Petrifaction
–
Petrified wood typifies this process, but all organisms, from bacteria to vertebrates, can become petrified. Petrification takes place through a combination of two processes, permineralization and replacement. These processes create replicas of the specimen that are similar down to the microscopic level. One of the involved in petrification is permineralization. The fossils created through this process tend to contain an amount of the original material of the specimen. This process occurs when groundwater containing dissolved minerals, fills pore spaces and cavities of specimens, particularly bone, the pores of the organisms tissues are filled when these minerals precipitate out of the water. Two common types of permineralization are silicification and pyritization, silicification is the process in which organic matter becomes saturated with silica. A common source of silica is volcanic material, studies have shown that in this process, most of the original organic matter is destroyed.
Death
–
Death is the cessation of all biological functions that sustain a living organism. Bodies of living organisms begin to decompose shortly after death, other concerns include fear of death, necrophobia, anxiety, sorrow, grief, emotional pain, depression, sympathy, compassion, solitude, or saudade. The potential for an afterlife is of concern for some humans, the word death comes from Old English deað, which in turn comes from Proto-Germanic *dauthuz. This comes from the Proto-Indo-European stem *dheu- meaning the Process, act, when a person has died, it is also said they have passed away, passed on, expired, or are gone, among numerous other socially accepted, religiously specific, slang, and irreverent terms. Bereft of life, the person is then a corpse, cadaver, a body, a set of remains, and when all flesh has rotted away. The terms carrion and carcass can also be used, though more often connote the remains of non-human animals. As a polite reference to a person, it has become common pr
Livor mortis
–
Livor mortis, postmortem lividity, hypostasis or suggillation, is the fourth stage and one of the signs of death. It is a settling of the blood in the portion of the body post mortem. When the heart stops functioning and is no longer agitating the blood, livor mortis starts in 20–30 minutes, but is usually not observable by the human eye until two hours after death. The size of the increases in the next 3–6 hours. The blood pools into the tissues of the body. The intensity of the color depends upon the amount of reduced hemoglobin in the blood, the discoloration does not occur in the areas of the body that are in contact with the ground or another object, in which capillaries are compressed. Coroners can use the presence or absence of livor mortis as a means of determining a time of death. It can also be used by investigators to determine whether or not a body has been moved. For instance, if the body is lying prone, but the pooling is present on the deceaseds back. Among coroners and
Decomposition
–
Decomposition is the process by which organic substances are broken down into simpler matter. The process is a part of nutrient cycle and is essential for recycling the matter that occupies physical space in the biosphere. Bodies of living organisms begin to decompose shortly after death, animals, such as worms, also help decompose the organic materials. Organisms that do this are known as decomposers, although no two organisms decompose in the same way, they all undergo the same sequential stages of decomposition. The science which studies decomposition is referred to as taphonomy from the Greek word τάφος taphos. One can differentiate abiotic from biotic decomposition, the former means degradation of a substance by chemical or physical processes, e. g. hydrolysis. The latter means the metabolic breakdown of materials into simpler components by living organisms and these processes release gases, such as cadaverine and putrescine, that are the chief source of the unmistakably putrid od
2.
Pig carcass in the different stages of decomposition: Fresh > Bloat > Active decay > Advanced decay > Dry remains
3.
General
Skeletonization
–
Skeletonization refers to the final stage of death, during which the last vestiges of the soft tissues of a corpse or carcass have decayed or dried to the point that the skeleton is exposed. By the end of the process, all soft tissue will have been eliminated. In tropical climates, skeletonization can occur in weeks, while in areas, skeletonization may take years or may never occur. Natural embalming processes in peat bogs or salt deserts can delay the process indefinitely, the rate of skeletonization and the present condition of a corpse or carcass can be used to determine the time of death. In neutral-pH soil or sand, the skeleton can persist for hundreds of years before it finally disintegrates, alternately, especially in very fine, dry, salty, anoxic, or mildly alkaline soils, bones may undergo fossilization, converting into minerals that may persist indefinitely. The organic components, as opposed to the salts in bone
1.
Partly skeletonized
pig, seven weeks after death.
