nobles, the monarchy collapsed in 1897 when the island was absorbed into the French colonial empire, from which the island gained independence in 1960. The autonomous state of Madagascar has since undergone four major constitutional periods, since 1992, the nation has officially been governed as a constitutional democracy from its capital at Antananarivo. However, in an uprising in 2009, president Marc Ravalomanana was made to resign. Constitutional governance was restored in January 2014, when Hery Rajaonarimampianina was named president following a 2013 election deemed fair, Madagascar is a member of the United Nations, the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie and the Southern African Development Community. Madagascar belongs to the group of least developed countries, according to the United Nations, Malagasy and French are both official languages of the state. The majority of the population adheres to traditional beliefs, Christianity, ecotourism and agriculture, paired with greater investments in education, health, and private enterprise, are key elements of Madagascars development strategy. As of 2017, the economy has been weakened by the 2009-2013 political crisis, in the Malagasy language, the island of Madagascar is called Madagasikara and its people are referred to as Malagasy. The islands appellation Madagascar is not of origin, but rather was popularized in the Middle Ages by Europeans. On St. Laurences Day in 1500, Portuguese explorer Diogo Dias landed on the island, polos name was preferred and popularized on Renaissance maps. At 592,800 square kilometres, Madagascar is the worlds 47th largest country, the country lies mostly between latitudes 12°S and 26°S, and longitudes 43°E and 51°E. Neighboring islands include the French territory of Réunion and the country of Mauritius to the east, as well as the state of Comoros, the nearest mainland state is Mozambique, located to the west
16.
Missionary
–
A missionary is a member of a religious group sent into an area to proselytize and/or perform ministries of service, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development. The word mission originates from 1598 when the Jesuits sent members abroad, derived from the Latin missionem, meaning act of sending or mittere, meaning to send. The word was used in light of its usage, in the Latin translation of the Bible. The term is most commonly used for Christian missions, but can be used for any creed or ideology, a Christian missionary can be defined as one who is to witness across cultures. The Lausanne Congress of 1974, defined the term, related to Christian mission as, Missionaries can be found in many countries around the world. Jesus instructed the apostles to make disciples of all nations and this verse is referred to by Christian missionaries as the Great Commission and inspires missionary work. The New Testament-era missionary outreach of the Christian church from the time of St Paul expanded throughout the Roman Empire and beyond to Persia, in 596, Pope Gregory the Great sent the Gregorian Mission into England. In their turn, Christians from Ireland and from Britain became prominent in converting the inhabitants of central Europe, about the same time, missionaries such as Francis Xavier as well as other Jesuits, Augustinians, Franciscans, and Dominicans started moving into Asia and the Far East. The Portuguese sent missions into Africa and these are some of the most well-known missions in history. While some missions accompanied imperialism and oppression, others were relatively peaceful, contemporary Christian missionaries argue that working for justice forms a constitutive part of preaching the Gospel, and observe the principles of inculturation in their missionary work. Over time, the Vatican gradually established a church structure in the mission areas, often starting with special jurisdictions known as apostolic prefectures. The two 9th-century saints Cyril and Methodius had extensive success in central Europe. The Byzantines expanded their work in Ukraine after a mass baptism in Kiev in 988. The Serbian Orthodox Church had its origins in the conversion by Byzantine missionaries of the Serb tribes when they arrived in the Balkans in the 7th century, Orthodox missionaries also worked successfully among the Estonians from the 10th to the 12th centuries, founding the Estonian Orthodox Church. The Russian St. Nicholas of Japan took Eastern Orthodoxy to Japan in the 19th century, the Russian Orthodox Church also sent missionaries to Alaska beginning in the 18th century, including Saint Herman of Alaska, to minister to the Native Americans. Quaker publishers of truth visited Boston and other mid-17th century colonies, the Danish government began the first organized Protestant mission work through its College of Missions, established in 1714. This funded and directed Lutheran missionaries such as Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg in Tranquebar, India and he also got to know a slave from the Danish colony in the West Indies. Within thirty years, Moravian missionaries had become active on every continent, and they are famous for their selfless work, living as slaves among the slaves and together with the Native Americans, the Delaware and Cherokee Indian tribes
17.
Palanquin
–
The litter is a class of wheelless vehicles, a type of human-powered transport, for the transport of persons. Examples of litter vehicles include palki or पालकी, lectica, kiệu, sedan chair, litera, palanquin, jiao, liteira, wo, gama, koshi, ren and kago, tahtırevan and sankayan. Smaller litters may take the form of chairs or beds carried by two or more carriers, some being enclosed for protection from the elements. Those of the Chinese emperors, may resemble small rooms upon a platform borne upon the shoulders of a dozen or more people, a simple litter, often called a king carrier, consists of a sling attached along its length to poles or stretched inside a frame. The poles or frame are carried by porters in front and behind, such simple litters are common on battlefields and emergency situations, where terrain prohibits wheeled vehicles from carrying away the dead and wounded. Litters can also be created by the expedient of the lashing of poles to a chair, a more luxurious version consists of a bed or couch, sometimes enclosed by curtains, for the passenger or passengers to lie on. These are carried by at least two porters in equal numbers in front and behind, using wooden rails that pass through brackets on the sides of the couch, the largest and heaviest types would be carried by draught animals. These porters were known in London as chairmen and these have been very rare since the 19th century, but such enclosed portable litters have been used as an elite form of transport for centuries, especially in cultures where women are kept secluded. Sedan chairs, in use until the 19th century, were accompanied at night by link-boys who carried torches, where possible, the link boys escorted the fares to the chairmen, the passengers then being delivered to the door of their lodgings. Several houses in Bath, Somerset, England still have the link extinguishers on the exteriors, in the 1970s, entrepreneur and Bathwick resident, John Cuningham, revived the sedan chair service business for a brief amount of time. The ancient Hebrews fashioned the Ark of the Covenant to resemble and function as a litter for the ten commandments and presence of God. In Ancient Rome, a litter called lectica or sella often carried members of the family, as well as other dignitaries and other members of the rich elite. In the Catholic Church, Popes were carried the same way in Sedia gestatoria, a palanquin is a covered litter, usually for one passenger. It is carried by a number of bearers on their shoulders, by means of a pole projecting fore. The word is derived from the Sanskrit palyanka, meaning bed or couch, the Malay and Javanese form is palangki, in Hindi and Bangla, palki. The Portuguese apparently added a nasal termination to these to make palanquim, english adopted it from Portuguese as palanquin. Palanquins vary in size and grandeur, the smallest and simplest, a cot or frame suspended by the four corners from a bamboo pole and borne by two bearers, is called a doli. Larger palanquins are rectangular wooden boxes eight feet long, four feet wide, interiors are furnished with bedding and pillows
18.
Antsirabe
–
Antsirabe or Antsirabe is the third largest city in Madagascar and the capital of the Vakinankaratra region, with a population of 238,478 in 2013. In Madagascar, Antsirabe is known for its cool climate, its industry. The Malagasy name Antsirabe translates into the place of much salt, the city has the nicknames ville deau and visy gasy or le Vichy malgache, referring to the presence of multiple thermal springs in the area. The area where Antsirabe is found today was part of the Kingdom of Andrantsay which existed from the early 1600s until it was incorporated into the Imerina kingdom in the early 1800s, the area was a farming region, with production of rice, vegetables and fruit. The first Norwegian missionaries arrived in 1868, limestone and sulphur were exploited in the area at this time. The city was founded by Norwegian missionary T. G, rosaas in 1872 as a hill station to serve as a retreat centre because of the much cooler climate. The thermal baths were opened in 1917, in 1886 the Norwegian mission established the leper hospital of Ambohipiantrana and it quickly developed into a village for lepers. The colonial government decided to make it the leper hospital of Vakinankaratra, during the French colonial rule the centre of the Vakinankaratra region shifted from the Andrantsay capital of Fivavahana to Antsirabe. On 1921.01.10 it succeeded Betafó as the seat of a Catholic Apostolic vicariate, the population of Antsirabe was estimated at 238,478 in 2013. The majority of the population belongs to the Merina ethnic group, as in other urban areas of Madagascar, French is widely understood. A number of Christian denominations are represented in the city and its Marian Cathédrale Notre-Dame-de-la-Salette is the episcopal see of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Antsirabe. There are also a Lutheran church and two mosques in the city, traditional Merina cultural practices such as famadihana and family tombs are common. Antsirabe is a commune or municipality. The borders of the commune are identical with those of the Antsirabe I District, Antsirabe is also the capital of the Vakinankaratra region. Between November 2011 and April 2012 the position of the Mayor of Antsirabe was vacant, olga Ramalason of the TIM party was Mayor until she was appointed Minister of Commerce in Omer Berizikys government of consensus in November 2011. The city council was elected in November 2003, several buildings in central Antsirabe date back to the first decades of the 20th century. These include the thermal centre, Hôtel des Thermes, the railway station. Other sights are la Stèle de lIndépendance on Independence Avenue and the two markets, Antsenakely and the bigger Asabotsy
19.
