1.
Qom Province
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Qom Province is one of the 31 provinces of Iran with 11,237 km², covering 0. 89% of the total area in Iran. It is in the north of the country, and its capital is the city of Qom. It was formed part of Tehran Province in 1995. In 2011, this province had a population of 1,151,672 out of which 95. 2% resided in areas and 4. 8% in rural vicinities. The province contains one city, four counties, nine rural districts, the province was put as part of Region 1 upon the division of the provinces into 5 regions solely for coordination and development purposes on June 22,2014. The climate of Qom province varies between a desert and semi-desert climate, and comprises mountainous areas, foothills and plains, due to being located near an arid region and far inland, it experiences a dry climate, with low humidity and scanty rainfall. Thus, agriculture is not possible in most of its areas, Qom province has two large salt lakes, namely, Howz e Soltan Lake, which lies 36 km due north of Qom, and Namak Lake, which lies 80 km due east of Qom. Nearly a fifth of Namak Lake lies within Qom province, uniquely in Iran, Qom Province is coextensive with the Shahrestan of Qom. Qom is thought to have existed in pre-Islamic ages, archeological discoveries indicate Qom as a residential area from the 5th millennium BCE. According to the remaining relics and historical texts, Qom was a large city. Kom was the name of the ancient rampart of the city of Qom, thus and it was during the reign of the second caliph Omar, that the Muslims captured Qom’s center. In 644-645 CE, Abu Moosa Ashari, dispatched forces under his command to Qom, conflicts arose between the invading Arabs and the residents of the area. During the persecution of the Alavids by the Abbasids and Umayyads, many Alavids fled to Qom, the Caliph Al-Mamun sent forces to Qom in the year 825 CE, resulting in a public massacre and destruction of the city. On hearing of the demise of al-Mamun, the inhabitants of Qom revolted and were successful in overthrowing the representative of the Caliph in 831 CE, however al-Mamuns successor, al-Mutasim, dispatched forces to Qom in order to curb the riots and once again the city was set aflame. The unrest continued until the Buwayhid dynasty came to power, being of the Alavid community and it was during this reign that the city of Qom expanded and thrived. In the Saljuqi era the city flourished once more, in the late 14th century, the city came under the plunder of Tamerlane when the inhabitants were massacred again. During the periods of the rule of the Qarah Qoyoonloo, Aq Qoyoonloo, by 1503, Qom became one of the important centers of theology in relation to the Shia Islam, and became a vital pilgrimage site and religious pivot. During the Afghan invasion, the city of Qom suffered heavy damages, Qom further sustained damages during the reigns of Nader Shah, and the conflicts between the two households of Zandieh and Qajar in order to gain power in Iran
2.
Qom County
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Qom County is the only county in Qom Province in Iran, with which it is coextensive. The capital of the county is Qom, at the 2006 census, the countys population was 1,036,714, in 262,313 families. The county has five districts, Jafarabad District, Khalajastan District, the Central District, Kahak District, the county has six cities, Dastjerd, Jafariyeh, Kahak, Qom, Qanavat, and Salafchegan
3.
Toba people
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The Qom or Toba people are an ethnic group from the region known today as the Pampas, that inhabit the Central Chaco. Like most indigenous groups from the Pampas region, the Qom are characterized by their height, the Qom consider themselves one of the most important ethnic groups of the Guaicuruans. However, the use of the word Guaicuruan is controversial given that it was originally an insult the guaranis gave to their opponents in the Gran Chaco region. The large demographic growth of the Wichi put pressure on the Qom and forced them to displace themselves farther east, traditionally, the Qom and the Mocoví peoples regarded each other as allies while the Abipon peoples were typically treated as enemies to the Qom. Like other guaicurue groups, the Qom organize themselves into bands composed by up to 60 families that would establish relationships with other bands. Instead, the resources and the difficulties presented by the landscape of the Chaco forced missionaries to accept the Qoms hunter-gatherer lifestyle as the only sustainable option. The Qom became competent horsemen despite the fact that their territory was in part covered in woodlands forests. As enemies of the Paraguayan state, on nights of the full moon, with the adoption of horseback riding, the Qom could extend the reach of their raids, transforming themselves into the dominant indigenous group of the Central Chaco. Furthermore, their command of the horses permitted the Qom to advance further west, from their horses, armed with bows and arrows, the Qom hunted not only indigenous animals but also cattle that had been imported from Europe. Here, the Qom would use horses to approach their targets but would dismount, in 1756 the Jesuits founded the Toba reduction, San Ignacio de Ledesma, near the Ledesma fort in the province of Jujuy. At the time of the expulsion of the Jesuits from Latin America in 1768, the Qom became on the the most resistant indigenous groups that opposed attempts at transculturation and usurpation of the white man in the Chaco region. Led by famous chiefs such as Tayolique, the Qom frequently used guns to oppose European intervention and continued to update their rifles in order to defend themselves. In 1858, the Qom even threatened the city of Santa Fe, the mission occupied 20,000 hectares of land near the Pilcomayo River, inside of which the mission itself was moved various times. The second reduction, San Francisco de Laishí was founded with the Qom people on March 25,1901 in the southeast region of Formosa by Father Serafín Iturralde and Father Ghio. This mission was composed of 74,000 hectares of land in which there was a factory that operated until 1946. When Formosa became a province in 1955, the two missions were given civil control, resulting in the towns of Misión Tacaaglé and San Francisco de Laishí. The indigenous people of the Gran Chaco in general maintained their sovereignty until the late 19th century, the conquest of the territory and the subjugation of their people during the Conquest of the Gran Chaco decimated the population. In the second half of the 20th century, when the Qom stopped working as agrarian labor, the first conquest over the territories began in 1884 and is remembered as the Conquest of the Gran Chaco
4.
City
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A city is a large and permanent human settlement. Cities generally have complex systems for sanitation, utilities, land usage, housing, a big city or metropolis usually has associated suburbs and exurbs. Such cities are associated with metropolitan areas and urban areas. Once a city expands far enough to another city, this region can be deemed a conurbation or megalopolis. Damascus is arguably the oldest city in the world, in terms of population, the largest city proper is Shanghai, while the fastest-growing is Dubai. There is not enough evidence to assert what conditions gave rise to the first cities, some theorists have speculated on what they consider suitable pre-conditions and basic mechanisms that might have been important driving forces. The conventional view holds that cities first formed after the Neolithic revolution, the Neolithic revolution brought agriculture, which made denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development. The advent of farming encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and to settle near others who lived by agricultural production, the increased population density encouraged by farming and the increased output of food per unit of land created conditions that seem more suitable for city-like activities. In his book, Cities and Economic Development, Paul Bairoch takes up position in his argument that agricultural activity appears necessary before true cities can form. According to Vere Gordon Childe, for a settlement to qualify as a city, it must have enough surplus of raw materials to support trade and a relatively large population. To illustrate this point, Bairoch offers an example, Western Europe during the pre-Neolithic, when the cost of transport is taken into account, the figure rises to 200,000 square kilometres. Bairoch noted that this is roughly the size of Great Britain, the urban theorist Jane Jacobs suggests that city formation preceded the birth of agriculture, but this view is not widely accepted. In his book City Economics, Brendan OFlaherty asserts Cities could persist—as they have for thousands of years—only if their advantages offset the disadvantages, OFlaherty illustrates two similar attracting advantages known as increasing returns to scale and economies of scale, which are concepts usually associated with businesses. Their applications are seen in more basic economic systems as well, increasing returns to scale occurs when doubling all inputs more than doubles the output an activity has economies of scale if doubling output less than doubles cost. To offer an example of these concepts, OFlaherty makes use of one of the oldest reasons why cities were built, in this example, the inputs are anything that would be used for protection and the output is the area protected and everything of value contained in it. OFlaherty then asks that we suppose the protected area is square, the advantage is expressed as, O = s 2, where O is the output and s stands for the length of a side. This equation shows that output is proportional to the square of the length of a side, the inputs depend on the length of the perimeter, I =4 s, where I stands for the quantity of inputs. So there are increasing returns to scale, O = I2 /16 and this equation shows that with twice the inputs, you produce quadruple the output
5.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
6.