Stages of death
–
Death is the cessation of all biological functions that sustain a living organism. Bodies of living organisms begin to decompose shortly after death, other concerns include fear of death, necrophobia, anxiety, sorrow, grief, emotional pain, depression, sympathy, compassion, solitude, or saudade. The potential for an afterlife is of concern for some humans, the word death comes from Old English deað, which in turn comes from Proto-Germanic *dauthuz. This comes from the Proto-Indo-European stem *dheu- meaning the Process, act, when a person has died, it is also said they have passed away, passed on, expired, or are gone, among numerous other socially accepted, religiously specific, slang, and irreverent terms. Bereft of life, the person is then a corpse, cadaver, a body, a set of remains, and when all flesh has rotted away. The terms carrion and carcass can also be used, though more often connote the remains of non-human animals. As a polite reference to a person, it has become common pr
Protein
–
Proteins are large biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, responding to stimuli, a linear chain of amino acid residues is called a polypeptide. A protein contains at least one long polypeptide, short polypeptides, containing less than 20–30 residues, are rarely considered to be proteins and are commonly called peptides, or sometimes oligopeptides. The individual amino acid residues are bonded together by peptide bonds, the sequence of amino acid residues in a protein is defined by the sequence of a gene, which is encoded in the genetic code. In general, the code specifies 20 standard amino acids, however. Sometimes proteins have non-peptide groups attached, which can be called prosthetic groups or cofactors, proteins can also work together to achieve a particular function, and they often associate to form stable
3.
Constituent amino-acids can be analyzed to predict secondary, tertiary and quaternary protein structure, in this case hemoglobin containing
heme units
Phenol
–
Phenol, also known as carbolic acid, is an aromatic organic compound with the molecular formula C6H5OH. It is a crystalline solid that is volatile. The molecule consists of a phenyl group bonded to a hydroxyl group and it is mildly acidic and requires careful handling due to its propensity to cause chemical burns. Phenol was first extracted from tar, but today is produced on a large scale from petroleum. It is an important industrial commodity as a precursor to many materials and it is primarily used to synthesize plastics and related materials. Phenol and its derivatives are essential for production of polycarbonates, epoxies, Bakelite, nylon, detergents, herbicides such as phenoxy herbicides. Phenol is appreciably soluble in water, with about 84.2 g dissolving in 1000 mL, homogeneous mixtures of phenol and water at phenol to water mass ratios of ~2.6 and higher are possible. The sodium salt of phenol, sodium phenoxide, is far more water-soluble and it reacts completely with aqueous N
Arsenic
–
Arsenic is a chemical element with symbol As and atomic number 33. Arsenic occurs in minerals, usually in combination with sulfur and metals. It has various allotropes, but only the form is important to industry. The primary use of arsenic is in alloys of lead. Arsenic is a common dopant in semiconductor electronic devices. Arsenic and its compounds, especially the trioxide, are used in the production of pesticides, treated wood products, herbicides, a few species of bacteria are able to use arsenic compounds as respiratory metabolites. Trace quantities of arsenic are a dietary element in rats, hamsters, goats, chickens. However, arsenic poisoning occurs in multicellular life if quantities are larger than needed, Arsenic contamination of groundwater is a problem that affects millions of people across the world. The three most common allotropes are metallic gray, yellow, and black arsenic, with gray being the most common. Gray arsenic adopts a structure consisting of many interlocked, r
1.
Arsenic, 33 As
2.
A large sample of native arsenic
3.
