1.
Dance
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Dance is a performance art form consisting of purposefully selected sequences of human movement. This movement has aesthetic and symbolic value, and is acknowledged as dance by performers and observers within a particular culture, Dance can be categorized and described by its choreography, by its repertoire of movements, or by its historical period or place of origin. Other forms of movement are sometimes said to have a dance-like quality, including martial arts, gymnastics, figure skating, synchronized swimming. Theatrical dance, also called performance or concert dance, is intended primarily as a spectacle and it often tells a story, perhaps using mime, costume and scenery, or else it may simply interpret the musical accompaniment, which is often specially composed. Examples are western ballet and modern dance, Classical Indian dance and Chinese and Japanese song, most classical forms are centred upon dance alone, but performance dance may also appear in opera and other forms of musical theatre. Such dance seldom has any narrative, a group dance and a corps de ballet, a social partner dance and a pas de deux, differ profoundly. Even a solo dance may be solely for the satisfaction of the dancer. On the other hand, some cultures lay down strict rules as to the dances in which, for example. Archeological evidence for early dance includes 9, 000-year-old paintings in India at the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka and it has been proposed that before the invention of written languages, dance was an important part of the oral and performance methods of passing stories down from generation to generation. The use of dance in trance states and healing rituals is thought to have been another early factor in the social development of dance. References to dance can be found in very early recorded history, Greek dance is referred to by Plato, Aristotle, Plutarch, the Bible and Talmud refer to many events related to dance, and contain over 30 different dance terms. In Chinese pottery as early as the Neolithic period, groups of people are depicted dancing in a line holding hands, Dance is further described in the Lüshi Chunqiu. Primitive dance in ancient China was associated with sorcery and shamanic rituals, during the first millennium BCE in India, many texts were composed which attempted to codify aspects of daily life. Bharata Munis Natyashastra is one of the earlier texts and it mainly deals with drama, in which dance plays an important part in Indian culture. It categorizes dance into four types - secular, ritual, abstract, the text elaborates various hand-gestures and classifies movements of the various limbs, steps and so on. A strong continuous tradition of dance has since continued in India, through to modern times, where it continues to play a role in culture, ritual, and, notably, the Bollywood entertainment industry. Many other contemporary dance forms can likewise be traced back to historical, traditional, ceremonial, Dance is generally, though not exclusively, performed with the accompaniment of music and may or may not be performed in time to such music. Some dance may provide its own audible accompaniment in place of music, many early forms of music and dance were created for each other and are frequently performed together
2.
Les Lanciers
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Les Lanciers or The Lancers is a square dance, a variant of the Quadrille, a set dance performed by four couples, particularly popular in the 18th and 19th centuries. It is a dance made up of five figures or tours. It exists in many variants in several countries, widespread though it was throughout Europe, Les Lanciers became less fashionable by the beginning of 20th the century. It has survived as a dance in Denmark to the present day. The Danish dance took its current form before the 1st World War, from the bourgeoisie of Copenhagen it spread through dancing schools in provincial towns and through the landed gentry. It is danced at court, at many University and School Gaudies, Les Lanciers is also taught in most of the high schools in Denmark. The five tours of the Danish dance are, La Dorset La Victoria Les Moulinets Les Visites Les Lancers The dances keep getting more advanced, the Kitchen lancers was a more boisterous version of the dance that was popular in the early 20th century. Lancers sets are still danced in Irish set dance, joseph Binns Hart, composer of music for Les Lanciers The Danish music for each part can be found here. The origins of The Lancers Quadrilles are discussed here,1854 American sheetmusic for Les Lanciers
3.
Lesser Antilles
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The Lesser Antilles are a group of islands in the Caribbean Sea. Most form a long, partly volcanic island arc between the Greater Antilles to the north-west and the continent of South America, the islands form the eastern boundary of the Caribbean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean. Together, the Lesser Antilles and the Greater Antilles compose the Antilles, when combined with the Lucayan Archipelago, all three are known as the West Indies. The islands of the Lesser Antilles are divided into three groups, the Windward Islands in the south, the Leeward Islands in the north, and the Leeward Antilles in the west. The Windward Islands are so called because they were more windward to sailing ships arriving in the New World than the Leeward Islands, the trans-Atlantic currents and winds that provided the fastest route across the ocean brought these ships to the rough dividing line between the Windward and Leeward Islands. The Leeward Antilles consist of the Dutch ABC islands just off the coast of Venezuela, the Lesser Antilles more or less coincide with the outer edge of the Caribbean Plate. Many of the islands were formed as a result of the subduction of oceanic crust of the South American Plate under the Caribbean Plate in the Lesser Antilles subduction zone. This process is ongoing and is not only for many of the islands. The Lesser Antilles are divided into eight independent nations and numerous dependent, over one third of the total area and population of the Lesser Antilles lies within Trinidad and Tobago, a sovereign nation comprising the two southernmost islands of the Windward Island chain. Several islands along the north coast of Venezuela and politically part of country are also occasionally considered part of the Lesser Antilles. These are listed in the section below, the main Lesser Antilles are, Virgin Islands St. Thomas St. John St. They are the most southern islands of the Caribbean region, a Brief History of the Caribbean. New York, Facts on File,1992, the dictionary definition of Lesser Antilles at Wiktionary
4.
