1.
Pacer (train)
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Pacer is the operational name of the British Rail Classes 140,141,142,143 and 144 diesel multiple unit railbuses, built between 1980 and 1987. Intended as a solution to a shortage of rolling stock. The Rail Vehicle Accessibility Regulations require that all passenger trains must be accessible to disabled people by 2020. Only one Pacer currently meets this requirement, and the remainder will therefore need to be withdrawn by that date unless they receive an extensive refurbishment, the Pacers use a modified bus body with a reinforced cab area, in order to comply with crashworthiness standards. Each carriage has four wheels on a fixed long-wheelbase, rather than the usual arrangement of eight wheels attached to bogies. This arrangement has been criticised for causing loud noise and excessive wear to the wheels, the Pacer series was a project by British Rail to create a train, with low running costs, for use on rural and suburban rail services. At the time, BR was under increasing pressure from the government including proposals to cut more rail lines. BR set a challenge to several companies to design a cheap, since then,165 Pacer trains have been built, with some over 30 years old by 2015. Demonstrator units have toured the U. S, Northern Ireland, Belgium, Sweden, Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia, without producing sales. However Iran purchased redundant Class 141 units for use on lines around Tehran. The Pacer series was the result of an experiment to see whether the possibility of using bus parts to create a multiple unit was viable. This was followed by the prototype class 140, which was built in 1980 at the British Rail Engineering Derby works. The prototype was joined by another 20 two-car units which formed the Class 141 fleet, the units were used mainly in Yorkshire, operating on predominantly suburban services. They had a capacity of 94 passengers per two-car set, the entire class underwent a technical upgrade in 1988 at the Hunslet-Barclay works in Kilmarnock. The units were withdrawn from use in 1997, many were sold to the Islamic Republic of Iran Railways but have been withdrawn and are left rotting away in disused sidings in Iran, whilst a few remain in preservation. Because it used a standard Leyland National body, the Class 141 was narrower than the later Pacers, the later Pacers had widened body panels to allow an increase in seating. The next and largest Pacer class was the Class 142 and this again was built by Leyland and BREL, in 1985. The body was based on a Leyland National bus, built at Lillyhall, many fixtures and fittings of the Leyland National could be found on the units
2.
Scaffolding
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Bamboo scaffolding is a type of scaffolding made from bamboo and widely used in construction work for centuries. Many famous landmarks, notably The Great Wall of China, were built using bamboo scaffolding and it was first introduced into the building industry in Hong Kong immediately after colonization in the 1800s. It was widely used in the building of houses and multi-story buildings prior to the development of metal scaffolding and it was also useful for short-term construction projects, such as framework for temporary sheds for Cantonese Opera performances. There is three types of scaffolding in Hong Kong,1, in 2013, there were 1,751 registered bamboo scaffolders and roughly 200 scaffolding companies in Hong Kong. The use of scaffolding is diminishing due to shortages in labor. Despite the lack of force and material, recently the safety problem has become another serious concern. The labor shortage may be due to the reluctance of younger generations to become scaffolders, “They even think that it’s a dirty and dangerous job. “They refuse to step in, although we give them high pay. Young generations do not like jobs that involve hard work. ”Another reason fewer people are becoming scaffolders is that new recruits need to undergo training with the Hong Kong Construction Industry Council in order to acquire a license. Older scaffolders generally learned in apprenticeships, and may have been able to gather more hands-on experience, material shortages are also a contributing factor to the decline. The bamboo scaffolding material was imported from mainland China, bamboo—which matures after three years to the wide diameter and thick skin perfect for scaffolding—came from the Shaoxing area in Guangdong. Over the past two decades, firms have had to look to Guangxi instead, the industrys fear is that one day supplies will be blocked due to export embargoes and environmental concerns. Attempts to import bamboo from Thailand, or switch to synthetic or plastic bamboo, have so far proved unsuccessful, in many African countries, notably Nigeria, bamboo scaffolding is still used in small scale construction in urban areas. In rural areas, the use of scaffolding for construction is common. Some of the structures in relaxation and recreation centres both in urban and rural areas of Nigeria are put in place using bamboo materials and this is not for reasons of poverty but to add more aesthetics to these centres. Bamboo materials are used in the construction of some bukas in rural areas. Content about specifications Double-row Scaffold Only double-row bamboo scaffold is allowed to use for working at height, nylon Mesh The perimeter of bamboo scaffold shall be covered by nylon mesh against falling objects. The lapping of nylon mesh should be at least 100mm wide, access and Egress Suitable means of access shall be provided from the building or ground level to the scaffold such as gangway, stairs and ladder etc
3.
Pump
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A pump is a device that moves fluids, or sometimes slurries, by mechanical action. Pumps can be classified into three groups according to the method they use to move the fluid, direct lift, displacement. Pumps operate by some mechanism, and consume energy to mechanical work by moving the fluid. Pumps operate via many energy sources, including operation, electricity, engines, or wind power, come in many sizes. Single stage pump - When in an only one impeller is revolving then it is called single stage pump. Double/ Multi stage pump - When in a two or more than two impellers are revolving then it is called double/ multi stage pump. In biology, many different types of chemical and bio-mechanical pumps have evolved, mechanical pumps may be submerged in the fluid they are pumping or be placed external to the fluid. Pumps can be classified by their method of displacement into positive displacement pumps, impulse pumps, velocity pumps, gravity pumps, steam pumps, there are two basic types of pumps, positive displacement and centrifugal. Although axial-flow pumps are classified as a separate type, they have essentially the same operating principles as centrifugal pumps. A positive displacement pump makes a move by trapping a fixed amount. Some positive displacement pumps use a cavity on the suction side. Liquid flows into the pump as the cavity on the suction side expands, the volume is constant through each cycle of operation. Positive displacement pumps, unlike centrifugal or roto-dynamic pumps, theoretically can produce the flow at a given speed no matter what the discharge pressure. Thus, positive displacement pumps are constant flow machines, however, a slight increase in internal leakage as the pressure increases prevents a truly constant flow rate. A positive displacement pump must not operate against a closed valve on the side of the pump. A relief or safety valve on the side of the positive displacement pump is therefore necessary. The relief valve can be internal or external, the pump manufacturer normally has the option to supply internal relief or safety valves. The internal valve is only used as a safety precaution
4.
Oil well
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An oil well is a boring in the Earth that is designed to bring petroleum oil hydrocarbons to the surface. Usually some natural gas is produced along with the oil, a well that is designed to produce mainly or only gas may be termed a gas well. The earliest known oil wells were drilled in China in 347 CE and these wells had depths of up to about 240 metres and were drilled using bits attached to bamboo poles. The oil was burned to evaporate brine and produce salt, by the 10th century, extensive bamboo pipelines connected oil wells with salt springs. The ancient records of China and Japan are said to contain allusions to the use of natural gas for lighting and heating. Petroleum was known as Burning water in Japan in the 7th century, arab and Persian chemists also distilled crude oil in order to produce flammable products for military purposes. Through Islamic Spain, distillation became available in Western Europe by the 12th century, some sources claim that from the 9th century, oil fields were exploited in the area around modern Baku, Azerbaijan, to produce naphtha for the petroleum industry. These places were described by Marco Polo in the 13th century, when Marco Polo in 1264 visited Baku, on the shores of the Caspian Sea, he saw oil being collected from seeps. He wrote that on the confines toward Geirgine there is a fountain from which oil springs in great abundance, in 1846, Baku the first ever well was drilled with percussion tools to a depth of 21 meters for oil exploration. In 1848, the first modern oil well was drilled on the Aspheron Peninsula north-east of Baku, the earliest oil wells in modern times were drilled percussively, by repeatedly raising and dropping a cable tool into the earth. In the 20th century, cable tools were replaced with rotary drilling. The record-depth Kola Borehole used non-rotary mud motor drilling to achieve a depth of over 12,000 metres, until the 1970s, most oil wells were vertical, although lithological and mechanical imperfections cause most wells to deviate at least slightly from true vertical. However, modern directional drilling technologies allow for strongly deviated wells which can, given sufficient depth and with the proper tools, before a well is drilled, a geologic target is identified by a geologist or geophysicist to meet the objectives of the well. For a production well, the target is picked to optimize production from the well, for an exploration or appraisal well, the target is chosen to confirm the existence of a viable hydrocarbon reservoir or to ascertain its extent. The target will be matched with a location, and a trajectory between the two will be designed. When the well path is identified, a team of geoscientists and these properties include pore pressure, fracture gradient, wellbore stability, porosity, permeability, lithology, faults, and clay content. The well is created by drilling a hole 12 cm to 1 meter in diameter into the earth with a rig that rotates a drill string with a bit attached. After the hole is drilled, sections of pipe, slightly smaller in diameter than the borehole, are placed in the hole
5.
Oil field
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An oil field or oilfield is a region with an abundance of oil wells extracting petroleum from below ground. Because the oil reservoirs typically extend over an area, possibly several hundred kilometres across. In addition, there may be exploratory wells probing the edges, pipelines to transport the oil elsewhere, because an oil field may be remote from civilization, establishing a field is often an extremely complicated exercise in logistics. This goes beyond requirements for drilling, to include associated infrastructure, for instance, workers require housing to allow them to work onsite for months or years. In turn, housing and equipment require electricity and water, in cold regions, pipelines may need to be heated. Also, excess gas may be burned off if there is no way to make use of it—which requires a furnace, chimney. More than 40,000 oil fields are scattered around the globe, on land, the largest are the Ghawar Field in Saudi Arabia and the Burgan Field in Kuwait, with more than 60 billion barrels estimated in each. Most oil fields are much smaller, according to the US Department of Energy, as of 2003 the US alone had over 30,000 oil fields. In the modern age, the location of oil fields with oil reserves is a key underlying factor in many geopolitical conflicts. The term oilfield is also used as a shorthand to refer to the petroleum industry. However, it is accurate to divide the oil industry into three sectors, upstream, midstream and downstream. Oil Fields from Space - nighttime satellite images showing fields around the world
6.