Realgar
Strychnine
–
Strychnine is a highly toxic, colorless, bitter, crystalline alkaloid used as a pesticide, particularly for killing small vertebrates such as birds and rodents. Strychnine, when inhaled, swallowed, or absorbed through the eyes or mouth, causes poisoning which results in muscular convulsions, while it has no known medicinal effects, in the past the convulsant effect was believed to be beneficial in small doses. The most common source is from the seeds of the Strychnos nux-vomica tree, Strychnine was the first alkaloid to be identified in plants of the genus Strychnos, family Loganiaceae. Strychnos, named by Carl Linnaeus in 1753, is a genus of trees, the genus contains 196 various species and is distributed throughout the warm regions of Asia, America, and Africa. The seeds and bark of plants in this genus contain strychnine. The inhabitants of these countries had historical knowledge of the species Strychnos nux-vomica, Strychnos nux-vomica is a tree native to the tropical forests on t
Zinc chloride
–
Zinc chloride is the name of chemical compounds with the formula ZnCl2 and its hydrates. Zinc chlorides, of which nine crystalline forms are known, are colorless or white, ZnCl2 itself is hygroscopic and even deliquescent. Samples should therefore be protected from sources of moisture, including the water present in ambient air. Zinc chloride finds wide application in textile processing, metallurgical fluxes, no mineral with this chemical composition is known aside from the very rare mineral simonkolleite, Zn58Cl2·H2O. Four crystalline forms of ZnCl2 are known, α, β, γ, and δ, here, a, b, and c are lattice constants, Z is the number of structure units per unit cell and ρ is the density calculated from the structure parameters. Rapid cooling of molten ZnCl2 gives a glass, the covalent character of the anhydrous material is indicated by its relatively low melting point of 275 °C. Further evidence for covalency is provided by the solubility of the dichloride in ethereal solvents where it
Body farm
–
A body farm is a research facility where decomposition can be studied in a variety of settings. They were invented by an anthropologist named William Bass in 1972, previous to this, in the 1970s, pig remains were used to study decomposition processes. Body farm research is of particular interest in anthropology and related disciplines. By placing the bodies outside to face the elements, researchers are able to get an understanding of the decomposition process. Six such facilities exist in the United States, with the facility operated by Texas State University at Freeman Ranch being the largest at 26-acres in area. Dr Richard Jantz, a director of the forensic anthropology center, advises to observe where human look, breathe, all these aspects support by the training of medical examiners, death scene investigators and law enforcement investigators. It was first started in late 1981 by anthropologist Dr. William M. Bass as a facility for the study of the decomposition of human remains, si
1.
Roma Khan conducting preliminary work on decomposition of cattle.
Thermodynamics
–
Thermodynamics is a branch of physics concerned with heat and temperature and their relation to energy and work. The behavior of these quantities is governed by the four laws of thermodynamics, the laws of thermodynamics are explained in terms of microscopic constituents by statistical mechanics. Thermodynamics applies to a variety of topics in science and engineering, especially physical chemistry, chemical engineering. The initial application of thermodynamics to mechanical heat engines was extended early on to the study of chemical compounds, Chemical thermodynamics studies the nature of the role of entropy in the process of chemical reactions and has provided the bulk of expansion and knowledge of the field. Other formulations of thermodynamics emerged in the following decades, statistical thermodynamics, or statistical mechanics, concerned itself with statistical predictions of the collective motion of particles from their microscopic behavior. In 1909, Constantin Carathéodory pre
1.
Annotated color version of the original 1824
Carnot heat engine showing the hot body (boiler), working body (system, steam), and cold body (water), the letters labeled according to the stopping points in
Carnot cycle
Amino acids
–
Amino acids are organic compounds containing amine and carboxyl functional groups, along with a side chain specific to each amino acid. The key elements of an acid are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen. About 500 amino acids are known and can be classified in many ways, in the form of proteins, amino acids comprise the second-largest component of human muscles, cells and other tissues. Outside proteins, amino acids perform critical roles in such as neurotransmitter transport. In biochemistry, amino acids having both the amine and the acid groups attached to the first carbon atom have particular importance. They are known as 2-, alpha-, or α-amino acids and they include the 22 proteinogenic amino acids, which combine into peptide chains to form the building-blocks of a vast array of proteins. These are all L-stereoisomers, although a few D-amino acids occur in bacterial envelopes, as a neuromodulator, twenty of the proteinogenic amino acids are encoded directly by triplet codons in the genetic c
1.