Madagascar
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Madagascar, officially the Republic of Madagascar, and previously known as the Malagasy Republic, is an island country in the Indian Ocean, off the coast of Southeast Africa. The nation comprises the island of Madagascar, and numerous smaller peripheral islands, consequently, Madagascar is a biodiversity hotspot, over 90% of its wildlife is found nowhere else on Earth. The islands diverse ecosystems and unique wildlife are threatened by the encroachment of the growing human population. The first archaeological evidence for human foraging on Madagascar dates to 2000 BC, human settlement of Madagascar occurred between 350 BC and AD550 by Austronesian peoples arriving on outrigger canoes from Borneo. These were joined around AD1000 by Bantu migrants crossing the Mozambique Channel from East Africa, other groups continued to settle on Madagascar over time, each one making lasting contributions to Malagasy cultural life. The Malagasy ethnic group is divided into 18 or more sub-groups of which the largest are the Merina of the central highlands. Until the late 18th century, the island of Madagascar was ruled by an assortment of shifting sociopolitical alliances. Beginning in the early 19th century, most of the island was united and ruled as the Kingdom of Madagascar by a series of Merina nobles, the monarchy collapsed in 1897 when the island was absorbed into the French colonial empire, from which the island gained independence in 1960. The autonomous state of Madagascar has since undergone four major constitutional periods, since 1992, the nation has officially been governed as a constitutional democracy from its capital at Antananarivo. However, in an uprising in 2009, president Marc Ravalomanana was made to resign. Constitutional governance was restored in January 2014, when Hery Rajaonarimampianina was named president following a 2013 election deemed fair, Madagascar is a member of the United Nations, the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie and the Southern African Development Community. Madagascar belongs to the group of least developed countries, according to the United Nations, Malagasy and French are both official languages of the state. The majority of the population adheres to traditional beliefs, Christianity, ecotourism and agriculture, paired with greater investments in education, health, and private enterprise, are key elements of Madagascars development strategy. As of 2017, the economy has been weakened by the 2009-2013 political crisis, in the Malagasy language, the island of Madagascar is called Madagasikara and its people are referred to as Malagasy. The islands appellation Madagascar is not of origin, but rather was popularized in the Middle Ages by Europeans. On St. Laurences Day in 1500, Portuguese explorer Diogo Dias landed on the island, polos name was preferred and popularized on Renaissance maps. At 592,800 square kilometres, Madagascar is the worlds 47th largest country, the country lies mostly between latitudes 12°S and 26°S, and longitudes 43°E and 51°E. Neighboring islands include the French territory of Réunion and the country of Mauritius to the east, as well as the state of Comoros, the nearest mainland state is Mozambique, located to the west
5.
Country dance
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A set consists most commonly of two or three couples, sometimes four and rarely five or six. Often dancers follow a caller who names each change in the figures, introduced to France and then Germany and Italy in the course of the 17th century, country dances gave rise to the contradanse, one of the significant dance forms in classical music. Introduced to America by French immigrants, it remains popular in the United States as contra dance and had influence upon Latin American music as contradanza. The Anglais or Angloise is another term for the English country dance, a Scottish country dance may be termed an Ecossaise. Irish set dance is also related, the term country dance may refer to any of a large number of figure-dances that originated on village greens. The term applies to dances in line formation, circle dances, square dances, however the most common formation is the longways set in which men and women form two lines facing each other. The Roger de Coverley, which was for some time the only well-known country dance in England, couples form two lines along which each travels at the end of each iteration of figures, meeting new couples and repeating the series of figures many times. Alternatively, dances can be finite, a set forming an independent unit within which the series of figures is repeated a number of times. These dances are often non-progressive, each retaining their original positions. Bright, rhythmic and simple, country dances had appeal as a finale to an evening of stately dances such as the minuet. Country dances began to influence country dance in the 15th century, many references to country dancing and titles shared with known 17th-century dances appear from this time, though few of these can be shown to refer to English country dance. Little is known of these dances before the mid-17th century, John Playfords The English Dancing Master listed over a hundred tunes, each with its step. This was enormously popular, reprinted constantly for 80 years and much enlarged, playford and his successors had a practical monopoly on the publication of dance manuals until 1711, and ceased publishing around 1728. During this period English country dances took a variety of forms including finite sets for two, three and four couples as well as circles and squares. The country dance was introduced to the court of Louis XIV of France, where it known as contredanse. André Lorin, who visited the English court in the late 17th century and this was subsequently translated into English by John Essex and published in England as For the Further Improvement of Dancing. By the 1720s the term contradanse had come to refer to sets for three and two couples, which would remain normative until English country dances eclipse. The earliest French works refer only to the form as contradanse
6.
Louis XIV of France
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Louis XIV, known as Louis the Great or the Sun King, was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1643 until his death in 1715. His reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest of any monarch of a country in European history. In the age of absolutism in Europe, Louis XIVs France was a leader in the centralization of power. Louis began his rule of France in 1661, after the death of his chief minister. By these means he became one of the most powerful French monarchs, under his rule, the Edict of Nantes, which granted rights to Huguenots, was abolished. The revocation effectively forced Huguenots to emigrate or convert in a wave of dragonnades, which managed to virtually destroy the French Protestant minority. During Louis reign, France was the leading European power, and it fought three wars, the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg. There were also two lesser conflicts, the War of Devolution and the War of the Reunions, warfare defined Louis XIVs foreign policies, and his personality shaped his approach. Impelled by a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique, in peacetime he concentrated on preparing for the next war. He taught his diplomats their job was to create tactical and strategic advantages for the French military, Louis XIV was born on 5 September 1638 in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, to Louis XIII and Anne of Austria. He was named Louis Dieudonné and bore the title of French heirs apparent. At the time of his birth, his parents had married for 23 years. His mother had experienced four stillbirths between 1619 and 1631, leading contemporaries thus regarded him as a divine gift and his birth a miracle of God. Sensing imminent death, Louis XIII decided to put his affairs in order in the spring of 1643, in defiance of custom, which would have made Queen Anne the sole Regent of France, the king decreed that a regency council would rule on his sons behalf. His lack of faith in Queen Annes political abilities was his primary rationale and he did, however, make the concession of appointing her head of the council. Louis relationship with his mother was uncommonly affectionate for the time, contemporaries and eyewitnesses claimed that the Queen would spend all her time with Louis. Both were greatly interested in food and theatre, and it is likely that Louis developed these interests through his close relationship with his mother. This long-lasting and loving relationship can be evidenced by excerpts in Louis journal entries, such as, but attachments formed later by shared qualities of the spirit are far more difficult to break than those formed merely by blood
7.