Nairobi
–
Nairobi is the capital and largest city of Kenya. It is famous for having the Nairobi National Park, the only game reserve found within a major city. The city and its surrounding area also form Nairobi County, whose current governor is Evans Kidero, the name Nairobi comes from the Maasai phrase Enkare Nairobi, which translates to cool water. The phrase is also the Maasai name of the Nairobi river, however, it is popularly known as the Green City in the Sun, and is surrounded by several expanding villa suburbs. Nairobi was founded in 1899 by the authorities in British East Africa. The town quickly grew to replace Machakos as the capital of Kenya in 1907, after independence in 1963, Nairobi became the capital of the Republic of Kenya. During Kenyas colonial period, the city became a centre for the coffee, tea. The city lies on the River Athi in the part of the country. With a population of 3.36 million in 2011, Nairobi is the second-largest city by population in the African Great Lakes region after Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. According to the 2009 census, in the area of Nairobi,3,138,295 inhabitants lived within 696 km2. Nairobi is the 14th-largest city in Africa, including the population of its suburbs, the Nairobi Securities Exchange is one of the largest in Africa and the second-oldest exchange on the continent. It is Africas fourth-largest exchange in terms of trading volume, capable of making 10 million trades a day, Nairobi is found within the Greater Nairobi Metropolitan region, which consists of 4 out of 47 counties in Kenya, which generates about 60% of the entire nations wealth. The city was named after a water hole known in Maasai as Enkare Nairobi and it was completely rebuilt in the early 1900s after an outbreak of plague and the burning of the original town. The location of the Nairobi railway camp was due to its central position between Mombasa and Kampala. It was also chosen because its network of rivers could supply the camp with water, however, malaria was a serious problem, leading to at least one attempt to have the town moved. In 1905, Nairobi replaced Mombasa as capital of the British protectorate, as the British occupiers started to explore the region, they started using Nairobi as their first port of call. This prompted the government to build several spectacular grand hotels in the city. The main occupants were British game hunters, Nairobi continued to grow under the British and many British subjects settled within the citys suburbs
20.
Durban
–
Durban is the largest city in the South African province of KwaZulu-Natal. Durbans metropolitan municipality ranks third among the most populous areas in South Africa after Johannesburg. It is also the second most important manufacturing hub in South Africa after Johannesburg and it forms part of the eThekwini Metropolitan Municipality. Durban is famous for being the busiest port in South Africa and it is also seen as one of the major centres of tourism because of the citys warm subtropical climate and extensive beaches. It is the largest city in KwaZulu-Natal which is the 2nd most populous province in South Africa and it has the highest number of dollar millionaires added per year of any South African city with the number rising 200% between 2000 and 2014. In May 2015, Durban was officially recognised as one of the New7Wonders Cities together with Vigan, Doha, La Paz, Havana, Beirut, archaeological evidence from the Drakensberg mountains suggests that the Durban area has been inhabited by communities of hunter-gatherers since 100,000 BC. He named the area Natal, or Christmas in Portuguese, accompanying Farewell was an adventurer named Henry Francis Fynn. Fynn was able to befriend the Zulu King Shaka by helping him to recover from a wound he suffered in battle. As a token of Shakas gratitude, he granted Fynn a 30-mile strip of coast a hundred miles in depth. During a meeting of 35 European residents in Fynns territory on 23 June 1835, it was decided to build a town and name it dUrban after Sir Benjamin dUrban. The Voortrekkers established the Republic of Natalia in 1838, with its capital at Pietermaritzburg, piet Retief, leader of the Voortrekkers in Natal, negotiated with the Zulu King, Dingane, in order to obtain land for their farming purposes. After negotiations were concluded, Dingane however reneged and had Retief, thereafter the Zulus attacked and killed more than 500 Voortrekkers at Retiefs laager. The Voortrekkers retaliated and broke Dinganes power at the Battle of Blood River, the force arrived on 4 May 1842 and built a fortification that was later to be The Old Fort. On the night of 23/24 May 1842 the British attacked the Voortrekker camp at Congella, the attack failed, and the British had to withdraw to their camp which was put under siege. A local trader Dick King and his servant Ndongeni were able to escape the blockade and rode to Grahamstown, the reinforcements arrived in Durban 20 days later, the Voortrekkers retreated, and the siege was lifted. Fierce conflict with the Zulu population led to the evacuation of Durban, a British governor was appointed to the region and many settlers emigrated from Europe and the Cape Colony. The British established a sugar industry in the 1860s. Farm owners had a difficult time attracting Zulu labourers to work on their plantations, as a result of the importation of Indian labourers, Durban has the largest Asian community on the African continent, and has the largest Indian population outside of India
21.
Zulu people
–
The Zulu are a Bantu ethnic group of Southern Africa and the largest ethnic group in South Africa, with an estimated 10–11 million people living mainly in the province of KwaZulu-Natal. Small numbers also live in Zimbabwe, Zambia, Tanzania and Mozambique, the Zulu were originally a major clan in what is today Northern KwaZulu-Natal, founded ca.1709 by Zulu kaMalandela. In the Nguni languages, iZulu means heaven, or weather, at that time, the area was occupied by many large Nguni communities and clans. Nguni communities had migrated down Africas east coast over centuries, as part of the Bantu migrations probably arriving in what is now South Africa in about the 9th century, the Zulu formed a powerful state in 1818 under the leader Shaka. Shaka, as the Zulu King, gained an amount of power over the tribe. On 11 December 1878, agents of the British delivered an ultimatum to 11 chiefs representing Cetshwayo, the terms forced upon Cetshwayo required him to disband his army and accept British authority. Cetshwayo refused, and war followed January 12,1879, during the war, the Zulus defeated the British at the Battle of Isandlwana on 22 January. The British managed to get the hand after the Battle at Rorkes Drift. After Cetshwayos capture a month following his defeat, the British divided the Zulu Empire into 13 kinglets, the sub-kingdoms fought amongst each other until 1883 when Cetshwayo was reinstated as king over Zululand. This still did not stop the fighting and the Zulu monarch was forced to flee his realm by Zibhebhu, one of the 13 kinglets, Cetshwayo died in February 1884, killed by Zibhebhus regime, leaving his son, the 15-year-old Dinuzulu, to inherit the throne. In-fighting between the Zulu continued for years, until Zululand was absorbed fully into the British colony of Natal, under apartheid, the homeland of KwaZulu was created for Zulu people. In 1970, the Bantu Homeland Citizenship Act provided that all Zulus would become citizens of KwaZulu, KwaZulu consisted of a large number of disconnected pieces of land, in what is now KwaZulu-Natal. By 1993, approximately 5.2 million Zulu people lived in KwaZulu, the Chief Minister of KwaZulu, from its creation in 1970 was Chief Mangosuthu Buthelezi. In 1994, KwaZulu was joined with the province of Natal, Inkatha YeSizwe means the crown of the nation. In 1975, Buthelezi revived the Inkatha YaKwaZulu, predecessor of the Inkatha Freedom Party and this organization was nominally a protest movement against apartheid, but held more conservative views than the ANC. For example, Inkatha was opposed to the struggle. Inkatha was initially on good terms with the ANC, but the two came into increasing conflict beginning in 1976 in the aftermath of the Soweto Uprising. The modern Zulu population is evenly distributed in both urban and rural areas
22.