Iran
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Iran, also known as Persia, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, is a sovereign state in Western Asia. Comprising a land area of 1,648,195 km2, it is the second-largest country in the Middle East, with 82.8 million inhabitants, Iran is the worlds 17th-most-populous country. It is the country with both a Caspian Sea and an Indian Ocean coastline. The countrys central location in Eurasia and Western Asia, and its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz, Tehran is the countrys capital and largest city, as well as its leading economic and cultural center. Iran is the site of to one of the worlds oldest civilizations, the area was first unified by the Iranian Medes in 625 BC, who became the dominant cultural and political power in the region. The empire collapsed in 330 BC following the conquests of Alexander the Great, under the Sassanid Dynasty, Iran again became one of the leading powers in the world for the next four centuries. Beginning in 633 AD, Arabs conquered Iran and largely displaced the indigenous faiths of Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism by Islam, Iran became a major contributor to the Islamic Golden Age that followed, producing many influential scientists, scholars, artists, and thinkers. During the 18th century, Iran reached its greatest territorial extent since the Sassanid Empire, through the late 18th and 19th centuries, a series of conflicts with Russia led to significant territorial losses and the erosion of sovereignty. Popular unrest culminated in the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1906, which established a monarchy and the countrys first legislative body. Following a coup instigated by the U. K. Growing dissent against foreign influence and political repression led to the 1979 Revolution, Irans rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 21 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the third-largest number in Asia and 11th-largest in the world. Iran is a member of the UN, ECO, NAM, OIC. Its political system is based on the 1979 Constitution which combines elements of a democracy with a theocracy governed by Islamic jurists under the concept of a Supreme Leadership. A multicultural country comprising numerous ethnic and linguistic groups, most inhabitants are Shia Muslims, the largest ethnic groups in Iran are the Persians, Azeris, Kurds and Lurs. Historically, Iran has been referred to as Persia by the West, due mainly to the writings of Greek historians who called Iran Persis, meaning land of the Persians. As the most extensive interactions the Ancient Greeks had with any outsider was with the Persians, however, Persis was originally referred to a region settled by Persians in the west shore of Lake Urmia, in the 9th century BC. The settlement was then shifted to the end of the Zagros Mountains. In 1935, Reza Shah requested the international community to refer to the country by its native name, opposition to the name change led to the reversal of the decision, and Professor Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, propagated a move to use Persia and Iran interchangeably
7.
Provinces of Iran
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Iran is subdivided into thirty one provinces, each governed from a local center, usually the largest local city, which is called the capital of that province. The provincial authority is headed by a Governor-General, who is appointed by the Minister of the Interior subject to approval of the cabinet, from 1960 to 1981 the governorates were raised to provincial status one by one
8.
County
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A county is a geographical region of a country used for administrative or other purposes, in certain modern nations. The term is derived from the Old French conté or cunté denoting a jurisdiction under the sovereignty of a count or a viscount. The modern French is comté, and its equivalents in other languages are contea, contado, comtat, condado, Grafschaft, graafschap, Gau, when the Normans conquered England, they brought the term with them. The Saxons had already established the districts became the historic counties of England. The Vikings introduced the term earl to the British Isles, thus, the Anglo-Saxons earl and earldom were taken as equivalent to the continental use of count and county under the conquering Normans, and over time the two blended and became equivalent terms. Further, the term became a synonym for the native English word scir or, in Modern English. Since a shire was a division of the kingdom, the term county evolved to designate an administrative division of states or of a national government in most other modern uses. A county may be subdivided into districts, hundreds, townships or other administrative jurisdictions within the county. A county usually, but not always, contains cities, towns, townships, villages, or other municipal corporations, Provinces in Argentina are divided into departments, except in the Buenos Aires Province, where they are called partidos. The Autonomous City of Buenos Aires is divided into communes, in the eastern states of Australia, counties are used in the administration of land titles. They do not generally correspond to a level of government, but are used in the identification of parcels of land, canadas five oldest provinces – New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Quebec and Prince Edward Island – are divided into counties. In addition to counties, Ontario is also subdivided into districts, district municipalities, metropolitan municipalities. British Columbia, Manitoba, Newfoundland and Labrador, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Saskatchewan, the word county is used to translate the Chinese term xiàn. In Mainland China, governed by the Peoples Republic of China, counties are the level of local government. There are 1,464 counties in the PRC out of a total of 2,862 county-level divisions, the number of counties has remained more or less constant since the Han dynasty. The county remains one of the oldest levels of government in China, the county government was particularly important in imperial China because this was the lowest layer at which the imperial government functioned. The head of a county during imperial times was the magistrate, in older context, prefecture and district are alternative terms to refer to xiàn before the establishment of the Republic of China. The English nomenclature county was adopted following the establishment of the ROC, contrary to the typical rural location of a county in Western countries, a city in China may enclose several counties
9.
Iran Standard Time
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Iran Standard Time or Iran Time is the time zone used in Iran. Iran uses a UTC offset UTC+03,30, IRST is defined by the 52.5 degrees east meridian, the same meridian which defines the Iranian calendar and is the official meridian of Iran. Between 2005 and 2008, by decree of President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and it was reintroduced from 21 March 2008. Iran is unusual in that the dates of DST transitions arent based on a such as the third Monday in September. So in most countries, DST transitions occur on the same every year
10.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
11.
Iran Daylight Time
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Iran Standard Time or Iran Time is the time zone used in Iran. Iran uses a UTC offset UTC+03,30, IRST is defined by the 52.5 degrees east meridian, the same meridian which defines the Iranian calendar and is the official meridian of Iran. Between 2005 and 2008, by decree of President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and it was reintroduced from 21 March 2008. Iran is unusual in that the dates of DST transitions arent based on a such as the third Monday in September. So in most countries, DST transitions occur on the same every year
12.
Desert climate
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An area that features this climate usually experiences from 25 to 200 mm per year of precipitation and in some years may experience no precipitation at all. Averages may be even less such as in Arica, Chile, there are usually two or three variations of a desert climate, a hot desert climate, a cold desert climate and, sometimes, a mild desert climate. To determine whether a location has a climate, the precipitation threshold is determined. If the areas precipitation is less than half the threshold. Hot desert climates are found under the subtropical ridge where there is largely unbroken sunshine for the whole year due to the stable descending air. These areas are located between 30 degrees south and 30 degrees north latitude, under the subtropical latitudes called the horse latitudes, hot desert climates are generally hot, sunny and dry year-round. Hot desert climates also reach similar latitudes in the Middle East, North Africa, hot desert climates usually feature hot, sometimes exceptionally hot, periods of the year. In many locations featuring a hot climate, maximum temperatures of over 40 °C are not uncommon in summer. The world absolute heat records, over 50 °C, are generally in the hot deserts, some desert locations consistently experience very high temperatures all year long, even during wintertime. These locations feature some of the highest annual average temperatures recorded on Earth and this last feature is seen in some parts of deserts of Africa and Arabia. During colder periods of the year, night-time temperatures can drop to freezing or below due to the radiation loss under the clear skies. However, very rarely do temperatures drop far below freezing, only one region in Europe has a hot desert climate, Province of Almeria, Province of Alicante and Province of Murcia in South Eastern Spain. Cold desert climates usually feature warm and dry summers, though summers typically are not quite as hot as summers in hot desert climates, unlike hot desert climates, cold desert climates tend to feature cold winters with rare snow. Cold desert climates are found at higher altitudes than hot desert climates. A cold desert climate is found in temperate zones, usually in the rain shadow of high mountains. A classic example of this is the Patagonian Desert in Argentina bounded by the Andes to its west, in the case of Central Asia, mountains restrict precipitation from the monsoon. The Gobi desert in Mongolia is an example of this. Though hot in summer, it shares the cold winters of the rest of Central Asia
13.
Persian language
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Persian, also known by its endonym Farsi, is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. It is primarily spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan and it is mostly written in the Persian alphabet, a modified variant of the Arabic script. Its grammar is similar to that of many contemporary European languages, Persian gets its name from its origin at the capital of the Achaemenid Empire, Persis, hence the name Persian. A Persian-speaking person may be referred to as Persophone, there are approximately 110 million Persian speakers worldwide, with the language holding official status in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan. For centuries, Persian has also been a cultural language in other regions of Western Asia, Central Asia. It also exerted influence on Arabic, particularly Bahrani Arabic. Persian is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-European family, other Western Iranian languages are the Kurdish languages, Gilaki, Mazanderani, Talysh, and Balochi. Persian is classified as a member of the Southwestern subgroup within Western Iranian along with Lari, Kumzari, in Persian, the language is known by several names, Western Persian, Parsi or Farsi has been the name used by all native speakers until the 20th century. Since the latter decades of the 20th century, for reasons, in English. Tajiki is the variety of Persian spoken in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan by the Tajiks, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term Persian as a language name is first attested in English in the mid-16th century. Native Iranian Persian speakers call it Fārsi, Farsi is the Arabicized form of Pārsi, subsequent to Muslim conquest of Persia, due to a lack of the phoneme /p/ in Standard Arabic. The origin of the name Farsi and the place of origin of the language which is Fars Province is the Arabicized form of Pārs, in English, this language has historically been known as Persian, though Farsi has also gained some currency. Farsi is encountered in some literature as a name for the language. In modern English the word Farsi refers to the language while Parsi describes Zoroastrians, some Persian language scholars such as Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, and University of Arizona professor Kamran Talattof, have also rejected the usage of Farsi in their articles. The international language-encoding standard ISO 639-1 uses the code fa, as its system is mostly based on the local names. The more detailed standard ISO 639-3 uses the name Persian for the dialect continuum spoken across Iran and Afghanistan and this consists of the individual languages Dari and Iranian Persian. Currently, Voice of America, BBC World Service, Deutsche Welle, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty also includes a Tajik service and an Afghan service. This is also the case for the American Association of Teachers of Persian, The Centre for Promotion of Persian Language and Literature, Persian is an Iranian language belonging to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family of languages
14.