Cotillion
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The cotillion is a social dance, popular in 18th-century Europe and America. Originally for four couples in square formation, it was a version of an English country dance, the forerunner of the quadrille and, in the United States. It was for fifty years regarded as an ideal finale to a ball but was eclipsed in the early 19th century by the quadrille. It became so elaborate that it was presented as a concert dance performed by trained and rehearsed dancers. The later German cotillion included more couples as well as plays, each of these was designed to fit a tune of eight or occasionally sixteen measures of 2/4 time. Participants exchanged partners within the network of the dance. Changes included the Great Ring, a circle dance with which the dance often began, as well as smaller Ladies and Gentlemens rings, top and bottom and sides rings. Other changes included the allemande, promenade and moulinet, a complete dance composed of a prescribed order of these was called a set. The cotillion was introduced into England by 1766 and to America in about 1772, there is a reference in Robert Burnss 1790 poem Tam o Shanter to the cotillion brent-new frae France. In reality many participants simply walked through the figure and changes, seeing these as the dance, on the other hand, some figures required high skill at social dancing and many performances took place at which the majority preferred to watch rather than dance. The quadrille gained fame a few years later as a variety of cotillion that could be danced by two couples. However, while the cotillion kept all the dancers in almost perpetual motion, references to the English Cotillion dances persist here and there until the 1840s, but these were more games than fashionable dances, and were often danced to the waltz or the mazurka. The German cotillion was introduced to New York society at a ball with a Louis XV theme given by Mr. William Colford Schermerhorn in the early winter of 1854. Here, too, waltzes, mazurkas, fun, games and boisterous behaviour at private parties took on an important role. Finally the term cotillion was used to refer to the ball itself and the cotillion and quadrille became the square dance
8.
Ballet
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Ballet /ˈbæleɪ/ is a type of performance dance that originated in the Italian Renaissance courts of the 15th century and later developed into a concert dance form in France and Russia. It has since become a widespread, highly technical form of dance with its own based on French terminology. It has been influential and has defined the foundational techniques used in many other dance genres. Becoming a ballet dancer requires years of training, Ballet has been taught in various schools around the world, which have historically incorporated their own cultures to evolve the art. Ballet may also refer to a dance work, which consists of the choreography. A well-known example of this is The Nutcracker, a ballet that was originally choreographed by Marius Petipa. Ballets are choreographed and performed by trained artists, the word came into English usage from the French around 1630. Ballet originated in the Italian Renaissance courts of the 15th and 16th centuries before being spread from Italy to France by an Italian aristocrat, Catherine de Medici, in France, ballet developed even further under her aristocratic influence. The dancers in these early court ballets were mostly noble amateurs, Ballets in this period were lengthy and elaborate and often served a political purpose. Ornamented costumes were meant to impress viewers and restricted freedom of movement. The ballets were performed in large chambers with viewers on three sides, French court ballet reached its height under the reign of King Louis XIV. Known as the Sun King, Louis symbolized the brilliance of France, in 1661 Louis founded the Académie Royale de Danse to establish standards and certify dance instructors. In 1672, Louis XIV made Jean-Baptiste Lully the director of the Académie Royale de Musique from which the first professional ballet company, Lully is considered the most important composer of music for ballets de cour and instrumental to the development of the form. Ballet went into decline in France after 1830, though it continued to develop in Denmark, Italy, the arrival in Europe on the eve of First World War of the Ballets Russes of Sergei Diaghilev, revived interest in the ballet and started the modern era. The Russian choreographer Michel Fokine challenged tradition and called for reforms that reinvigorated ballet as an art form, in the 20th century, ballet had a wide influence on other dance genres, and subgenres of ballet have also evolved. In the United States, choreographer George Balanchine developed what is now known as neoclassical ballet, other developments include contemporary ballet and post-structural ballet. Also in the century, ballet took a turn dividing it from classical ballet to the introduction of modern dance. Stylistic variations have emerged and evolved since the Italian Renaissance, early, classical variations are primarily associated with geographic origin
9.
Glossary of ballet
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Because ballet became formalized in France, a significant part of ballet terminology is in the French language. A position of the leg to the side One of the directions of body, facing the audience, arms in second position, italian, or French adage, meaning slowly, at ease. Slow movements performed with fluidity and grace, the section of a grand pas, often referred to as grand adage, that features dance partnering. An attribute of movements, including those in which a dancer is airborne. The apparent elegance and precision exhibited by a confident, accomplished dancer, in dance, arabesque is a body position in which a dancer stands on one leg with the other leg turned out and extended behind the body, with both legs held straight. A jump that lands on two feet, when initiated from two feet, the working leg performs a battement glissé/dégagé, brushing out. The dancer launches into a jump, with the foot then meeting the first foot before landing. A petit assemblé is when a dancer is standing on one foot with the other extended, the dancer then does a small jump to meet the first foot. A position in which a dancer stands on one leg while the leg is raised at hip height. The height of the knee versus the foot and the angle of the knee flexion will vary depending on the techniques, the working leg can be held behind, in front, or to the side of the body. The alignment of the thigh compared to the midline in Attitude derrière will vary depending on the techniques, the foot of the supporting leg may be flat on the floor, en demi-pointe, or en pointe. The standing leg can be straight or bend, Attitude was originally created to display the emotional zone of the leg, the knee to the ankle. A movement towards the front, as opposed to en arrière, for example, a step travelling en avant moves forwards towards the audience, as in sissonne en avant. A movement towards the back, as opposed to en avant, a rocking sequence of three steps — fondu, relevé, fondu — executed in three counts. Before the first count, one foot extends in a dégagé to second position or to the front or rear, the second foot in the sequence assembles behind the first to relevé in fifth or fourth position. The foundational principles of movement and form used in ballet. The word is of Russian origin c,1930, with the suffix -mane coming from maniya. Showing lightness of movement in leaps and jumps, a dancer exhibiting ballon will appear to spring effortlessly, float in mid-air, and land softly like a balloon
10.