Confucius
–
Confucius was a Chinese teacher, editor, politician, and philosopher of the Spring and Autumn period of Chinese history. The philosophy of Confucius emphasized personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice and his followers competed successfully with many other schools during the Hundred Schools of Thought era only to be suppressed in favor of the Legalists during the Qin Dynasty. Following the victory of Han over Chu after the collapse of Qin, aphorisms concerning his teachings were compiled in the Analects, but only many years after his death. Confuciuss principles had a basis in common Chinese tradition and belief and he championed strong family loyalty, ancestor veneration, and respect of elders by their children and of husbands by their wives. He also recommended family as a basis for ideal government and he espoused the well-known principle Do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself, the Golden Rule. Confucius is also a deity in Daoism. According to tradition, three generations before Confucius time, his ancestors had migrated from the Song state to the Lu state, Confucius was a descendant of the Shang dynasty Kings through the Dukes of Song. Confucius family and personal name respectively was Kong Qiu, in Chinese, he is most often known as Kongzi. He is also known by the honorific Kong Fuzi, in the Wade–Giles system of romanization, the honorific name is rendered as Kung Fu-tzu. The Latinized name Confucius is derived from Kong Fuzi, and was first coined by 16th-century Jesuit missionaries to China, within the Analects, he is often referred to simply as the Master. In 1 AD, Confucius was given his first posthumous name, in 1530, he was declared the Extremely Sage Departed Teacher. He is also known separately as the Great Sage, First Teacher and it is generally thought that Confucius was born on September 28,551 BC. His birthplace was in Zou, Lu state and his father Kong He, also known as Shuliang He, was an officer in the Lu military. Kong died when Confucius was three years old, and Confucius was raised by his mother Yan Zhengzai in poverty and his mother would later die at less than 40 years of age. At age 19 he married his wife Qiguan, and a year later the couple had their first child, Qiguan and Confucius would later have two daughters together, one of whom is thought to have died early in her life as a child. Confucius was educated at schools for commoners, where he studied and learned the Six Arts, Confucius was born into the class of shi, between the aristocracy and the common people. When his mother died, Confucius is said to have mourned for three years, as was the tradition, the Lu state was headed by a ruling ducal house. Under the duke were three families, whose heads bore the title of viscount and held hereditary positions in the Lu bureaucracy
23.
Litter (vehicle)
–
The litter is a class of wheelless vehicles, a type of human-powered transport, for the transport of persons. Examples of litter vehicles include palki or पालकी, lectica, kiệu, sedan chair, litera, palanquin, jiao, liteira, wo, gama, koshi, ren and kago, tahtırevan and sankayan. Smaller litters may take the form of chairs or beds carried by two or more carriers, some being enclosed for protection from the elements. Those of the Chinese emperors, may resemble small rooms upon a platform borne upon the shoulders of a dozen or more people, a simple litter, often called a king carrier, consists of a sling attached along its length to poles or stretched inside a frame. The poles or frame are carried by porters in front and behind, such simple litters are common on battlefields and emergency situations, where terrain prohibits wheeled vehicles from carrying away the dead and wounded. Litters can also be created by the expedient of the lashing of poles to a chair, a more luxurious version consists of a bed or couch, sometimes enclosed by curtains, for the passenger or passengers to lie on. These are carried by at least two porters in equal numbers in front and behind, using wooden rails that pass through brackets on the sides of the couch, the largest and heaviest types would be carried by draught animals. These porters were known in London as chairmen and these have been very rare since the 19th century, but such enclosed portable litters have been used as an elite form of transport for centuries, especially in cultures where women are kept secluded. Sedan chairs, in use until the 19th century, were accompanied at night by link-boys who carried torches, where possible, the link boys escorted the fares to the chairmen, the passengers then being delivered to the door of their lodgings. Several houses in Bath, Somerset, England still have the link extinguishers on the exteriors, in the 1970s, entrepreneur and Bathwick resident, John Cuningham, revived the sedan chair service business for a brief amount of time. The ancient Hebrews fashioned the Ark of the Covenant to resemble and function as a litter for the ten commandments and presence of God. In Ancient Rome, a litter called lectica or sella often carried members of the family, as well as other dignitaries and other members of the rich elite. In the Catholic Church, Popes were carried the same way in Sedia gestatoria, a palanquin is a covered litter, usually for one passenger. It is carried by a number of bearers on their shoulders, by means of a pole projecting fore. The word is derived from the Sanskrit palyanka, meaning bed or couch, the Malay and Javanese form is palangki, in Hindi and Bangla, palki. The Portuguese apparently added a nasal termination to these to make palanquim, english adopted it from Portuguese as palanquin. Palanquins vary in size and grandeur, the smallest and simplest, a cot or frame suspended by the four corners from a bamboo pole and borne by two bearers, is called a doli. Larger palanquins are rectangular wooden boxes eight feet long, four feet wide, interiors are furnished with bedding and pillows
24.
Qingdao
–
Qingdao is a city in eastern Shandong Province on the east coast of China. It is the largest city in its province, administered at the sub-provincial level, Qingdao has jurisdiction over six districts and four county-level cities. As of 2014 Qingdao had a population of 9,046,200 with a population of 6,188,100. Lying across the Shandong Peninsula and looking out to the Yellow Sea, it borders Yantai to the northeast, Weifang to the west, qīng in Chinese means cyan or greenish-blue, while dǎo means island. Qingdao is a seaport, naval base, and industrial centre. The worlds longest sea bridge, the Jiaozhou Bay Bridge, links the urban area of Qingdao with Huangdao district. It is also the site of the Tsingtao Brewery, the second largest brewery in China, in 2007, Qingdao was named as among Chinas top ten cities by the Chinese Cities Brand Value Report, which was released at the 2007 Beijing Summit of China Cities Forum. In 2009, Qingdao was named Chinas most livable city by the Chinese Institute of City Competitiveness, jiāoào, former name during the Qing dynasty. Qindao, additional modern name for the area, refers according to locals to the shape of the coastline, Tsingtao, Postal romanization Tsingtau, German name during the concession period, written in German romanization of Chinese. Jiaozhou, a name which refers to the Jiaozhou Bay. Kiaochow, Kiauchau, Kiautschou, romanizations of Jiaozhou, human settlement in the area dates back 6,000 years. The Dongyi nationality, one of the important origins of the Chinese nation, lived here and created the Dawenkou, Longshan, in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, the town of Jimo was established, which was then the second largest one in the Shandong region. The area in which Qingdao is located today was named Jiaoao when it was administered by the Qing Dynasty on 14 June 1891, in 1891, the Qing government decided to make coastal Tsingtao a defense base against naval attack and began to improve Qingdaos existing fortifications. German naval officials observed and reported on this Chinese activity during a survey of Jiaozhou Bay in May 1897. Subsequently, German troops seized and occupied the fortification, China conceded the area to Germany the following year, and the Kiautschou Bay concession, as it became known, existed from 1898 to 1914. With an area of 552 square kilometres, it was located in the province of Shandong on the southern coast of the Shandong Peninsula in northern China. Jiaozhou was romanized as Kiaochow, Kiauchau or Kiao-Chau in English, the so-called Marktstrasse was nothing more than the old main street of the Chinese village of Tsingtao, and the buildings lining it were the former homes of fishermen and farmers. Having sold their property, they resettled their homes and fields in the further east
25.
China
–
China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
26.
Victoria Peak
–
Victoria Peak is a mountain in the western half of Hong Kong Island. It is also known as Mount Austin, and locally as The Peak, with an elevation of 552 m, it is the highest mountain on Hong Kong island, ranked 31 in terms of elevation in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. The summit is occupied by a radio telecommunications facility and is closed to the public, however, the surrounding area of public parks and high-value residential land is the area that is normally meant by the name The Peak. It is a major tourist attraction that offers views over Central, Victoria Harbour, Lamma Island, the sixth Governor of Hong Kong, Sir Richard MacDonnell had a summer residence built on the Peak circa 1868. Those that built houses named them whimsically, such as The Eyrie, and these original residents reached their homes by sedan chairs, which were carried up and down the steep slope of Victoria Peak. This limited development of the Peak until the opening of the Peak Tram funicular in 1888, the boost to accessibility caused by the opening of the Peak Tram created demand for residences on the Peak. Between 1904 and 1930, the Peak Reservation Ordinance designated the Peak as a residential area reserved for non-Chinese. They also reserved the Peak Tram for the use of passengers during peak periods. The Peak remains a residential area, although residency today is based on wealth. The Peak is home to species of birds, most prominently the black kite. With some seven million every year, the Peak is a major tourist attraction of Hong Kong. It offers spectacular views of the city and its waterfront, the viewing deck also has coin-operated telescopes that the visitors can use to enjoy the cityscape. The number of visitors led to the construction of two major leisure and shopping centres, the Peak Tower and the Peak Galleria, situated adjacent to each other. The Peak is also accessible by taxi and private car via the circuitous Peak Road, the nearest MTR station is Central. Victoria Peak Garden is located on the site of Mountain Lodge, the Governors old summer residence and it can be reached from Victoria Gap by walking up Mount Austin Road, a climb of about 150 metres. There are several restaurants on Victoria Peak, most of which are located in the two shopping centres, however, the Peak Lookout Restaurant, is housed in an older and more traditional building which was originally a spacious house for engineers working on the Peak Tramway. It was rebuilt in 1901 as an area for sedan chairs. In addition to being a major tourist attraction for Hong Kong, at the peak of The Peak, properties are more expensive than anywhere else in the world
27.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
28.