Tehran
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Tehran is the capital of Iran and Tehran Province. It is ranked 29th in the world by the population of its metropolitan area, in the Classical era, part of the present-day city of Tehran was occupied by a Median city that in the Avesta occurs as Rhaga. It was destroyed by the Mongols in the early 13th century, the capital has been moved several times throughout the history, and Tehran is the 32nd national capital of Iran. The city was the seat of the Qajars and Pahlavis, the two last imperial dynasties of Iran. It is home to historical collections, such as the royal complexes of Golestan, Sadabad. Large scale demolition and rebuilding began in the 1920s, and Tehran has been a destination for the migrations from all over Iran since the 20th century. Tabiat Bridge, which was completed in 2014, is considered the third symbol of the city. There have been plans to relocate Irans capital from Tehran to another area, due mainly to air pollution, to date, no definitive plans have been approved. A2016 survey of 230 cities by consultant Mercer ranked Tehran 203rd for quality of living, according to the Global Destinations Cities Index in 2016, Tehran is among the top ten fastest growing destinations. The origin of the name Tehran is uncertain, the settlement of Tehran dates back over 7,000 years. The present-day city of Tehran was a suburb of an important Median city that was known as Rhaga in Old Persian, in the Avestas Videvdat, Rhaga is mentioned as the twelfth sacred place created by the Ohrmazd. In Old Persian inscriptions, Rhaga appears as a province and it was a major area for the Iranian tribes of Medes and Achaemenids. From Rhaga, Darius the Great sent reinforcements to his father Hystaspes, in some Middle Persian texts, Rhaga is given as the birthplace of Zoroaster, although modern historians generally place the birth of Zoroaster in Khorasan. Derived into Modern Persian as Rey, it now as a city located towards the southern end of the modern-day city of Tehran. Mount Damavand, the highest peak of Iran, which is located near Tehran, is an important location in Ferdowsis Shahname, the long Iranian epic poem that is based on the ancient epics of Iran. It appears in the epics as the birthplace of Manuchehr, the residence of Keyumars, the place where Freydun binds the dragon fiend Aži Dahāka, during the Sassanid era, in 641, Yazdgerd III issued his last appeal to the nation from Rey, before fleeing to Khorasan. Rey was dominated by the Parthian Mihran family, and Siyavakhsh—the son of Mihran the son of Bahram Chobin—who resisted the Muslim Invasion, because of this resistance, when the Arabs captured Rey, they ordered the town to be destroyed and ordered Farrukhzad to rebuild the town anew. In the 9th century, Tehran was a well known village, but less known than the city of Rey, the medieval writer Najm od Din Razi declared the population of Rey about 500,000 before the Mongol Invasion
15.
Shia Islam
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Shia is a branch of Islam which holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor. Shia Islam primarily contrasts with Sunni Islam, whose adherents believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor, instead they consider Abu Bakr to be the correct Caliph. Adherents of Shia Islam are called Shias of Ali, Shias or the Shia as a collective or Shii individually, Shia Islam is the second-largest branch of Islam, in 2009, Shia Muslims constituted 10–13% of the worlds Muslim population. Twelver Shia is the largest branch of Shia Islam, in 2012 it was estimated that perhaps 85 percent of Shias were Twelvers. Shia Islam is based on the Quran and the message of Muhammad attested in hadith, Shia consider Ali to have been divinely appointed as the successor to Muhammad, and as the first Imam. The word Shia means follower and is the form of the historic phrase shīʻatu ʻAlī, meaning followers of Ali, faction of Ali. Shia and Shiism are forms used in English, while Shiite or Shiite, as well as Shia, the term for the first time was used at the time of Muhammad. At present, the word refers to the Muslims who believe that the leadership of the community after Muhammad belongs to Ali, nawbakhti states that the term Shia refers to a group of Muslims that at the time of Muhammad and after him regarded Ali as the Imam and Caliph. Al-Shahrastani expresses that the term Shia refers to those who believe that Ali is designated as the Heir, Imam and caliph by Muhammad, for the Shia, this conviction is implicit in the Quran and history of Islam. And Allah is Hearing and Knowing, Shia search for the true meaning of the revelation to get the purpose of the life blood and the human destiny. Shia Muslims believe that just as a prophet is appointed by God alone and they believe God chose Ali to be Muhammads successor, infallible, the first caliph of Islam. The Shias believe that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor by Gods command, Ali was Muhammads first cousin and closest living male relative as well as his son-in-law, having married Muhammads daughter Fatimah. Ali would eventually become the fourth Muslim caliph, after the Farewell Pilgrimage, Muhammad ordered the gathering of Muslims at the pond of Khumm and it was there that Shia Muslims believe Muhammad nominated Ali to be his successor. The hadith of the pond of Khumm was narrated on 18th of Dhu al-Hijjah of 10 AH in the Islamic calendar at a place called Ghadir Khumm, located near the city of al-Juhfah, Saudi Arabia. Muhammad there stated, Shia Muslims believe this to be Muhammads appointment of Ali as his successor, when Muhammad died in 632 CE, Ali and Muhammads closest relatives made the funeral arrangements. While they were preparing his body, Abu Bakr, Umar, Ali and his family accepted the appointment for the sake of unity in the early Muslim community. Alis rule over the early Muslim community was often contested, as a result, he had to struggle to maintain his power against the groups who betrayed him after giving allegiance to his succession, or those who wished to take his position. This dispute eventually led to the First Fitna, which was the first major civil war within the Islamic Caliphate, the Fitna began as a series of revolts fought against Ali ibn Abi Talib, caused by the assassination of his political predecessor, Uthman ibn Affan
16.