The structure of an alpha amino acid in its un-ionized form
Anaerobic organism
–
An anaerobic organism or anaerobe is any organism that does not require oxygen for growth. It may react negatively or even die if oxygen is present, an anaerobic organism may be unicellular or multicellular. Van Leeuwenhoek sealed one of the tubes by using a flame. In 1913 Martinus Beijerinck repeated Van Leeuwenhoeks experiment and identified Clostridium butyricum as a prominent anaerobic bacterium in the sealed pepper infusion tube liquid. That Leeuwenhoek, one hundred years before the discovery of oxygen, for practical purposes, there are three categories of anaerobe, Obligate anaerobes, which are harmed by the presence of oxygen. Aerotolerant organisms, which use oxygen for growth, but tolerate its presence. Facultative anaerobes, which can grow without oxygen but use oxygen if it is present, some obligate anaerobes use fermentation, while others use anaerobic respiration. In the presence of oxygen, facultative anaerobes use aerobic respiration, without oxygen, some of them ferment
Human gastrointestinal tract
–
Gastrointestinal is an adjective meaning of or pertaining to the stomach and intestines. A tract is a collection of related anatomic structures or a series of connected body organs, the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, and intestines are part of the human alimentary canal. All bilaterians have a gastrointestinal tract, also called a gut or an alimentary canal and this is a tube that transfers food to the organs of digestion. In large bilaterians, the gastrointestinal tract generally also has an exit, some small bilaterians have no anus and dispose of solid wastes by other means. The gastrointestinal tract contains thousands of different bacteria in their gut flora, the human gastrointestinal tract consists of the esophagus, stomach, and intestines, and is divided into the upper and lower gastrointestinal tracts. In contrast, the digestive system comprises the gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory organs of digestion. The tract may also be divided into foregut, midgut, and hindgut, the w
Organic compound
–
An organic compound is virtually any chemical compound that contains carbon, although a consensus definition remains elusive and likely arbitrary. Organic compounds are rare terrestrially, but of importance because all known life is based on organic compounds. The most basic petrochemicals are considered the building blocks of organic chemistry, for historical reasons discussed below, a few types of carbon-containing compounds, such as carbides, carbonates, simple oxides of carbon, and cyanides are considered inorganic. The distinction between organic and inorganic compounds, while useful in organizing the vast subject of chemistry. Organic chemistry is the science concerned with all aspects of organic compounds, Organic synthesis is the methodology of their preparation. The word organic is historical, dating to the 1st century, for many centuries, Western alchemists believed in vitalism. This is the theory that certain compounds could be synthesized only from their classical elements—
1.
Methane is one of the simplest organic compounds
Functional group
–
In organic chemistry, functional groups are specific groups of atoms or bonds within molecules that are responsible for the characteristic chemical reactions of those molecules. The same functional group will undergo the same or similar chemical reaction regardless of the size of the molecule it is a part of, however, its relative reactivity can be modified by other functional groups nearby. The atoms of functional groups are linked to other and to the rest of the molecule by covalent bonds. Any subgroup of atoms of a compound also may be called a radical, and if a covalent bond is broken homolytically, Functional groups can also be charged, e. g. in carboxylate salts, which turns the molecule into a polyatomic ion or a complex ion. Complexation and solvation is also caused by interactions of functional groups. In the common rule of thumb like dissolves like, it is the shared or mutually well-interacting functional groups give rise to solubility. For example, sugar dissolves in water b
1.
Benzyl acetate has an ester functional group (in red), an acetyl moiety (circled with dark green) and a benzyloxy moiety (circled with light orange). Other divisions can be made.
Amine
–
In organic chemistry, amines are compounds and functional groups that contain a basic nitrogen atom with a lone pair. Amines are formally derivatives of ammonia, wherein one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by a substituent such as an alkyl or aryl group, important amines include amino acids, biogenic amines, trimethylamine, and aniline, see Category, Amines for a list of amines. Inorganic derivatives of ammonia are also called amines, such as chloramine, see Category, compounds with a nitrogen atom attached to a carbonyl group, thus having the structure R–CO–NR′R″, are called amides and have different chemical properties from amines. An aliphatic amine has no aromatic ring attached directly to the nitrogen atom, aromatic amines have the nitrogen atom connected to an aromatic ring as in the various anilines. The aromatic ring decreases the alkalinity of the amine, depending on its substituents, the presence of an amine group strongly increases the reactivity of the aromatic ri
Skeletonisation
–
Skeletonization refers to the final stage of death, during which the last vestiges of the soft tissues of a corpse or carcass have decayed or dried to the point that the skeleton is exposed. By the end of the process, all soft tissue will have been eliminated. In tropical climates, skeletonization can occur in weeks, while in areas, skeletonization may take years or may never occur. Natural embalming processes in peat bogs or salt deserts can delay the process indefinitely, the rate of skeletonization and the present condition of a corpse or carcass can be used to determine the time of death. In neutral-pH soil or sand, the skeleton can persist for hundreds of years before it finally disintegrates, alternately, especially in very fine, dry, salty, anoxic, or mildly alkaline soils, bones may undergo fossilization, converting into minerals that may persist indefinitely. The organic components, as opposed to the salts in bone
1.