Emulsion
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An emulsion is a mixture of two or more liquids that are normally immiscible. Emulsions are part of a general class of two-phase systems of matter called colloids. Although the terms colloid and emulsion are sometimes used interchangeably, emulsion should be used when both phases, dispersed and continuous, are liquids, in an emulsion, one liquid is dispersed in the other. Examples of emulsions include vinaigrettes, homogenized milk, mayonnaise, the word emulsion comes from the Latin word for to milk, as milk is an emulsion of fat and water, along with other components. Two liquids can form different types of emulsions, as an example, oil and water can form, first, an oil-in-water emulsion, wherein the oil is the dispersed phase, and water is the dispersion medium. Second, they can form an emulsion, wherein water is the dispersed phase. Multiple emulsions are also possible, including a water-in-oil-in-water emulsion and an oil-in-water-in-oil emulsion, emulsions, being liquids, do not exhibit a static internal structure. The droplets dispersed in the matrix are usually assumed to be statistically distributed. The term emulsion is used to refer to the photo-sensitive side of photographic film. Such a photographic emulsion consist of silver halide colloidal particles dispersed in a gelatin matrix, nuclear emulsions are similar to photographic emulsions, except that they are used in particle physics to detect high-energy elementary particles. Emulsions contain both a dispersed and a phase, with the boundary between the phases called the interface. Emulsions tend to have an appearance because the many phase interfaces scatter light as it passes through the emulsion. Emulsions appear white when all light is scattered equally, if the emulsion is dilute enough, higher-frequency and low-wavelength light will be scattered more, and the emulsion will appear bluer – this is called the Tyndall effect. If the emulsion is concentrated enough, the color will be distorted toward comparatively longer wavelengths and this phenomenon is easily observable when comparing skimmed milk, which contains little fat, to cream, which contains a much higher concentration of milk fat. One example would be a mixture of water and oil, two special classes of emulsions – microemulsions and nanoemulsions, with droplet sizes below 100 nm – appear translucent. This property is due to the fact that lightwaves are scattered by the only if their sizes exceed about one-quarter of the wavelength of the incident light. Due to their similarity in appearance, translucent nanoemulsions and microemulsions are frequently confused, the required surfactant concentration in a microemulsion is, however, several times higher than that in a translucent nanoemulsion, and significantly exceeds the concentration of the dispersed phase. Because of many undesirable side-effects caused by surfactants, their presence is disadvantageous or prohibitive in many applications, in addition, the stability of a microemulsion is often easily compromised by dilution, by heating, or by changing pH levels
7.
Petroleum
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Petroleum is a naturally occurring, yellow-to-black liquid found in geological formations beneath the Earths surface, which is commonly refined into various types of fuels. Components of petroleum are separated using a technique called fractional distillation and it consists of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other organic compounds. The name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oil and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil. A fossil fuel, petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms, usually zooplankton and algae, are buried underneath sedimentary rock, Petroleum has mostly been recovered by oil drilling. Drilling is carried out studies of structural geology, sedimentary basin analysis. Petroleum is used in manufacturing a variety of materials. Concern over the depletion of the earths finite reserves of oil, the burning of fossil fuels plays the major role in the current episode of global warming. The word petroleum comes from Greek, πέτρα for rocks and Greek, the term was found in 10th-century Old English sources. It was used in the treatise De Natura Fossilium, published in 1546 by the German mineralogist Georg Bauer, Petroleum, in one form or another, has been used since ancient times, and is now important across society, including in economy, politics and technology. Great quantities of it were found on the banks of the river Issus, ancient Persian tablets indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper levels of their society. By 347 AD, oil was produced from bamboo-drilled wells in China, early British explorers to Myanmar documented a flourishing oil extraction industry based in Yenangyaung that, in 1795, had hundreds of hand-dug wells under production. The mythological origins of the oil fields at Yenangyaung, and its hereditary monopoly control by 24 families, Pechelbronn is said to be the first European site where petroleum has been explored and used. The still active Erdpechquelle, a spring where petroleum appears mixed with water has been used since 1498, Oil sands have been mined since the 18th century. In Wietze in lower Saxony, natural asphalt/bitumen has been explored since the 18th century, both in Pechelbronn as in Wietze, the coal industry dominated the petroleum technologies. In 1848 Young set up a small business refining the crude oil, Young eventually succeeded, by distilling cannel coal at a low heat, in creating a fluid resembling petroleum, which when treated in the same way as the seep oil gave similar products. The production of oils and solid paraffin wax from coal formed the subject of his patent dated 17 October 1850. In 1850 Young & Meldrum and Edward William Binney entered into partnership under the title of E. W. Binney & Co. at Bathgate in West Lothian, the worlds first oil refinery was built in 1856 by Ignacy Łukasiewicz. The demand for petroleum as a fuel for lighting in North America, edwin Drakes 1859 well near Titusville, Pennsylvania, is popularly considered the first modern well
8.
Beam engine
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A beam engine is a type of steam engine where a pivoted overhead beam is used to apply the force from a vertical piston to a vertical connecting rod. This configuration, with the engine driving a pump, was first used by Thomas Newcomen around 1705 to remove water from mines in Cornwall. Beam engines were first used to pump out of mines or into canals. The rotative beam engine is a design of beam engine where the connecting rod drives a flywheel. These beam engines could be used to power the line-shafting in a mill. They also could be used to steam ships. The first beam engines were water-powered, and used to water from mines. A preserved example may be seen at Wanlockhead in Scotland, the first steam-related beam engine was developed by Thomas Newcomen. This was not, strictly speaking, steam powered, as the steam introduced below the piston was condensed to create a partial vacuum thus allowing atmospheric pressure to push down the piston and it was therefore called an Atmospheric Engine. The Newcomen atmospheric engine was adopted by many mines in Cornwall and elsewhere, technically this was still an atmospheric engine until he enclosed the upper part of the cylinder, introducing steam to also push the piston down. This made it a steam engine and arguably confirms him as the inventor of the steam engine. He also patented the centrifugal governor and the parallel motion, the latter allowed the replacement of chains round an arch head and thus allowed its use as a rotative engine. His patents remained in place until the start of the 19th Century, however, in reality development had been ongoing by others and at the end of the patent period there was an explosion of new ideas and improvements. Watts beam engines were used commercially in much larger numbers and many continued to run for 100 years or more, Watt held patents on key aspects of his engines design, but his rotative engine was equally restricted by the patent by an other of the simple crank. The beam engine went on to be improved and enlarged in the tin- and copper-rich areas of south west England. Consequently, the Cornish beam engines became world-famous, as they remain among the most massive beam engines ever constructed, in a rotative beam engine, the piston is mounted vertically, and the piston rod drives the beam as before. A connecting rod from the end of the beam, rather than driving a pump rod. Early Watt engines used Watts patent sun and planet gear, rather than a simple crank, once the patent had expired, the simple crank was employed universally
9.
Marine steam engine
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A marine steam engine is a steam engine that is used to power a ship or boat. Reciprocating steam engines were replaced in marine applications during the 20th century by steam turbines. The first commercially successful engine was developed by Thomas Newcomen in 1712. The steam engine improvements brought forth by James Watt in the half of the 18th century greatly improved steam engine efficiency. In 1807, the American Robert Fulton built the worlds first commercially successful steamboat, simply known as the North River Steamboat, following Fultons success, steamboat technology developed rapidly on both sides of the Atlantic. The first successful transatlantic crossing by a steamship occurred in 1819 when Savannah sailed from Savannah, Georgia to Liverpool, the first steamship to make regular transatlantic crossings was the sidewheel steamer Great Western in 1838. As the 19th century progressed, marine engines and steamship technology developed alongside each other. A wide variety of reciprocating steam engines were developed over the course of the 19th century. The two main methods of classifying such engines are by connection mechanism and cylinder technology, most early marine engines had the same cylinder technology but a number of different methods of supplying power to the crankshaft were in use. Thus, early engines are classified mostly according to their connection mechanism. Some common connection mechanisms were side-lever, steeple, walking beam, however, steam engines can also be classified according to their cylinder technology. One can therefore sometimes find examples of engines which were classified under both methods, such as the walking beam. Over time, as most engines became direct-acting but cylinder technologies were growing more complex, Some of the more commonly encountered types of marine steam engine are listed in the following sections. Note that not all of these terms may have been used exclusively in relation to marine applications, the side-lever engine was the first type of steam engine to be widely adopted for marine use in Europe. The side-lever was an adaptation of the earliest form of steam engine and these levers extended, on the cylinder side, to each side of the bottom of the vertical engine cylinder. A piston rod, connected vertically to the piston, extended out of the top of the cylinder and this rod attached to a horizontal crosshead which, at each end, was connected to vertical rods. These rods connected down to the levers on each side of the cylinder and this formed the connection of the levers to the piston on the cylinder side of the engine. The other side of the levers were connected to each other with a horizontal crosstail and this crosstail in turn connected to and operated a single connecting rod, which turned the crankshaft
10.