Islam
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Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion which professes that there is only one and incomparable God and that Muhammad is the last messenger of God. It is the worlds second-largest religion and the major religion in the world, with over 1.7 billion followers or 23% of the global population. Islam teaches that God is merciful, all-powerful, and unique, and He has guided mankind through revealed scriptures, natural signs, and a line of prophets sealed by Muhammad. The primary scriptures of Islam are the Quran, viewed by Muslims as the word of God. Muslims believe that Islam is the original, complete and universal version of a faith that was revealed many times before through prophets including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses. As for the Quran, Muslims consider it to be the unaltered, certain religious rites and customs are observed by the Muslims in their family and social life, while social responsibilities to parents, relatives, and neighbors have also been defined. Besides, the Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, Islam began in the early 7th century. Originating in Mecca, it spread in the Arabian Peninsula. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various caliphates and empires, traders, most Muslims are of one of two denominations, Sunni or Shia. Islam is the dominant religion in the Middle East, North Africa, sizable Muslim communities are also found in Horn of Africa, Europe, China, Russia, Mainland Southeast Asia, Philippines, Northern Borneo, Caucasus and the Americas. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world, Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness and peace. In a religious context it means voluntary submission to God, Islām is the verbal noun of Form IV of the root, and means submission or surrender. Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the verb form. The word sometimes has connotations in its various occurrences in the Quran. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as a state, Whomsoever God desires to guide. Other verses connect Islām and dīn, Today, I have perfected your religion for you, I have completed My blessing upon you, still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith. In the Hadith of Gabriel, islām is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān, Islam was historically called Muhammadanism in Anglophone societies. This term has fallen out of use and is said to be offensive because it suggests that a human being rather than God is central to Muslims religion
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Fatima Masumeh Shrine
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The shrine of Fatema Mæsume is located in Qom which is considered by Shia Muslims to be the second most sacred city in Iran after Mashhad. Fatima Masumeh was the sister of the eighth Imam Ali al-Rida, in Shia Islam, women are often revered as saints if they are close relatives to one of the Twelver Imams. Fatima Masumeh is therefore honored as a saint, and her shrine in Qom is considered one of the most significant Shii shrines in Iran, every year, thousands of Shii Muslims travel to Qom to honor Fatima Masumeh and ask her for blessings. For more information on the history of Fatima Masumeh, see Fatima bint Musa, also buried within the shrine are three daughters of the ninth, Twelver Shī‘ah Imām, Muhammad at-Taqī. The mosque consists of a chamber, three courtyards and three large prayer halls, totalling an area of 38,000 m2. The three prayer halls are named, Tabātabāī, Bālā Sar, and A‘dham, though Shii theology formally states that the relatives of the Imams, or imamzadehs, hold a lower status than the Imams, popular Shiism still strongly venerates imamzadehs. In Iran, there are many burial places of the Imams relatives than there are for the Imams themselves. Imamzadehs are considered to be close to God and religiously pious because of their relation to Imams. Shiis commonly travel on pilgrimages to shrines of imamzadehs, such as the Shrine of Fatima Masumeh, men and women seek cures to ailments, solutions to problems, and forgiveness of sins at these sites. Fatima Masumehs Shrine in Qom is crowded every day of the year with Shii men, women, some stay for hours or days praying at the mosque and circumambulating her tomb. The economy of Qom has become reliant on pilgrimage for the tourism it brings. In turn, Qom has remained conservative and traditional to maintain an environment for pilgrims. Many miracles have been recorded as taking place at this shrine, some are published in the shrines monthly newspaper, the Payam-e Astan. Pilgrims at the Shrine of Fatima Masumeh follow rituals that have passed down for centuries. Imam Ali al-Rida, Fatima Masumehs brother, outlined these ritual acts as he described the way he visited her Shrine, the prayer Imam al-Rida dictated to his sister continues to be part of the pilgrimage. Since the beginning of Qoms history in the 7th century, the city has been associated with Shiism, many Shii hadiths referred to Qom as a place of refuge for believers, calling it a deeply religious place. After Fatima Masumehs death in Qom and the construction of her Shrine, scholars began to gather in Qom, today, Qom is still noted for its religious seminaries and organizations. Fatima Masumeh died in Qom in 201 A. H. as she travelled to join her brother, the caravan she travelled in was attacked in Saveh by enemies to the Shiis, and 23 of Fatima Masumehs family and friends were killed
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Fatimah bint Musa
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Every year, thousands of Shii Muslims travel to Qom to honor Fatima Masumeh at her shrine. Despite having been infallible, Fatima Masumeh is not considered one of the 14 most holy figures in Shia Islam, yet, her brother Imam Ali al-Ridha gave her the title Masumeh, which means infallible or sinless. In Shiism, women either become saints by their own accord or because they are the sisters, daughters, Fatima Masumeh became a saint because of her closeness to her brother Imam Ali al-Rida and her father Imam Musa al-Kadhim. However, Fatima Masumeh also has her own reputation of holiness and she is said to have been learned in various Islamic sciences and the teachings of Muhammad, and to have transmitted many hadiths from her family members. Fatima Masumeh is honored in many hadiths, or teachings, from Shii Imams that proclaim the benevolence of visiting her shrine in Qom and her brother Imam Ali al-Rida stated that visiting the shrine of Fatima Masumeh is equal to visiting him, demonstrating his honor of his sister. Other Imams declare that anyone who visits Fatima Masumehs shrine will surely go to heaven, more miracles are reported to occur at her shrine in Qom than at the burial place of any other prophet or imam. It is written that even before she was born, Shii Imams foretold Fatima Masumehs holiness, Fatima was born into Shii legacy, raised under the care of two Imams - her father and her brother - and she is said to have absorbed their knowledge and holiness. Fatima Masumeh was born in Medina in 173 AH and spent the first six years of her life learning alongside her father, scholars have written that she had a special giftedness of knowledge and spiritual awareness, even in childhood. When she was ten years old, Harun al-Rashid, the 5th caliph of the Abbasid Caliphate sent her father to prison and this separation was very difficult for Fatima, but her brother Ali was 25 years her senior and took care of her. Ali and Fatima are among Imam Musa al-Kadhims 37 children, and their mother was a former slave from North Africa who became very learned in Islamic teachings under the guidance of Imam Musa al-Kadims mother, Lady Hamidah. Ali would later become the 8th Imam and gain the title Imam Ali al-Rida, the historian al-Tabari states that Al-Rida means The One Well-pleasing from the House of Muhammad. He was appointed successor to the Abassid Caliph al-Mamun, though he was hesitant in accepting this role, as Ali al-Rida gained the title of Crowned Prince, some people refused to accept his role amidst civil war. In 200 AH, al-Mamun called for Ali al-Rida to leave for Khorasan, after one difficult year apart from her brother, Fatima Masumeh decided to leave to join him. In 201 AH she set off in a caravan of 23 family and friends of the Imam Ali al-Rida, unfortunately, the caravans never made it to Khorasan and Fatima Masumeh never reached her brother. They were attacked by enemies of the Shiis while at Saveh, some fled, Fatima Masumeh survived, but was forced to watch the murders of 23 close family members and friends. It is written that Fatima Masumeh was then poisoned by a woman from the enemies, Fatima became ill and asked to be taken to Qom, where she died and was buried in her hosts land. Holiest sites in Islam Zohreh Sadeghi, Fāṭima von Qum, Ein Beispiel für die Verehrung heiliger Frauen im Volksglauben der Zwölfer-Schia, K. Schwarz Verlag, Berlin 1996, ISBN 978-3-87997255-5
19.
Ali al-Ridha
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He was an Imam of knowledge according to the Zaydi Shia school and Sufis. He lived in a period when Abbasid caliphs were facing numerous difficulties, the Caliph Al-Mamun sought out a remedy for this problem by appointing Al-Ridha as his successor, through whom he could be involved in worldly affairs. However, according to the Shia view, when Al-Mamun saw that the Imam gained even more popularity, the Imam was buried in a village in Khorasan, which afterwards gained the name Mashhad, meaning the place of martyrdom. On the eleventh of Dhu al-Qidah,148 AH, a son was born in the house of Imam Musa al-Kadhim in Medina. He was named Ali and titled al-Ridha, however in the Shia sources he is commonly called Abu’l-Ḥasan al-Ṯānī so as not to be confused with his father and his father was known as Abu’l-Ḥasan al-Awwal. He was born one month after the death of his grandfather, Jafar as-Sādiq and his mother, Najmah, was also a distinguished and pious lady. She was purchased and freed by Bibi Hamidah Khatun, the wife of Imam Jafar al-Sadiq, disputes exist regarding the number of his offspring and their names. A group of say that they were five sons and one daughter, and that they were, Muhammad al- Qani, al-Hasan, Ja’far, Ibrahim, al-Husayn. Sabt ibn al-Jawzi, in his work Tadhkiratul-Khawass, says that the sons were only four and he described among Shia Narrations as the second abul hasan in contrary of first Abul Hasan who was his father Imam Musa Kazim. As such, Makhzumi says that one day Musa al-Kadhim summoned and gathered us and entitled him as his executor and successor. Yazid ibn Salit has also related a similar narration from the seventh Imam when he met him on his way to Mecca, Ali, whose name is the same as the First and the forth Imam, is the Imam after me. Ali al-Ridha was not looked upon favorably by Hārūn Rashīd, after the death of Harun al-Rashid in 809, Haruns two sons began fighting for control of the Abbasid Empire. One son, Al-Amin, had an Arab mother and thus had the support of Arabs, while his half-brother Al-Mamun had a Persian mother, after defeating his brother, al-Mamun faced many insurrections from the followers of the Prophets family in many areas. Thirdly, he intended it to fool other Shias into believing that his government was not so bad after all, and fourthly, he wanted to keep a close watch over the Imam of the Shias himself, so that nothing could happen without al-Mamuns knowledge. Word spread quickly among al-Mamuns circles that al-Mamun was not sincere in his offer to make Ali ibn Musa al-Ridha the Crown Prince, Al-Mamun also became paranoid and thought that al-Ridha would see through it as well, and so would his Shias. In order to quiet the doubts of the people, al-Mamun first offered al-Ridha the caliphate itself, if the caliphate does not belong to you, then it is not permissible for you to give me that which does not belong to you. Al-Mamun kept trying to make his offer seem sincere and kept re-offering the caliphate, if you do not accept the position of Crown Prince in my government, I will follow through on the same threat. Al-Ridha said he would accept, under the condition that none of the affairs of government would be his and he would neither appoint anyone, nor dismiss
20.
