1.
San Diego
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San Diego is a major city in California, United States. It is in San Diego County, on the coast of the Pacific Ocean in Southern California, approximately 120 miles south of Los Angeles and immediately adjacent to the border with Mexico. With an estimated population of 1,394,928 as of July 1,2015, San Diego is the eighth-largest city in the United States and second-largest in California. It is part of the San Diego–Tijuana conurbation, the second-largest transborder agglomeration between the US and a country after Detroit–Windsor, with a population of 4,922,723 people. San Diego has been called the birthplace of California, historically home to the Kumeyaay people, San Diego was the first site visited by Europeans on what is now the West Coast of the United States. Upon landing in San Diego Bay in 1542, Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo claimed the area for Spain, the Presidio and Mission San Diego de Alcalá, founded in 1769, formed the first European settlement in what is now California. In 1821, San Diego became part of the newly independent Mexico, in 1850, California became part of the United States following the Mexican–American War and the admission of California to the union. The city is the seat of San Diego County and is the center of the region as well as the San Diego–Tijuana metropolitan area. San Diegos main economic engines are military and defense-related activities, tourism, international trade, the presence of the University of California, San Diego, with the affiliated UCSD Medical Center, has helped make the area a center of research in biotechnology. The original inhabitants of the region are now known as the San Dieguito, the area of San Diego has been inhabited by the Kumeyaay people. The first European to visit the region was Portuguese-born explorer Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo sailing under the flag of Castile, sailing his flagship San Salvador from Navidad, New Spain, Cabrillo claimed the bay for the Spanish Empire in 1542, and named the site San Miguel. In November 1602, Sebastián Vizcaíno was sent to map the California coast, in May 1769, Gaspar de Portolà established the Fort Presidio of San Diego on a hill near the San Diego River. It was the first settlement by Europeans in what is now the state of California, in July of the same year, Mission San Diego de Alcalá was founded by Franciscan friars under Junípero Serra. By 1797, the mission boasted the largest native population in Alta California, with over 1,400 neophytes living in, Mission San Diego was the southern anchor in California of the historic mission trail El Camino Real. Both the Presidio and the Mission are National Historic Landmarks, in 1821, Mexico won its independence from Spain, and San Diego became part of the Mexican territory of Alta California. In 1822, Mexico began attempting to extend its authority over the territory of Alta California. The fort on Presidio Hill was gradually abandoned, while the town of San Diego grew up on the land below Presidio Hill. The Mission was secularized by the Mexican government in 1833, the 432 residents of the town petitioned the governor to form a pueblo, and Juan María Osuna was elected the first alcalde, defeating Pío Pico in the vote
2.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
3.
Ticker symbol
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A ticker symbol or stock symbol is an abbreviation used to uniquely identify publicly traded shares of a particular stock on a particular stock market. A stock symbol may consist of letters, numbers or a combination of both, ticker symbol refers to the symbols that were printed on the ticker tape of a ticker tape machine. Stock symbols are unique identifiers assigned to each security traded on a particular market, for example, AAPL is for Apple Inc. OODH is for Orion DHC, Inc. and HD is for Home Depot, a stock symbol can consist of letters, numbers, or a combination of both, and is a way to uniquely identify that stock. The symbols were kept as short as possible to reduce the number of characters that had to be printed on the ticker tape, the allocation of symbols and formatting convention is specific to each stock exchange. In the US, for example, stock tickers are typically between 1 and 4 letters and represent the name where possible. In Europe, most exchanges use three-letter codes, for example Dutch consumer goods company Unilever traded on the Amsterdam Euronext exchange has the symbol UNA, while in Asia, numbers are often used as stock tickers to avoid issues for international investors when using non-Latin scripts. For example, the bank HSBCs stock traded on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange has the ticker symbol 0005, symbols sometimes change to reflect mergers. Prior to the 1999 merger with Mobil Oil, Exxon used a spelling of the company XON as its ticker symbol. The symbol of the firm after the merger was XOM, symbols are sometimes reused, in the US the single-letter symbols are particularly sought after as vanity symbols. For example, since Mar 2008 Visa Inc. has used the symbol V that had previously used by Vivendi which had delisted. To fully qualify a stock, both the ticker and the exchange or country of listing needs to be known, on many systems both must be specified to uniquely identify the security. This is often done by appending the location or exchange code to the ticker, although stock tickers identify a security, they are exchange dependent, generally limited to stocks and can change. These limitations have led to the development of other codes in financial markets to identify securities for settlement purposes, the most prevalent of these is the International Securities Identifying Number. An ISIN uniquely identifies a security and its structure is defined in ISO6166, Securities for which ISINs are issued include bonds, commercial paper, stocks, and warrants. The ISIN identifies the security, not the exchange on which it trades, for instance, Daimler AG stock trades on twenty-two different stock exchanges worldwide, and is priced in five different currencies, it has the same ISIN on each, though not the same ticker symbol. ISIN cannot specify a particular trade in this case, and another identifier, following the introduction of the Sequence trading platform in 1996, EPICs were renamed Tradable Instrument Display Mnemonics, but they are still widely referred to as EPICs. Stocks can also be identified using their SEDOL number or their ISIN, in the United States, modern letter-only ticker symbols were developed by Standard & Poors to bring a national standard to investing
4.
NASDAQ
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The Nasdaq Stock Market is an American stock exchange. It is the second-largest exchange in the world by market capitalization, the exchange platform is owned by Nasdaq, Inc. which also owns the Nasdaq Nordic and Nasdaq Baltic stock market network and several other US stock and options exchanges. When it was founded, NASDAQ stood for the acronym of National Association of Securities Dealers Automated Quotations, NASDAQ was founded in 1971 by the National Association of Securities Dealers, which divested itself of NASDAQ in a series of sales in 2000 and 2001. The Nasdaq Stock Market is owned and operated by Nasdaq, Inc. the stocks of which were listed on its own stock exchange marketing July 2,2002, when the Nasdaq Stock Market began trading on February 8,1971, it was the worlds first electronic stock market. At first, it was merely a system and did not provide a way to perform electronic trades. The Nasdaq Stock Market helped lower the spread but was unpopular among brokerages which made much of their money on the spread. As late as 1987, the NASDAQ exchange was still referred to as OTC in media. Over the years, the Nasdaq Stock Market became more of a market by adding trade and volume reporting. The Nasdaq Stock Market attracted new companies such as Microsoft, Apple, Cisco, Oracle and Dell. Its main index is the NASDAQ Composite, which has published since its inception. In 1992, the Nasdaq Stock Market joined with the London Stock Exchange to form the first intercontinental linkage of securities markets, the National Association of Securities Dealers spun off the Nasdaq Stock Market in 2000 to form a publicly traded company. In 2006, the status of the Nasdaq Stock Market was changed from a market to a licensed national securities exchange. In 2007, Nasdaq merged with OMX, an exchange operator in the Nordic countries, expanded its global footprint. NASDAQ OMX could be looking to acquire the American exchanges cash equities business, at the time, NYSE Euronext’s market value was $9.75 billion. Nasdaq was valued at $5.78 billion, while ICE was valued at $9.45 billion. Late in the month, Nasdaq was reported to be considering asking either ICE or the Chicago Mercantile Exchange to join in what would probably have to be, if it proceeded, an $11–12 billion counterbid. The European Association of Securities Dealers Automatic Quotation System was founded as a European equivalent to the Nasdaq Stock Market and it was purchased by NASDAQ in 2001 and became NASDAQ Europe. Operations were shut down, however, as a result of the burst of the dot-com bubble, in 2007, NASDAQ Europe was revived as Equiduct, and is currently operating under Börse Berlin
5.