Partly skeletonized
pig, seven weeks after death.
Ethanol
–
Ethanol, also called alcohol, ethyl alcohol, and drinking alcohol, is the principal type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. It is a volatile, flammable, colorless liquid with a characteristic odor. Its chemical formula is C 2H 6O, which can be written also as CH 3-CH 2-OH or C 2H 5-OH, ethanol is mostly produced by the fermentation of sugars by yeasts, or by petrochemical processes. It is a psychoactive drug, causing a characteristic intoxication. It is widely used as a solvent, as fuel, and as a feedstock for synthesis of other chemicals, the eth- prefix and the qualifier ethyl in ethyl alcohol originally come from the name ethyl assigned in 1834 to the group C 2H 5- by Justus Liebig. He coined the word from the German name Aether of the compound C 2H 5-O-C 2H5, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, Ethyl is a contraction of the Ancient Greek αἰθήρ and the Greek word ύλη. The name ethanol was coined as a result of a resolution that was adopted at the International Conferen
1.
USP grade ethanol for laboratory use.
Blood Alcohol Concentration
–
Blood Alcohol Content is the legal name for BAC but Blood Alcohol Concentration is sometimes used for simpler description. For instance, in North America a BAC of 0.1 means that there are 0.10 g of alcohol for every dL of blood, to calculate estimated peak blood alcohol concentration, a variation, including drinking period in hours, of the Widmark formula was used. The formula is, E B A C = ×10 where,0.806 is a constant for water in the blood. 10 converts the result to permillage of alcohol Regarding metabolism in the formula, female subjects on average had a higher percentage of body fat than males. When it does, an amount of alcohol is temporarily taken out of the blood. For this reason, most calculations of alcohol to body mass simply use the weight of the individual, finally, it is speculated that the bubbles in sparkling wine may speed up alcohol intoxication by helping the alcohol to reach the bloodstream faster. A study conducted at the University of Surrey in the United Kingdom
Biochemistry
–
Biochemistry, sometimes called biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. By controlling information flow through biochemical signaling and the flow of energy through metabolism. Biochemistry is closely related to biology, the study of the molecular mechanisms by which genetic information encoded in DNA is able to result in the processes of life. Depending on the definition of the terms used, molecular biology can be thought of as a branch of biochemistry, or biochemistry as a tool with which to investigate. The chemistry of the cell depends on the reactions of smaller molecules. These can be inorganic, for water and metal ions, or organic, for example the amino acids. The mechanisms by which cells harness energy from their environment via chemical reactions are known as metabolism, the findings of biochemistry are applied primarily in medicine, nutrition, and agriculture. In medicine, biochemists investigate the causes and cures o
Antimony
–
Antimony is a chemical element with symbol Sb and atomic number 51. A lustrous gray metalloid, it is found in nature mainly as the sulfide mineral stibnite, Antimony compounds have been known since ancient times and were powdered for use as medicine and cosmetics, often known by the Arabic name, kohl. Metallic antimony was known, but it was erroneously identified as lead upon its discovery. In the West, it was first isolated by Vannoccio Biringuccio, for some time, China has been the largest producer of antimony and its compounds, with most production coming from the Xikuangshan Mine in Hunan. The industrial methods for refining antimony are roasting and reduction with carbon or direct reduction of stibnite with iron, the largest applications for metallic antimony is an alloy with lead and tin and the lead antimony plates in lead–acid batteries. Alloys of lead and tin with antimony have improved properties for solders, bullets, Antimony compounds are prominent additives for chlorine an
1.
Antimony, 51 Sb
3.
Stibnite
4.
The Italian metallurgist Vannoccio Biringuccio described the first procedure of how to isolate antimony.