Sohan (confectionery)
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Sohan is a traditional Persian saffron brittle toffee. Its ingredients consist of wheat sprout, flour, egg yolks, rose water, sugar, butter or vegetable oil, saffron, cardamom, Sohan papdi Shekarpareh Sohan Halwa Sohan Asali Ramazani, Nesta. Persian Cooking, A Table Of Exotic Delights
21.
Petroleum
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Petroleum is a naturally occurring, yellow-to-black liquid found in geological formations beneath the Earths surface, which is commonly refined into various types of fuels. Components of petroleum are separated using a technique called fractional distillation and it consists of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other organic compounds. The name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oil and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil. A fossil fuel, petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms, usually zooplankton and algae, are buried underneath sedimentary rock, Petroleum has mostly been recovered by oil drilling. Drilling is carried out studies of structural geology, sedimentary basin analysis. Petroleum is used in manufacturing a variety of materials. Concern over the depletion of the earths finite reserves of oil, the burning of fossil fuels plays the major role in the current episode of global warming. The word petroleum comes from Greek, πέτρα for rocks and Greek, the term was found in 10th-century Old English sources. It was used in the treatise De Natura Fossilium, published in 1546 by the German mineralogist Georg Bauer, Petroleum, in one form or another, has been used since ancient times, and is now important across society, including in economy, politics and technology. Great quantities of it were found on the banks of the river Issus, ancient Persian tablets indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper levels of their society. By 347 AD, oil was produced from bamboo-drilled wells in China, early British explorers to Myanmar documented a flourishing oil extraction industry based in Yenangyaung that, in 1795, had hundreds of hand-dug wells under production. The mythological origins of the oil fields at Yenangyaung, and its hereditary monopoly control by 24 families, Pechelbronn is said to be the first European site where petroleum has been explored and used. The still active Erdpechquelle, a spring where petroleum appears mixed with water has been used since 1498, Oil sands have been mined since the 18th century. In Wietze in lower Saxony, natural asphalt/bitumen has been explored since the 18th century, both in Pechelbronn as in Wietze, the coal industry dominated the petroleum technologies. In 1848 Young set up a small business refining the crude oil, Young eventually succeeded, by distilling cannel coal at a low heat, in creating a fluid resembling petroleum, which when treated in the same way as the seep oil gave similar products. The production of oils and solid paraffin wax from coal formed the subject of his patent dated 17 October 1850. In 1850 Young & Meldrum and Edward William Binney entered into partnership under the title of E. W. Binney & Co. at Bathgate in West Lothian, the worlds first oil refinery was built in 1856 by Ignacy Łukasiewicz. The demand for petroleum as a fuel for lighting in North America, edwin Drakes 1859 well near Titusville, Pennsylvania, is popularly considered the first modern well
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Natural gas
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It is formed when layers of decomposing plant and animal matter are exposed to intense heat and pressure under the surface of the Earth over millions of years. The energy that the plants originally obtained from the sun is stored in the form of bonds in the gas. Natural gas is a fuel used as a source of energy for heating, cooking. It is also used as fuel for vehicles and as a feedstock in the manufacture of plastics. Natural gas is found in underground rock formations or associated with other hydrocarbon reservoirs in coal beds. Petroleum is another resource and fossil fuel found in proximity to. Most natural gas was created over time by two mechanisms, biogenic and thermogenic, biogenic gas is created by methanogenic organisms in marshes, bogs, landfills, and shallow sediments. Deeper in the earth, at temperature and pressure, thermogenic gas is created from buried organic material. In petroleum production gas is burnt as flare gas. The World Bank estimates that over 150 cubic kilometers of gas are flared or vented annually. Before natural gas can be used as a fuel, most, Natural gas is often informally referred to simply as gas, especially when compared to other energy sources such as oil or coal. However, it is not to be confused with gasoline, especially in North America, Natural gas was used by the Chinese in about 500 BCE. They discovered a way to transport gas seeping from the ground in crude pipelines of bamboo to where it was used to salt water to extract the salt. The worlds first industrial extraction of gas started at Fredonia, New York. By 2009,66000 km³ had been used out of the total 850000 km³ of estimated remaining reserves of natural gas. An annual increase in usage of 2–3% could result in currently recoverable reserves lasting significantly less, unwanted natural gas was a disposal problem in the active oil fields. If there was not a market for natural gas near the wellhead it was expensive to pipe to the end user. In the 19th century and early 20th century, unwanted gas was burned off at oil fields
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Bandar-e Anzali
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Bandar-e Anzali is a city in Guilan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 109,687, Bandar-e Anzali is a harbour town on the Caspian Sea, close to Rasht. Bandar-e Anzali is one of the most important seaports in the north of Iran and it consists of an island called Mianposhteh and the surrounding lands. Tourist attractions include a tower called Manareh, the long harbour promenade. Bandar-e Anzali is the port where the Polish Anders Army disembarked, in an operation that lasted from April 1 until October,1942, the Polish Cemetery in the city was created the same year. This word In Pahlavi language means Anzalag and the variant Persian form of it is Anzalazh, Anzali Gulf was a safe harbour for trade ships and fishing boats. It was renamed to Pahlavi in 1935, in 1919, with the collapse of General Anton Denikins White Russian army, eighteen of his ships sought refuge in Anzali. On 18 May 1920, a Soviet flotilla of thirteen ships launched an attack on Anzali, capturing the British garrison. This allowed for the establishment of the short-lived Persian Socialist Republic, Soviet authorities denied responsibility for the attack, blaming the local Russian naval commander for attacking under his own authority. Its wonderful lagoon, Customs and City Hall edifice, Mian Poshte Palace, until 1980, when it was moved to Noshahr, Anzali was the site of the Caspian University of Naval Science. The structure Of Naser-al-din Shah Place which was built by Moayer-ol-mamalekk and its famous Sangi Bath was destroyed by people, a wonder of Sangi Bath was the system of heating and durability water in its basins. Some groups think that Motamedi edifice had been changed, it is now its police office and this Ghajar Structure built in two floors with the help of Mirza Abd-ol-Vahab. The Anzali Lagoon divides the Anzali Port in two parts, the town is connected by two bridges to the Beheshti Island. There is a processing factory in Bandar-e Anzali, some old ruins from 19th century. Tourbebar is a village about 40 kilometers from Bandar-e Anzali, near the Anzali Lagoon and it remains classified as a humid subtropical climate. The warm and humid weather has allowed this region to grow such as rice and tea that require very large amounts of moisture. Bandar-e Anzali is a center of caviar production, the preparation and marketing of which is a state monopoly, handled through The Iranian Fishing Company under the control of the Finance Ministry. The Iranian sports club Malavan is from Bandar-e Anzali, The football/soccer club Malavan currently plays in the Iran Pro League, the people of Anzali speak Gileki as the maternal language and Persian as the national language
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Abadan, Iran
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Abadan is a city in and the capital of Abadan County, Khuzestan Province which is located in central west of Iran. The earliest mention of the island of Abadan, if not the port itself is found in works of the geographer Marcian, earlier, the classical geographer, Ptolemy notes Apphana as an island off the mouth of the Tigris. An etymology for this name is presented by B, farahvashi to be derived from the Persian word ab and the root pā thus coastguard station). In the subsequent centuries, the Persian version of the name had begun to come into use before it was adopted by official decree in 1935. The civilian population of the city dropped close to zero during the eight years of the Iran–Iraq War, the 1986 census recorded only 6 people. In 1991,84,774 had returned to live in the city, by 2001, the population had jumped to 206,073, and it was 217,988, in 48,061 families, according to 2006 census. Abadan Refinery is one of the largest in the world. The population today has reached almost 350,000 people, only 9% of managers were from Khuzestan. There is also a single Armenian church in the centre of the city, Abadan is thought to have been further developed into a major port city under the Abbasids rule. In this time period, it was a source of salt. The siltation of the river forced the town further away from water, In the 14th century, however. Politically, Abadan was often the subject of dispute between the states, in 1847, Persia acquired it from Turkey, in which state Abadan has remained since. From the 17th century onward, the island of Abadan was part of the lands of the Arab Kaab tribe, one section of this tribe, Mohaysen, had its headquarters at Mohammara, until the removal of Shaikh Khazal Khan in 1924. It was not until the 20th century that rich oil fields were discovered in the area, on 16 July 1909, after secret negotiation with the British consul, Percy Cox, assisted by Arnold Wilson, Sheik Khazal agreed to a rental agreement for the island including Abadan. The Sheik continued to administer the island until 1924, the Anglo-Persian Oil Company built their first pipeline terminus oil refinery in Abadan, starting in 1909 and completing it in 1912, with oil flowing by August 1912. Refinery throughput numbers rose from 33,000 tons in 1912-1913 to 4,338,000 tons in 1931, by 1938, it was the largest in the world. During World War II, Abadan was the site of combat between Iranian forces and British and Indian troops during the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran. Later, Abadan was a logistics centre for Lend-Lease aircraft being sent to the Soviet Union by the United States. In 1951, Iran nationalized all oil properties and refining ground to a stop on the island, rioting broke out in Abadan, after the government had decided to nationalize the oil facilities, and three British workers were killed
25.