NASDAQ-100
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The NASDAQ-100 is a stock market index made up of 107 equity securities issued by 100 of the largest non-financial companies listed on the NASDAQ. It is a modified capitalization-weighted index, the stocks weights in the index are based on their market capitalizations, with certain rules capping the influence of the largest components. It is based on exchange, and it is not an index of U. S. -based companies and it does not have any financial companies, since these were put in a separate index. Both of those criteria differentiate it from the Dow Jones Industrial Average, the NASDAQ-100 began on January 31,1985 by the NASDAQ, trying to promote itself in the shadow of the New York Stock Exchange. By creating these two indices, the NASDAQ hoped that options and futures contracts would be created on them, the first annual adjustments were made in 1993 in advance of options on the index that would trade at the Chicago Board Options Exchange in 1994. Foreign companies were first admitted to the index in January 1998 and those standards were relaxed in 2002, while standards for domestic firms were raised, ensuring that all companies met the same standards. After a gradual 5-year recovery to a high of 2,239. Panic focusing on the failure of the investment banking industry culminated in a loss of more than 10% on September 29,2008, subsequently plunging the index firmly into bear market territory. The NASDAQ-100, with much of the market, experienced a Limit Down open on October 24. At the close of 2015, the index closed at 4593.27, the NASDAQ-100 is often abbreviated as NDX in the derivatives markets. Its corresponding futures contracts are traded on the Chicago Mercantile Exchange, the regular futures are denoted by the Reuters Instrument Code ND, and the smaller E-mini version uses the code NQ. Both are among the most heavily traded futures at the exchange, the PowerShares QQQ exchange-traded fund, sponsored and overseen since March 21,2007 by Invesco through PowerShares, trades under the ticker NASDAQ, QQQ. It is commonly referred to by its ticker or nickname, the ques and it was formerly called NASDAQ-100 Trust Series 1. On December 1,2004, it was moved from the American Stock Exchange where it had the symbol QQQ to the NASDAQ and given the new four letter code QQQQ, on March 23,2011, Nasdaq changed its symbol back to QQQ. As of August 2012, the fund is the third most actively traded exchange-traded product in the world, on July 17,2007, the ETF closed above $50 for the first time since early 2001. Since then, it advanced to surpass its 2007 peak. By October 18,2013, it had passed and closed above $82 to reach its highest price levels since November 6–7,2000 and highest value since September 29,2000 when adjusted for splits and dividends. The NASDAQ has over the years put in place a series of stringent standards that companies must meet before being included in the index and those standards include the following, Being listed exclusively on NASDAQ in either the Global Select or Global Market tiers
6.
S&P 500
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The S&P500 index components and their weightings are determined by S&P Dow Jones Indices. It differs from other U. S. stock market indices, such as the Dow Jones Industrial Average or the Nasdaq Composite index, because of its diverse constituency and weighting methodology. It is one of the most commonly followed equity indices, and many consider it one of the best representations of the U. S. stock market, the National Bureau of Economic Research has classified common stocks as a leading indicator of business cycles. The S&P500 was developed and continued to be maintained by S&P Dow Jones Indices, S&P Dow Jones Indices publishes many stock market indices such as the Dow Jones Industrial Average, S&P MidCap 400, the S&P SmallCap 600, and the S&P Composite 1500. It is a free-float capitalization-weighted index, and has many symbols, such as, ^GSPC, INX. The Composite Index, as the S&P500 was first called when it introduced its first stock index in 1923, three years later in 1926, the Composite Index expanded to 90 stocks and then in 1957 it expanded to its current 500. Standard & Poors, a company that doles out financial information, in 1941 Poors Publishing merged with Standard Statistics and therein assumed the name Standard and Poors Corporation. The S&P500 index in its present form began on March 4,1957, technology has allowed the index to be calculated and disseminated in real time. The S&P500 is widely used as a measure of the level of stock prices. In September 1962, Ultronic Systems Corp. entered into an agreement with Standard, under the terms of this agreement, Ultronics computed the S&P500 Stock Composite Index, the 425 Stock Industrial Index, the 50 Stock Utility Index, and the 25 Stock Rail Index. Throughout the market day these statistics were furnished to Standard & Poors, in addition, Ultronics also computed and reported the 94 S&P sub-indexes. On August 12,1982, the index closed at 102.42, the index reached a relative intraday high—which was not exceeded for over seven years—of 1,552.87, on March 24,2000, during the dot-com bubble. The index then declined by approximately 50%, to 768.63, on October 10,2002, on May 30,2007, the S&P500 closed at 1,530.23, to set its first all-time closing high in more than seven years. Less than a later, it dropped to 1,400. In mid-2007, the mortgage crisis spread to the wider U. S. financial sector. On November 20,2008, the index closed at 752.44, a modest recovery the following day still left the index down 45. 5% for the year. This year-to-date loss was the greatest since 1931, when the market declined more than 50%. The index closed the year at 903.25, for a loss of 38. 5%, the market continued to decline in early 2009, surrounding the financial crisis of 2008
7.
Telecommunication
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Telecommunication is the transmission of signs, signals, messages, writings, images and sounds or intelligence of any nature by wire, radio, optical or other electromagnetic systems. Telecommunication occurs when the exchange of information between communication participants includes the use of technology and it is transmitted either electrically over physical media, such as cables, or via electromagnetic radiation. Such transmission paths are divided into communication channels which afford the advantages of multiplexing. The term is used in its plural form, telecommunications. Early means of communicating over a distance included visual signals, such as beacons, smoke signals, semaphore telegraphs, signal flags, other examples of pre-modern long-distance communication included audio messages such as coded drumbeats, lung-blown horns, and loud whistles. Zworykin, John Logie Baird and Philo Farnsworth, the word telecommunication is a compound of the Greek prefix tele, meaning distant, far off, or afar, and the Latin communicare, meaning to share. Its modern use is adapted from the French, because its use was recorded in 1904 by the French engineer. Communication was first used as an English word in the late 14th century, in the Middle Ages, chains of beacons were commonly used on hilltops as a means of relaying a signal. Beacon chains suffered the drawback that they could pass a single bit of information. One notable instance of their use was during the Spanish Armada, in 1792, Claude Chappe, a French engineer, built the first fixed visual telegraphy system between Lille and Paris. However semaphore suffered from the need for skilled operators and expensive towers at intervals of ten to thirty kilometres, as a result of competition from the electrical telegraph, the last commercial line was abandoned in 1880. Homing pigeons have occasionally used throughout history by different cultures. Pigeon post is thought to have Persians roots and was used by the Romans to aid their military, frontinus said that Julius Caesar used pigeons as messengers in his conquest of Gaul. The Greeks also conveyed the names of the victors at the Olympic Games to various cities using homing pigeons, in the early 19th century, the Dutch government used the system in Java and Sumatra. And in 1849, Paul Julius Reuter started a service to fly stock prices between Aachen and Brussels, a service that operated for a year until the gap in the telegraph link was closed. Sir Charles Wheatstone and Sir William Fothergill Cooke invented the telegraph in 1837. Also, the first commercial electrical telegraph is purported to have constructed by Wheatstone and Cooke. Both inventors viewed their device as an improvement to the electromagnetic telegraph not as a new device, samuel Morse independently developed a version of the electrical telegraph that he unsuccessfully demonstrated on 2 September 1837
8.
Semiconductor
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Semiconductors are crystalline or amorphous solids with distinct electrical characteristics. They are of high electrical resistance — higher than typical resistance materials and their resistance decreases as their temperature increases, which is behavior opposite to that of a metal. The behavior of charge carriers which include electrons, ions and electron holes at these junctions is the basis of diodes, transistors and all modern electronics. Semiconductor devices can display a range of properties such as passing current more easily in one direction than the other, showing variable resistance. The modern understanding of the properties of a semiconductor relies on quantum physics to explain the movement of carriers in a crystal lattice. Doping greatly increases the number of carriers within the crystal. When a doped semiconductor contains mostly free holes it is called p-type, the semiconductor materials used in electronic devices are doped under precise conditions to control the concentration and regions of p- and n-type dopants. A single semiconductor crystal can have many p- and n-type regions, although some pure elements and many compounds display semiconductor properties, silicon, germanium, and compounds of gallium are the most widely used in electronic devices. Elements near the so-called metalloid staircase, where the metalloids are located on the table, are usually used as semiconductors. Some of the properties of materials were observed throughout the mid 19th. The first practical application of semiconductors in electronics was the 1904 development of the Cats-whisker detector, developments in quantum physics in turn allowed the development of the transistor in 1947 and the integrated circuit in 1958. There are several developed techniques that allow semiconducting materials to behave like conducting materials and these modifications have two outcomes, n-type and p-type. These refer to the excess or shortage of electrons, respectively, an unbalanced number of electrons would cause a current to flow through the material. Heterojunctions Heterojunctions occur when two differently doped semiconducting materials are joined together, for example, a configuration could consist of p-doped and n-doped germanium. This results in an exchange of electrons and holes between the differently doped semiconducting materials, the n-doped germanium would have an excess of electrons, and the p-doped germanium would have an excess of holes. The transfer occurs until equilibrium is reached by a process called recombination, a product of this process is charged ions, which result in an electric field. Excited Electrons A difference in electric potential on a material would cause it to leave thermal equilibrium. This introduces electrons and holes to the system, which interact via a process called ambipolar diffusion, whenever thermal equilibrium is disturbed in a semiconducting material, the amount of holes and electrons changes
9.