Kolkata
–
Kolkata /koʊlˈkɑːtɑː/ is the capital of the Indian state of West Bengal. In 2011, the city had a population of 4.5 million, while the population of the city and its suburbs was 14.1 million, making it the third-most populous metropolitan area in India. Recent estimates of Kolkata Metropolitan Areas economy have ranged from $60 to $150 billion making it third most-productive metropolitan area in India, after Mumbai, in the late 17th century, the three villages that predated Calcutta were ruled by the Nawab of Bengal under Mughal suzerainty. After the Nawab granted the East India Company a trading licence in 1690, Nawab Siraj ud-Daulah occupied Calcutta in 1756, and the East India Company retook it the following year. In 1793 the East India company was enough to abolish Nizamat. Calcutta was the centre for the Indian independence movement, it remains a hotbed of contemporary state politics, following Indian independence in 1947, Kolkata, which was once the centre of modern Indian education, science, culture, and politics, suffered several decades of economic stagnation. Many people from Kolkata—among them several Nobel laureates—have contributed to the arts, the sciences, Kolkata culture features idiosyncrasies that include distinctively close-knit neighbourhoods and freestyle intellectual exchanges. Though home to major cricketing venues and franchises, Kolkata differs from other Indian cities by giving importance to association football, there are several explanations about the etymology of this name, The term Kolikata is thought to be a variation of Kalikkhetrô, meaning Field of Kali. Similarly, it can be a variation of Kalikshetra, alternatively, the name may have been derived from the Bengali term kilkila, or flat area. The name may have its origin in the words khal meaning canal, followed by kaṭa, according to another theory, the area specialised in the production of quicklime or koli chun and coir or kata, hence, it was called Kolikata. The discovery and archaeological study of Chandraketugarh,35 kilometres north of Kolkata, Kolkatas recorded history began in 1690 with the arrival of the English East India Company, which was consolidating its trade business in Bengal. The area occupied by the city encompassed three villages, Kalikata, Gobindapur, and Sutanuti. Kalikata was a village, Sutanuti was a riverside weavers village. They were part of an estate belonging to the Mughal emperor and these rights were transferred to the East India Company in 1698. In 1712, the British completed the construction of Fort William, facing frequent skirmishes with French forces, the British began to upgrade their fortifications in 1756. The Nawab of Bengal, Siraj ud-Daulah, condemned the militarisation and his warning went unheeded, and the Nawab attacked, he captured Fort William which led to the killings of several East India company officials in the Black Hole of Calcutta. A force of Company soldiers and British troops led by Robert Clive recaptured the city the following year, declared a presidency city, Calcutta became the headquarters of the East India Company by 1772. In 1793, ruling power of the Nawabs were abolished and East India company took control of the city
29.
Shimla
–
Shimla, also known as Simla, is the capital and largest city of the northern Indian state of Himachal Pradesh. Shimla is also a district which is bounded by Mandi and Kullu in the north, Kinnaur in the east, the state of Uttarakhand in the south-east, in 1864, Shimla was declared as the summer capital of British India, succeeding Murree, northeast of Rawalpindi. After independence, the city became the capital of Punjab and was named the capital of Himachal Pradesh. It is the commercial, cultural and educational centre of the hilly regions of the state. As of 2011, the city had 171,817 permanent residents, small hamlets were recorded prior to 1815 when the English forces took control of the area. The climatic conditions attracted the British to establish the city in the forests of Himalayas. As the summer capital, Shimla hosted many important political meetings including the Simla Accord of 1914, after independence, the state of Himachal Pradesh came into being in 1948 as a result of integration of 28 princely states. Even after independence, the city remained an important political centre, after the reorganisation, the Mahasu district and its major portion were merged with Shimla. Its name is derived from the goddess Shyamala Devi, an incarnation of the Hindu goddess Kali, Shimla is home to a number of buildings that are styled in the Tudorbethan and neo-Gothic architectures dating from the colonial era, as well as multiple temples and churches. The colonial architecture and churches, the temples and the beauty of the city attract a large number of tourists. The major attractions include the Viceroy Lodge, the Christ Church, the Jakhoo Temple, the Mall Road and the Ridge, the Kalka–Shimla Railway line built by the British, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is also a major tourist attraction. Owing to its terrain, Shimla hosts the mountain biking race MTB Himalaya. Shimla also has the largest natural ice skating rink in South Asia, apart from being a tourism centre, the city is also an educational hub with a number of colleges and research institutions. The vast majority of the occupied by the present-day Shimla city was dense forest during the 18th century. The only civilisation consisted of the Jakhoo temple and a few scattered houses, the area was called Shimla, named after a Hindu goddess, Shyamala Devi, an incarnation of Kali. The area of present-day Shimla was invaded and captured by Bhimsen Thapa of Nepal in 1806, the British East India Company took control of the territory as per the Sugauli Treaty after the Anglo-Nepalese War. The Gurkha leaders were quelled by storming the fort of Malaun under the command of David Ochterlony in May 1815. In a diary entry dated 30 August 1817, the Gerard brothers, in 1819, Lieutenant Ross, the Assistant Political Agent in the Hill States, set up a wood cottage in Shimla
30.
Matheran
–
Matheran is a hill station and a municipal council in the Raigad district in the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is a station in Karjat Tahsil and is also the smallest hill station in India. It is located on the Western Ghats range at an elevation of around 800 m above sea level and it is located around 90 km from Mumbai, and 120 km from Pune. Matherans proximity to metropolitan cities makes it a popular weekend getaway for urban residents. Matheran, which means forest on the forehead is a region, declared by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. It is Asias only automobile-free hill station, There are around 38 designated look-out points in Matheran, including the Panorama Point that provides a 360 degree view of the surrounding area and also the Neral town. From this point, the view of sunset and sunrise is dramatic, the Louisa Point offers crystal clear view of the Prabal Fort. The other points are the One Tree Hill Point, Heart Point, Monkey Point, Porcupine Point, Rambagh Point, to stay there, there are plenty of hotels. There are a lot of Parsi bungalows. Beautiful old British-style architecture is preserved in Matheran, the roads are not metalled and are made of red laterite earth. There are many points in Matheran which give a view of the plains below. Matheran was identified by Hugh Poyntz Malet, the district collector of Thane district in May 1850. Lord Elphinstone, the then Governor of Bombay laid the foundations of the development as a hill station. The British developed Matheran as a resort to beat the summer heat in the region. Matheran is birthplace of freedom fighter Veer Bhai Kotwal. He was born on 1 December 1912 in a barber family, State Govt. has built a monument in his memory. The Matheran Hill Railway was built in 1907 by Sir Adamjee Peerbhoy and covers a distance of 20 km, over large swathes of forest territory. The Matheran hill railway, also known as Matheran Light Railway, was inspected by UNESCO world heritage site officials, indias other Hill Railways like the Darjeeling Railway, the Kangra Valley Railway, Nilgiri Mountain Railway are already on the list. Matheran has been declared an Eco-Sensitive zone by the Union Environment Ministry, a good collection of the dried plants is deposited in Blatter Herbarium, St. Xaviers College, Bombay, Mumbai
31.
India
–
India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
32.