Persian Gulf
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The Persian Gulf is a mediterranean sea in Western Asia. The body of water is an extension of the Indian Ocean through the Strait of Hormuz, the Shatt al-Arab river delta forms the northwest shoreline. The Persian Gulf was a battlefield of the 1980–1988 Iran–Iraq War and it is the namesake of the 1991 Gulf War, the largely air- and land-based conflict that followed Iraqs invasion of Kuwait. The gulf has many fishing grounds, extensive coral reefs, and abundant pearl oysters, the body of water is historically and internationally known as the Persian Gulf. Some Arab governments refer to it as the Arabian Gulf or The Gulf, the name Gulf of Iran is used by the International Hydrographic Organization. The Persian Gulf is geologically young, having been formed around 15,000 years ago. Its length is 989 kilometres, with Iran covering most of the northern coast, the Persian Gulf is about 56 km wide at its narrowest, in the Strait of Hormuz. The waters are very shallow, with a maximum depth of 90 metres. Various small islands lie within the Persian Gulf, some of which are the subject of territorial disputes between the states of the region. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the Persian Gulfs southern limit as The Northwestern limit of Gulf of Oman and this limit is defined as A line joining Ràs Limah on the coast of Arabia and Ràs al Kuh on the coast of Iran. The Persian Gulf and its areas are the worlds largest single source of crude oil. Safaniya Oil Field, the worlds largest offshore oilfield, is located in the Persian Gulf, large gas finds have also been made, with Qatar and Iran sharing a giant field across the territorial median line. Using this gas, Qatar has built up a substantial liquefied natural gas, the oil-rich countries that have a coastline on the Persian Gulf are referred to as the Persian Gulf States. In 550 BC, the Achaemenid Empire established the first ancient empire in Persis, consequently, in the Greek sources, the body of water that bordered this province came to be known as the Persian Gulf. In the travel account of Pythagoras, several chapters are related to description of his travels accompanied by the Achaemenid king Darius the Great, to Susa and Persepolis, and the area is described. This water channel separates the Iran Plateau from the Arabia Plate, has enjoyed an Iranian Identity since at least 2200 years ago. Before being given its present name, the Persian Gulf was called many different names, the classical Greek writers, like Herodotus, called it the Red Sea. In Babylonian texts, it was known as the sea above Akkad, the name of the gulf, historically and internationally known as the Persian Gulf after the land of Persia, has been disputed by some Arab countries since the 1960s
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Oil
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An oil is any neutral, nonpolar chemical substance that is a viscous liquid at ambient temperatures and is both hydrophobic and lipophilic. Oils have a carbon and hydrogen content and are usually flammable. The general definition of oil includes classes of compounds that may be otherwise unrelated in structure, properties. Oils may be animal, vegetable, or petrochemical in origin and they are used for food, fuel, medical purposes, lubrication, and the manufacture of many types of paints, plastics, and other materials. Specially prepared oils are used in religious ceremonies and rituals as purifying agents. First attested in English 1176, the oil comes from Old French oile, from Latin oleum, which in turn comes from the Greek ἔλαιον, olive oil, oil. The earliest attested forms of the word are the Mycenaean Greek
27.
Marja'
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After the Quran and the prophets and imams, marājiʿ are the highest authority on religious laws in Usuli Shia Islam. Currently, marājiʿ are accorded the title Grand Ayatollah, however when referring to one, previously, the titles of Allamah and Imam have also been used. Shiite authorities in the history of Shiism have an important role in the religious, one example is the fatwa of Mirza Mohammed Hassan Husseini Shirazi imposing sanctions on the use of tobacco during Qajar rule, which led to the abolition of the tobacco concession. The risālah contains an ayatollahs fatwas on different topics, according to his knowledge of the most authentic Islamic sources, traditionally only the most renowned ayatollahs of the given time published a risālah. Today, however, many ayatollahs of varying degrees of illustriousness have published one, where a difference in opinion exists between the marājiʿ, each of them provides their own opinion and the Muqallid will follow his/her own marjaʿs opinion on that subject. Several senior Grand Ayatollahs preside over hawzas, religious seminaries, the hawzas of Qom and Najaf are the preeminent seminary centers for the training of Shia clergymen. However, there are other smaller hawzas in other cities around the world, such as Karbala in Iraq, there are 64 living Maraji worldwide as of 2014, mainly living in Najaf and Qom. Ijtihad Hawza Risalah Society of Seminary Teachers of Qom List of Ayatollahs List of Maraji Slate Magazines So you want to be an Ayatollah, explaining how Shiite clerics earn the title
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Jamkaran
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Jamkaran is a village in Qanavat Rural District, in the Central District of Qom County, Qom Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 8,368, Jamkaran is located on the outskirts of Qom, and is the site of the Jamkaran Mosque, a popular pilgrimage site for Shiite Muslims. Local belief has it that Muhammad al-Mahdi—the Twelfth Imam, a messiah figure Shia believe will lead the world to an era of universal peace — once appeared and offered prayers at Jamkaran. On Tuesday evenings large crowds of thousands gather at Jamkaran to pray and to drop a note to the Imam in a well at the site, asking for help with some problem. Belief in Jamkarani has been compared to that of Catholics who believe that the Virgin Mary appeared to three children in Fatima, Portugal in 1917. Sometime in decade of 1995-2005 the mosques reputation spread, and many pilgrims, particularly young people, began to come to it. In the rear of the mosque there is a well of requests where it is believed the Twelfth Imam once became miraculously unhidden for a shining moment of loving communion with his Creator. Pilgrims tie small strings in a knot around the grids covering the holy well, every morning custodians cut off the strings from the previous day. Tuesday is especially popular as it is said to be the day the vision appeared and therefore the day of the week that, although invisible, more than a hundred thousand pilgrims sometimes pray outside the overflowing mosque for Maghrib prayer. In keeping with separation of the sexes, women are separated from men in their own special cordoned-off area, also on Tuesdays, the mosque kitchen provides a free evening meal to thousands of poor people. There is a significant body of Shia writing arguing that the Imam Mahdi is hidden, in recent years, overseers of the Jamkaran compound have become sensitive to its foreign images and have restricted foreign press from the main mosque and well. Twelfth Imam Mahdi#Shia and Mahdi Qom Sydney Morning Herald, May 15,2006, Iranian president backs messianic cult English
29.