Irwin M. Jacobs
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Irwin Mark Jacobs is an electrical engineer, a co-founder and former chairman of Qualcomm, and chair of the board of trustees of the Salk Institute. Jacobs was born to a Jewish family in New Bedford, Massachusetts and his doctoral advisor was Edward Arthurs. Additionally, he is a brother of Sigma Alpha Mu Fraternity and he co-authored a textbook entitled Principles of Communication Engineering in 1965, which is still in use today. UCSDs Jacobs School of Engineering is named for him and his wife, in 1968 Jacobs co-founded Linkabit Corporation with Andrew Viterbi to develop satellite encryption devices. That company merged with M/A-COM in 1980, becoming M/A-COM Linkabit, in 1985 Jacobs went on to co-found Qualcomm along with Andrew Viterbi, Harvey White, Adelia Coffman, Andrew Cohen, Klein Gilhousen, and Franklin Antonio. QUALCOMM developed the OmniTRACS system was deemed one of the worlds most technologically advanced two-way mobile satellite communications and he pioneered these systems which use the communication bandwidth more efficiently than the older fixed time-sliced TDMA technology. Its Code Division Multiple Access has been adopted as one of two digital standards used in the generation of cellular telephones in North America at the time. Jacobs announced on March 3,2009 that he had stepped down as chairman of Qualcomm, Jacobs is a member of the National Academy of Engineering and a Fellow of the IEEE. He is a chairman on the Salk Institute for Biological Studies, additionally, he serves on the advisory board for the School of Economics and Management at Tsing Hua University in Beijing. He is also active on the board of directors of the Pacific Council on International Policy in Los Angeles, in 1980, Jacobs was the co-recipient, with Andrew J. Viterbi, the 1980 American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics biannual award. For his development of CDMA, Jacobs was awarded the National Medal of Technology and that same year, he was awarded the 1994 Cornell University Entrepreneur of the Year Award. In 1995, Jacobs won the 1995 IEEE Alexander Graham Bell Medal For outstanding contributions to telecommunications, including leadership, theory, practice, in 2009, he was named an AAAS Fellow. He was named a Marconi Prize recipient and Marconi Fellow in 2011, Jacobs was awarded the Bower Award for Business Leadership in 2001. Jacobs and his wife Joan Jacobs are contributors to public arts, for this, Jacobs was awarded the Woodrow Wilson Award for Corporate Citizenship in 2004. Jacobs delivered the 2005 commencement speech at MIT, and the 2008 commencement speech at the Jacobs School of Engineering, in 2011 he received the Marconi Prize together with Jack Wolf. In 2013, Jacobs was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame, in August 2013 he received the Medal of Honor from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, which is the highest honor an engineer can receive from his or her peers. The IEEE said he was receiving the not just for his innovations but for the ability to translate innovation into industry applications. In November 2013, he was conferred the title of Distinguished Honor Chair Professor of National Tsing Hua University, the San Diego Union Tribune in 2011 dubbed him the Philanthropist in Chief
10.
Andrew Viterbi
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Andrew James Viterbi is an American electrical engineer and businessman who co-founded Qualcomm Inc. and invented the Viterbi algorithm. Viterbi was born in Bergamo, Italy to Italian Jewish parents and his original name was Andrea, but when he was naturalized in the US, his parents anglicized it to Andrew. Viterbi attended the Boston Latin School, and then entered MIT in 1952 and he received both BS and MS in Electrical Engineering in 1957 from MIT. He worked at Raytheon and later at Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, simultaneously, he was carrying out a PhD study at the University of Southern California, where he graduated in 1963 in digital communications. After receiving his Ph. D. he applied successfully for a position at University of California. Viterbi was later a professor of engineering at UCLA and UCSD. In 1967 he proposed the Viterbi algorithm to decode convolutionally encoded data and it is still used widely in cellular phones for error correcting codes, as well as for speech recognition, DNA analysis, and many other applications of Hidden Markov models. On advice of a lawyer, Viterbi did not patent the algorithm, Viterbi also helped to develop the CDMA standard for cell phone networks. Viterbi was the cofounder of Linkabit Corporation, with Irwin Jacobs in 1968 and he was also the co-founder of Qualcomm Inc. with Dr. Jacobs in 1985. As of 2003, he is the president of the venture capital company The Viterbi Group and he continues to be involved in wireless communications technology companies as a strategic advisor to Ingenus board of directors. In 1998 he was one of the few receiving a Golden Jubilee Award for Technological Innovation from the IEEE Information Theory Society, Viterbi earned it for the invention of the Viterbi algorithm. In 2002, Viterbi dedicated the Andrew Viterbi 52 Computer Center at his alma mater, on March 2,2004, the University of Southern California School of Engineering was renamed the Viterbi School of Engineering in his honor, following his $52 million donation to the school. He is a member of the USC Board of Trustees and he is also on the Board of Trustees at The Scripps Research Institute. He is also founding member of ISSNAF, in 2005, he was awarded the Benjamin Franklin Medal in Electrical Engineering. In 2010, he received the IEEE Medal of Honor and in the year he also received the IIC Lifetime Achievement Award by the Italian Cultural Institute of Los Angeles. In 2011, he received the John Fritz Medal from the American Association of Engineering Societies, in 2013, Viterbi was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame. Viterbi is married to Erna Finci, with whom he had three children and his son, Alexander, died of a heart attack at the age of 40 in November,2011. The History of Wireless, How Creative Minds Produced Technology for the Masses IEEE History Center Interview The Quiet Genius, Trudy E. Bell Noteworthy alumni page at MIT
11.
Code-division multiple access
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Code division multiple access is a channel access method used by various radio communication technologies. CDMA is an example of access, where several transmitters can send information simultaneously over a single communication channel. This allows several users to share a band of frequencies, to permit this without undue interference between the users, CDMA employs spread-spectrum technology and a special coding scheme. CDMA is used as the method in many mobile phone standards. The technology of code division multiple access channels has long been known, in the Soviet Union, the first work devoted to this subject was published in 1935 by professor Dmitriy V. Ageev. It was shown that through the use of methods, there are three types of signal separation, frequency, time and compensatory. LK-1 has a weight of 3 kg, 20–30 km operating distance, the base station, as described by the author, could serve several customers. In 1958, Kupriyanovich made the new experimental pocket model of mobile phone, to serve more customers, Kupriyanovich proposed the device, named by him as correllator. In 1958, the USSR also started the development of the Altai national civil mobile phone service for cars, the phone system weighed 11 kg. It was placed in the trunk of the vehicles of high-ranking officials, the main developers of the Altai system were VNIIS and GSPI. In 1963 this service started in Moscow and in 1970 Altai service was used in 30 USSR cities, one of the early applications for code division multiplexing is in the Global Positioning System. This predates and is distinct from its use in mobile phones, the Qualcomm standard IS-95, marketed as cdmaOne. The Qualcomm standard IS-2000, known as CDMA2000, is used by mobile phone companies. The UMTS 3G mobile phone standard, which uses W-CDMA, CDMA has been used in the OmniTRACS satellite system for transportation logistics. CDMA is a multiple access technique. A spread spectrum technique spreads the bandwidth of the data uniformly for the transmitted power. A spreading code is a code that has a narrow ambiguity function. In CDMA a locally generated code runs at a higher rate than the data to be transmitted
12.
UMTS
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The Universal Mobile Telecommunications System is a third generation mobile cellular system for networks based on the GSM standard. UMTS uses wideband code division multiple access radio access technology to offer greater spectral efficiency, UMTS specifies a complete network system, which includes the radio access network, the core network and the authentication of users via SIM cards. The technology described in UMTS is sometimes referred to as Freedom of Mobile Multimedia Access or 3GSM. Unlike EDGE and CDMA2000, UMTS requires new base stations and new frequency allocations, UMTS supports maximum theoretical data transfer rates of 42 Mbit/s when Evolved HSPA is implemented in the network. Users in deployed networks can expect a transfer rate of up to 384 kbit/s for Release 99 handsets, since 2006, UMTS networks in many countries have been or are in the process of being upgraded with High-Speed Downlink Packet Access, sometimes known as 3. 5G. Currently, HSDPA enables downlink transfer speeds of up to 21 Mbit/s, work is also progressing on improving the uplink transfer speed with the High-Speed Uplink Packet Access. The first national consumer UMTS networks launched in 2002 with a emphasis on telco-provided mobile applications such as mobile TV. UMTS combines three different terrestrial air interfaces, GSMs Mobile Application Part core, and the GSM family of speech codecs, the air interfaces are called UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access. All air interface options are part of ITUs IMT-2000, in the currently most popular variant for cellular mobile telephones, W-CDMA is used. Please note that the terms W-CDMA, TD-CDMA and TD-SCDMA are misleading, while they suggest covering just a channel access method, they are actually the common names for the whole air interface standards. W-CDMA or WCDMA, along with UMTS-FDD, UTRA-FDD, or IMT-2000 CDMA Direct Spread is an air interface found in 3G mobile telecommunications networks. W-CDMA uses the DS-CDMA channel access method with a pair of 5 MHz wide channels, in contrast, the competing CDMA2000 system uses one or more available 1.25 MHz channels for each direction of communication. W-CDMA systems are criticized for their large spectrum usage, which delayed deployment in countries that acted relatively slowly in allocating new frequencies specifically for 3G services. The specific frequency bands originally defined by the UMTS standard are 1885–2025 MHz for the mobile-to-base, in the US, 1710–1755 MHz and 2110–2155 MHz are used instead, as the 1900 MHz band was already used. Some carriers such as T-Mobile use band numbers to identify the UMTS frequencies, in the late 1990s, W-CDMA was developed by NTT DoCoMo as the air interface for their 3G network FOMA. Later NTT DoCoMo submitted the specification to the International Telecommunication Union as a candidate for the international 3G standard known as IMT-2000. The ITU eventually accepted W-CDMA as part of the IMT-2000 family of 3G standards, as an alternative to CDMA2000, EDGE, later, W-CDMA was selected as an air interface for UMTS. As NTT DoCoMo did not wait for the finalisation of the 3G Release 99 specification, however, this has been resolved by NTT DoCoMo updating their network
13.