Engine
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An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one form of energy into mechanical energy. Heat engines burn a fuel to heat, which is then used to create a force. Electric motors convert electrical energy into motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air. In biological systems, molecular motors, like myosins in muscles, use energy to create forces. The word engine derives from Old French engin, from the Latin ingenium–the root of the word ingenious. Pre-industrial weapons of war, such as catapults, trebuchets and battering rams, were called siege engines, the word gin, as in cotton gin, is short for engine. Most mechanical devices invented during the revolution were described as engines—the steam engine being a notable example. However, the steam engines, such as those by Thomas Savery, were not mechanical engines. In this manner, an engine in its original form was merely a water pump. Devices converting heat energy into motion are commonly referred to simply as engines, examples of engines which exert a torque include the familiar automobile gasoline and diesel engines, as well as turboshafts. Examples of engines which produce thrust include turbofans and rockets, the term motor derives from the Latin verb moto which means to set in motion, or maintain motion. Thus a motor is a device that imparts motion, motor and engine later came to be used largely interchangeably in casual discourse. However, technically, the two words have different meanings, however, rocketry uses the term rocket motor, even though they consume fuel. A heat engine may also serve as a prime mover—a component that transforms the flow or changes in pressure of a fluid into mechanical energy. An automobile powered by a combustion engine may make use of various motors and pumps. Another way of looking at it is that a motor receives power from an external source, simple machines, such as the club and oar, are prehistoric. More complex engines using human power, animal power, water power, wind power and these were used in cranes and aboard ships in Ancient Greece, as well as in mines, water pumps and siege engines in Ancient Rome. The writers of those times, including Vitruvius, Frontinus and Pliny the Elder, treat these engines as commonplace, by the 1st century AD, cattle and horses were used in mills, driving machines similar to those powered by humans in earlier times
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Internal combustion engine
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An internal combustion engine is a heat engine where the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high-temperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct force to some component of the engine, the force is applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, rotor or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into mechanical energy. The first commercially successful internal combustion engine was created by Étienne Lenoir around 1859, firearms are also a form of internal combustion engine. Working fluids can be air, hot water, pressurized water or even liquid sodium, ICEs are usually powered by energy-dense fuels such as gasoline or diesel, liquids derived from fossil fuels. While there are many applications, most ICEs are used in mobile applications and are the dominant power supply for vehicles such as cars, aircraft. Typically an ICE is fed with fossil fuels like natural gas or petroleum products such as gasoline, there is a growing usage of renewable fuels like biodiesel for compression ignition engines and bioethanol or methanol for spark ignition engines. Hydrogen is sometimes used, and can be made from fossil fuels or renewable energy. Various scientists and engineers contributed to the development of internal combustion engines, in 1791, John Barber developed a turbine. In 1794 Thomas Mead patented a gas engine, also in 1794 Robert Street patented an internal combustion engine, which was also the first to use liquid fuel, and built an engine around that time. In 1798, John Stevens built the first American internal combustion engine, in 1807, Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built an internal combustion engine ignited by electric spark. In 1823, Samuel Brown patented the first internal combustion engine to be applied industrially, in 1860, Belgian Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir produced a gas-fired internal combustion engine. In 1864, Nikolaus Otto patented the first atmospheric gas engine, in 1872, American George Brayton invented the first commercial liquid-fuelled internal combustion engine. In 1876, Nikolaus Otto, working with Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, patented the compressed charge, in 1879, Karl Benz patented a reliable two-stroke gas engine. In 1892, Rudolf Diesel developed the first compressed charge, compression ignition engine, in 1926, Robert Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket. In 1939, the Heinkel He 178 became the worlds first jet aircraft, at one time, the word engine meant any piece of machinery — a sense that persists in expressions such as siege engine. A motor is any machine that produces mechanical power, traditionally, electric motors are not referred to as Engines, however, combustion engines are often referred to as motors. In boating an internal combustion engine that is installed in the hull is referred to as an engine, reciprocating piston engines are by far the most common power source for land and water vehicles, including automobiles, motorcycles, ships and to a lesser extent, locomotives
12.
Electrical grid
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An electrical grid is an interconnected network for delivering electricity from suppliers to consumers. Power stations may be located near a source, at a dam site, or to take advantage of renewable energy sources. They are usually large to take advantage of the economies of scale. The electric power which is generated is stepped up to a voltage at which it connects to the electric power transmission network. The bulk power transmission network will move the power long distances, sometimes across international boundaries, on arrival at a substation, the power will be stepped down from a transmission level voltage to a distribution level voltage. As it exits the substation, it enters the distribution wiring, finally, upon arrival at the service location, the power is stepped down again from the distribution voltage to the required service voltage. Electrical grids vary in size covering an single building through national grids which cover whole countries. Early electric energy was produced near the device or service requiring that energy, in the 1880s, electricity competed with steam, hydraulics, and especially coal gas. Coal gas was first produced on premises but later evolved into gasification plants that enjoyed economies of scale. In the industrialized world, cities had networks of piped gas, but gas lamps produced poor light, wasted heat, made rooms hot and smoky, and gave off hydrogen and carbon monoxide. In the 1880s electric lighting soon became advantageous compared to gas lighting, Electric utility companies took advantage of economies of scale and moved to centralized power generation, distribution, and system management. With long distance power transmission it became possible to interconnect stations to balance load, merz was appointed head of a Parliamentary Committee and his findings led to the Williamson Report of 1918, which in turn created the Electricity Supply Bill of 1919. The bill was the first step towards an integrated electricity system, the Electricity Act of 1926 led to the setting up of the National Grid. The Central Electricity Board standardized the nations electricity supply and established the first synchronized AC grid and this started operating as a national system, the National Grid, in 1938. In the United States in the 1920s, utilities formed joint-operations to share peak load coverage, no longer were electric utilities built as vertical monopolies, where generation, transmission and distribution were handled by a single company. Now, the three stages could be split among various companies, in an effort to provide accessibility to high voltage transmission. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 allowed incentives and loan guarantees for energy production. In France, electrification began in the 1900s, with 700 communes in 1919, and 36,528 in 1938
13.
Shack
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A shack is a type of small, often primitive shelter or dwelling. In areas of population density and high poverty, shacks are often the most prevalent form of housing. Fire is a significant hazard in tight-knit shack settlements, settlements composed mostly or entirely of shacks are known as slums or shanty towns. In Australian English shack can also refer to a holiday house with limited conveniences. In oilfield drilling a shack can also be the word for a wellsite trailer
14.
Crank (mechanism)
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A crank is an arm attached at a right angle to a rotating shaft by which reciprocating motion is imparted to or received from the shaft. It is used to convert circular motion into reciprocating motion, or vice versa, the arm may be a bent portion of the shaft, or a separate arm or disk attached to it. Attached to the end of the crank by a pivot is a rod, the end of the rod attached to the crank moves in a circular motion, while the other end is usually constrained to move in a linear sliding motion. The term often refers to a crank which is used to manually turn an axle, as in a bicycle crankset or a brace. In this case a persons arm or leg serves as the connecting rod, there is usually a bar perpendicular to the other end of the arm, often with a freely rotatable handle or pedal attached. Familiar examples include, Mechanical pencil sharpener Fishing reel and other reels for cables, wires, ropes, manually operated car window The carpenters brace is a compound crank. The crank set that drives a handcycle through its handles, the crankset that drives a bicycle via the pedals. Treadle sewing machine Almost all reciprocating engines use cranks to transform the motion of the pistons into rotary motion. The cranks are incorporated into a crankshaft, the displacement of the end of the connecting rod is approximately proportional to the cosine of the angle of rotation of the crank, when it is measured from top dead center. The mechanical advantage of a crank, the ratio between the force on the rod and the torque on the shaft, varies throughout the cranks cycle. The relationship between the two is approximately, τ = F r sin where τ is the torque and F is the force on the connecting rod. But in reality, the torque is maximum at crank angle of less than α = 90° from TDC for a force on the piston. One way to calculate this angle is to find out when the Connecting rod smallend speed becomes the fastest in downward direction given a steady crank rotational velocity. 17615° after TDC. Then, using the sine law, it is found that the crank to connecting rod angle is 88. 21738°. When the crank is driven by the rod, a problem arises when the crank is at top dead centre or bottom dead centre. At these points in the cycle, a force on the connecting rod causes no torque on the crank. Therefore, if the crank is stationary and happens to be at one of two points, it cannot be started moving by the connecting rod. The eccentrically mounted handle of the rotary handmill which appeared in 5th century BC Celtiberian Spain, a Roman iron crank of yet unknown purpose dating to the 2nd century AD was excavated in Augusta Raurica, Switzerland
15.