Mumbai
–
Mumbai is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is the most populous city in India and the ninth most populous agglomeration in the world, Mumbai lies on the west coast of India and has a deep natural harbour. In 2008, Mumbai was named a world city. It is also the wealthiest city in India, and has the highest GDP of any city in South, West, Mumbai has the highest number of billionaires and millionaires among all cities in India. The seven islands that came to constitute Mumbai were home to communities of fishing colonies, during the mid-18th century, Bombay was reshaped by the Hornby Vellard project, which undertook reclamation of the area between the seven islands from the sea. Along with construction of roads and railways, the reclamation project, completed in 1845. Bombay in the 19th century was characterised by economic and educational development, during the early 20th century it became a strong base for the Indian independence movement. Upon Indias independence in 1947 the city was incorporated into Bombay State, in 1960, following the Samyukta Maharashtra movement, a new state of Maharashtra was created with Bombay as the capital. Mumbai is the financial, commercial and entertainment capital of India and it is also home to some of Indias premier scientific and nuclear institutes like BARC, NPCL, IREL, TIFR, AERB, AECI, and the Department of Atomic Energy. The city also houses Indias Hindi and Marathi film and television industry, Mumbais business opportunities, as well as its potential to offer a higher standard of living, attract migrants from all over India, making the city a melting pot of many communities and cultures. The oldest known names for the city are Kakamuchee and Galajunkja, in 1508, Portuguese writer Gaspar Correia used the name Bombaim, in his Lendas da Índia. This name possibly originated as the Old Portuguese phrase bom baim, meaning good little bay, in 1516, Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa used the name Tana-Maiambu, Tana appears to refer to the adjoining town of Thane and Maiambu to Mumbadevi. Other variations recorded in the 16th and the 17th centuries include, Mombayn, Bombay, Bombain, Bombaym, Monbaym, Mombaim, Mombaym, Bambaye, Bombaiim, Bombeye, Boon Bay, and Bon Bahia. After the English gained possession of the city in the 17th century, Ali Muhammad Khan, imperial diwan or revenue minister of the Gujarat province, in the Mirat-i-Ahmedi referred to the city as Manbai. By the late 20th century, the city was referred to as Mumbai or Mambai in the Indian statewise official languages of Marathi, Konkani, Gujarati, Kannada and Sindhi, the Government of India officially changed the English name to Mumbai in November 1995. According to Slate magazine, they argued that Bombay was a corrupted English version of Mumbai, Slate also said The push to rename Bombay was part of a larger movement to strengthen Marathi identity in the Maharashtra region. A resident of Mumbai is called mumbaikar in the Marathi language, the term has been in use for quite some time but it gained popularity after the official name change to Mumbai. Mumbai is built on what was once an archipelago of seven islands, Bombay Island, Parel, Mazagaon, Mahim, Colaba, Worli and it is not exactly known when these islands were first inhabited
33.
West Bengal
–
West Bengal is an Indian state, located in East India on the Bay of Bengal. It is Indias fourth-most populous state, with over 91 million inhabitants and it has a total area of 34,267 sq mi, making it similar in size to Serbia. A part of the ethno-linguistic Bengal region, it borders Bangladesh in the east and Nepal and it also has borders five Indian states, Odisha, Jharkhand, Bihar, Sikkim and Assam. The state capital is Kolkata, the seventh-largest city in India, the geography of West Bengal includes the Darjeeling Himalayan hill region in its extreme north, the Ganges delta, the Rarh region and the coastal Sundarbans. The main ethnic group are the Bengali people, with Bengali Hindus forming the demographic majority, Ancient Bengal was the site of several major janapadas, including Vanga, Radha, Pundra and Suhma. In the 2nd century BC, the region was conquered by the emperor Ashoka, in the 4th century AD, it was absorbed into the Gupta Empire. From the 13th century onward, the region was ruled by sultans, powerful Hindu states and Baro-Bhuyan landlords. The British East India Company cemented their hold on the following the Battle of Plassey in 1757. Between 1977 and 2011, the state was administered by the worlds longest elected Communist government, a major agricultural producer, West Bengal is the sixth-largest contributor to Indias net domestic product. It is noted for its activities and the presence of cultural and educational institutions. The states cultural heritage, besides varied folk traditions, ranges from stalwarts in literature including Nobel-laureate Rabindranath Tagore to scores of musicians, film-makers and artists. West Bengal is also distinct from most other Indian states in its appreciation and practice of playing football besides cricket. The origin of the name Bengal is unknown, one theory suggests that the word derives from Bang, a Dravidian tribe that settled the region around 1000 BC. The word might have derived from the ancient kingdom of Vanga. Although some early Sanskrit literature mentions the name, the early history is obscure. At the end of British Rule over the Indian subcontinent, the Bengal region was partitioned in 1947 along religious lines into east and west, the east came to be known as East Bengal and the west came to known as West Bengal, which continued as an Indian state. In 2011, the Government of West Bengal proposed a change in the name of the state to Poschimbongo. This is the name of the state, literally meaning western Bengal in the native Bengali language
34.
Buddhadeb Bhattacharjee
–
Buddhadeb Bhattacharjee is an Indian politician and was former member of the politburo of the Communist Party of India. He was the Chief Minister of West Bengal from 2000 to 2011 and he is the second West Bengal Chief Minister to lose an election from his own constituency, after Prafulla Chandra Sen in 1967. Born in 1944 in north Calcutta, Bhattacharjee belongs to a family which had produced another famous son, revolutionary poet Sukanta Bhattacharya was his fathers cousin. A former student of Sailendra Sirkar Vidyalaya and he studied Bengali literature at the Presidency College, Kolkata, and secured his B. A degree in Bengali, later he joined the CPI as a primary member. Besides taking active part in the movement, he also supported Vietnams cause in 1968. He was appointed secretary of the Democratic Youth Federation, the youth wing of the CPI that was later merged into the Democratic Youth Federation of India. In 1977, Bhattacharjee was elected as a Legislative Assembly Member for the first time and it was the first time that the CPI-led Left Front came to power in West Bengal. He was given charge of the ministry of information and culture, it was his position and during his tenure he contributed to Bengali theatre, movies. After losing the 1982 assembly election from Cossipore, he changed his constituency to Jadavpur in 1987, the move was successful, he won comfortably and regained his post. Bhattacharjee is also known to be a cricket fan. An avid traveller, he has toured extensively in China, the erstwhile Soviet Union, Cuba, Vietnam, Great Britain, France, bhattacharyya and his wife Meera have a daughter, Suchetana who is an environment and wildlife activist. In 1993, Buddhadeb tendered his resignation from the cabinet due to a significant difference of opinion with Jyoti Basu. However, there has never been any evidence on reasons behind his leaving the cabinet. It is during this period, Buddhadeb has written a critique of poetry written by Jibanananda Das, not only did the two leaders become closer during this period, Bhattacharjee also matured as a politician. This eventually led to his being promoted the Chief Minister, when Basu finally decided to step down in 2000, though Basu was ill and aged, his government was fast losing popularity. There were substantiated media stories about corruption involving Basus son, Bhattacharjee was made the Chief Minister with the objective of making the administration look cleaner and more efficient. His clean image was responsible for winning a record 6th term for the Left Front government in West Bengal in May 2001. He was inducted into the Politburo at the 17th party congress organised in 2002, after becoming the chief minister, Bhattacharjee liberalized Bengals economy significantly and attracted a lot of foreign investment in Bengal
35.
Medan
–
Medan is the capital of North Sumatra province in Indonesia. Located along the northeastern coast of Sumatra Island, Medan is the third biggest city in Indonesia, behind Jakarta, with 2,097,610 inhabitants at the 2010 census, Medan remains the largest settlement outside of Java Island. Bordered by the Strait of Malacca, Medan is a trading city as the strait is one of the most important shipping lanes in the world. Medan is the gateway to the part of Indonesia, accessible via the Port of Belawan. Both the seaport and the airport are connected to the city center via toll road, Medan became the first city in Indonesia to have an airport supported with train service. The city was founded by Guru Patimpus, a Karonese man who named a swampy land in confluence of Deli River, in 1632, the Deli Sultanate was established by Tuanku Gocah Pahlawan, who became its first king. In the 18th century, the king, Sultan Mahmud Al Rasyid Perkasa Alam. Jacob Nienhuys, a Dutch tobacco merchant, pioneered the opening of plantations in Deli Land. The areas name changed to Medan-Deli when it was established by Dutch tobacco commerce after the formation of the Deli Company. The Deli Railway was established for shipping rubber, tea, timber, palm oil, and sugar industries from the city to Belawan, following the establishment of the Republic of Indonesia, Medan became the capital of North Sumatra in mid-1950. Medan was dubbed by the Dutch Parijs van Sumatra due to the resemblance to Paris. Residential property prices in Medan have also trended upward over the period from 2013 to the first quarter of 2015, according to Bank Indonesia. According to BI, Medan’s residential property price index rose from 205.24 in the quarter of 2013 to 212.17 in the fourth quarter of 2014. One of the Karo-Indonesia dictionaries written by Darwin Prinst SH published in 2002 stated that Medan could also be defined as recover or be better, in ancient times the city of Medan was known as Kampung Medan. It was a piece of land with an area of approximately 4000 ha. Some of the crossing the city of Medan drain into the Straits of Malacca. These rivers are Sei Deli, Sei Babura, Sei Sikambing, Sei Denai, Sei Putih, Sei Percut, Medan started as a village called Kampung Medan. Kampung Medan was founded by Guru Patimpus Sembiring Pelawi, a Karonese man who came from the Karo Land, before he became a Muslim, he was a Pemena follower
36.