Arabesque (ballet position)
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In dance, arabesque is a body position in which a dancer stands on one leg with the other leg turned out and extended behind the body, with both legs held straight. In classical ballet, an arabesque can be executed with the supporting leg en pointe or demi pointe or with foot flat on the floor, the working leg may touch the floor in tendu back or be elevated. Common elevation angles of the leg are 45° and 90°. When the angle is greater than 90° and the body trunk leans forward to counterbalance the working leg. The arms may be held in various positions, Arabesque positions are assigned numeric references in some ballet training systems. In the descriptions below, these arabesques are described from the perspective of the dancer, in the Vaganova method there are four basic arabesque positions. They are described here for a facing point 8. In class practice, the arms are always level with the shoulders, the elbows are always facing downwards. In the first arabesque, the stands in effacé position with the right leg raised in arabesque, the right arm extended to the side. The gaze follows the line of the arm extended en avant, the dancers face is turned toward point 1. The gaze follows the line of the arm extended en avant, the shoulders are in strong épaulement and the dancers focus is turned to the audience. In arabesque tendue or dégagé, the leg comes from the hip, when the leg is moved or held above 45 degrees or so, the dancer curves the spine both laterally and vertically. The method is to, anchor the shoulders and scapula downward without tension, the sternum must lift without hyperextending the ribcage. Keep the supporting hip forward, as mentioned above, the spine curves to the anterior, keeping the head lifted to focus straight forward to diagonally up. The current standard height and degree for the Vaganova arabesque is 110 degrees, Vaganova method maintains that, in classical ballet, both the supporting and the working legs must be fully turned out through the legs, even in full arabesque. Note that allowing for the dancer to open the hips is distinctly different than some older methods, restraining the hips restricts range of motion, restricting the full curvature of the spine, nor for most dancers, to exhibit an outwardly rotated leg. Opening the hip allows dancers with lesser mobile bodies to safely achieve greater range of motion in arabesque, in the RAD system, there are three main arabesques. Here they are described for a facing point 6, First arabesque is taken standing en ouvert on the right leg with the left leg extended
11.
Sarah Villiers, Countess of Jersey
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Sarah Sophia Child Villiers, Countess of Jersey, was an English noblewoman, and through her marriage a member of the Villiers family. She was the eldest daughter of John Fane, 10th Earl of Westmorland and her mother was the only child of Robert Child, the principal shareholder in the banking firm Child & Co. Under the terms of his will, the Countess of Jersey was the primary legatee and her husband, George Villiers, added the surname Child by royal licence. Lady Jersey married George Child Villiers, 5th Earl of Jersey, on 23 May 1804 and her husbands mother, Frances Villiers, Countess of Jersey, was one of the more notorious mistresses of King George IV when he was Prince of Wales. Her sister Maria married John Ponsonby, Viscount Duncannon, later the 4th Earl of Bessborough and her own affairs, though conducted discreetly, were said to be numerous, Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston, was thought to be one of her lovers. When asked why he had never fought a duel to preserve his wifes reputation, Lady Jersey was one of the patronesses of Almacks, the most exclusive social club in London, and a leader of the ton during the Regency era. She was immortalized as Zenobia in Disraelis novel Endymion, Caroline Lamb ridiculed her in Glenarvon, in revenge Lady Jersey had her barred from Almacks, the ultimate social disgrace. This, however, was unusual since she was notable for acts of kindness and generosity, in politics she was a Tory, although she lacked the passion for politics shown by her cousin Harriet Arbuthnot. On hearing that the Duke of Wellington had fallen from power in 1830 and she reportedly moved heaven and earth against the Reform Act 1832. Lady Jersey was known by the nickname Silence, the nickname was ironic since, famously,38, Berkeley Square, Middlesex now London. The Honourable Frederick William Child Villiers, married Elizabeth Maria van Reede, the Honourable Francis John Robert Child Villiers. Lady Sarah Frederica Caroline Child Villiers, married Nicholas Paul, 9th Prince Esterházy, Lady Clementina Augusta Wellington Child Villiers. Lady Adela Corisande Maria Child Villiers, married Lt. -Col, charles Parke Ibbetson, and had one daughter Adele. She outlived not only her husband, but six of her seven children, archival material relating to Sarah Villiers, Countess of Jersey
12.