Carbolic acid
–
Phenol, also known as carbolic acid, is an aromatic organic compound with the molecular formula C6H5OH. It is a crystalline solid that is volatile. The molecule consists of a phenyl group bonded to a hydroxyl group and it is mildly acidic and requires careful handling due to its propensity to cause chemical burns. Phenol was first extracted from tar, but today is produced on a large scale from petroleum. It is an important industrial commodity as a precursor to many materials and it is primarily used to synthesize plastics and related materials. Phenol and its derivatives are essential for production of polycarbonates, epoxies, Bakelite, nylon, detergents, herbicides such as phenoxy herbicides. Phenol is appreciably soluble in water, with about 84.2 g dissolving in 1000 mL, homogeneous mixtures of phenol and water at phenol to water mass ratios of ~2.6 and higher are possible. The sodium salt of phenol, sodium phenoxide, is far more water-soluble and it reacts completely with aqueous N
Nux vomica
–
The strychnine tree, also known as strychnine tree, nux vomica, poison nut, semen strychnos and quaker buttons, is a deciduous tree native to India, and southeast Asia. It is a tree in the family Loganiaceae that grows in open habitats. Its leaves are ovate and 2–3.5 inches in size and it is a major source of the highly poisonous, intensely bitter alkaloids strychnine and brucine, derived from the seeds inside the trees round, green to orange fruit. The seeds contain approximately 1. 5% strychnine, and the dried blossoms contain 1. 0%, however, the trees bark also contains brucine and other poisonous compounds. Strychnos is promoted within alternative medicine as a treatment for many conditions, the use of strychnine is highly regulated in many countries, and is mostly used in baits to kill feral mammals, including wild dogs, foxes, and rodents. Most accidental poisoning is by breathing in the powder or by absorption through the skin, Strychnos nux-vomica is a medium-sized tree with a
1.
Strychnos nux-vomica
4.
Seeds of S. nux-vomica
Abdomen
–
The abdomen constitutes the part of the body between the thorax and pelvis, in humans and in other vertebrates. The region occupied by the abdomen is termed the abdominal cavity, in arthropods it is the posterior tagma of the body, it follows the thorax or cephalothorax. The abdomen stretches from the thorax at the diaphragm to the pelvis at the pelvic brim. The pelvic brim stretches from the joint to the pubic symphysis and is the edge of the pelvic inlet. The space above this inlet and under the thoracic diaphragm is termed the abdominal cavity, the boundary of the abdominal cavity is the abdominal wall in the front and the peritoneal surface at the rear. The abdomen contains most of the organs of the digestive tract. Hollow abdominal organs include the stomach, the intestine. Organs such as the liver, its attached gallbladder, and the function in close association with the digestive tract. The spleen, kidneys, and adrenal glands also lie within the abdomen, along with blood vessels
1.
The human abdomen and organs which can be found beneath the surface
2.
(left) Henry Gray (1825–1861). Anatomy of the Human Body. (Right) A modern example of a human
male abdomen above
3.
The analogous gross morphologies of a human and an ant
Liquefaction
–
Liquefaction occurs both as part of natural processes, and in man-made processes used in science and commerce. In geology, soil liquefaction refers to the process by which water-saturated, unconsolidated sediments are transformed into a substance that acts like a liquid, by undermining the foundations and base courses of infrastructure, liquefaction can cause serious damage. In physics and chemistry, the transitions from solid and gas to liquid may be referred to as liquefaction. The melting point is the temperature and pressure at which a solid becomes a liquid, in commercial and industrial situations, the process of condensing a gas to liquid is sometimes referred to as liquefaction of gases. Coal liquefaction is the production of fuels from coal using a variety of industrial processes. Liquefaction is also used in commercial and industrial settings to refer to mechanical dissolution of a solid by mixing, grinding or blending with a liquid. In kitchen or laboratory settings, solids m
Gastrointestinal tract
–
Gastrointestinal is an adjective meaning of or pertaining to the stomach and intestines. A tract is a collection of related anatomic structures or a series of connected body organs, the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, and intestines are part of the human alimentary canal. All bilaterians have a gastrointestinal tract, also called a gut or an alimentary canal and this is a tube that transfers food to the organs of digestion. In large bilaterians, the gastrointestinal tract generally also has an exit, some small bilaterians have no anus and dispose of solid wastes by other means. The gastrointestinal tract contains thousands of different bacteria in their gut flora, the human gastrointestinal tract consists of the esophagus, stomach, and intestines, and is divided into the upper and lower gastrointestinal tracts. In contrast, the digestive system comprises the gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory organs of digestion. The tract may also be divided into foregut, midgut, and hindgut, the w
1.
Venus Flytrap (Dionaea muscipula) leaf
2.
Digestive system
3.