Kashan
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Kashan is a city of Isfahan, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 248,789, between the 12th and the 14th centuries Kashan was an important centre for the production of high quality pottery and tiles. In modern Persian, the word for a tile comes from the name of the town, Kashan is divided into two parts, mountainous and desert. In the east side of the city Kashan opens up to the desert of Iran which the city is famous for. Kashan is also known for Maranjab Desert and Caravanserai located near the namak lake, today Maranjab and the surrounding Shifting Sands is a popular destination at the weekends. On August 9,2007 Iran placed the Historical Axis of Fin, Sialk, hence, Kashan dates back to the Elamite period of Iran. The Sialk ziggurat still stands today in the suburbs of Kashan after 7,000 years, the artifacts uncovered at Sialk reside in the Louvre in Paris and the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art, and Irans National Museum. By some accounts, although not all, Kashan was the origin of the three men who followed the star that guided them to Bethlehem to witness the nativity of Jesus. Whatever the historical validity of this story, the attribution of Kashan as their original home testifies to the citys prestige at the time the story was set down and his tomb is one of Kashans conspicuous landmarks. Sultan Malik Shah I of the Seljuk dynasty ordered the building of a fortress in the middle of Kashan in the 11th century, the fortress walls, called Ghaleh Jalali still stand today in central Kashan. Kashan was also a vacation spot for Safavi Kings. Bagh-e Fin, specifically, is one of the most famous gardens of Iran and this beautiful garden with its pool and orchards was designed for Shah Abbas I as a classical Persian vision of paradise. The original Safavid buildings have been replaced and rebuilt by the Qajar dynasty although the layout of trees. The garden itself however, was first founded 7000 years ago alongside the Cheshmeh-ye-Soleiman, the garden is also notorious as the site of the murder of Mirza Taghi Khan known as Amir Kabir, chancellor of Nasser-al-Din Shah, Irans king in 1852. The earthquake of 1778 leveled the city of Kashan and all the edifices of Shah Abbas Safavi, but the city started afresh and has today become a focal tourist attraction via the numerous large houses from the 18th and 19th centuries, illustrating the finest examples of Qajari aesthetics. Notable towns around Kashan are Qamsar and Abyaneh, which attract tourists all year around, the nearby town of Niasar features a man-made cave and fireplace of historical interest. Kashan is internationally famous for manufacturing carpets, silk and other textiles, today, Kashan houses most of Irans mechanized carpet-weaving factories, and has an active marble and copper mining industry. Kashan and suburbs have a population of 400,000, there are more than 10,000 students currently studying in various fields at universities of kashan
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Delijan
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Delijan is a city in and the capital of Delijan County, Markazi Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 31,852, Delijan is located 80 km from Qom and 160 km from Isfahan. The native population of Delijan speaks a dialect they call Delijani, sites of interest include the 15th Khordad dam and Chal Nakhjir cave as well as its hot spring resort. Delijan is a town and is home to several popular carpet companies like the Mahestan, Setareh Talaii. Also home of companies producing a type of roof isolation called Isogam. The area North-East of Delijan is populated by seven villages. Moreover, Chal-nakhjir Cave or Delijan Cave is one of the natural attractions of Delijan
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Mahallat
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Mahallat is the capital of Mahallat County, Markazi Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, the city had population of 35, in ancient times it was an important location for Zoroastrianism. It has a climate, and strong winds during spring. The city is one of the producers and exporters of flowers in Iran. Every September the city holds a flower festival, in addition, the area surrounding the city is rich with travertine deposits, which are refined into tiles in nearby factories. There are remains of Hellenistic architecture from Alexander the Greats time in Mahallat as well as fire temple ruins dated from the Zoroastrianism era. The city is famous for a warm water spring flowing from mountains in the North into the plain areas of the South. There are also hot springs not far from the city which have been a source of tourism since ancient times due to its assumed medical benefits. The dialect spoken in Mahallat is a version of a branch of dialects spoken in central Iran with several words having a noticeable connection to old Persian. Mahallat was formerly divided into three major parts, the northern part was Mahallat-e Bala, the area of the Sadat-e Mahallat, the families descending from the prophet Mohammad. In the middle Mahallat-e Ghaleh, originally a vast open space with fields, the family was later known as Amiri, Amirkhani, Elahi, Nassei, Norouz nasseri and Khosrovani. The southern part was named Mahallat-e Pain and this was where the Aga Khan built his huge castle, the first Iranian to become a US citizen, Hajj Sayyah Mahallati and Aga Khan II, a religious leader were born in Mahallat. 1911 Encyclopedia Mahallat News History of Mahallat
32.
Jasb Rural District
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Jasb Rural District is a rural district in the Central District of Delijan County, Markazi Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 1,373, the rural district has 7 villages. It is located 15 km NE of Delijan, in Iran, the history of Jasb can be traced back to the Sassanid era. Gradually as the visits from the cavalry became more frequent it was decided that nine shelters would be built in the valley so that the herders of the horses could stay overnight at various places. Eventually these nine shelters became permanently inhabited by the herders and their families, as time passed and only seven villages remained which they do until this day. Usually the houses would be uphill from the river and the fields grown on the terraces downhill towards the river. These villages are all located at the bottom of the Jasb valley, the villages in Jasb are traditional Iranian rural farming villages. The farms are irrigated through a system of open aqueducts which are fed by waters of the nearby Qanats, the waters of the qanats are used during summer and spring when farming is at its most active. Persian Carpet making is next in importance to farming and throughout the years there have been hundreds of carpets made by the local women population. Unknown to the generations, during the hard, cold winters. He was six feet five inches in height, a little stooped in the shoulders, his feet and hands large, generally, he was a kind, loyal man, and his countenance indicated it. His face was radiant and glowing, and almost gave expression to his thoughts before his tongue would utter them and he was a just listener, and had the faculty of making himself clearly understood. The main population center is located at Kerogan, which is the largest of the seven villages, the overall majority of the population of Jasb follow the Shia Muslim religion but in the past there were many followers of the Bahai Faith. At one point during the 1950s more than half of the population in Kerogan were Bahais, the other village which had a few Bahai families is Vesquneqan. During the month of Ramadan in 1955, Sheikh Mohammad Taqi Falsafi, after receiving permission from the Shah to state anti-Baháí rhetoric in his sermons, he encouraged other clergy to discuss the Baháí issue in their sermons
33.
Tafresh
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Tafresh is a city in Markazi Province, Iran. At the 2011 census, its population was 25,912, the city of Tafresh is located in the Markazi province of Iran. The flight distance between Tehran and Tafresh is 170 km towards southwest, if you imagine the three cities of Qom, Saveh, and Arak as the three vertices of a triangle, Tafresh would be the centroid of that triangle. The average altitude of Tafresh is 1912 meters above sea level with latitude and longitude coordinates equal to 34° 41&39, 35N and 50° 0&39, 58E, the climate of Tafresh is continental and semi-arid with an annual rainfall of 270 mm. The population of Tafresh is about Seventeen thousand which increases up to twenty five thousand by considering the students, behind every alley of Tafresh lies memories scientists, artists, and scholars brought up and trained in Tafresh who are all world class experts and professionals. Abolghasem Bahrami father of Iran’s microbiology, and Dr. Ardeshir Ghavamzadeh who is a world class researcher on Oncology, all this proves adequate for Tafresh to be called the city of famous fathers of science. Celebrities and dignitaries brought up in Tafresh, have created a pattern on the body of knowledge. This city has the honor of hosting the holy shrines of Imam’s most of them require compulsory bow, the holy shrine of Imamzadeh Mohammad the ancestor of our supreme leader is located in Tafresh. Today this city has preserved its position in science and literature by its universities, Tafresh is one of the oldest regions of the Marakzi province, named as Tabres in historical notes. To this date, fifty historical monuments of Tafresh have been listed as national heritage, Tafresh is located amidst high mountains 222 kilometres southwest of Tehran. Tafresh is an old city and formed a Zoroastrian stronghold for many years, Tafresh has provided Iran with many notable figures such as poets, ministers, statesmen, scientists, calligraphers etc. Among them are Nizami Ganjavi, the greatest romantic epic poet in Persian literature, some scholars believe that his ancestry from his father-side was in Tafresh. Many famous Iranians were from Tafresh, Because of this, Tafresh has received the nickname City of Irans Fathers. It is believed that in Sasanian times, Zoroastrianism was the religion and was threatened by Islam. One of the villages in Tafresh was called Delaram after this warrior, however after Islamic conquest of Persia. Teraran means The Thieves in Middle Persian, three universities are situated in Tafresh, Tafresh University, Tafresh Azad University and the Tafresh branch of the Payame Noor University. Tafresh is made of many villages which are, Teraran, Kaburan, Kahak, Naqusan, Tad, Denigerd, Zaghar, Koukan, Dadmarz, Kouhin, Shahrab, Kohandan, Bazerjan, Ezedin, Sarabadan, Kherazan, Khanak, Ghaleh. Although many people live in Tafresh, its numbers are decreasing as many leave Tafresh to go to Tehran or other cities of Iran
34.
Saveh
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Sāveh is a city in the Markazi Province of Iran. It is located about 100 km southwest of Tehran, as of 2011, the city had a population of 259,030 people. In the 7th century BC it was a stronghold of the Medes, during the Parthian rule of Persia, it was called Saavakineh, and was one of the main hubs of the empire. In the Middle Ages, it was a residence of the Dailamites and it was severely damaged by the Mongol invasion in the 13th century, it was restored during the Ilkhanids. Saveh was again sacked by the Timurids, but later grew under the Safavids and it eventually lost much of its importance when Tehran became the official capital of Persia and, in the mid-19th century, many of the inhabitants moved to Tehran. Saveh has a cold climate in Köppen-Geiger classification system. Its summers are hot and dry, while its winters are mild. Jameh Mosque of Saveh, built by the Seljuks during the 11th century and it includes a courtyard, porch, a 14 m tall minaret, nocturnal areas, a tiled dome and two altars with inscription in Kufic script. Red Mosque of Saveh, also known as Enqelab Mosque, dating to the Seljuk-era, it has a brickwork dome, an 11th-century minaret, three porticoes, and internally houses an altar with plasterwork and inscriptions. Saveh produces large amounts of wheat and cotton and it is also well known for its pomegranates and melons. Kaveh Industrial City, the largest industrial city in Iran, is located in Saveh, according to Iranian tradition, the Magi who visited the infant Jesus traveled from Saveh, and are buried among its ruins. Marco Polo described the tombs of the Magi in his book, Il Milione, In Persia is the city of Saba. And in this city they are buried, in three large and beautiful monuments, side by side. And above them there is a building, beautifully kept. The bodies are still entire, with hair and beard remaining, Saveh is said to have possessed one of the greatest libraries in the Middle East, until its destruction by the Mongols during their first invasion of Iran. Another legend about Saveh is the Lake of Saveh and it is a lake which is said to have been located near the city. According to the mentioned in historical Persian texts, this lake dried out on the night of the birth of Muhammad. A recent investigation in the Zarand area between Tehran and Saveh has revealed evidence of the existence of this lake in Zarand Plain
35.