Waltz
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The waltz is a ballroom and folk dance, normally in triple time, performed primarily in closed position. There are several references to a sliding or gliding dance that would evolve into the waltz that date from 16th century Europe, the French philosopher Montaigne wrote of a dance he saw in 1580 in Augsburg, where the dancers held each other so closely that their faces touched. Kunz Haas wrote, Now they are dancing the godless Weller or Spinner, the peasants of Bavaria, Tyrol, and Styria began dancing a dance called Walzer, a dance for couples, around 1750. The Ländler, also known as the Schleifer, a dance in 34 time, was popular in Bohemia, Austria, and Bavaria. While the eighteenth century upper classes continued to dance the minuet, describing life in Vienna, Don Curzio wrote, The people were dancing mad. The ladies of Vienna are particularly celebrated for their grace and movements of waltzing of which they never tire, there is a waltz in the second act finale of the opera Una Cosa Rara written by Martin y Soler in 1786. Solers waltz was marked Andante con moto, or at a pace with motion, but the flow of the dance was sped-up in Vienna leading to the Geschwindwalzer. In the transition from country to town, the hopping of the Ländler, a known as Langaus, became a sliding step. In the 19th century, the word primarily indicated that the dance was a one, one would waltz in the polka to indicate rotating rather than going straight forward without turning. The Viennese custom is to anticipate the second beat of each measure, making it sound as if the third is late. The metronome speed for a full bar varies between 60 and 70, with the waltzes of the first Strauss often played faster than those of his sons. Shocking many when it was first introduced, the waltz became fashionable in Vienna around the 1780s, according to contemporary singer Michael Kelly, it reached England in 1791. During the Napoleonic Wars, infantry soldiers of the Kings German Legion introduced the dance to the people of Bexhill and it became fashionable in Britain during the Regency period, having been made respectable by the endorsement of Dorothea Lieven, wife of the Russian ambassador. Diarist Thomas Raikes later recounted that No event ever produced so great a sensation in English society as the introduction of the waltz in 1813, in the same year, a sardonic tribute to the dance by Lord Byron was anonymously published. Influential dance master and author of manuals, Thomas Wilson published A Description of the Correct Method of Waltzing in 1816. Come, its time to be going home, the waltz, and especially its closed position, became the example for the creation of many other ballroom dances. Subsequently, new types of waltz have developed, including many folk and it incorporated hesitations and was danced to fast music. A hesitation is basically a halt on the foot during the full waltz measure
13.
Joseph Lanner
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Joseph Lanner was an Austrian dance music composer. He was just as famous as his friend and musical rival Johann Strauss I, Lanner had a lesser-known son, August Lanner, who was just as musically gifted and prodigious as his father. His daughter Katharina became a known international ballet dancer, settling in London where she became an influential choreographer and teacher. Lanner was born in St. Ulrich in Vienna, the success of this string quartet led to its gradual expansion, and in 1824 Lanner was able to conduct a small string orchestra playing Viennese dance music. Such was the success of his orchestra that it was a feature in many Vienna carnivals. It was in 1832 that Lanner allowed his soon-to-be rival Johann Strauss I to deputise in a second, in the same year, Strauss I parted company with Lanner after a concert at one of the Viennese dance establishments, Zum Schwarzen Bock. 19, which indicated a decent level of goodwill and respect for the craft of the two composers, for their charity work Strauss and Lanner also accepted the honorary citizenship of Vienna in 1836 and jointly took the Citizens Oath. The music-loving Viennese however were championing both of two popular dance music composers, and individuals generally identified themselves as Lannerianer or Straussianer. The answer would be to distract the population with music and entertainment, Strauss popularity soon overshadowed Lanner in the early 1840s. Strauss was eager to undertake extensive lucrative tours abroad including England, Lanner succumbed to a typhus infection that racked Vienna in 1843 and died at Döbling on Good Friday,14 April in the same year. Most of Lanners waltzes were dedicated to members of the nobility as evidenced from the titles which was part of the nature of Lanners position at that time. His Styrian Dances, Op.165, was played occasionally at the Vienna New Years Concert of the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra
14.
Stately quadrille
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Stately quadrille is a term popularly used to describe the constantly shifting alliances between the Great Powers of Europe during the 18th century. The ultimate objective was to maintain the balance of power in Europe to stop any one alliance or country becoming too strong and it takes its name from the quadrille, a dance in which the participants constantly swap partners. That was known as the Diplomatic Revolution, shifting alliances had long been a factor in European politics and were often regarded as responses to shifting power and threat. During the 16th century and the early 17th century, much of the emphasis in European politics had been on restricting the power of Spain, in the second half of the 17th century, Spain was replaced by France as Europes leading power. Several European coalitions were formed against Spain and France, culminating in the War of the Spanish Succession, in the years that followed, they managed to defeat a resurgent Spain, formerly a French ally, in the War of the Quadruple Alliance. Spain sought an alliance with Austria and gained it in 1725, by 1731 Britain and France were clearly drifting apart. A diplomatic initiative with Austria was begun by the British government, Spain withdrew its friendship with Austria and eventually ended up allied to France again. In 1733, however the Anglo-Austrian Alliance seemed under threat, when the British failed to assist the Austrians in the War of the Polish Succession, Austria had to rely heavily on Russia for assistance and was forced to make huge concessions to France in the 1738 peace treaty. Britain realised that its failure to intervene had allowed France to become too strong, in 1740, Prussia, an emerging power, attacked Austria. Britain and France soon became embroiled in the war, which ended in a stalemate in 1748, despite extensive British funding, it was increasingly disillusioned about the Anglo-Austrian Alliance and began looking for a replacement. In 1756, Austria did what was considered unthinkable by many by abandoning its British connection to form a new alliance with France. Fearing that Continental Europe would be destabilised and led to war, the concept began to fade in the second half of the 18th century, as Britain and France became the dominant European powers. The failure to prevent the Seven Years War, in which over a million died, was a major factor. After the Napoleonic Wars, a Concert of Europe was set up to create a forum for discussion rather than create shifting alliance patterns, which had a tendency to cause major wars. Treaty of Versailles, the document establishing an alliance between Austria and France Treaty of Paris, one of the treaties which ended the Seven Years War Clark, iron Kingdom, The Rise and Downfall of Prussia 1600–1947
15.