Kyoto
–
Kyoto is a city located in the central part of the island of Honshu, Japan. It has a close to 1.5 million. Kyoto is also known as the thousand-year capital, in Japanese, the city has been called Kyō, Miyako, or Kyō no Miyako. In the 11th century, the city was renamed Kyoto, after the Chinese word for capital city, after the city of Edo was renamed Tokyo in 1868, and the seat of the Emperor was transferred there, Kyoto was known for a short time as Saikyō. Obsolete spellings for the name include Kioto, Miaco and Meaco. Another term commonly used to refer to the city in the period was Keishi. His last choice for the site was the village of Uda, the new city, Heian-kyō, a scaled replica of the then Tang capital Changan, became the seat of Japans imperial court in 794, beginning the Heian period of Japanese history. The city suffered destruction in the Ōnin War of 1467–1477. Battles between samurai factions spilled into the streets, and came to involve the court nobility and religious factions as well, nobles mansions were transformed into fortresses, deep trenches dug throughout the city for defense and as firebreaks, and numerous buildings burned. The city has not seen such widespread destruction since, Hideyoshi also built earthwork walls called odoi encircling the city. Teramachi Street in central Kyoto is a Buddhist temple quarter where Hideyoshi gathered temples in the city, throughout the Edo period, the economy of the city flourished as one of three major cities in Japan, the others being Osaka and Edo. The Hamaguri rebellion of 1864 burnt down 28,000 houses in the city, the modern city of Kyoto was formed on April 1,1889. The construction of Lake Biwa Canal in 1890 is one taken to revive the city. The population of the city exceeded one million in 1932, stimson, Secretary of War in the Roosevelt and Truman administrations, the city was removed from the list of targets and replaced by Nagasaki. The city was spared from conventional bombing as well, although small-scale air raids did result in casualties. As a result, the Imperial City of Kyoto is one of the few Japanese cities that still have an abundance of prewar buildings, however, modernization is continually breaking down the traditional Kyoto in favor of newer architecture, such as the Kyōto Station complex. Kyoto became a city designated by government ordinance on September 1,1956, in 1997, Kyoto hosted the conference that resulted in the protocol on greenhouse gas emissions that bears the citys name. Kyoto is located in a valley, part of the Yamashiro Basin, in the part of the mountainous region known as the Tamba highlands
37.
Geisha
–
Geisha, geiko, or geigi are traditional Japanese female entertainers who act as hostesses. Their skills include performing arts such as classical music, dance, games, and conversation, traditionally to entertain male customers. Geisha, like all Japanese nouns, has no singular or plural variants. The word consists of two kanji, 芸 meaning art and 者 meaning person or doer, the most literal translation of geisha into English would be artist, performing artist, or artisan. Another name for geisha is geiko, which is used to refer to geisha from western Japan. Apprentice geisha are called maiko, or hangyoku, half-jewel, or by the generic term o-shaku. The white make-up and elaborate kimono and hair of a maiko is the popular image held of geisha, a woman entering the geisha community does not have to begin as a maiko, having the opportunity to begin her career as a full geisha. Either way, however, usually a training is involved before debuting either as a maiko or as a geisha. A woman above 21 is considered too old to be a maiko, on average, Tokyo apprentices are slightly older than their Kyoto counterparts. Historically, geisha often began the earliest stages of their training at a young age. The early shikomi and minarai stages of geisha training lasted years and it is still said that geisha inhabit a separate reality which they call the karyūkai or the flower and willow world. Before they disappeared, the courtesans were the colourful flowers and the geisha the willows because of their subtlety, strength, in the early stages of Japanese history, there were female entertainers, saburuko were mostly wandering girls whose families were displaced from struggles in the late 600s. Some of these saburuko girls sold sexual services, while others with a better education made a living by entertaining at social gatherings. After the imperial court moved the capital to Heian-kyō in 794 the conditions that would form Japanese Geisha culture began to emerge, skilled female performers, such as Shirabyōshi dancers, thrived. Traditional Japan embraced sexual delights and men were not constrained to be faithful to their wives, the ideal wife was a modest mother and manager of the home, by Confucian custom love had secondary importance. For sexual enjoyment and romantic attachment, men did not go to their wives, the highest yūjo class was the Geishas predecessor, called Tayuu, a combination of actress and prostitute, originally playing on stages set in the dry Kamo riverbed in Kyoto. They performed erotic dances and skits, and this new art was dubbed kabuku, meaning to be wild, the dances were called kabuki, and this was the beginning of kabuki theater. These pleasure quarters quickly became glamorous entertainment centers, offering more than sex, the highly accomplished courtesans of these districts entertained their clients by dancing, singing, and playing music
38.
Malaysia
–
Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy located in Southeast Asia. Peninsular Malaysia shares a land and maritime border with Thailand and maritime borders with Singapore, Vietnam, East Malaysia shares land and maritime borders with Brunei and Indonesia and a maritime border with the Philippines and Vietnam. The capital city is Kuala Lumpur, while Putrajaya is the seat of the federal government, with a population of over 30 million, Malaysia is the 44th most populous country. The southernmost point of continental Eurasia, Tanjung Piai, is in Malaysia, located in the tropics, Malaysia is one of 17 megadiverse countries on earth, with large numbers of endemic species. Malaysia has its origins in the Malay kingdoms present in the area which, from the 18th century, the first British territories were known as the Straits Settlements, whose establishment was followed by the Malay kingdoms becoming British protectorates. The territories on Peninsular Malaysia were first unified as the Malayan Union in 1946, Malaya was restructured as the Federation of Malaya in 1948, and achieved independence on 31 August 1957. Malaya united with North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore on 16 September 1963 to become Malaysia, less than two years later in 1965, Singapore was expelled from the federation. The country is multi-ethnic and multi-cultural, which plays a role in politics. About half the population is ethnically Malay, with minorities of Malaysian Chinese, Malaysian Indians. The constitution declares Islam the state religion while allowing freedom of religion for non-Muslims, the government system is closely modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system and the legal system is based on common law. The head of state is the king, known as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and he is an elected monarch chosen from the hereditary rulers of the nine Malay states every five years. The head of government is the prime minister, since its independence, Malaysia has had one of the best economic records in Asia, with its GDP growing at an average of 6. 5% per annum for almost 50 years. The economy has traditionally been fuelled by its resources, but is expanding in the sectors of science, tourism, commerce. Today, Malaysia has a newly industrialised market economy, ranked third largest in Southeast Asia, the name Malaysia is a combination of the word Malay and the Latin-Greek suffix -sia/-σία. The word melayu in Malay may derive from the Tamil words malai and ur meaning mountain and city, land, malayadvipa was the word used by ancient Indian traders when referring to the Malay Peninsula. Whether or not it originated from these roots, the word melayu or mlayu may have used in early Malay/Javanese to mean to steadily accelerate or run. This term was applied to describe the current of the river Melayu in Sumatra. The name was adopted by the Melayu Kingdom that existed in the seventh century on Sumatra
39.
Pakistan
–
Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a federal parliamentary republic in South Asia on the crossroads of Central Asia and Western Asia. It is the sixth-most populous country with a population exceeding 200 million people, in terms of area, it is the 33rd-largest country in the world with an area covering 881,913 square kilometres. It is separated from Tajikistan by Afghanistans narrow Wakhan Corridor in the north, Pakistan is unique among Muslim countries in that it is the only country to have been created in the name of Islam. As a result of the Pakistan Movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and it is an ethnically and linguistically diverse country, with a similarly diverse geography and wildlife. Initially a dominion, Pakistan adopted a constitution in 1956, becoming an Islamic republic, an ethnic civil war in 1971 resulted in the secession of East Pakistan as the new country of Bangladesh. The new constitution stipulated that all laws were to conform to the injunctions of Islam as laid down in the Quran. Pakistan has an economy with a well-integrated agriculture sector. The Pakistani economy is the 24th-largest in the world in terms of purchasing power and it is ranked among the emerging and growth-leading economies of the world, and is backed by one of the worlds largest and fastest-growing middle classes. The post-independence history of Pakistan has been characterised by periods of military rule, the country continues to face challenging problems such as illiteracy, healthcare, and corruption, but has substantially reduced poverty and terrorism and expanded per capita income. It is also a member of CERN. Pakistan is a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris Agreement, the name Pakistan literally means land of the pure in Urdu and Persian. It is a play on the word pāk meaning pure in Persian and Pashto, the letter i was incorporated to ease pronunciation and form the linguistically correct and meaningful name. Some of the earliest ancient human civilisations in South Asia originated from areas encompassing present-day Pakistan, the earliest known inhabitants in the region were Soanian during the Lower Paleolithic, of whom stone tools have been found in the Soan Valley of Punjab. The Vedic Civilization, characterised by Indo-Aryan culture, laid the foundations of Hinduism, Multan was an important Hindu pilgrimage centre. The Vedic civilisation flourished in the ancient Gandhāran city of Takṣaśilā, the Indo-Greek Kingdom founded by Demetrius of Bactria included Gandhara and Punjab and reached its greatest extent under Menander, prospering the Greco-Buddhist culture in the region. Taxila had one of the earliest universities and centres of education in the world. At its zenith, the Rai Dynasty of Sindh ruled this region, the Pala Dynasty was the last Buddhist empire, which, under Dharampala and Devapala, stretched across South Asia from what is now Bangladesh through Northern India to Pakistan. The Arab conqueror Muhammad bin Qasim conquered the Indus valley from Sindh to Multan in southern Punjab in 711 AD, the Pakistan governments official chronology identifies this as the time when the foundation of Pakistan was laid
40.