Chipset
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In a computer system, a chipset is a set of electronic components in an integrated circuit that manages the data flow between the processor, memory and peripherals. It is usually found on the motherboard, chipsets are usually designed to work with a specific family of microprocessors. Because it controls communications between the processor and external devices, the plays a crucial role in determining system performance. In computing, the term commonly refers to a set of specialized chips on a computers motherboard or an expansion card. In personal computers, the first chipset for the IBM PC AT of 1984 was the NEAT chipset developed by Chips, in home computers, game consoles and arcade-game hardware of the 1980s and 1990s, the term chipset was used for the custom audio and graphics chips. Examples include the Commodore Amigas Original Chip Set or SEGAs System 16 chipset, the term chipset often refers to a specific pair of chips on the motherboard, the northbridge and the southbridge. The northbridge links the CPU to very high-speed devices, especially RAM and graphics controllers, in many modern chipsets, the southbridge contains some on-chip integrated peripherals, such as Ethernet, USB, and audio devices. Motherboards and their chipsets often come from different manufacturers, as of 2015, manufacturers of chipsets for x86 motherboards include AMD, Broadcom, Intel, NVIDIA, SiS and VIA Technologies. Apple computers and Unix workstations have traditionally used custom-designed chipsets, some server manufacturers also develop custom chipsets for their products. In the 1980s Chips and Technologies pioneered the manufacturing of chipsets for PC-compatible computers, computer systems produced since then often share commonly used chipsets, even across widely disparate computing specialties. For example, the NCR 53C9x, a low-cost chipset implementing a SCSI interface to devices, could be found in Unix machines such as the MIPS Magnum, embedded devices. Traditionally in x86 computers, the primary connection to the rest of the machine is through the motherboard chipsets northbridge. The northbridge is directly responsible for communications with high-speed devices and conversely any system communication back to the processor and this connection between the processor and northbridge is traditionally known as the front side bus. Requests to resources not directly controlled by the northbridge are offloaded to the southbridge, the southbridge traditionally handles everything else, generally lower-speed peripherals and board functions such as USB, parallel and serial communications. The connection between the northbridge and southbridge does not have a name, but is usually a high-speed interconnect proprietary to the chipset vendor. This made processor performance highly dependent on the chipset, especially the northbridges memory performance. In 2003, however, AMDs introduction of the Athlon 64-bit series of processors changed this, Intel followed suit in 2008 with the release of its Core i series CPUs and the X58 platform. In newer processors integration has increased, primarily through the inclusion of the systems primary PCIe controller
14.
Qualcomm Snapdragon
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Snapdragon is a suite of system on a chip semiconductor products designed and marketed by Qualcomm for mobile devices. Snapdragon semiconductors are embedded in devices of various systems, including Google Android mobile and they are also used for netbooks, in cars, wearable devices and other devices. The first Snapdragon product to be available to consumer device manufacturers was the QSD8250. It included the first 1 GHz processor for mobile phones, Qualcomm introduced its Krait microarchitecture in the second generation of Snapdragon SoCs in 2011, allowing each processor core to adjust its speed based on the devices needs. At the 2013 Consumer Electronics Show, Qualcomm introduced the first of the Snapdragon 800 series, several new iterations have been introduced since, such as the Snapdragon 805,810,615 and 410. Qualcomm re-branded its modem products under the Snapdragon name in December 2014, Qualcomm announced it was developing the Scorpion central processing unit in November 2005. The Snapdragon system on chip was announced in November 2006 and included the Scorpion processor and this also included Qualcomms first custom Hexagon digital signal processor. According to a Qualcomm spokesperson, it was named Snapdragon, because Snap and Dragon sounded fast, the following month, Qualcomm acquired Airgo Networks for an undisclosed amount, it said Airgos 802. 11a/b/g and 802. 11n Wi-Fi technology would be integrated with the Snapdragon product suite. Early versions of Scorpion had a core design similar to the Cortex-A8. The first Snapdragon shipments were of the QSD8250 in November 2007, according to CNET, Snapdragons claim to fame was having the first 1 GHz mobile phone processor. Most smartphones at the time were using 500 MHz processors, the first generation of Snapdragon products supported a 720p resolution, 3D graphics and a 12-megapixel camera. By November 2008,15 device manufacturers decided to embed Snapdragon semiconductors in their electronics products. In November 2008, Qualcomm announced it would compete against Intel in the netbook processor market with dual-core Snapdragon system-on-chips planned for late 2009. It demonstrated a Snapdragon processor that consumed less power than Intel chips announced around the same time and that same month, Qualcomm introduced a Snapdragon-based protoytpe netbook called Kayak that used 1.5 GHz processors and was intended for developing markets. In May 2009, Java SE was ported and optimized for Snapdragon, at the November 2009 Computex Taipei show, Qualcomm announced the QSD8650A addition to the Snapdragon product suite, which was based on 45 nanometer manufacturing processes. It featured a 1.2 GHz processor and had lower power consumption than prior models, by late 2009, smartphone manufacturers announced they would be using Snapdragon SoCs in the Acer Liquid Metal, HTC HD2, Toshiba TG01 and the Sony Ericsson Xperia X10. Lenovo announced the first netbook product using Snapdragon SoCs that December, according to PC World, mobile devices using Snapdragon had better battery life and were smaller in size than those using other SoCs. By June 2010, Snapdragon chips were embedded in 20 available consumer devices, Apple had a dominant market position for smartphones at the time and did not incorporate Snapdragon into any of its products
15.
Binary Runtime Environment for Wireless
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It is offered in some feature phones but not in smartphones. Developed in 1999, as a platform for applications on CDMA-based mobile phones. Software for Brew MP enabled handsets can be developed in C or C++ using the freely downloadable Brew MP software development kit, Brew is described as a pseudo operating system, but not a true mobile operating system. Brew is not a machine such as Java ME. It has a footprint of about 15,900 K, From Brew 1. x until 2. x. Brew also features direct hardware access, versions before Brew MP ran/relied on REX OS, while Brew MP uses Brew RTOS. Rather than using a code, Brew also relied on its own mobile hardware. Debuted in 2001, it was the very first version of Brew, originally made for the Kyocera QCP-3035 and Sharp Z-800. However, it lacks advanced multimedia features and support for Java ME that were available in subsequent versions and it was the only version of Brew to support monochrome screens as support for monochrome screens were removed in Brew 2.0. Brew 1.1 was the first version of Brew to run Java ME applications and it was available in some Brew-enabled phones in 2002 and early 2003. Released in the mid-2002, it was installed for most of the Brew-enabled in late-2002 until early 2004, includes support for advanced multimedia playbacks, connectivity for EV-DO and Bluetooth support, as well as screen savers and other improvements. It also supports MIDP2.0 on Brew 2.1 and it is backward compatible with Brew 2. x applications, but not with Brew 1. x applications. It is also the first version of Brew to support 3D graphics, hardware 3D graphics is supported if the Brew system detects an OpenGL ES1. 0-based chip. It was installed on most feature phones in the United States and in other countries since 2005 and it is also used for the Zeebo console in Mexico and Brazil. Released in 2007 until 2011, it was installed on very few phones. It has only a few improvements and it was succeeded by Brew MP. It has additional features that were available in Brew MP, such as the support of accelerometer and other changes. Released in 2009, internally known as Brew 5.0, it has new features and certain improvements
16.