Trophozoites of Entamoeba histolytica with ingested erythrocytes
Blood vessel
–
The blood vessels are the part of the circulatory system that transports blood throughout the human body. The word vascular, meaning relating to the vessels, is derived from the Latin vas. A few structures do not contain blood vessels and are labeled, tunica media, circularly arranged elastic fiber, connective tissue, polysaccharide substances, the second and third layer are separated by another thick elastic band called external elastic lamina. The tunica media may be rich in smooth muscle, which controls the caliber of the vessel. Veins dont have the external elastic lamina, but only an internal one, tunica adventitia, entirely made of connective tissue. It also contains nerves that supply the vessel as well as nutrient capillaries in the blood vessels. Capillaries consist of more than a layer of endothelium and occasional connective tissue. When blood vessels connect to form a region of diffuse vascular supply it is called an anastomosis, anastomoses provide critical alternative rou
1.
Blood vessel with an erythrocyte (red blood cell, E) within its lumen, endothelial cells forming its tunica intima (inner layer), and pericytes forming its tunica adventitia (outer layer)
2.
Simple diagram of the human circulatory system
Embalming
–
Embalming is the art and science of preserving human remains by treating them to forestall decomposition. The intention is to keep them suitable for display at a funeral, for religious reasons, or for medical. The three goals of embalming are sanitization, presentation, and preservation, Embalming has a very long and cross-cultural history, with many cultures giving the embalming processes a greater religious meaning. Embalming preserves the human body intact, whereas taxidermy is the recreation of a form often using only the creatures skin mounted on an anatomical form. The Chinchorro culture in the Atacama desert of present-day Chile and Peru are among the earliest cultures known to have performed artificial mummification as early as 5000-6000 BC, perhaps the ancient culture that had developed embalming to the greatest extent was Egypt. As early as the First Dynasty, specialized priests were in charge of embalming and they did so by removing organs, ridding the body of moisture, and
2.
William Hunter developed and popularized the modern technique of arterial embalming in the late 18th century.
3.
Embalming fluids used in the early 20th century.
4.
Instruments used for embalming
Potassium cyanide
–
Potassium cyanide is a compound with the formula KCN. This colorless crystalline salt, similar in appearance to sugar, is soluble in water. Most KCN is used in mining, organic synthesis. Smaller applications include jewelry for chemical gilding and buffing, the moist solid emits small amounts of hydrogen cyanide due to hydrolysis, which smells like bitter almonds. Not everyone, however, can smell this, the ability to do so is a genetic trait, the taste of potassium cyanide has been described as acrid with a burning sensation. Prior to 1900 AD, before the invention of the Castner process, despite the cyanide ions being diatomic, and thus less symmetric than chloride, they rotate so rapidly, their time-averaged shape is spherical. At low temperature and high pressure, this rotation is hindered. KCN and sodium cyanide are widely used in synthesis for the preparation of nitriles and carboxylic acids. KCN is used as a fixer in the wet plate collodion process. The KCN dissolves silver where
Strychnos nux-vomica
–
The strychnine tree, also known as strychnine tree, nux vomica, poison nut, semen strychnos and quaker buttons, is a deciduous tree native to India, and southeast Asia. It is a tree in the family Loganiaceae that grows in open habitats. Its leaves are ovate and 2–3.5 inches in size and it is a major source of the highly poisonous, intensely bitter alkaloids strychnine and brucine, derived from the seeds inside the trees round, green to orange fruit. The seeds contain approximately 1. 5% strychnine, and the dried blossoms contain 1. 0%, however, the trees bark also contains brucine and other poisonous compounds. Strychnos is promoted within alternative medicine as a treatment for many conditions, the use of strychnine is highly regulated in many countries, and is mostly used in baits to kill feral mammals, including wild dogs, foxes, and rodents. Most accidental poisoning is by breathing in the powder or by absorption through the skin, Strychnos nux-vomica is a medium-sized tree with a
1.
Strychnos nux-vomica
3.
Seeds of S. nux-vomica
4.
Seedling of Nux Vomica
Alchemy
–
Alchemy is a philosophical and protoscientific tradition practiced throughout Europe, Egypt and Asia. It aimed to purify, mature, and perfect certain objects, the perfection of the human body and soul was thought to permit or result from the alchemical magnum opus and, in the Hellenistic and western tradition, the achievement of gnosis. In Europe, the creation of a stone was variously connected with all of these projects. In English, the term is limited to descriptions of European alchemy, but similar practices existed in the Far East, the Indian subcontinent. In Europe, following the 12th-century Renaissance produced by the translation of Islamic works on science, Islamic and European alchemists developed a structure of basic laboratory techniques, theory, terminology, and experimental method, some of which are still in use today. However, they continued antiquitys belief in four elements and guarded their work in secrecy including cyphers and their work was guided by Hermetic princip
1.