Balance of power (international relations)
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The balance of power theory in international relations suggests that national security is enhanced when military capability is distributed so that no one state is strong enough to dominate all others. Some realists maintain that this would be stable as aggression would appear unattractive. When confronted by a significant external threat, states that look to form alliances may balance or bandwagon, balancing is defined as allying with others against the prevailing threat, while states that have bandwagoned have aligned with the threat. States may also employ other alliance tactics, such as buck-passing and chain-ganging and it resurfaced in Renaissance among the Italian city-states in the 15th century. Discussion of the Florentine activity can be found in De Bello Italico, by Bernardo Rucellai and this was a history of the invasion of Italy by Charles VIII of France, and introduced the phrase balance of power to historical analysis. Universalism, which was the dominant direction of European international relations prior to the Peace of Westphalia, the term gained significance after the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, where it was specifically mentioned. This balance-of-power principle, once formulated, became an axiom of political science, fénelon, in his Instructions, impressed the axiom upon the young Louis, Dauphin of France, Duke of Burgundy. Frederick the Great, in his Anti-Machiavel, proclaimed the balance of principle to the world. In 1806 Friedrich von Gentz re-stated it with clarity, in Fragments on the Balance of Power. During the greater part of the 19th century, the series of upheavals which remodelled the map of Europe obscured the balance of power. Yet, it all the efforts of diplomacy to stay, or to direct. Regarding the era 1848–1914, English diplomatic historian A. J. P, taylor argued, Europe has known almost as much peace as war, and it has owed these periods of peace to the Balance of Power. No one state has ever been strong enough to eat up all the rest, and the jealousy of the Great Powers has preserved even the small states. However, Taylors argument for the 1848–1914 period did not hold for the period since 1945 and our choice is clear, we are going forward. It was to be pacific, mediating, favourable to a balance which should prevent any power from having a hegemony on the continent or controlling the Channel coasts, in 1579 the first English translation of Francesco Guicciardinis Storia dItalia popularised Italian balance of power theory in England. Statesman Richard Cobden labeled balance of power a chimera due to its meaning, It is not a fallacy, a mistake. The only point on which writers on the balance of power agree is in the delusion that such a system was ever acceded to by the nations of Europe. They imply long, uninterrupted, peaceful and prosperous co-existence, the question of the balance of power might be dismissed from further considerations
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Lewis Carroll
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Charles Lutwidge Dodgson, better known by his pen name Lewis Carroll, was an English writer, mathematician, logician, Anglican deacon, and photographer. He is noted for his facility at word play, logic, There are societies in many parts of the world dedicated to the enjoyment and promotion of his works and the investigation of his life. Dodgsons family was predominantly northern English, with Irish connections, conservative, most of Dodgsons male ancestors were army officers or Church of England clergy. His great-grandfather, also named Charles Dodgson, had risen through the ranks of the church to become the Bishop of Elphin. His paternal grandfather, another Charles, had been an army captain, the older of these sons – yet another Charles Dodgson – was Carrolls father. He went to Westminster School and then to Christ Church, Oxford and he reverted to the other family tradition and took holy orders. He was mathematically gifted and won a double first degree, which could have been the prelude to a brilliant academic career, instead, he married his first cousin Frances Jane Lutwidge in 1830 and became a country parson. Dodgson was born in the parsonage at Daresbury in Cheshire near the towns of Warrington and Runcorn. When Charles was 11, his father was given the living of Croft-on-Tees in North Yorkshire, and this remained their home for the next 25 years. He was High Church, inclining to Anglo-Catholicism, an admirer of John Henry Newman and the Tractarian movement, Young Charles was to develop an ambiguous relationship with his fathers values and with the Church of England as a whole. During his early youth, Dodgson was educated at home and his reading lists preserved in the family archives testify to a precocious intellect, at the age of seven, he was reading books such as The Pilgrims Progress. He also suffered from a stammer – a condition shared by most of his siblings – that often influenced his life throughout his years. At the age of twelve, he was sent to Richmond Grammar School at nearby Richmond, in 1846, Dodgson entered Rugby School where he was evidently unhappy, as he wrote some years after leaving, I cannot say. That any earthly considerations would induce me to go through my three years again, I can honestly say that if I could have been. Secure from annoyance at night, the hardships of the daily life would have been comparative trifles to bear, scholastically, though, he excelled with apparent ease. I have not had a promising boy at his age since I came to Rugby. He left Rugby at the end of 1849 and matriculated at Oxford in May 1850 as a member of his fathers old college, after waiting for rooms in college to become available, he went into residence in January 1851. He had been at Oxford only two days when he received a summons home and his mother had died of inflammation of the brain – perhaps meningitis or a stroke – at the age of 47
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Alice's Adventures in Wonderland
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Alices Adventures in Wonderland is an 1865 novel written by English mathematician Charles Lutwidge Dodgson under the pseudonym Lewis Carroll. It tells of a girl named Alice falling through a hole into a fantasy world populated by peculiar. The tale plays with logic, giving the story lasting popularity with adults as well as with children and it is considered to be one of the best examples of the literary nonsense genre. Its narrative course and structure, characters and imagery have been influential in both popular culture and literature, especially in the fantasy genre. The journey began at Folly Bridge in Oxford and ended 3 miles north-west in the village of Godstow, during the trip, Dodgson told the girls a story that featured a bored little girl named Alice who goes looking for an adventure. The girls loved it, and Alice Liddell asked Dodgson to write it down for her and he began writing the manuscript of the story the next day, although that earliest version no longer exists. The girls and Dodgson took another boat trip a month later when he elaborated the plot to the story of Alice, and in November he began working on the manuscript in earnest. To