MediaFLO
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MediaFLO was a technology developed by Qualcomm for transmitting audio, video and data to portable devices such as mobile phones and personal televisions, used for mobile television. In the United States, the powered by this technology was branded as FLO TV. Broadcast data transmitted via MediaFLO includes live, real time audio and video streams, as well as scheduled video and audio clips, the technology could also carry Internet Protocol datacast application data, such as stock market quotes, sports scores, and weather reports. In October 2010, Qualcomm announced it was suspending new sales of the service to consumers, in December 2010, AT&T announced that it will purchase Qualcomms FCC licenses in the 700 MHz band. FLO TV discontinued service on March 27,2011, the FLO in MediaFLO stood for Forward Link Only, meaning that the data transmission path is one way, from the tower to the device. The MediaFLO system transmitted data on a separate from the frequencies used by current mobile telephone networks. In the United States, the MediaFLO system used frequency spectrum 716-722 MHz, the protocol was developed because of the inherent spectral inefficiency of unicasting high-rate full-motion video to multiple subscribers. Additionally, traditional analog television and over-the-air terrestrial digital television signals were difficult to implement on mobile devices, ATSC, used only by the United States and its neighbors, also has difficulty even with fixed reception due to multipath, and mobile ATSC-M/H was not finalized until 2008. In addition, the transmission need not convey as high a resolution as would be needed for a larger display, MediaFLO streams are only 200-250 kbit/s, which would be insufficient for a larger screen size. In the now defunct United States implementation, FLO was transmitted by a network of high-power broadcast transmitters operating at effective radiated powers as high as 50 kilowatts and this allowed for a coverage area of a transmitter to be as large as 30 to 40 kilometres. The activation of many of these transmitters were delayed due to the end of analog TV broadcasting on channel 55 being delayed. Immediately following the transition, the FLO network was expanded to new markets. The transmission was an encrypted OFDM set of QAM signals sent on a 5.55 MHz channel from 716-722 MHz, however, this is owned by Manifest Wireless in most other media markets, where ATSC-M/H signals were on air. All of the transmitters sent the signal and used the same frequency. This allowed the mobile to decode the signal more than one transmitter in the same way that it might if it was a multipath-delayed version from the same transmitter. All stations used callsign WPZA237, but each has an identifier indicating its group, for example, one station in the metro Atlanta media market was ATL-006, while another was ATL-014. Some other operational parameters of MediaFLO are as follows, All of the bearer traffic occurred within an MLC using the 3500 non-overhead subcarriers, the protocol also contemplates a certain amount of inter-symbol time spacing, to allow for the effects of multi-path transmission and reception. There is a window time TWGI included both before and after each OFDM symbol, however, since this window is shared between each two consecutive symbols, TS = TU + TWGI + TFGI
17.
Qualcomm
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Qualcomm is an American multinational semiconductor and telecommunications equipment company that designs and markets wireless telecommunications products and services. It derives most of its revenue from chipmaking and the bulk of its profit from patent licensing businesses, the company headquarters are located in San Diego, California, United States, and has 224 worldwide locations. The parent company is Qualcomm Incorporated, which includes the Qualcomm Technology Licensing Division, Jacobs and Viterbi had previously founded Linkabit. In 1990, Qualcomm began the design of the first CDMA-based cellular base station and this work began as a study contract from AirTouch which was facing a shortage of cellular capacity in Los Angeles. Two years later Qualcomm began to manufacture CDMA cell phones, base stations, the initial base stations were not reliable and the technology was licensed wholly to Nortel in return for their work in improving the base station switching. The first CDMA technology was standardized as IS-95, Qualcomm has since helped to establish the CDMA2000, WCDMA and LTE cellular standards. The following year, Qualcomm acquired Eudora, a client for PC that could be used with the OmniTRACS system. The acquisition associated a widely used email client with a company that was little-known at the time, in 1997, Qualcomm paid $18 million for the naming rights to the Jack Murphy Stadium in San Diego, renaming it to Qualcomm Stadium. The naming rights belong to Qualcomm until 2017. In 1999, Qualcomm sold its base station business to Ericsson, the company was now focused on developing and licensing wireless technologies and selling ASICs that implement them. Steve Mollenkopf was promoted to president and chief operating officer of the company, mollenkopfs appointment as CEO was announced on December 13,2013 and took effect on March 4,2014. He succeeded Paul E. Jacobs, who remains executive chairman, CFO Bill Keitel retired and was replaced by Applied Materials CFO George Davis on March 11,2013. Vista Equity Partners took over the Omnitracs business from Qualcomm Incorporated in November 2013, in October 2014, Qualcomm wrapped up a deal for chip maker CSR Plc for a fee of $2.5 billion, beating its biggest rival Microchip Technology. However, surprised by the release of the 64-bit Apple A7 in September 2013, furthermore, Qualcomm was facing anti-trust investigations in China, the European Union, and the United States. The combination of pressures caused a significant fall in Qualcomms profits. In July 2015, the company cut 4,700 jobs or about 15 percent of its 31,300 current workforce due to decline of sales, executive management knew this was coming so they came up with a plan to retain its employees. However, instead of paying reasonable salary, executive management used this plan as a justification to give themselves a big payout first and then lay off employees later. In December 2015, Qualcomm Inc. announced that it had rejected calls to split itself in two, deciding to keep its chipmaking and patent licensing businesses together
18.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
19.
Earnings before interest and taxes
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In accounting and finance, earnings before interest and taxes, is a measure of a firms profit that includes all expenses except interest and income tax expenses. It is the difference between operating revenues and operating expenses, when a firm does not have non-operating income, then operating income is sometimes used as a synonym for EBIT and operating profit. To calculate EBIT, expenses are subtracted from revenues, net income is later obtained by subtracting interest and taxes from the result
20.
Net income
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In business, net income is an entitys income minus cost of goods sold, expenses and taxes for an accounting period. In the context of the presentation of financial statements, the IFRS Foundation defines net income as synonymous with profit, net income is a distinct accounting concept from profit but the same as net profit. Net income can also be calculated by adding a companys operating income to non-operating income, net income can be distributed among holders of common stock as a dividend or held by the firm as an addition to retained earnings. As profit and earnings are used synonymously for income, net earnings, often, the term income is substituted for net income, yet this is not preferred due to the possible ambiguity. Net income is called the bottom line because it is typically found on the last line of a companys income statement. The items deducted will typically include tax expense, financing expense, likewise, preferred stock dividends will be subtracted too, though they are not an expense. For a merchandising company, subtracted costs may be the cost of goods sold, sales discounts, for a product company advertising, manufacturing, and design and development costs are included
21.
Asset
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In financial accounting, an asset is an economic resource. Anything tangible or intangible that can be owned or controlled to produce value, simply stated, assets represent value of ownership that can be converted into cash. The balance sheet of a firm records the value of the assets owned by that firm. It covers money and other valuables belonging to an individual or to a business, one can classify assets into two major asset classes, tangible assets and intangible assets. Tangible assets contain various subclasses, including current assets and fixed assets, current assets include inventory, while fixed assets include such items as buildings and equipment. Intangible assets are resources and rights that have a value to the firm because they give the firm some kind of advantage in the marketplace. Examples of intangible assets include goodwill, copyrights, trademarks, patents and computer programs, an asset is a resource controlled by the entity as a result of past events and from which future economic benefits are expected to flow to the entity. One of the most widely accepted accounting definitions of asset is the one used by the International Accounting Standards Board, employees are not considered assets like machinery is, even though they can generate future economic benefits. This is because an entity does not have sufficient control over its employees to satisfy the Frameworks definition of an asset, similarly, in economics an asset is any form in which wealth can be held. The accounting equation is the structure of the balance sheet. It relates assets, liabilities, and owners equity, Assets = Liabilities + Capital Liabilities = Assets − Capital Equity = Assets − Liabilities Assets are listed on the balance sheet. On a companys balance sheet certain divisions are required by generally accepted accounting principles, Assets can be divided into e. g. current assets and fixed assets, often with further subdivisions such as cash, receivables and inventory. Assets are formally controlled and managed within larger organizations via the use of asset tracking tools and these monitor the purchasing, upgrading, servicing, licensing, disposal etc. of both physical and non-physical assets. Current assets are cash and other assets expected to be converted to cash or consumed either in a year or in the operating cycle and these assets are continually turned over in the course of a business during normal business activity. There are 5 major items included into current assets, Cash and cash equivalents – it is the most liquid asset, which includes currency, deposit accounts, short-term investments – include securities bought and held for sale in the near future to generate income on short-term price differences. Receivables – usually reported as net of allowance for non-collectable accounts, inventory – trading these assets is a normal business of a company. The inventory value reported on the sheet is usually the historical cost or fair market value. This is known as the lower of cost or market rule, prepaid expenses – these are expenses paid in cash and recorded as assets before they are used or consumed
22.