Counterweight
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A counterweight is a weight that, by exerting an opposite force, provides balance and stability of a mechanical system. Its purpose is to make lifting the load more efficient, which saves energy and is less taxing on the lifting machine, Counterweights are often used in traction lifts, cranes and funfair rides. This distance times mass is called the load moment, a counterbalance is a weight or force that balances or offsets another as when two objects of equal weight, power, or influence are acting in opposition to each other. The objects are said to be in counterbalance. Trebuchet, There are five components of a trebuchet, beam, counterweight, frame, guide chute. After the counterweight drops from a platform on the frame, gravity pulls the counterweight, without the counterweight, the beam could not complete the arc that allows the sling to accurately release the projectile. Crankshaft, A counterweight is also used in rotating systems to reduce vibrations due to imbalances in the rotating assembly. A typical example is counterweights on crankshafts in piston engines, desk lamp, Some balanced arm lamps work with a counterweight to keep the arm and lamp in the desired position. Elevator, In traction elevators, a heavy counterweight counterbalances the load of the elevator carriage, the counterweight also increases the ascending acceleration force and decreases the descending acceleration force to reduce the amount of power needed by the motor. The elevator carriage and the both have wheel roller guides attached to them to prevent irregular movement and provide a smoother ride for the passengers. Space elevator, A space elevator is a structure designed to transport material from a celestial bodys surface into space. Metronome, A wind-up mechanical metronome has a weight and spring mechanism that allows the speed to be adjusted by placement of the weight on the spindle. The tempo speed is decreased by moving the weight to a higher spindle marking or increased by moving it to a lower marking, crane, The tower crane is a modern form of balance crane that is fixed to the ground. A horizontal boom is balanced asymmetrically across the top of the tower, the long arm carries the lifting gear. The short arm is called the arm, this holds the motors and electronics to operate the crane. Vertical lift bridge Drawbridge Bascule bridge Media related to Counterweights at Wikimedia Commons
16.
I-beam
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An I-beam, also known as H-beam, W-beam, Universal Beam, Rolled Steel Joist, or double-T, is a beam with an I or H-shaped cross-section. The horizontal elements of the I are known as flanges, while the element is termed the web. I-beams are usually made of steel and are used in construction. The web resists shear forces, while the flanges resist most of the bending moment experienced by the beam, Beam theory shows that the I-shaped section is a very efficient form for carrying both bending and shear loads in the plane of the web. On the other hand, the cross-section has a capacity in the transverse direction. The method of producing an I-beam, as rolled from a piece of steel, was patented by Alphonse Halbou of the company Forges de la Providence in 1849. Bethlehem Steel was a supplier of rolled structural steel of various cross-sections in American bridge. Today, rolled cross-sections have been displaced in such work by fabricated cross-sections. There are two standard I-beam forms, Rolled I-beam, formed by hot rolling, cold rolling or extrusion, plate girder, formed by welding plates. I-beams are commonly made of steel but may also be formed from aluminium or other materials. A common type of I-beam is the rolled steel joist —sometimes incorrectly rendered as reinforced steel joist, british and European standards also specify Universal Beams and Universal Columns. These sections have parallel flanges, as opposed to the thickness of RSJ flanges which are seldom now rolled in the UK. Parallel flanges are easier to connect to and do away with the need for tapering washers, however, there has been some concern as to their rapid loss of strength in a fire if unprotected. I-beams are widely used in the industry and are available in a variety of standard sizes. Tables are available to allow selection of a suitable steel I-beam size for a given applied load. I-beams may be used both as beams and as columns, I-beams may be used both on their own, or acting compositely with another material, typically concrete. A beam under bending sees high stresses along the fibers that are farthest from the neutral axis. To prevent failure, most of the material in the beam must be located in these regions, comparatively little material is needed in the area close to the neutral axis
17.
A-frame
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An A-frame is a basic structure designed to bear a load in a lightweight economical manner. The simplest form of an A-frame is two similarly sized beams, arranged in a 45-degree or less angle, attached at the top and these materials are often wooden or steel beams attached at the top by rope, welding, gluing, or riveting. Because they have two legs, A-frames are usually set up in rows so that they can have good stability. A saw horse is an example of this structure. Some beam engines use an A-frame Media related to A-frame beam engines at Wikimedia Commons
18.
Fiberglass
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Fiberglass is a type of fiber-reinforced plastic where the reinforcement fiber is specifically glass fiber. The glass fiber may be arranged, flattened into a sheet. The plastic matrix may be a polymer matrix – most often based on thermosetting polymers such as epoxy, polyester resin. The glass fibers are made of various types of glass depending upon the fiberglass use and these glasses all contain silica or silicate, with varying amounts of oxides of calcium, magnesium, and sometimes boron. To be used in fiberglass, glass fibers have to be made very low levels of defects. Fiberglass is a lightweight material and is used for many products. Although it is not as strong and stiff as composites based on fiber, it is less brittle. Its bulk strength and weight are also better than many metals, other common names for fiberglass are glass-reinforced plastic, glass-fiber reinforced plastic or GFK. Because glass fiber itself is referred to as fiberglass, the composite is also called fiberglass reinforced plastic. This article will adopt the convention that fiberglass refers to the glass fiber reinforced composite material. A patent for this method of producing glass wool was first applied for in 1933, Owens joined with the Corning company in 1935 and the method was adapted by Owens Corning to produce its patented fibreglas in 1936. Originally, fibreglas was a wool with fibers entrapping a great deal of gas, making it useful as an insulator. A suitable resin for combining the fibreglass with a plastic to produce a material was developed in 1936 by du Pont. The first ancestor of modern polyester resins is Cyanamids resin of 1942, peroxide curing systems were used by then. With the combination of fiberglass and resin the gas content of the material was replaced by plastic and this reduced the insulation properties to values typical of the plastic, but now for the first time the composite showed great strength and promise as a structural and building material. Confusingly, many glass fiber composites continued to be called fiberglass, ray Greene of Owens Corning is credited with producing the first composite boat in 1937, but did not proceed further at the time due to the brittle nature of the plastic used. In 1939 Russia was reported to have constructed a boat of plastic materials. The first car to have a body was a 1946 prototype of the Stout Scarab
19.
Piston
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A piston is a component of reciprocating engines, reciprocating pumps, gas compressors and pneumatic cylinders, among other similar mechanisms. It is the component that is contained by a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston rings. In an engine, its purpose is to force from expanding gas in the cylinder to the crankshaft via a piston rod and/or connecting rod. In a pump, the function is reversed and force is transferred from the crankshaft to the piston for the purpose of compressing or ejecting the fluid in the cylinder, in some engines, the piston also acts as a valve by covering and uncovering ports in the cylinder wall. An internal combustion engine is acted upon by the pressure of the combustion gases in the combustion chamber space at the top of the cylinder. This force then acts downwards through the rod and onto the crankshaft. The connecting rod is attached to the piston by a swivelling gudgeon pin and this pin is mounted within the piston, unlike the steam engine, there is no piston rod or crosshead. The pin itself is of hardened steel and is fixed in the piston, a few designs use a fully floating design that is loose in both components. All pins must be prevented from moving sideways and the ends of the pin digging into the cylinder wall, gas sealing is achieved by the use of piston rings. These are a number of iron rings, fitted loosely into grooves in the piston. The rings are split at a point in the rim, allowing them to press against the cylinder with a light spring pressure. Two types of ring are used, the rings have solid faces and provide gas sealing, lower rings have narrow edges. There are many proprietary and detail design features associated with piston rings, pistons are cast from aluminium alloys. For better strength and fatigue life, some racing pistons may be forged instead, early pistons were of cast iron, but there were obvious benefits for engine balancing if a lighter alloy could be used. To produce pistons that could survive engine combustion temperatures, it was necessary to develop new alloys such as Y alloy and Hiduminium, a few early gas engines had double-acting cylinders, but otherwise effectively all internal combustion engine pistons are single-acting. During World War II, the US submarine Pompano was fitted with a prototype of the infamously unreliable H. O. R, although compact, for use in a cramped submarine, this design of engine was not repeated. Media related to Internal combustion engine pistons at Wikimedia Commons Trunk pistons are long relative to their diameter and they act both as a piston and cylindrical crosshead. As the connecting rod is angled for much of its rotation, a longer piston helps to support this
20.
Stuffing box
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A stuffing box is an assembly which is used to house a gland seal. It is used to prevent leakage of fluid, such as water or steam, a stuffing box of a sailboat will have a stern tube thats slightly bigger than the prop shaft. It will also have packing nut threads or a gland nut, the packing is inside the gland nut and creates the seal. The shaft is wrapped by the packing and put in the gland nut, through tightening it onto the stern tube, the packing is compressed, creating a seal against the shaft. Creating a proper plunger alignment is critical for correct flow and a long wear life, Stuffing box components are of stainless steel, brass or other application-specific materials. A gland is a type of stuffing box, used to seal a rotating or reciprocating shaft against a fluid. The most common example is in the head of a tap where the gland is usually packed with string which has been soaked in tallow or similar grease. The gland nut allows the material to be compressed to form a watertight seal. The gland at the shaft of a centrifugal pump may be packed in a similar way. The linear seal around the rod of a double acting steam piston is also known as a gland. Likewise the shaft of a handpump or wind pump is sealed with a gland where the exits the borehole. On a boat having a motor that turns a shaft attached to an external propeller. The stuffing box prevents sea water entering the boats hull. In many small boats, for example, the stuffing box is mounted inboard near the point the shaft exits the hull. The box is an assembly, typically of bronze, comprising a sleeve threaded on one end to accept adjusting and locking nuts. A special purpose heavy-duty rubber hose attaches the stuffing box to a tube, also called a shaft log. Marine-duty hose clamps secure the hose to the tube and the stuffing box. A sound stuffing box installation is critical to safety because failure can admit a catastrophic volume of water into the boat
21.