Subtropical ridge
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It is the product of the global air circulation cell known as the Hadley Cell. The air descending from the upper troposphere flows out from its center at surface level toward the upper and lower latitudes of each hemisphere, the subtropical ridge moves poleward during the summer, reaching its most northern latitude in early fall, before moving equatorward during the cold season. The change of the position during ENSO cycles changes the tracks of tropical cyclones that form around their equatorward. As the subtropical ridge varies in position and strength, it can enhance or depress monsoon regimes around their low-latitude periphery, the term horse latitudes refers to and is synonymous with the subtropical ridge or subtropical high. Heating of the earth near the equator leads to large amounts of convection along the trough or Intertropical convergence zone. This air mass rise to the stratosphere where it diverges. As it moves towards the mid-latitudes on both sides of the equator, the air cools and sinks, the resulting air mass subsidence creates a subtropical ridge of high pressure near the 30th parallel in both hemispheres. At the surface level, the sinking air diverges again with some returning to the equator and this circulation on each side of the equator is known as the Hadley cell and leads to the formation of the subtropical ridge. Many of the deserts are caused by these climatological high-pressure areas. The subtropical ridge starts migrating poleward in late spring reaching its zenith in early autumn before retreating equatorward during the fall, winter. The equatorward migration of the ridge during the cold season is due to increasing north-south temperature differences between the poles and tropics. The latitudinal movement of the ridge is strongly correlated with the progression of the monsoon trough or Intertropical Convergence Zone. Most tropical cyclones form on the side of the subtropical ridge closer to the equator, when the subtropical ridge shifts due to ENSO, so will the preferred tropical cyclone tracks. When the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillations mode is favorable to tropical development, it amplifies the subtropical ridge across the central. When the subtropical ridge in the northwest Pacific is stronger than normal, the subtropical ridge position is linked to how far northward monsoon moisture and thunderstorms extend into the United States. The subtropical ridge across North America typically migrates far enough northward to begin monsoon conditions across the Desert Southwest from July to September, when the subtropical ridge is farther north than normal towards the Four Corners, monsoon thunderstorms can spread northward into Arizona. When the high pressure moves south, its circulation cuts off the moisture, when surface winds become light, the subsidence produced directly under the subtropical ridge can lead to a buildup of particulates in urban areas under the ridge, leading to widespread haze. If the low relative humidity rises towards 100 percent overnight
36.
Precipitation
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In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, graupel, Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor, so that the water condenses and precipitates. Thus, fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions, because the vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate. Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated, Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud. Short, intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called showers, moisture that is lifted or otherwise forced to rise over a layer of sub-freezing air at the surface may be condensed into clouds and rain. This process is active when freezing rain is occurring. A stationary front is often present near the area of freezing rain, provided necessary and sufficient atmospheric moisture content, the moisture within the rising air will condense into clouds, namely stratus and cumulonimbus. Eventually, the droplets will grow large enough to form raindrops. Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy, thundersnow is possible within a cyclones comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation, on the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating. The movement of the trough, or intertropical convergence zone. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 cubic kilometres of it over the oceans and 107,000 cubic kilometres over land. Given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres, Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes. Precipitation may occur on celestial bodies, e. g. when it gets cold, Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form of frost. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 km3 of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 km3 of it over the oceans, given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres. Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, stratiform, and orographic rainfall, Precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice
37.
Relative humidity
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Relative humidity is the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor to the equilibrium vapor pressure of water at a given temperature. Relative humidity depends on temperature and the pressure of the system of interest and it requires less water vapor to attain high relative humidity at low temperatures, more water vapour is required to attain high relative humidity in warm or hot air. Humans are sensitive to high humidity because the body uses evaporative cooling, enabled by perspiration. Perspiration evaporates from the more slowly under humid conditions than under arid. For example, if the air temperature is 24 °C and the humidity is zero percent. If the relative humidity is 100 percent at the air temperature. In other words, if the air is 24 °C and contains saturated water vapor, then the human body cools itself at the rate as it would if it were 27 °C. The heat index and the humidex are indices that reflect the effect of temperature. In cold climates, the temperature causes lower capacity for water vapour to flow about. Dry cracked skin can result from dry air, low humidity causes tissue lining nasal passages to dry, crack and become more susceptible to penetration of Rhinovirus cold viruses. Low humidity is a cause of nosebleeds. The use of a humidifier in homes, especially bedrooms, can help with these symptoms, indoor relative humidities should be kept above 30% to reduce the likelihood of the occupants nasal passages drying out. Humans can be comfortable within a range of humidities depending on the temperature—from thirty to seventy percent—but ideally between 50% and 60%. Very low humidity can create discomfort, respiratory problems, and aggravate allergies in some individuals, in the winter, it is advisable to maintain relative humidity at 30 percent or above. Extremely low relative humidities may also cause eye irritation, wooden furniture can shrink, causing the paint that covers these surfaces to fracture. When the temperature is low and the humidity is high. When relative humidity approaches 100 percent, condensation can occur on surfaces, leading to problems with mold, corrosion, decay, condensation can pose a safety risk as it can promote the growth of mold and wood rot as well as possibly freezing emergency exits shut. The basic principles for buildings, above, also apply to vehicles, in addition, there may be safety considerations
38.
Sunshine duration
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It is a general indicator of cloudiness of a location, and thus differs from insolation, which measures the total energy delivered by sunlight over a given period. Sunshine duration is usually expressed in hours per year, or in hours per day, the first measure indicates the general sunniness of a location compared with other places, while the latter allows for comparison of sunshine in various seasons in the same location. Another often-used measure is percentage ratio of recorded bright sunshine duration, an important use of sunshine duration data is to characterize the climate of sites, especially of health resorts. This also takes account the psychological effect of strong solar light on human well-being. It is often used to promote tourist destinations, if the Sun were to be above the horizon 50% of the time for a standard year consisting of 8,760 hours, apparent maximal daytime duration would be 4,380 hours for any point on Earth. However, there are physical and astronomical effects that change that picture, namely, atmospheric refraction allows the Sun to be still visible even when it physically sets below the horizon. For that reason, average daytime is longest in polar areas, places on the Arctic Circle have the longest total annual daytime,4,647 hours, while the North Pole receives 4,575. Because of elliptic nature of the Earths orbit, the Southern Hemisphere is not symmetrical, the Equator has a total daytime of 4,422 hours per year. Given the theoretical maximum of daytime duration for a given location, bright sunshine hours represent the total hours when the sunlight is stronger than a specified threshold, as opposed to just visible hours. Visible sunshine, for example, occurs around sunrise and sunset, measurement is performed by instruments called sunshine recorders. For the specific purpose of sunshine duration recording, Campbell–Stokes recorders are used, when the intensity exceeds a pre-determined threshold, the tape burns. The total length of the trace is proportional to the number of bright hours. Another type of recorder is the Jordan sunshine recorder, newer, electronic recorders have more stable sensitivity than that of the paper tape. In 2003, the duration was finally defined as the period during which direct solar irradiance exceeds a threshold value of 120 W/m². The sky is clear in these regions, and fair weather is virtually perpetual, the descending branch of the Hadley cell and the long-term lack of atmospheric disturbances helps to explain the seemingly endless supply of sunny, cloud-free days in the deserts. Low clouding conditions are associated with rainfall shortage, as seen in these dry regions. In the belt encompassing northern Chad and the Tibesti Mountains, northern Sudan, southern Libya, some places in the interior of the Arabian Peninsula receive 3, 600–3,800 hours of bright sunshine annually. The largest sun-baked region in the world is North Africa, the sunniest month in the world is December in Eastern Antarctica, with almost 23 hours of bright sun daily
Iran
pronunciation (help·info)) (Persian: قم) is the eighth largest city in Iran. It lies 125 km southwest of Tehran and is the capital of Qom Province. At the 2016 census its population was 1,201,158. It is situated on the banks of the Qom River.
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