Equity (finance)
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In accounting, equity is the difference between the value of the assets and the value of the liabilities of something owed. Equity can be negative if liabilities exceeds assets, shareholders equity represents the equity of a company as divided among shareholders of common or preferred stock. Negative shareholders equity is often referred to as a shareholders deficit, alternatively, equity can also refer to the capital stock of a corporation. The value of the stock depends on the future economic prospects. For a company in liquidation proceedings, the equity is that which remains after all liabilities have been paid, when starting a business, the owners fund the business to finance various operations. Throughout the businesss existence, the equity of the business will be the difference between its assets and debt liabilities, this is the accounting equation, when a business liquidates during bankruptcy, the proceeds from the assets are used to reimburse creditors. The creditors are ranked by priority, with secured creditors being paid first, other creditors being paid next, owners equity is this remaining or residual claim against assets, which is paid only after all other creditors are paid. In such cases where even creditors could not get money to pay their bills. In financial accounting, owners equity consists of the net assets of an entity, net assets is the difference between the total assets and total liabilities. Equity appears on the sheet, one of the four primary financial statements. The assets of an entity can be tangible and intangible items. Intangible assets include such as brand names, copyrights or goodwill. Tangible assets include land, equipment, and cash, issue of new equity in which the firm obtains new capital increases the total shareholders equity. Share repurchases, in which a firm returns money to investors, reducing on the side its financial assets. For practical purposes, share repurchasing is similar to a dividend payment, rather than giving money to all shareholders immediately in the form of a dividend payment, a share repurchase reduces the number of shares outstanding. Dividends paid out to preferred stock owners are considered an expense to be subtracted from net income, sometimes assets bought and held in other countries get translated back into the reporting currency at different exchange rates, resulting in a changed value. When the owners are shareholders, the interest can be called shareholders equity, the remains the same. If all shareholders are in one and the class, they share equally in ownership equity from all perspectives
23.
Cornell University
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Cornell University is an American private Ivy League and land-grant doctoral university located in Ithaca, New York. These ideals, unconventional for the time, are captured in Cornells motto, the university also administers two satellite medical campuses, one in New York City and one in Education City, Qatar. Cornell is one of three private land grant universities in the nation and the one in New York. Of its seven colleges, three are state-supported statutory or contract colleges through the State University of New York system, including its agricultural. Of Cornells graduate schools, only the college is state-supported. As a land grant college, Cornell operates a cooperative extension program in every county of New York. The Cornell University Ithaca Campus comprises 745 acres, but is larger when the Cornell Botanic Gardens are considered. Since its founding, Cornell has been a co-educational, non-sectarian institution where admission has not been restricted by religion or race, the student body consists of more than 14,000 undergraduate and 7,000 graduate students from all 50 American states and more than 120 countries. Cornell University was founded on April 27,1865, the New York State Senate authorized the university as the land grant institution. Senator Ezra Cornell offered his farm in Ithaca, New York, as a site, fellow senator and experienced educator Andrew Dickson White agreed to be the first president. During the next three years, White oversaw the construction of the first two buildings and traveled to attract students and faculty, the university was inaugurated on October 7,1868, and 412 men were enrolled the next day. Cornell developed as an innovative institution, applying its research to its own campus as well as to outreach efforts. For example, in 1883 it was one of the first university campuses to use electricity from a dynamo to light the grounds. Cornell has had active alumni since its earliest classes and it was one of the first universities to include alumni-elected representatives on its Board of Trustees. Today the university has more than 4,000 courses, since 2000, Cornell has been expanding its international programs. In 2004, the university opened the Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar and it has partnerships with institutions in India, Singapore, and the Peoples Republic of China. Former president Jeffrey S. Lehman described the university, with its international profile. On March 9,2004, Cornell and Stanford University laid the cornerstone for a new Bridging the Rift Center to be built, Cornells main campus is on East Hill in Ithaca, New York, overlooking the town and Cayuga Lake
24.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
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The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is a private research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, often cited as one of the worlds most prestigious universities. Researchers worked on computers, radar, and inertial guidance during World War II, post-war defense research contributed to the rapid expansion of the faculty and campus under James Killian. The current 168-acre campus opened in 1916 and extends over 1 mile along the bank of the Charles River basin. The Institute is traditionally known for its research and education in the sciences and engineering, and more recently in biology, economics, linguistics. Air Force and 6 Fields Medalists have been affiliated with MIT, the school has a strong entrepreneurial culture, and the aggregated revenues of companies founded by MIT alumni would rank as the eleventh-largest economy in the world. In 1859, a proposal was submitted to the Massachusetts General Court to use newly filled lands in Back Bay, Boston for a Conservatory of Art and Science, but the proposal failed. A charter for the incorporation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Rogers, a professor from the University of Virginia, wanted to establish an institution to address rapid scientific and technological advances. The Rogers Plan reflected the German research university model, emphasizing an independent faculty engaged in research, as well as instruction oriented around seminars, two days after the charter was issued, the first battle of the Civil War broke out. After a long delay through the war years, MITs first classes were held in the Mercantile Building in Boston in 1865, in 1863 under the same act, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts founded the Massachusetts Agricultural College, which developed as the University of Massachusetts Amherst. In 1866, the proceeds from sales went toward new buildings in the Back Bay. MIT was informally called Boston Tech, the institute adopted the European polytechnic university model and emphasized laboratory instruction from an early date. Despite chronic financial problems, the institute saw growth in the last two decades of the 19th century under President Francis Amasa Walker. Programs in electrical, chemical, marine, and sanitary engineering were introduced, new buildings were built, the curriculum drifted to a vocational emphasis, with less focus on theoretical science. The fledgling school still suffered from chronic financial shortages which diverted the attention of the MIT leadership, during these Boston Tech years, MIT faculty and alumni rebuffed Harvard University president Charles W. Eliots repeated attempts to merge MIT with Harvard Colleges Lawrence Scientific School. There would be at least six attempts to absorb MIT into Harvard, in its cramped Back Bay location, MIT could not afford to expand its overcrowded facilities, driving a desperate search for a new campus and funding. Eventually the MIT Corporation approved an agreement to merge with Harvard, over the vehement objections of MIT faculty, students. However, a 1917 decision by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court effectively put an end to the merger scheme, the neoclassical New Technology campus was designed by William W. Bosworth and had been funded largely by anonymous donations from a mysterious Mr. Smith, starting in 1912. In January 1920, the donor was revealed to be the industrialist George Eastman of Rochester, New York, who had invented methods of production and processing
25.
University of California, San Diego
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The University of California, San Diego is a public research university located in the La Jolla neighborhood of San Diego, California, in the United States. The university occupies 2,141 acres near the coast of the Pacific Ocean with the main campus resting on approximately 1,152 acres, UC San Diego is organized into six undergraduate residential colleges, three graduate schools, and two professional medical schools. UC San Diego is also home to Scripps Institution of Oceanography, one of the first centers dedicated to ocean, earth and atmospheric science research and education. UC San Diego Health, the only academic health system, provides patient care, conducts medical research. According to the National Science Foundation, UC San Diego spent $1.101 billion on research and development in fiscal year 2015, ranking it 5th in the nation. UC San Diego faculty, researchers, and alumni have won 20 Nobel Prizes, eight National Medals of Science, eight MacArthur Fellowships, two Pulitzer Prizes, and three Fields medals. Local citizens supported the idea, voting the same year to transfer to the university 59 acres of land on the coast near the preexisting Scripps Institution of Oceanography. This outraged local conservatives, as well as Regent Edwin W. Pauley, UC President Clark Kerr satisfied San Diego city donors by changing the proposed name from University of California, La Jolla, to University of California, San Diego. The city voted in agreement to its part in 1958, because of the clash with Pauley, Revelle was not made chancellor. Herbert York, first director of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, was designated instead, York planned the main campus according to the Oxbridge model, relying on many of Revelles ideas. UC San Diego was the first general campus of the University of California to be designed from the top down in terms of research emphasis, local leaders disagreed on whether the new school should be a technical research institute or a more broadly based school that included undergraduates as well. John Jay Hopkins of General Dynamics Corporation pledged one million dollars for the former while the City Council offered free land for the latter, maria Goeppert-Mayer, later the second female Nobel laureate in physics, was appointed professor of physics in 1960. The graduate division of the school opened in 1960 with 20 faculty in residence, with instruction offered in the fields of physics, biology, chemistry, before the main campus completed construction, classes were held in the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. By 1963, new facilities on the mesa had been finished for the School of Science and Engineering, ten additional faculty in those disciplines were hired, and the whole site was designated the First College, later renamed after Roger Revelle, of the new campus. York resigned as chancellor that year and was replaced by John Semple Galbraith, the undergraduate program accepted its first class of 181 freshman at Revelle College in 1964. Second College was founded in 1964, on the land deeded by the federal government, the School of Medicine also accepted its first students in 1966. Political theorist Herbert Marcuse joined the faculty in 1965, a champion of the New Left, he reportedly was the first protestor to occupy the administration building in a demonstration organized by his student, political activist Angela Davis. Further student unrest was felt at the university, as the United States increased its involvement in the Vietnam War during the early 1960s, protests escalated as the war continued and were only exacerbated after the National Guard fired on student protesters at Kent State University in 1970
26.