Lufkin Industries
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Lufkin Industries is a manufacturing company based in Lufkin, Texas and one of the largest employers in the city. Founded in 1902, it produces machinery such as power transmission gearboxes, oilfield pumping units, Lufkin joined GE Oil & Gas in July 2013. Additionally, the company operates a gray and ductile iron foundry of captive and commercial castings for the equipment, valve. The Power Transmission Division makes precision-made gears in weights from 300 pounds to 250 tons and these highly engineered products are used in industrial applications in a variety of industries, such as oil and gas, petrochemical, steel, plastics, sugar, rubber, marine and power generation. From its unique gear repair operations, Lufkin repairs virtually any manufacturers gears, Lufkin operates oilfield service centers and gear repair facilities all across the globe. They also operate a power transmission and gear repair plant in Fougerolles, Lufkin opened a manufacturing plant in Romania 2013. In 2008, Lufkin acquired RMT in Wellsville, New York, RMT designs and manufactures various engineered bearings in addition to offering turbo analysis services and repair services. International Lift Systems in Houston, Texas was also acquired in 2008, International Lift Systems specializes in Gas Lift, Completion Products and Plunger Lift systems for the Domestic and International Oil and Gas Industry. In 2011, Lufkin acquired Petro Hydraulic Lift Systems in Lafayette, Louisiana, Pentagon Optimization Service in Red Deer, Alberta, and Quinn Oilfield Supply Ltd. also of Red Deer, Alberta. In 2013, Lufkin was acquired by General Electric for $3.3 billion, as part of GEs expanding Oil & Gas division, especially in the market to extract oil. On August 24,2015 GE announced that they were closing and dismantling the Lufkin foundry, Lufkin previously manufactured trailers for tractor-trailers but exited that business in 2008. Http, //www. ge. com/ar2013/pdf/GE_AR13. pdfGE Annual Report 2013 Official website
22.
Kern River Oil Field
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The Kern River Oil Field is a large oil field in Kern County in the San Joaquin Valley of California, north-northeast of Bakersfield in the lower Sierra foothills. Its estimated remaining reserves, as of the end of 2006, were around 476 million barrels and it had 9,183 active wells, the second highest in the state. This area is the densest operational oil development in the state of California, Midway-Sunset, directly north of the Kern River field is the large Mount Poso Oil Field, entirely in the Sierra foothills, and to the northeast is the Round Mountain Oil Field. The deepest well in the Kern River Oil Field was originally drilled by Standard Oil of California, the granitic basement rocks were of late Jurassic age. On June 1,1899,400 feet to the north, Horace, while most of the oil has been removed from the field, enhanced production technologies such as steam flooding have made it possible to extract much of the oil once considered unfeasible to recover. A high price of oil also makes recovery of previously marginal pools attractive, total estimated reserves of the Kern River field at the end of 2006 totaled more than 475 million barrels, which represented approximately 15% of Californias 3. 2-billion-barrels reserve. Annual oil production from the field was 26.2 million barrels as of 2012, wastewater from the field was once allowed to drain directly into the streams dissecting the region, and thence into the Kern River. This practice ended in the 1960s and 1970s when more stringent environmental regulations were enacted both on federal and state levels, wastewater now is treated in facilities specifically built for this purpose, and after the treatment, is used to irrigate crops in the San Joaquin Valley. California Oil and Gas Fields, Volumes I, II and III, Vol. I, Vol. II, Vol. III. California Department of Conservation, Division of Oil, Gas,1,472 pp. Kern River Oil Field information is on pp. 232-233. PDF file available on CD from www. consrv. ca. gov, California Department of Conservation, Oil and Gas Statistics, Annual Report, December 31,2006. 100 Years of Oil, from the Bakersfield Californian, stories about local oilfields including the Kern River
23.
Check valve
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A check valve, clack valve, non-return valve or one-way valve is a valve that normally allows fluid to flow through it in only one direction. Check valves are two-port valves, meaning they have two openings in the body, one for fluid to enter and the other for fluid to leave, there are various types of check valves used in a wide variety of applications. Check valves are often part of household items. Although they are available in a range of sizes and costs, check valves generally are very small, simple. Check valves work automatically and most are not controlled by a person or any control, accordingly. The bodies of most check valves are made of plastic or metal, an important concept in check valves is the cracking pressure which is the minimum upstream pressure at which the valve will operate. Typically the check valve is designed for and can therefore be specified for a specific cracking pressure, heart valves are essentially inlet and outlet check valves for the heart ventricles, since the ventricles act as pumps. Cracking pressure — the inlet pressure at which the first indication of flow occurs, reseal pressure — the pressure at which there is no indication of flow. In some ball check valves, the ball is spring-loaded to help keep it shut, for those designs without a spring, reverse flow is required to move the ball toward the seat and create a seal. The interior surface of the seats of ball check valves are more or less conically-tapered to guide the ball into the seat. Ball check valves are often small, simple, and cheap. They are commonly used in liquid or gel minipump dispenser spigots, spray devices, some rubber bulbs for pumping air, etc. manual air pumps and some other pumps, and refillable dispensing syringes. Although the balls are most often made of metal, they can be made of other materials, high pressure HPLC pumps and similar applications commonly use small inlet and outlet ball check valves with both balls and seats made of artificial ruby, for both hardness and chemical resistance. After prolonged use, such check valves can eventually wear out or the seat can develop a crack, there are similar check valves where the disc is not a ball, but some other shape, such as a poppet energized by a spring. Ball check valves should not be confused with ball valves, which is a different type of valve in which a ball acts as a rotor to stop or direct flow. A diaphragm check valve uses a rubber diaphragm positioned to create a normally-closed valve. Pressure on the side must be greater than the pressure on the downstream side by a certain amount, known as the pressure differential. Once positive pressure stops, the diaphragm automatically flexes back to its closed position
24.
Sucker rod
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The pumpjack is the visible above-ground drive for the well pump, and is connected to the downhole pump at the bottom of the well by a series of interconnected sucker rods. Sucker rods are also available made of fiberglass in 37 1/2 foot lengths and diameters of 3/4, 7/8,1. These are terminated in metallic threaded ends, female at one end, working The surface unit transfers energy for pumping the well from prime-mover to sucker rod string. In doing this, it must change the motion of prime-mover to reciprocating motion of sucker rod. And it must reduce the speed of prime-mover to suitable pumping speed, speed reduction is accomplished at gear reducer. And rotary motion of crank shaft is converted to motion by means of walking beam. The crank arm is connected to the beam by means of pitman arm. Walking beam is supported by Samson post and saddle bearing, the horse head and bridle are used to ensure that pull on the sucker rod string is vertical all times so that no bearing movement is applied to that part of sucker rod string above stuffing box. The polished rod and stuffing box combination is used to maintain a liquid seal at the surface
25.
Pipeline transport
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Pipeline transport is the transportation of goods or material through a pipe. The latest data, in 2014, gives a total of less than 2,175,000 miles of pipeline in 120 countries of the world. The United States had 65%, Russia had 8%, and Canada had 3%, Pipeline and Gas Journal’s worldwide survey figures indicate that 118,623 miles of pipelines are planned and under construction. Of these,88,976 miles represent projects in the planning, Liquids and gases are transported in pipelines and any chemically stable substance can be sent through a pipeline. Pipelines exist for the transport of crude and refined petroleum, fuels - such as oil, natural gas and biofuels - and other fluids including sewage, slurry, water, pneumatic tubes using compressed air can be used to transport solid capsules. Oil pipelines are made from steel or plastic tubes which are usually buried, the oil is moved through the pipelines by pump stations along the pipeline. Natural gas are lightly pressurised into liquids known as Natural Gas Liquids, Natural gas pipelines are constructed of carbon steel. Highly toxic ammonia is theoretically the most dangerous substance to be transported through long-distance pipelines, hydrogen pipeline transport is the transportation of hydrogen through a pipe. District heating or teleheating systems use a network of insulated pipes which transport heated water, pipelines conveying flammable or explosive material, such as natural gas or oil, pose special safety concerns and there have been various accidents. Pipelines can be the target of vandalism, sabotage, or even terrorist attacks, in war, pipelines are often the target of military attacks. It is uncertain when the first crude oil pipeline was built, pipelines are generally the most economical way to transport large quantities of oil, refined oil products or natural gas over land. Natural gas are lightly pressurized into liquids knows as Natural Gas Liquids, small NGL processing facilities can be located in oil fields so the butane and propane liquid under light pressure of 125 pounds per square inch, can be shipped by rail, truck or pipeline. Propane can be used as a fuel in oil fields to heat various facilities used by the oil drillers or equipment and trucks used in the oil patch. EG, Propane will convert from a gas to a liquid under pressure,100 psi, give or take depending on temperature. Pipelines and rail cars use about double that pressure to pump at 250 psi, the distance to ship propane to markets is much shorter, as thousands of natural-gas processing plants are located in or near oil fields. Compared to shipping by railroad, pipelines have lower cost per unit, pipelines are preferable to transportation by truck for a number of reasons. Employment on completed pipelines represents only 1% of that of the trucking industry and this allows the Bakken Basin and Three Forks oil producers to get higher negotiated prices for their oil because they will not be restricted to just one wholesale market in the US. The distance from the biggest oil patch in North Dakota, is Williston, North Dakota, only about 85 miles or 137 kilometers to the Canada–US border, mutual funds and joint ventures are big investors in new oil and gas pipelines
26.