Tanga (carriage)
–
A Tonga or tanga is a light carriage or curricle drawn by two horses used for transportation in India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. They have a canopy over the carriage with a pair of large wheels. The passengers reach the seats from the rear while the driver sits in front of the carriage, some space is available for baggage below the carriage, between the wheels. This is often used to carry hay for the horses, Tangas were popular before the advent of automobiles and are still in use in some parts of South Asia. They are a mode of transportation because they are fun to ride in. However, in cities, tangas are not allowed to use highways because of their slow pace. In Pakistan, tangas are mainly found in the parts of cities and towns. Tangas have become a feature of weddings and other social functions in Pakistan. Tanga or tanga also served most of the urban and rural areas of Pakistan over decades, hence Tonga became culture of Pakistan. But from last two decades Tonga is being disappear from Pakistani culture as people are now facilitated with the public service transport means like Auto Rikshaw etc. This dying culture also needs attention of Government, in this regards efforts of Pakistani National channel i. e Ptv News are being encouraged at every level. Famous Producer of Ptv News Mr. Junaid Sultan has prepared a very informative report on Dying Tanga Culture. e Islamabad and he said Tonga service is serving people in a town of village Tarlai, known as Sudhraan. In India, Tangas also prevail in rural areas of North India like Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Punjab. Apart from the modes of transport, tangas are still standing in line at bus stops, railway stations to transport luggage. The culture of the Tanga is disappearing due to the speed of modern transportation, however, there are still some that continue to support themselves and keep the tradition alive. Tourists that come to India, still take rides in tangas to experience the Indian charm and it is the still one of the most appreciated experiences of Northern India
41.
Bullock cart
–
A bullock cart or ox cart is a two-wheeled or four-wheeled vehicle pulled by oxen. It is a means of transportation used since ancient times in many parts of the world and they are still used today where modern vehicles are too expensive or the infrastructure does not favor them. Used especially for carrying goods, the cart is pulled by one or several oxen. The cart is attached to a team by a special chain attached to yokes. The driver and any other passengers sit on the front of the cart, traditionally the cargo was usually agrarian goods and lumber. The invention of the used in India transportation most likely took place in Europe. Evidence of wheeled vehicles appears from the mid 4th millennium BC near-simultaneously in the Northern Caucasus, the earliest vehicles may have been ox carts. In Australia, bullock carts were referred to as bullock drays and were used to carry large loads. Drays were pulled by teams which could consist of 20 or more animals. Bullock teams were used extensively to produce from rural areas to major towns. Because of Australias size, these journeys often covered large distances and could take many days, Costa Rican parades and traditional celebrations are not complete without a traditional ox cart parade. In 1988, the ox cart was declared as National Symbol of Work by the Costa Rican government. In 2005, the Oxherding and Oxcart Traditions in Costa Rica were included in UNESCOs Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. In Indonesia, bullock carts are used in the rural parts of the country. But it is common in Indonesia that there are horsecars. In Indonesia, ox cart driver called a bajingan, bullock carts were widely used in Malaysia before the introduction of automobiles, and many are still used today. These included passenger vehicles, now used especially for tourists, passenger carts are usually equipped with awnings for protection against sun and rain, and are often gaily decorated
42.
Coolie
–
Coolie, during the 19th and early 20th century, was a term for an indentured servant indentured to a company, mainly from the South Asia or China. The origins of the word are uncertain but it is thought to have originated from the Tamil word for a payment for work, an alternative etymological explanation is that the word came from Hindustani word qulī, which itself could be from the Turkish word for slave, kul. The word was used in this sense for labourers from India, in 1727, Dr. Engelbert Kämpfer described coolies as dock labourers who would unload Dutch merchant ships at Nagasaki in Japan. The Chinese word 苦 力 means bitterly hard and is translated as bitter labour. Social and political pressure led to the abolition of the trade throughout the British Empire in 1807. Labour-intensive industries, such as cotton and sugar plantations, mines and railway construction, as a consequence, a large-scale slavery-like trade in Asian indentured labourers began in the 1820s to fill this vacuum. British companies were the first to experiment with this new form of cheap labour in 1807. The coolie trade was often compared to the slave trade. Although there are reports of ships for Asian coolies carrying women and children, the Chinese government also made efforts to secure the well-being of their nations workers, with representations being made to relevant governments around the world. The first shipment of Chinese labourers was to the British colony of Trinidad in 1806, the trade soon spread to other ports in Guangdong and demand became particularly strong in Peru for workers in the silver mines and the guano collecting industry. Australia began importing workers in 1848 and the United States began using them in 1865 on the First Transcontinental Railroad construction, the trade flourished from 1847 to 1854 without incident, until reports began to surface of the mistreatment of the workers in Cuba and Peru. As the British government had political and legal responsibility for many of the ports involved, including Amoy, however, the trade simply shifted to the more accommodating port in the Portuguese enclave of Macau. Many coolies were first deceived or kidnapped and then kept in barracoons or loading vessels in the ports of departure, in 1875, British commissioners estimated that approximately eighty percent of the workers had been abducted. Their voyages, which are called the Pacific Passage, were as inhumane. They were sold and were taken to work in plantations or mines with very bad living and working conditions, the duration of a contract was typically five to eight years, but many coolies did not live out their term of service because of the hard labour and mistreatment. Those who did live were often forced to remain in servitude beyond the contracted period, the coolies who worked on the sugar plantations in Cuba and in the guano beds of the Chincha Islands of Peru were treated brutally. Seventy-five percent of the Chinese coolies in Cuba died before fulfilling their contracts, more than two-thirds of the Chinese coolies who arrived in Peru between 1849 and 1874 died within the contract period. In 1860 it was calculated that of the 4000 coolies brought to the Chinchas since the trade began, because of these unbearable conditions, Chinese coolies often revolted against their Ko-Hung bosses and foreign company bosses at ports of departure, on ships, and in foreign lands
43.
Chinatown, Los Angeles
–
Chinatown is a neighborhood in Downtown Los Angeles, California that became a commercial center for Chinese and other Asian businesses in Central Los Angeles in 1938. The area includes restaurants, shops and art galleries but also has a neighborhood with a low-income. The original Chinatown developed in the late 19th century, but it was demolished to make room for Union Station, a separate commercial center, known as New Chinatown, opened for business in 1938. There are two schools and a library in Chinatown, as well as a city park, a state park. Many motion pictures have filmed in the area. Many of them settled in Los Angeles, in 1871, nineteen Chinese men and boys were killed by a mob of about five hundred white men in one of the most serious incidents of racial violence that has ever occurred in Americas West. This incident became known as Massacre of 1871, the first Chinatown, centered on Alameda and Macy Streets, was established in 1880. Reaching its heyday from 1890 to 1910, Chinatown grew to approximately fifteen streets and it boasted a Chinese Opera theater, three temples, a newspaper and a telephone exchange. But laws prohibiting most Chinese from citizenship and property ownership, as well as legislation curtailing immigration, from the early 1910s Chinatown began to decline. Symptoms of a corrupt Los Angeles discolored the publics view of Chinatown, gambling houses, opium dens, as tenants and lessees rather than outright owners, the residents of Old Chinatown were threatened with impending redevelopment, and as a result the owners neglected upkeep of their buildings. Eventually, the area was sold and then resold, as entrepreneurs and developers fought the area. After thirty years of decay, a Supreme Court ruling approved condemnation of the area to allow for construction of a rail terminal. Residents were evicted to make room for Union Station, causing the formation of the New Chinatown, seven years passed before an acceptable relocation proposal was put into place, situating a new Chinatown in its present location. Old Chinatown was gradually demolished, leaving many businesses without a place to do business, nonetheless, a remnant of Old Chinatown persisted into the early 1950s, situated between Union Station and the Old Plaza. The Chinese American Museum is now situated in Garnier Building, costumed workers greeted tourists, and a Chinese opera troupe performed live shows in front of the shops. Some replica buildings in China City came from the set of the 1937 Hollywood blockbuster, China City received mixed support from Chinese American residents and businessmen. Many welcomed the opportunity the project provided. Others preferred the New Chinatown project, considered less distorted by the lens of Hollywood
44.