University of Southern California
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The University of Southern California is a private research university founded in 1880 with its main campus in Los Angeles, California. As Californias oldest private university, USC has historically educated a large number of the regions business leaders. In recent decades, the university has also leveraged its location in Los Angeles to establish relationships with research and cultural institutions throughout Asia, an engine for economic activity, USC contributes $8 billion annually to the economy of the Los Angeles metropolitan area and California. For the 2014–15 academic year, there were 18,740 students enrolled in undergraduate programs. USC also has 23,729 graduate and professional students in a number of different programs, including business, law, engineering, social work, and medicine. The university is one of the top fundraising institutions in the world, consistently ranking among the top 3 in external contributions, multiple academic rankings list the University of Southern California as being among the top 25 universities in the United States. With an acceptance rate of 16 percent, USC is also among the most selective academic institutions in the nation. USC maintains a tradition of innovation and entrepreneurship, with alumni having founded companies such as Lucasfilm, Myspace, Salesforce. com, Intuit, Qualcomm, Box, Tinder. As of 2014, the university has produced the fourth largest number of billionaire alumni out of all institutions in the world. USC is home to the world’s most powerful computer, which is presently housed in a super-cooled. The only other commercially available quantum computing system is operated jointly by NASA, USC was also one of the earliest nodes on ARPANET and is the birthplace of the Domain Name System. Other technologies invented at USC include DNA computing, dynamic programming, image compression, VoIP, USC sponsors a variety of intercollegiate sports and competes in the National Collegiate Athletic Association as a member of the Pac-12 Conference. Members of the teams, the Trojans, have won 102 NCAA team championships, ranking them third in the nation. Trojan athletes have won 288 medals at the Olympic games, more than any university in the United States. If USC were a country, its athletes would have received the 12th-most Olympic gold medals in history. In 1969, it joined the Association of American Universities, the University of Southern California was founded following the efforts of Judge Robert M. Hellman. The three donated 308 lots of land to establish the campus and provided the seed money for the construction of the first buildings. Originally operated in affiliation with the Methodist Church, the school mandated from the start that no student would be denied admission because of race, the university is no longer affiliated with any church, having severed formal ties in 1952
27.
Viterbi decoder
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A Viterbi decoder uses the Viterbi algorithm for decoding a bitstream that has been encoded using convolutional code or trellis code. There are other algorithms for decoding a convolutionally encoded stream, the Viterbi algorithm is the most resource-consuming, but it does the maximum likelihood decoding. It is most often used for decoding convolutional codes with constraint lengths k<=10, Viterbi decoding was developed by Andrew J. There are both hardware and software implementations of a Viterbi decoder, there are hard decision and soft decision Viterbi decoders. A hard decision Viterbi decoder receives a simple bitstream on its input, a soft decision Viterbi decoder receives a bitstream containing information about the reliability of each received symbol. For instance, in a 3-bit encoding, this reliability information can be encoded as follows, Of course, the squared Euclidean distance is used as a metric for soft decision decoders. A path metric unit summarizes branch metrics to get metrics for 2 K −1 paths, every clock it makes 2 K −1 decisions, throwing off wittingly nonoptimal paths. The results of decisions are written to the memory of a traceback unit. The core elements of a PMU are ACS units, the way in which they are connected between themselves is defined by a specific codes trellis diagram. Since branch metrics are always ≥0, there must be an additional circuit preventing metric counters from overflow, the compare circuit is essentially unchanged. It is possible to monitor the level on the incoming bit stream by monitoring the rate of growth of the best path metric. A simpler way to do this is to monitor a single location or state, as it passes upward through each of these thresholds, a counter is incremented that reflects the noise present on the incoming signal. Back-trace unit restores an maximum-likelihood path from the decisions made by PMU, since it does it in inverse direction, a viterbi decoder comprises a FILO buffer to reconstruct a correct order. Note that the implementation shown on the image requires double frequency, there are some tricks that eliminate this requirement. In order to fully exploit benefits of soft decision decoding, one needs to quantize the input signal properly. The optimal quantization zone width is defined by the formula, T = N02 k, where N0 is a noise power spectral density. The squared norm distance between the received and the symbols in the code alphabet may be further simplified into a linear sum/difference form. Consider a 1/2 convolutional coder, which generates 2 bits for every input bit and these Return-to-Zero signals are translated into a Non-Return-to-Zero form shown alongside
28.
AirTouch
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AirTouch Communications was a U. S. -based wireless telephone service provider, created as a spin-off on Pacific Telesis on April 1,1994. Its headquarters were in One California in the Financial District, San Francisco, after a series of mergers, it became part of Verizon Wireless. At the time of the Bell System divestiture in 1984, each Regional Bell Operating Company was given a portion of the Advanced Mobile Phone System network corresponding to its service area. Pacific Telesis, the Baby Bell covering California and Nevada, spun off its wireless services as AirTouch Communications in 1994, U S Wests U S West New Vector was also created from AMPS. In July 1994, U S West agreed to a joint venture with AirTouch as a prelude to merging the cellular unit into AirTouch, by 1996, all accounts were operated under the AirTouch name. Due to regulatory issues, the merger was not completed until February 1998. As part of the merger, certain overlapping areas of coverage had to be sold to other wireless providers, many of these went to GTE Wireless. On June 30,1999, AirTouch Communications merged with UK-based Vodafone Group Plc, becoming Vodafone AirTouch Plc and this wireless joint venture received regulatory approval in six months, and began operations as Verizon Wireless on April 4,2000. For the joint venture, Verizon Communications owns 55% and Vodafone owns 45%, in 2014, Verizon Communications purchased the 45% owned by Vodafone. AirTouch Paging was re-branded as Verizon Wireless Messaging Services, in June,2006, Verizon Wireless sold the paging division to American Messaging Services, effectively ending Verizon Wireless Messaging Services. Verizon Wireless still maintains a center in some of the buildings that used to house AirTouch Cellulars call center. In 1994, AirTouch was innovative in its approach to people management and it invested in its employees in incentives, training, opportunities, and innovation. It resulted in an unmatched loyalty from its employees, regardless of position, all employees were approved to take training and higher education without budget limits. They focused on Total Quality Management which encouraged all employees to submit process improvement ideas annually following the Quality Blue Print Advantage, notable were Benjamin Franklin distributions with customer growth milestones from the GM/VPs desk without it being taxable and Right Things Right. In July 1994, AirTouch Communications and US West formed a joint venture to merge their cellular operations. In May 1996, US West New Vector Group rebranded US West Cellular as AirTouch Cellular, in April 1997, AirTouch tried to buy US West New Vector but missed the Morris Trust filing deadline by one day. In February 1998, AirTouch Communications bought US West New Vector from US West Media for $5.7 billion and this made AirTouch the second largest wireless company in the US. In January 1999, Vodafone bid $62 billion for AirTouch, in June 1999, Vodafone Group Plc merged with AirTouch Communications, creating Vodafone Airtouch Plc
29.
Nortel
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It was founded in Montreal, Quebec in 1895 as the Northern Electric and Manufacturing Company. At its height, Nortel accounted for more than a third of the valuation of all the companies listed on the Toronto Stock Exchange. Nortel had filed for protection from its creditors in the United States, Canada, in June 2009, the company announced it would cease operations and sell off all of its business units. The period of protection was extended to February 2,2013. As part of the proceedings in the United States, Nortel Networks Inc. publishes monthly operating reports outlining cash receipts and disbursements. By 2016 Nortel had sold billions of dollars worth of assets and he later refined its design at Brantford after producing his first working prototype in Boston. In addition to phones, four years later, the department started manufacturing its first switchboard, the small manufacturing department expanded yearly with the growth and popularity of the telephone to 50 employees in 1888. By 1890 it had transformed into its own branch of operations with 200 employees. As the manufacturing branch expanded, its production ability increased beyond the demand for phones and this was a problem because the Bell Telephone Company of Canadas charter would not allow them to build other products. This company was incorporated as the Northern Electric and Manufacturing Company Limited, Northern Electric and Manufacturing Company Limited was incorporated on 7 December 1895, by the following corporate members, Charles Fleetford Sise Sr. McFarlane, manager, all of the city and district of Montreal, the initial stock capital was $50,000 at $100 per share, with 93 percent held by the Bell Telephone Company of Canada and the remainder held by the seven corporate members above. The first general meeting was held on March 24,1896. In December 1899, The Bell Telephone Company of Canada bought a company for $500,000. Northern Electric and Manufacturing further expanded its line in 1900. In 1911 the Wire and Cable company changed its name to the Imperial Wire, the construction of a new manufacturing plant started in 1913 at Shearer Street in Montreal, Canada, as preparations began for the two manufacturing companies integration. This facility at Shearer Street was the manufacturing centre until the mid-1950s. Edward Fleetford Sise was the president and his brother Paul Fleetford Sise was the vice-president, during the First World War Northern Electric manufactured the Portable Commutator, a one-wire telegraphic switchboard for military operations in the field. In 1922, Northern started to produce, for $5, the Peanut vacuum tube, the use of alternating current was still under development during this time
30.