Gas lift
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Gas lift or Bubble pumps use the artificial lift technique of raising a fluid such as water or oil by introducing bubbles of compressed air, water vapor or other vaporous bubbles into the outlet tube. This has the effect of reducing the pressure in the outlet tube vs. the hydrostatic pressure at the inlet side of the tube. In the petroleum industry, the process involves injecting gas through the tubing-casing annulus, injected gas aerates the fluid to reduce its density, the formation pressure is then able to lift the oil column and forces the fluid out of the wellbore. Gas may be injected continuously or intermittently, depending on the characteristics of the well. The amount of gas to be injected to maximize oil production based on well conditions. Too much or too little injected gas will result in less than maximum production, generally, the optimal amount of injected gas is determined by well tests, where the rate of injection is varied and liquid production is measured. Although the gas is recovered from the oil at a later separation stage, the gas-lift mandrel is a device installed in the tubing string of a gas-lift well onto which or into which a gas-lift valve is fitted. There are two types of mandrels. In a conventional gas-lift mandrel, a valve is installed as the tubing is placed in the well. Thus, to replace or repair the valve, the string must be pulled. In the side-pocket mandrel, however, the valve is installed and removed by wireline while the mandrel is still in the well, a gas-lift valve is a device installed on a gas-lift mandrel, which in turn is put on the production tubing of a gas-lift well. Tubing and casing pressures cause the valve to open and close, in the lexicon of the industry, gas-lift mandrels are said to be tubing retrievable wherein they are deployed and retrieved attached to the production tubing. Gas lift operation can be optimized in different ways. The newest way is using risk-optimization which considers all aspects for gas lift allocation, air lift uses compressed air to lift water in operations such as dredging and underwater archeology. It is also found in aquariums to keep water circulating and these forms of lift were used as far back as 1797 in mines to lift water from mine shafts. These systems used single point injection of air into the liquid stream, gas lift was used as early as 1864 in Pennsylvania to lift oil wells, also using compressed air, via an air pipe bringing the air to the bottom of the well. Air was used in Texas for large-scale artificial lift, in 1920 natural gas replaced air, lowering the risk of explosion. From 1929 until 1945 about 25000 patents were issued on different types of gas lift valves that could be used for unloading in stages, some of these systems involved moving the tubing, or using wireline sinker bars to change the lift point. Ultimately, in 1944 W. R. King patented the pressurized bellows valve that is used today, in 1951 the sidepocket mandrel was developed for selectively positioning and retrieving gas lift valves with wireline
27.
Progressive cavity pump
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A progressive cavity pump is a type of positive displacement pump and is also known as a progressing cavity pump, progg cavity pump, eccentric screw pump or cavity pump. It transfers fluid by means of the progress, through the pump, of a sequence of small, fixed shape, discrete cavities and this leads to the volumetric flow rate being proportional to the rotation rate and to low levels of shearing being applied to the pumped fluid. Hence these pumps have application in fluid metering and pumping of viscous or shear-sensitive materials and these pumps are often referred to by the specific manufacturer or product names. Hence names can vary from industry to industry and even regionally, examples include, Moineau, Mono pump, a progressive cavity pump also can act as a motor when fluid is pumped through its interior. The progressive cavity pump normally consists of a rotor and a twin helix. The rotor seals tightly against the stator as it rotates, forming a set of fixed-size cavities in between, the cavities move when the rotor is rotated but their shape or volume does not change. The pumped material is moved inside the cavities, the principle of this pumping technique is frequently misunderstood. Often it is believed to occur due to an effect caused by drag. Pumps with between two and a dozen cavities exist, when the rotor is rotated, it rolls around the inside surface of the hole. The motion of the rotor is the same as the gears of a planetary gears system. As the rotor rotates and moves around, the combined motion of the eccentrically mounted drive shaft is in the form of a hypocycloid. In the typical case of single-helix rotor and double-helix stator, the hypocycloid is just a straight line, the rotor must be driven through a set of universal joints or other mechanisms to allow for the movement. The rotor takes a similar to a corkscrew, and this, combined with the off-center rotary motion, leads to the alternative name. To prevent this, pumps are fitted with cut-off pressure switches, rupture discs. With a bypass fitted, a flow rate pump is effectively converted to a fixed pressure one. At the points where the rotor touches the stator, the surfaces are generally traveling transversely and these areas need to be lubricated by the fluid being pumped. This can mean that more torque is required for starting, and if allowed to operate without fluid, called run dry, while progressive cavity pumps offer long life and reliable service transporting thick or lumpy fluids, abrasive fluids will significantly shorten the life of the stator. However, slurries can be pumped reliably if the medium is viscous enough to maintain a layer around the particles
28.
Submersible pump
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A submersible pump is a device which has a hermetically sealed motor close-coupled to the pump body. The whole assembly is submerged in the fluid to be pumped, the main advantage of this type of pump is that it prevents pump cavitation, a problem associated with a high elevation difference between pump and the fluid surface. Submersible pumps push fluid to the surface as opposed to jet pumps having to pull fluids, submersibles are more efficient than jet pumps. Ca.1928 Russian oil delivery system engineer and inventor Armais Arutunoff successfully installed the first submersible oil pump, in 1929, Pleuger Pumps pioneered the design of the submersible turbine pump, the forerunner of the modern multi-stage submersible pump. In the mid 1960s the first fully submersible deep-well water pump was developed by Poul Due Jensen who later went on to start Grundfos, the submersible pumps used in ESP installations are multistage centrifugal pumps operating in a vertical position. Although their constructional and operational features underwent an evolution over the years. This is the main mechanism of radial and mixed flow pumps. The pump shaft is connected to the gas separator or the protector by a mechanical coupling at the bottom of the pump, an optional thrust bearing takes up part of the axial forces arising in the pump but most of those forces are absorbed by the protector’s thrust bearing. Submersible pumps are found in many applications, single stage pumps are used for drainage, sewage pumping, general industrial pumping and slurry pumping. They are also popular with pond filters, multiple stage submersible pumps are typically lowered down a borehole and most typically used for residential, commercial, municipal and industrial water extraction, water wells and in oil wells. Special attention to the type of pump is required when using certain types of liquids. Pumps used for liquids or for water that may be contaminated with combustible liquids must be designed not to ignite the liquid or vapors. Submersible pumps are used in oil production to provide an efficient form of artificial lift, able to operate across a broad range of flow rates. By decreasing the pressure at the bottom of the well, significantly more oil can be produced from the well when compared with natural production, the pumps are typically electrically powered and referred to as Electrical Submersible Pumps. ESP systems consist of both components and sub-surface components. Surface components include the motor controller, surface cables and transformers, subsurface components typically include the pump, motor, seal and cables. A gas separator is sometimes installed, the pump itself is a multi-stage unit with the number of stages being determined by the operating requirements. Each stage consists of an impeller and a diffuser which directs flow to the next stage of the pump
29.
Petroleum industry
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The petroleum industry includes the global processes of exploration, extraction, refining, transporting, and marketing of petroleum products. The largest volume products of the industry are fuel oil and gasoline, Petroleum is also the raw material for many chemical products, including pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, synthetic fragrances, and plastics. The industry is divided into three major components, upstream, midstream and downstream. Midstream operations are included in the downstream category. Petroleum is vital to many industries, and is of importance to the maintenance of industrial civilization in its current configuration, and thus is a critical concern for many nations. Oil accounts for a percentage of the world’s energy consumption, ranging from a low of 32% for Europe and Asia. Other geographic regions consumption patterns are as follows, South and Central America, Africa, the world consumes 30 billion barrels of oil per year, with developed nations being the largest consumers. The United States consumed 25% of the oil produced in 2007, the production, distribution, refining, and retailing of petroleum taken as a whole represents the worlds largest industry in terms of dollar value. Petroleum is a naturally occurring liquid found in rock formations and it consists of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights, plus other organic compounds. It is generally accepted that oil is formed mostly from the carbon rich remains of ancient plankton after exposure to heat, Petroleum in an unrefined state has been utilized by humans for over 5000 years. Oil in general has been used since early history to keep fires ablaze. Its importance to the world economy evolved slowly, with oil used for lighting in the 19th century and wood. The Industrial Revolution generated an increasing need for energy which was met mainly by coal, Imperial Russia produced 3,500 tons of oil in 1825 and doubled its output by mid-century. Batum is renamed to Batumi in 1936, at the turn of the 20th century, Imperial Russias output of oil, almost entirely from the Apsheron Peninsula, accounted for half of the worlds production and dominated international markets. Nearly 200 small refineries operated in the suburbs of Baku by 1884, as a side effect of these early developments, the Apsheron Peninsula emerged as the worlds oldest legacy of oil pollution and environmental negligence. In 1846, Baku the first ever well drilled with percussion tools to a depth of 21 meters for oil exploration, in 1878, Ludvig Nobel and his Branobel company revolutionized oil transport by commissioning the first oil tanker and launching it on the Caspian Sea. Samuel Kier established Americas first oil refinery in Pittsburgh on Seventh avenue near Grant Street, one of the first modern oil refineries were built by Ignacy Łukasiewicz near Jasło, Poland in 1854–56. These were initially small as demand for refined fuel was limited, the refined products were used in artificial asphalt, machine oil and lubricants, in addition to Łukasiewiczs kerosene lamp
30.