Halifax, Nova Scotia
–
Halifax, legally known as the Halifax Regional Municipality, is the capital of the province of Nova Scotia, Canada. The municipality had a population of 403,131 in 2016, the regional municipality consists of four former municipalities that were amalgamated in 1996, Halifax, Dartmouth, Bedford, and the Municipality of Halifax County. Halifax is an economic centre in Atlantic Canada with a large concentration of government services. Agriculture, fishing, mining, forestry and natural gas extraction are major resource found in the rural areas of the municipality. Additionally, Halifax has consistently placed in the top 10 for business friendliness of North and South American cities, the first permanent European settlement in the region was on the Halifax Peninsula. The establishment of the Town of Halifax, named after the 2nd Earl of Halifax, the establishment of Halifax marked the beginning of Father Le Loutres War. The war began when Edward Cornwallis arrived to establish Halifax with 13 transports, by unilaterally establishing Halifax the British were violating earlier treaties with the Mikmaq, which were signed after Father Rales War. Cornwallis brought along 1,176 settlers and their families, St. Margarets Bay was first settled by French-speaking Foreign Protestants at French Village, Nova Scotia who migrated from Lunenburg, Nova Scotia during the American Revolution. The resulting explosion, the Halifax Explosion, devastated the Richmond District of Halifax, killing approximately 2,000 people, the blast was the largest artificial explosion before the development of nuclear weapons. Significant aid came from Boston, strengthening the bond between the two coastal cities, the municipal boundary thus now includes all of Halifax County except for several First Nation reserves. Since amalgamation, the region has officially been known as the Halifax Regional Municipality, on April 15,2014, the regional council approved the implementation of a new branding campaign for the region developed by the local firm Revolve Marketing. The campaign would see the region referred to in promotional materials simply as Halifax, mayor Mike Savage defended the decision, stating, Im a Westphal guy, Im a Dartmouth man, but Halifax is my city, we’re all part of Halifax. Because when I go and travel on behalf of this municipality, metropolitan Halifax is a term used to describe the urban concentration surrounding Halifax Harbour, including the Halifax Peninsula, the core of Dartmouth, and the Bedford-Sackville areas. It is the Statistics Canada population centre of Halifax, the dense urban core is centred on the Halifax Peninsula and the area of Dartmouth inside of the Circumferential Highway. The suburban area stretches into areas known as Mainland Halifax to the west, Cole Harbour to the east and this urban area is the most populous on Canadas Atlantic coast, and the second largest coastal population centre in the country after Vancouver, British Columbia. Halifax currently accounts for 40% of Nova Scotias population, and 15% of that of Atlantic Canada, Halifaxs urban core is home to a number of regional landmark buildings and retains significant historic buildings and districts. The downtowns office towers are overlooked by the fortress of Citadel Hill with its iconic Halifax Town Clock, Dalhousie Universitys campus is often featured in films and documentaries. Dartmouth also has its share of historic neighbourhoods and this has resulted in some modern high rises being built at unusual angles or locations
45.
Ottawa
–
Ottawa is the capital city of Canada. It stands on the bank of the Ottawa River in the eastern portion of southern Ontario. Ottawa borders Gatineau, Quebec, the two form the core of the Ottawa–Gatineau census metropolitan area and the National Capital Region. The 2016 census reported a population of 934,243, making it the fourth-largest city in Canada, the City of Ottawa reported that the city had an estimated population of 960,754 as of December 2015. Founded in 1826 as Bytown, and incorporated as Ottawa in 1855, the city name Ottawa was chosen in reference to the Ottawa River nearby, the name of which is derived from the Algonquin Odawa, meaning to trade. The city is the most educated in Canada, and is home to a number of post-secondary, research, and cultural institutions, including the National Arts Centre, Ottawa also has the highest standard of living in the nation and low unemployment. It ranked second out of 150 worldwide in the Numbeo quality of life index 2014–2015, with the draining of the Champlain Sea around ten thousand years ago the Ottawa Valley became habitable. The area was used for wild harvesting, hunting, fishing, trade, travel. The Ottawa river valley has archaeological sites with arrow heads, pottery, the area has three major rivers that meet, making it an important trade and travel area for thousands of years. The Algonquins called the Ottawa River Kichi Sibi or Kichissippi meaning Great River or Grand River, Étienne Brûlé, the first European to travel up the Ottawa River, passed by Ottawa in 1610 on his way to the Great Lakes. Three years later, Samuel de Champlain wrote about the waterfalls of the area and about his encounters with the Algonquins, the early explorers and traders were later followed by many missionaries. The first maps of the area used the word Ottawa to name the river, philemon Wright, a New Englander, created the first settlement in the area on 7 March 1800 on the north side of the river, across from Ottawa in Hull. He, with five other families and twenty-five labourers, set about to create a community called Wrightsville. Wright pioneered the Ottawa Valley timber trade by transporting timber by river from the Ottawa Valley to Quebec City, the following year, the town would soon be named after British military engineer Colonel John By who was responsible for the entire Rideau Waterway construction project. Colonel By set up military barracks on the site of todays Parliament Hill and he also laid out the streets of the town and created two distinct neighbourhoods named Upper Town west of the canal and Lower Town east of the canal. Similar to its Upper Canada and Lower Canada namesakes, historically Upper Town was predominantly English speaking and Protestant whereas Lower Town was predominantly French, Irish, bytowns population grew to 1,000 as the Rideau Canal was being completed in 1832. In 1855 Bytown was renamed Ottawa and incorporated as a city, William Pittman Lett was installed as the first city clerk guiding it through 36 years of development. On New Years Eve 1857, Queen Victoria, as a symbolic, in reality, Prime Minister John A. Macdonald had assigned this selection process to the Executive Branch of the Government, as previous attempts to arrive at a consensus had ended in deadlock
46.
ByWard Market
–
ByWard Market is a district in Lower Town located east of the government and business district, surrounding the market buildings and open-air market on George, York, ByWard and William Streets. The district is bordered on the west by Sussex Drive and Mackenzie Avenue and it stretches northwards to Cathcart Street, while to the south it is bordered by Rideau Street. The name refers to the old By Ward of the City of Ottawa, the district comprises the main commercial part of the historic Lower Town area of Ottawa. According to the Canada 2011 Census, the population of the area was 3,063, the market itself is regulated by the City of Ottawas Markets Management group, which also operates the smaller west-end Parkdale Market. The market building is open year-round, and open-air stalls are operated in the warmer months offering fresh produce, traditionally, the ByWard Market area has been a focal point for Ottawas French and Irish communities. The large Catholic community supported Notre Dame Cathedral, one of the largest and oldest Roman Catholic churches in Ottawa, the shape of the cathedral was taken into account in the design of the National Gallery of Canada, which was built across Sussex Drive. The ByWard Market has constantly been an area of change, adapting to the increasingly cosmopolitan nature of downtown Ottawa. Recently, a multitude of restaurants and specialty food stores have sprouted around the market area, a four-block area around the market provides the most dense concentration of eating places, bars and nightclubs in the National Capital Region. The areas beyond this zone also offer boutiques and restaurants in abundance, having acquired a reputation as the citys premier bar district, Byward Market is thronged at night with university students and other young adults. Over the years the city has developed a series of five small, human-scale, open air courtyards, immediately east of Sussex Drive and these cobblestone courtyards are filled with flowers, park benches, fountains and sculptures. Several of the houses surrounding them are historic buildings, at the other extreme on the west side of Sussex Drive is the United States Embassy. The buildings design, by noted architect David Childs, was controversial in Ottawa. Others complained that the structure overshadowed the historic market, the neighbourhood is today markedly heterogeneous, being visited by a mix of young professionals, many families and some homeless people. At one time, the area had a serious prostitution problem, the area is mainly English-speaking but there exists a significant francophone population as well. The Market is located in proximity to the downtown, to the Rideau Centre shopping mall, to Parliament Hill. It was out of this project that the small community of Bytown grew into a flourishing commercial. Colonel By prepared plans for two sites, one on the west side of the Rideau canal, which was known as Upper Town. The land was cleared and surveyed, both villages were laid out in a grid system and divided into building lots