The
Emerald Tablet, a key text of Western Alchemy, in a 17th-century edition.
3.
Ambix, cucurbit and retort of
Zosimos, from
Marcelin Berthelot, Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs (3 vol., Paris, 1887–1888).
Fermentation (biochemistry)
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Fermentation is a metabolic process that converts sugar to acids, gases, or alcohol. It occurs in yeast and bacteria, and also in oxygen-starved muscle cells, Fermentation is also used more broadly to refer to the bulk growth of microorganisms on a growth medium, often with the goal of producing a specific chemical product. French microbiologist Louis Pasteur is often remembered for his insights into fermentation, the science of fermentation is known as zymology. Fermentation takes place when the transport chain is unusable. In this case it becomes the primary means of ATP production. Fermentation turns NADH and pyruvate produced in glycolysis into NAD+. In the presence of O2, NADH and pyruvate are used to generate ATP in respiration and this is called oxidative phosphorylation, and it generates much more ATP than glycolysis alone. For that reason, cells generally benefit from avoiding fermentation when oxygen is available, the exception being obligate anaerobes which cannot tolerate o
1.
Fermentation in progress: Bubbles of
CO2 form a froth on top of the fermentation mixture.
2.
Louis Pasteur in his laboratory
Cryopreservation
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At low enough temperatures, any enzymatic or chemical activity which might cause damage to the biological material in question is effectively stopped. Cryopreservation methods seek to reach low temperatures without causing additional damage caused by the formation of ice during freezing, traditional cryopreservation has relied on coating the material to be frozen with a class of molecules termed cryoprotectants. New methods are constantly being investigated due to the inherent toxicity of many cryoprotectants, by default it should be considered that cryopreservation alters or compromises the structure and function of cells unless it is proven otherwise for a particular cell population. Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources is the process in which genetic material is collected and stored with the intention of conservation of the breed. Mixtures of solutes can achieve similar effects, some solutes, including salts, have the disadvantage that they may be toxic at intense concentrat
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Cryopreservation of plant shoots. Open tank of liquid nitrogen behind.
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A tank of
liquid nitrogen, used to supply a cryonic freezer (for storing laboratory samples at a temperature of about −150 °C)
Maceration (bone)
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Maceration is a bone preparation technique whereby a clean skeleton is obtained from a vertebrate carcass by leaving it to decompose inside a closed container at near-constant temperature. In most cases, maceration is done on the carcass of an animal for educational purposes, maceration is a form of controlled putrefaction, a stage of decomposition in which the proteins of the bodys cells are broken down and consumed by bacteria in anaerobic conditions. The temperature is maintained at a constant optimal temperature in an incubator. Maceration generates very strong and distasteful odors, and is usually done in a closed container in a ventilated area. Maceration is a method to clean the bones of a fish, as they have a poorly articulated. In the process of maceration, the carcass is first skinned and defleshed by hand as much as is practical, and all internal organs are removed. In this process, extra care is taken when removing the eyeballs, ears and jugular muscles, because some bones
Rancidification
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Rancidification, the product of which can be described as rancidity, is the process which causes a substance to become rancid, that is, having a rank, unpleasant smell or taste. Specifically, it is the hydrolysis and/or autoxidation of fats into short-chain aldehydes and ketones which are objectionable in taste, when these processes occur in food, undesirable odors and flavors can result. In some cases, however, the flavors can be desirable, in processed meats, these flavors are collectively known as warmed-over flavor. Rancidification can also detract from the value of food. Akin to rancidification, oxidative degradation also occurs in other hydrocarbons, e. g. lubricating oils, fuels, three pathways for rancidification are recognized, Hydrolytic rancidity refers to the odor that develops when triglycerides are hydrolyzed and free fatty acids are released. This reaction of lipid with water sometimes requires a catalyst, but results in the formation of fatty acids. In particular, short
1.
The
free radical pathway for the first phase of the oxidative rancidification of fats.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial
1.
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