Primary energy
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Primary energy is an energy form found in nature that has not been subjected to any conversion or transformation process. It is energy contained in raw fuels, and other forms of energy received as input to a system, Primary energy can be non-renewable or renewable. Total primary energy supply is a used to indicate the sum of production and imports subtracting exports. The concept of energy is used in energy statistics in the compilation of energy balances. In energetics, an energy source refers to the energy forms required by the energy sector to generate the supply of energy carriers used by human society. The use of energy as a measure ignores conversion efficiency. PE and TPES are better defined in the context of energy supply. Primary energy sources should not be confused with the system components through which they are converted into energy carriers. Primary energy sources are transformed in energy conversion processes to more convenient forms of energy, such as energy, refined fuels. In the field of energetics, these forms are called energy carriers, Energy carriers are energy forms which have been transformed from primary energy sources. Electricity is one of the most common carriers, being transformed from various primary energy sources such as coal, oil, natural gas. Electricity is particularly useful since it has low entropy and can be converted into other forms of energy very efficiently, according to the laws of thermodynamics, primary energy sources cannot be produced. They must be available to society to enable the production of energy carriers, conversion efficiency varies, for thermal energy electricity and mechanical energy production is limited by Carnots theorem, and generates a lot of waste heat. Other non thermal conversions can be efficient, for example wind turbines do not capture all the wind energy. Hydroelectric power is also converted very efficiently, the amount of usable energy is the exergy of a system. Energy accidents are accidents that occur in systems that provide energy or power and these can result in fatalities, as can the normal running of many systems, for example those deaths due to pollution. Globally, coal is responsible for 100,000 deaths per trillion kWh, Energy and society Energy development Energy mix Energy system Future energy development Kydes, Andy, Cutler J. Cleveland. [First published in the Encyclopedia of Earth June 1,2006, Last revised August 14,2007, definition of primary and secondary energy
31.
Brent Crude
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Brent Crude is a major trading classification of sweet light crude oil that serves as a major benchmark price for purchases of oil worldwide. This grade is described as light because of its low density. Brent Crude is extracted from the North Sea and comprises Brent Blend, Forties Blend, Oseberg, the Brent Crude oil marker is also known as Brent Blend, London Brent and Brent petroleum. The other well-known classifications are the OPEC Reference Basket, Dubai Crude, Oman Crude, Urals oil, Brent is the leading global price benchmark for Atlantic basin crude oils. It is used to two thirds of the worlds internationally traded crude oil supplies. Originally Brent Crude was produced from the Brent oilfield, the name Brent comes from the naming policy of Shell UK Exploration and Production, operating on behalf of ExxonMobil and Royal Dutch Shell, which originally named all of its fields after birds. But it is also a backronym or mnemonic for the layers of the oil field, Broom, Rannoch, Etive, Ness. Petroleum production from Europe, Africa and the Middle East flowing West tends to be priced relative to this oil, Brent blend is a light crude oil, though not as light as West Texas Intermediate. It contains approximately 0. 37% of sulphur, classifying it as crude, yet not as sweet as WTI. Brent is suitable for production of petrol. It is typically refined in Northwest Europe, Brent Crude has an API gravity of approximately 38.06 which is equivalent to a specific gravity of 0.835. The ICE Futures Europe symbol for Brent crude futures is B and it was originally traded on the open outcry International Petroleum Exchange in London, but since 2005 has been traded on the electronic Intercontinental Exchange, known as ICE. Contracts are quoted in U. S. dollars, each tick lost or gained equals $10. Historically price differences between Brent and other index crudes have been based on differences in crude oil specifications and short-term variations in supply. In February 2011 the divergence reached $16 during a supply glut, record stockpiles, at Cushing and it has since decreased significantly to around $18 after refinery maintenance settled down and supply issues eased slightly. Many reasons have been given for this widening divergence ranging from a speculative change away from WTI trading, dollar currency movements, regional demand variations, the depletion of the North Sea oil fields is one explanation for the divergence in forward prices. Much US and Canadian crude oil from the interior is now shipped to the coast by railroad, which is much more expensive than pipeline. In addition to the Intercontinental Exchange, Brent crude financial futures are traded on the NYMEX, with the symbol BZ. The Brent Index is the settlement price for the Intercontinental Exchange Brent Future based on ICE Futures Brent index at expiry
32.
West Texas Intermediate
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West Texas Intermediate, also known as Texas light sweet, is a grade of crude oil used as a benchmark in oil pricing. This grade is described as light because of its low density. It is the commodity of New York Mercantile Exchanges oil futures contracts. The price of WTI is often referenced in news reports on oil prices, other important oil markers include the Dubai Crude, Oman Crude, Urals oil and the OPEC Reference Basket. WTI is lighter and sweeter than Brent, and considerably lighter and sweeter than Dubai or Oman, WTI is a light crude oil, with an API gravity of around 39.6 and specific gravity of about 0.827, which is lighter than Brent crude. It contains about 0. 24% sulfur thus is rated as a crude oil. WTI is refined mostly in the Midwest and Gulf Coast regions in the U. S. since it is high quality fuel and is produced within the country, Crude oil flows inbound to Cushing from all directions and outbound through dozens of pipelines. It is in Payne County, Oklahoma, United States, west Texas Intermediate is used as a benchmark in oil pricing. Historically, it has traded closely to Brent and the OPEC basket, historical price data for WTI can be found at a website by the Energy Information Administration of the Department of Energy. It is listed as WTI, Cushing, Oklahoma, on April 13,2007 Bloomberg reported on a Lehman Brothers study stating WTI prices were not a good barometer of world oil prices. On May 24,2007, WTI was priced at $63.58 per barrel versus $71.39 per barrel for Brent, the anomaly occurred perhaps because of a temporary shortage of refining capacity. In early 2007 a large stockpile of oil at the giant Cushing, Oklahoma storage, as stockpiles decreased, the WTI price increased to exceed the price of Brent once again. In February 2011, WTI was trading around $85/barrel while Brent was at $103/barrel, the reason most cited for this difference was that Cushing had reached capacity, due to a surplus of oil in the interior of North America. At the same time, Brent moved up in reaction to civil unrest in Egypt, since WTI-priced stockpiles at Cushing could not easily be transported to the Gulf Coast, WTI crude was unable to be arbitraged in bringing the two prices back to parity. Oil prices at coastal areas of the US were closer to Brent than to WTI. Brent continued to trade US$10–20 higher than WTI for two years, until June 2013, by July 2013, the disparity had shrunk to about US$4. By January 2014 the spread between the two has once again increased to over US$14, but was back down to US$4 by the end of 2014
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Western Canadian Select
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Western Canadian Select is one of North America’s largest heavy crude oil streams. Western Canadian Select—which is the benchmark for emerging heavy, high TAN crudes— is one of many products from the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin oil sands. WCS was launched in December 2004 as a new heavy oil stream by EnCana, Canadian Natural Resources Limited, Petro-Canada, Husky Energy has managed WCS terminal operations since 2004 and joined the WCS Founders in 2015. Crude prices are quoted at a particular location. Unless otherwise stated, the price of WCS is quoted at Hardisty and the price of West Texas Intermediate is quoted at Cushing, Oklahoma. By December 14,2015 with the price of WTI at $35 a barrel, WCS fell 75 per cent to $21.82, by February 2016 WTI had dropped to US$29.85 and WCS was US$14.10 with a differential of $15.75. By June 2016 WTI was priced at US$46.09, Brent at MYMEX was US$47.39, by December 10,2016 WTI had risen to US$51.46 and WCS was US$36.11 with a differential of $15.35. This has increased from 3,026 thousand bpd in September 2014 and this represents 99% of Canada’s oil exports and gives Americans no incentive to pay more for Canadian petroleum. WCS was launched in December 2004 as a new heavy oil stream by Cenovus, Canadian Natural Resources Limited, Suncor, since it came onstream WCS has been blended at the Husky Hardisty terminal. According to Argus in 2012 the WCS blend is produced by only the four mentioned above. He prospects for adding new producers are complicated by the rules set in place to compensate each producer for its contributions to the blend. Companies tied to WCS as benchmark such as MEG Energy Corp, whose output is bitumen, Crude from MEG’s 210, 000-barrel-a-day Christina Lake oil sands site is marketed as Access Western Blend, which competes with WCS. Others such as BlackPearl Resources Inc. and Northern Blizzard Resources Inc also benefit from the higher WCS price, in the seven weeks that heavy crude has staged its rebound, MEG shares are up 27 per cent, BlackPearl’s 37 per cent and Northern Blizzard’s 21 per cent. According to a report by real estate consultants Avison Young, by August 2015 in downtown Calgary layoffs by major oil, by 18 March 2015 the price of benchmark crude oils, WTI had dropped to $US43. 34/bbl. From a high in June 2014 with WTI priced above US$107/bbl, WCS, a bitumen-derived crude, is a heavy crude that is similar to Californian heavy crudes, Mexicos Maya crude or Venezuelan heavy crude oils. In 15 March 2015 the differential between WTI and WCS was US$13.8, Western Canadian Select was among the cheapest crude oils in the world with a price of US$29. 54/bbl on 15 March 2015, its lowest price since April 2009. By mid-April 2015 WCS had risen almost fifty percent to trade at $US44.94, by 2 June 2015 the differential between WTI and WCS was US$7.8, the lowest it had ever been. By 12 August 2015 the WCS price dropped to $23.31, at the same time Enbridge was forced to shut down Line 55 Spearhead pipeline and Line 59 Flanagan South pipeline in Missouri because of a crude oil leak
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Natural gas prices