add the finishing touches, he researched natural history for the animals presented in the book and he added his own illustrations but approached John Tenniel to illustrate the book for publication, telling him that the story had been well liked by children. Some, including Martin Gardner, speculate that there was a version that was destroyed later by Dodgson when he wrote a more elaborate copy by hand. Chapter One – Down the Rabbit Hole, Alice is feeling bored and drowsy while sitting on the riverbank with her older sister and she then notices a White Rabbit wearing a waistcoat and pocket watch, talking to itself as it runs past. She follows it down a hole, but suddenly falls a long way to a curious hall with many locked doors of all sizes. She finds a key to a door too small for her to fit through. She then discovers a bottle on a table labelled DRINK ME, the contents of which cause her to shrink too small to reach the key and she eats a cake with EAT ME written on it in currants as the chapter closes. Chapter Two – The Pool of Tears, Chapter Two opens with Alice growing to such a size that her head hits the ceiling. Alice is unhappy and, as she cries, her tears flood the hallway, after shrinking down again due to a fan she had picked up, Alice swims through her own tears and meets a Mouse, who is swimming as well. She tries to make small talk with him in elementary French, offends the mouse and he tries to escape her. Chapter Three – The Caucus Race and a Long Tale, The sea of tears becomes crowded with other animals, Alice and the other animals convene on the bank and the question among them is how to get dry again. The Mouse gives them a very dry lecture on William the Conqueror, a Dodo decides that the best thing to dry them off would be a Caucus-Race, which consists of everyone running in a circle with no clear winner
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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Wikisource
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Wikisource is an online digital library of free content textual sources on a wiki, operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikisource is the name of the project as a whole and the name for each instance of that project, the projects aims are to host all forms of free text, in many languages, and translations. Originally conceived as an archive to store useful or important historical texts, the project officially began in November 24,2003 under the name Project Sourceberg. The name Wikisource was adopted later that year and it received its own domain name seven months later, the project has come under criticism for lack of reliability but it is also cited by organisations such as the National Archives and Records Administration. The project holds works that are either in the domain or freely licensed, professionally published works or historical source documents, not vanity products. Verification was initially made offline, or by trusting the reliability of digital libraries. Now works are supported by online scans via the ProofreadPage extension, some individual Wikisources, each representing a specific language, now only allow works backed up with scans. While the bulk of its collection are texts, Wikisource as a whole hosts other media, some Wikisources allow user-generated annotations, subject to the specific policies of the Wikisource in question. Wikisources early history included several changes of name and location, the original concept for Wikisource was as storage for useful or important historical texts. These texts were intended to support Wikipedia articles, by providing evidence and original source texts. The collection was focused on important historical and cultural material. The project was originally called Project Sourceberg during its planning stages, in 2001, there was a dispute on Wikipedia regarding the addition of primary source material, leading to edit wars over their inclusion or deletion. Project Sourceberg was suggested as a solution to this, perhaps Project Sourceberg can mainly work as an interface for easily linking from Wikipedia to a Project Gutenberg file, and as an interface for people to easily submit new work to PG. Wed want to complement Project Gutenberg--how, exactly, and Jimmy Wales adding like Larry, Im interested that we think it over to see what we can add to Project Gutenberg. It seems unlikely that primary sources should in general be editable by anyone -- I mean, Shakespeare is Shakespeare, unlike our commentary on his work, the project began its activity at ps. wikipedia. org. The contributors understood the PS subdomain to mean either primary sources or Project Sourceberg, however, this resulted in Project Sourceberg occupying the subdomain of the Pashto Wikipedia. A vote on the name changed it to Wikisource on December 6,2003. Despite the change in name, the project did not move to its permanent URL until July 23,2004, since Wikisource was initially called Project Sourceberg, its first logo was a picture of an iceberg
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New International Encyclopedia
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The New International Encyclopedia was an American encyclopedia first published in 1902 by Dodd, Mead and Company. It descended from the International Cyclopaedia and was updated in 1906,1914 and 1926, the New International Encyclopedia was the successor of the International Cyclopaedia. Initially, the International Cyclopaedia was largely a reprint of Aldens Library of Universal Knowledge, the local Cyclopaedia was much improved by editors Harry Thurston Peck and Selim Peabody. The title was changed to New International Encyclopedia in 1902, with editors Harry Thurston Peck, Daniel Coit Gilman, in 1906 the New International Encyclopedia was expanded from 17 volumes to 20. The 2nd edition appeared in 1914 in 24 volumes, set up from new type and it was very strong in biography. The 1926 material was printed in Cambridge, Massachusetts, by The University Press, boston Bookbinding Company of Cambridge produced the covers. Thirteen books enclosing twenty-three volumes comprise the encyclopedia, which includes a supplement after Volume 23, each book contains about 1600 pages. A great deal of material is recorded in the New International Encyclopedia. An early description of Adolf Hitler and his activities from 1920 to 1924 is in the supplement to the 1926 edition, many of the names used to describe the scientific identities of plants and animals are now obsolete. Numerous colorful maps which display the nations, states, colonies, the maps are valuable for their depictions of national and colonial borders in Europe, Asia, and Africa at the time of World War I. Drawings, illustrations, and photographs are plentiful, more than 500 men, and some women, submitted and composed the information contained in the New International Encyclopedia. Editors of the First Edition Daniel Coit Gilman, LL. D, President of Johns Hopkins University, President of Carnegie Institution. Frank Moore Colby, M. A. formerly Professor in New York University, editors of the Second Edition Frank Moore Colby, M. A. Talcott Williams, LL. D. Director of the School of Journalism, Columbia University, media related to New International Encyclopedia at Wikimedia Commons 1914 second ed
21.