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Natural gas prices, as with other commodity prices, are mainly driven by supply and demand fundamentals. However, natural gas prices may also be linked to the price of crude oil and/or petroleum products, Natural gas prices in the US had historically followed oil prices, but in recent years have decoupled from oil and are now trending somewhat with coal prices. The current surge in oil and gas in the U. S. has resulted in lower gas prices in the U. S. This has led to discussions in Asian oil-linked gas markets to import gas based on the Henry Hub index. Depending on the marketplace, the price of gas is expressed in US dollars per 1 million British thermal units, thousand cubic feet. Note that, for natural gas price comparisons, $ per MMBtu multiplied by 1.025 = $ per Mcf of pipeline-quality gas, for rough comparisons, one million Btu is approximately equal to a thousand cubic feet of natural gas. Pipeline-quality gas has a BTU value slightly higher than that of pure methane, Natural gas as it comes out of the ground is most often predominantly methane, but may have a wide range of BTU values, from much lower to much higher than standard pipeline-quality gas. Market mechanisms in Europe and other parts of the world are similar, the standardized NYMEX natural gas futures contract is for delivery of 10,000 mmBtu of energy at Henry Hub in Louisiana over a given delivery month consisting of a varying amount of days. As a coarse approximation,1000 ft3 of natural gas ≈1 MMBtu ≈1 GJ, in 2015-Nov Henry Hub Natural Gas Spot price was -2. The rules around these contracts - and the conditions under which they are traded - are nearly identical to those for the underlying gas futures contract, participants use these tools to further hedge their financial exposure to the underlying price of natural gas. Cold temperatures in the increase the demand for space heating with natural gas in commercial and residential buildings. Natural gas demand usually peaks during the coldest months of the year and is lowest during the shoulder months, during the warmest summer months, demand increases again. Due to the shift in population in the United States toward the sun belt, temperature effects are measured in terms of heating degree days during the winter, and cooling degree days during the summer. HDDs are calculated by subtracting the average temperature for a day from 65 degrees, thus, if the average temperature for a day is 50 degrees, there are 15 HDDs. If the average temperature is above 65 degrees, HDD is zero, cooling degree days are also measured by the difference between the average temperature and 65 degrees. Thus, if the temperature is 80 degrees, there are 15 CDDs. If the average temperature is below 65 degrees, CDD is zero, hurricanes can affect both the supply of and demand for natural gas. For example, as hurricanes approach the Gulf of Mexico, offshore natural gas platforms are shut down as workers evacuate, in addition, hurricanes can also cause severe destruction to offshore production facilities
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Price of oil
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It was explained by the rising oil demand in countries like China and India. In the middle of the crisis of 2007–2008, the price of oil underwent a significant decrease after the record peak of US$147.27 it reached on July 11,2008. On December 23,2008, WTI crude oil price fell to US$30.28 a barrel. The price sharply rebounded after the crisis and rose to US$82 a barrel in 2009, in July 2008 oil reached a record peak of US$147.27 but by February 2009 it sank beneath $40 a barrel. On 31 January 2011, the Brent price hit $100 a barrel for the first time since October 2008, for about three and half years the price largely remained in the $90–$120 range. In the middle of 2014, price started declining due to a significant increase in oil production in USA, the oil glut—caused by multiple factors—spurred a sharp downward spiral in the price of oil that continued through February 2016. Indeed, bankruptcies in the oil and gas industry could surpass levels seen in the Great Recession, there are two views dominating the oil market discourse. There are those who believe that the market has undergone structural changes. At the other end of the spectrum, there are those who think that this is yet another cycle and these two scenarios – structural versus cyclical – reflect the high degree of uncertainty engulfing the oil market. This presupposes that we can separate neatly the cyclical from the structural, all the factors discussed above have become intertwined and the response of one part of the system will affect the other parts. A2016 survey of the academic literature finds that most major oil price fluctuations dating back to 1973 are largely explained by shifts in the demand for crude oil, as the global economy expands, so does demand for crude oil. The authors note that the price of oil has increased at times due to greater demand for stocks of crude oil. To guard against future shortages in the oil market, historically, inventory demand has been high in times of geopolitical tension in the Middle East, low spare capacity in oil production, and strong expected global economic growth. In particular, political events can have an influence on the oil price. Historical examples include OPEC’s 1973 embargo in reaction to the Yom Kippur War, Financial analysts and academics have had very few tools to study such political events compared to what is available on economic aspects of oil price formation. The PRIX index was developed in attempt to fill this gap with a metric on political developments, both domestic political instability in oil producing countries and conflicts with other countries can destabilise the oil price. In 2008 the New York Times reported, for example, in the 1940s the price of oil was about $17 rising to just over $20 during the Korean War, during the Vietnam War the price of oil slowly declined to under $20. During the Arab oil embargo of 1973—the first oil price of oil rapidly rose to double in price
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Gasoline and diesel usage and pricing
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Since fuels are traded worldwide, the trade prices are similar. The price paid by consumers largely reflects national pricing policy, some regions, such as Europe and Japan, impose high taxes on gasoline, others, such as Saudi Arabia and Venezuela, subsidize the cost. Western countries have among the highest usage rates per person, the largest consumer is the United States, which used an average of 368 million US gallons each day in 2011. US petroleum consumption reached an estimated 18.87 million barrels per day in 2011, drivers in the United States traveled 500,000 miles per day in 2011, and were expected to travel 8.158 billion miles in 2012. This equates to an average of 33 miles per vehicle per day, on average, US drivers consume 1.49 US gallons of gasoline per day, or about 10.44 US gallons per week. As of March 2013, the price for 87 octane gasoline was $3.22 a US gallon. According to the report, in April fuel consumption had lower than a year before for the sixth straight month. The total annual distance driven in the US began declining in 2006, the average price per US gallon in 2012 was $3.618, the highest ever for a year. As of 31 December 2012, the price of gasoline was $3. 298/gal, with New York at $3. 70/gal for the highest in the US. Finished motor gasoline amounts to 44% of the total US consumption of petroleum products and this corresponds to 18.5 exajoules per year. As of 2012 the cost of crude oil accounted for 62% of the cost of a gallon of gasoline in the United State while refining accounted for just 12%, taxes and distribution/marketing accounted for 12% and 14% respectively. After Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Rita, gas prices started rising, in terms of the aggregate economy, increases in crude oil prices significantly predict the growth of real gross domestic product, but increases in natural gas prices do not. All the damages from the hurricanes ran up gas prices, crude oil is the greatest contributing factor when it comes to the price of gasoline. This includes the resources it takes for exploration, to remove it from the ground, between 2004 and 2008, there was an increase in fuel costs due in large part to a worldwide increase in demand for crude oil. Prices leapt from $35 to $140 per barrel, causing an increase in gas prices. On the supply side, OPEC has a deal to do with the price of gasoline. The speculation of oil commodities can also affect the gasoline market, taxes are the next biggest contributor to gasoline prices at around 12%. In the United States, both state and federal taxes apply to gasoline, distribution and marketing makes up the remaining 5%
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Hydrocarbon exploration
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Hydrocarbon exploration is the search by petroleum geologists and geophysicists for hydrocarbon deposits beneath the Earths surface, such as oil and natural gas. Oil and gas exploration are grouped under the science of petroleum geology, visible surface features such as oil seeps, natural gas seeps, pockmarks provide basic evidence of hydrocarbon generation. However, most exploration depends on sophisticated technology to detect. Oil exploration is an expensive, high-risk operation, offshore and remote area exploration is generally only undertaken by very large corporations or national governments. Typical shallow shelf oil wells cost US$10 –30 million, while deep water wells can cost up to US$100 million plus, hundreds of smaller companies search for onshore hydrocarbon deposits worldwide, with some wells costing as little as US$100,000. A prospect is a trap which geologists believe may contain hydrocarbons. A significant amount of geological, structural and seismic investigation must first be completed to redefine the potential hydrocarbon drill location from a lead to a prospect. Four geological factors have to be present for a prospect to work, a source rock - When organic-rich rock such as oil shale or coal is subjected to high pressure and temperature over an extended period of time, hydrocarbons form. Most hydrocarbons migrate to the surface as oil seeps, but some will get trapped, reservoir - The hydrocarbons are contained in a reservoir rock. This is commonly a porous sandstone or limestone, the oil collects in the pores within the rock although open fractures within non-porous rocks may also store hydrocarbons. The reservoir must also be permeable so that the hydrocarbons will flow to surface during production, trap - The hydrocarbons are buoyant and have to be trapped within a structural or stratigraphic trap. Exploration risk is a concept and is usually defined by assigning confidence to the presence of the imperative geological factors. This confidence is based on data models and is usually mapped on Common Risk Segment Maps. High confidence in the presence of imperative geological factors is usually coloured green, therefore, these maps are also called Traffic Light Maps, while the full procedure is often referred to as Play Fairway Analysis. The aim of such procedures is to force the geologist to objectively assess all different geological factors, furthermore, it results in simple maps that can be understood by non-geologists and managers to base exploration decisions on. Bright spot - On a seismic section, coda that have high amplitudes due to a formation containing hydrocarbons, chance of success - An estimate of the chance of all the elements within a prospect working, described as a probability. Dry hole - A boring that does not contain commercial hydrocarbons, see also Dry hole clause Flat spot - Possibly an oil-water, gas-water or gas-oil contact on a seismic section, flat due to gravity. Hydrocarbon in place - amount of hydrocarbon likely to be contained in the prospect. e, net reserve - part of net sand that has the minimum reservoir qualities, i. e. minimum porosity and permeability values