Contra dance
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Contra dance is a folk dance made up of long lines of couples. It has mixed origins from English country dance, Scottish, French dance styles in the 17th century, according to the Contra Dance Links website, contra dancing can be found in all US states except for South Dakota. Throughout the course of a dance, couples progress up and down these lines, the dance is led by a caller who teaches the sequence of figures in the dance before the music starts. Callers describe the series of steps called figures, and in a single dance, each time through the dance takes 64 beats, after which the pattern is repeated. The music played for contra dances includes, but is not limited to Irish, Scottish, old-time, the fiddle is considered the core instrument, though other stringed instruments such as the guitar, banjo, bass and mandolin are played as well. Music in a dance can consist of a tune or a medley of tunes. At the end of the 17th century, English country dances were taken up by French dance masters, the French called these dances contra-dances or contredanses, as indicated in a 1710 dance book called Recuil de Contredance. In the mid-19th century, group started to decline in popularity in favor of quadrilles, lancers. Henry Ford, founder of the Ford Motor Company, had a role in preserving contra and American folk dancing generally, in the 1920s, he asked friend and dance coordinator in Massachusetts, Benjamin Lovett, to come to Michigan to begin a dance program. Initially, Lovett could not as he was under contract at an inn, consequently. Lovett and Ford initiated a program in Dearborn, Michigan that included several folk dances. Ford also published a book titled Good Morning, After a Sleep of Twenty-Five Years, ralph Page almost single-handedly maintained the New England tradition until it was revitalized in the 1950s and 1960s, particularly by Ted Sannella and Dudley Laufman. The New England contra dance tradition was maintained in Vermont by the Ed Larkin Old Time Contra Dancers. The group he founded is still performing, teaching the dances, pittsburgh Contra Dance celebrated its 100th anniversary in 2015. These and others continue to be popular and some other dances and activities besides contra dancing. In the 1970s, Sannella and other callers introduced movements from English Country Dance, such as heys and gypsies, New dances, such as Shadracks Delight by Tony Parkes, featured symmetrical dancing by all couples. Double progression dances, popularized by Herbie Gaudreau, added to the nature of the dances. Becket formation was introduced, with next to each other in the line instead of opposite
22.
Square dance
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A square dance is a dance for four couples arranged in a square, with one couple on each side, facing the middle of the square. Square dances were first documented in 17th-century England but were quite common in France. They came to North America with the European settlers and have undergone considerable development there, in some countries and regions, through preservation and repetition, square dances have attained the status of a folk dance. The Western American square dance may be the most widely known form worldwide, Square dancing is, therefore, strongly associated with the United States. Nineteen U. S. states have designated it as their official state dance, the various square dance movements are based on the steps and figures used in traditional folk dances and social dances from many countries. Some of these dances include English Country Dance, Caledonians. Square dancing is enjoyed by people of all ages around the world, in most American forms of square dance, the dancers are prompted or cued through a sequence of steps by a caller to the beat of music. Modern Western square dances are not learnt as complete routines, the dancers learn basic movements, each with its own distinctive call, terminology, In the United States, in general, people go to square dances and call it square dancing. In England, Ireland and Scotland, people go to all sorts of dances at some of the dances will be square dances. The majority of dances at such events will be in the form of sets, sets of four. Conversely, people not familiar with the different forms of dance may ask for an evening of square dance meaning simply a barn dance where many different formations of dance are used. It is possible to go to one of square dances. Traditional square dance, which is called old time square dance. Traditional square dance is not standardized and can be subdivided into regional styles, the New England and Appalachian styles have been particularly well documented, both have survived to the present time. There are several styles, some have survived or been revived in recent years. Traditional square dance is presented in alternation with contra dances or with some form of freestyle couple dancing. One ancestor of New England style square dances is the quadrille, where traditional square dance has been revived, it encompasses a wide range of new choreography. Modern Western square dance, which is also called Western square dance, contemporary Western square dance, Modern Western square dance evolved from the Western style of traditional square dance from about 1940 to 1960
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Irish set dance
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Irish set dance, sometimes called country sets, is a popular form of folk dancing in Ireland. Set dances are based on quadrilles, which were court dances and these were transformed by the Irish into a unique folk dance of the Irish rural communities. Promotion of Céilí dance during the 1930s and 1940s, and the rise of rock, however, in the 1980s a revival started and many sets that have not been done for forty years or more are being recovered and danced again. To start, four couples are arranged in the form of a square to dance each couple being in the middle of the sides of the square. Both the eight dancers in the group and the dance itself are called a set, the dance is a sequence of several dance figures, which usually have a common theme or structure. The figures usually begin and end with repeated parts that everyone dances, in the set, the couple with their backs to the band are traditionally named First Tops with Second Tops facing them. The couple on First Tops left hand side is called First Sides with Second Sides facing, usually the First Tops are the first to dance, with some sets having First Sides and then Second Tops going next and some having Second Tops and then the First Sides. Set dances from a region usually have similar elements. Distinctive set dances and dance regions emerged in the beginning of the 19th century, in some homesteads a kitchen pot was placed under the flag stones as an extra acoustical element for the house dance. Set dance differs from square dance and round dance in that it not require a caller. Edition, J. G. O Keeffe, Art O Brien, the Story of Irish Dancing Helen Brennan, Mount Eagle Publications Ltd
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Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