CdmaOne
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Interim Standard 95 was the first ever CDMA-based digital cellular technology. It was developed by Qualcomm and later adopted as a standard by the Telecommunications Industry Association in TIA/EIA/IS-95 release published in 1995, the proprietary name for IS-95 is cdmaOne. It is a 2G mobile telecommunications standard that uses CDMA, an access scheme for digital radio, to send voice, data. CDMA or code division multiple access is a radio system that transmits streams of bits. CDMA permits several radios to share the same frequencies, unlike TDMA time division multiple access, a competing system used in 2G GSM, all radios can be active all the time, because network capacity does not directly limit the number of active radios. In North America, the technology competed with Digital AMPS and it is now being supplanted by IS-2000, a later CDMA-based standard. CdmaOnes technical history is reflective of both its birth as a Qualcomm internal project, and the world of then-unproven competing digital cellular standards under which it was developed, the term IS-95 generically applies to the earlier set of protocol revisions, namely P_REVs one through five. P_REV=1 was developed under an ANSI standards process with documentation reference J-STD-008, J-STD-008, published in 1995, was only defined for the then-new North American PCS band. The term IS-95 properly refers to P_REV=1, developed under the Telecommunications Industry Association standards process, IS-95 offered interoperation with the analog cellular network. For digital operation, IS-95 and J-STD-008 have most technical details in common, the immature style and structure of both documents are highly reflective of the standardizing of Qualcomms internal project. P_REV=2 is termed Interim Standard 95A, IS-95A was developed for Band Class 0 only, as in incremental improvement over IS-95 in the TIA standards process. P_REV=3 is termed Technical Services Bulletin 74, tSB-74 was the next incremental improvement over IS-95A in the TIA standards process. P_REV=4 is termed Interim Standard 95B Phase I, and P_REV=5 is termed Interim Standard 95B Phase II, p_REV=4 was by far the most popular variant of IS-95, with P_REV=5 only seeing minimal uptake in South Korea. P_REV=6 and beyond fall under the CDMA2000 umbrella, besides technical improvements, the IS-2000 documents are much more mature in terms of layout and content. They also provide backwards-compatibility to IS-95, the IS-95 standards describe an air interface, a set of protocols used between mobile units and the network. IS-95 defines the transmission of signals in both the forward and reverse directions, in the forward direction, radio signals are transmitted by base stations. Every BTS is synchronized with a GPS receiver so transmissions are tightly controlled in time, all forward transmissions are QPSK with a chip rate of 1,228,800 per second. Each signal is spread with a Walsh code of length 64, for the reverse direction, radio signals are transmitted by the mobile
31.
CDMA2000
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CDMA2000 is a family of 3G mobile technology standards for sending voice, data, and signaling data between mobile phones and cell sites. It is developed by 3GPP2 as a successor to second-generation cdmaOne set of standards and used especially in North America. CDMA2000 compares to UMTS, a set of 3G standards, which is developed by 3GPP and used in Europe, Japan. The name CDMA2000 denotes a family of standards that represent the successive and these are, Voice, CDMA2000 1xRTT, 1X Advanced Data, CDMA2000 1xEV-DO, Release 0, Revision A, Revision B, Ultra Mobile Broadband All are approved radio interfaces for the ITUs IMT-2000. In the United States, CDMA2000 is a trademark of the Telecommunications Industry Association. CDMA2000 1X, also known as 1x and 1xRTT, is the core CDMA2000 wireless air interface standard, the designation 1x, meaning 1 times Radio Transmission Technology, indicates the same radio frequency bandwidth as IS-95, a duplex pair of 1.25 MHz radio channels. 1xRTT almost doubles the capacity of IS-95 by adding 64 more traffic channels to the forward link, the 1X standard supports packet data speeds of up to 153 kbit/s with real world data transmission averaging 80–100 kbit/s in most commercial applications. IMT-2000 also made changes to the link layer for greater use of data services, including medium and link access control protocols. The IS-95 data link layer only provided best efforts delivery for data, CDMA2000 1xEV-DO, often abbreviated as EV-DO or EV, is a telecommunications standard for the wireless transmission of data through radio signals, typically for broadband Internet access. It uses multiplexing techniques including code division multiple access as well as time division multiple access to both individual users throughput and the overall system throughput. 1X Advanced is the evolution of CDMA2000 1X and it provides up to four times the capacity and 70% more coverage compared to 1X. The CDMA Development Group states that, as of April 2014, the intended 4G successor to CDMA2000 was UMB, however, in November 2008, Qualcomm announced it was ending development of the technology, favoring LTE instead
32.
LTE (telecommunication)
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In telecommunication, Long-Term Evolution is a standard for high-speed wireless communication for mobile phones and data terminals, based on the GSM/EDGE and UMTS/HSPA technologies. It increases the capacity and speed using a different radio interface together with core network improvements, the standard is developed by the 3GPP and is specified in its Release 8 document series, with minor enhancements described in Release 9. LTE is the path for carriers with both GSM/UMTS networks and CDMA2000 networks. The different LTE frequencies and bands used in different countries mean that only multi-band phones are able to use LTE in all countries where it is supported. LTE is commonly marketed as 4G LTE, but it does not meet the criteria of a 4G wireless service, as specified in the 3GPP Release 8 and 9 document series. The requirements were set forth by the ITU-R organization in the IMT Advanced specification. The LTE Advanced standard formally satisfies the ITU-R requirements to be considered IMT-Advanced, to differentiate LTE Advanced and WiMAX-Advanced from current 4G technologies, ITU has defined them as True 4G. LTE stands for Long Term Evolution and is a trademark owned by ETSI for the wireless data communications technology. However, other nations and companies do play an role in the LTE project. The goal of LTE was to increase the capacity and speed of data networks using new DSP techniques. A further goal was the redesign and simplification of the architecture to an IP-based system with significantly reduced transfer latency compared to the 3G architecture. The LTE wireless interface is incompatible with 2G and 3G networks, LTE was first proposed by NTT DoCoMo of Japan in 2004, and studies on the new standard officially commenced in 2005. Initially, CDMA operators planned to upgrade to rival standards called UMB and WiMAX, the evolution of LTE is LTE Advanced, which was standardized in March 2011. Services are expected to commence in 2013, additional evolution known as LTE Advanced Pro have been approved in year 2015. The LTE specification provides downlink peak rates of 300 Mbit/s, uplink peak rates of 75 Mbit/s, LTE has the ability to manage fast-moving mobiles and supports multi-cast and broadcast streams. LTE supports scalable carrier bandwidths, from 1.4 MHz to 20 MHz, the simpler architecture results in lower operating costs. In 2004, NTT DoCoMo of Japan proposes LTE as the international standard, in September 2006, Siemens Networks showed in collaboration with Nomor Research the first live emulation of an LTE network to the media and investors. As live applications two users streaming an HDTV video in the downlink and playing a game in the uplink have been demonstrated
33.
Email client
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In Internet, an email client, email reader or more formally mail user agent is a computer program in the category of groupware environments used to access and manage a users email. Client is meant to be a role, for example, a web application which provides message management, composition, and reception functions may internally act as an email client, as a whole, it is commonly referred to as webmail. Likewise, email client may be referred to a piece of hardware or software whose primary or most visible role is to work as an email client. Like most client programs, a client is only active when a user runs it. The most common arrangement is for a user to make an arrangement with a remote Mail Transfer Agent server for the receipt. The MTA, using a mail delivery agent, adds email messages to a clients storage as they arrive. The remote mail storage is referred to as the users mailbox, the default setting on many Unix systems is for the mail server to store formatted messages in mbox, within the users HOME directory. Of course, users of the system can log-in and run a mail client on the computer that hosts their mailboxes, in which case. A users mailbox can be accessed in two dedicated ways, the Post Office Protocol allows the user to download messages one at a time and only deletes them from the server after they have been successfully saved on local storage. It is possible to leave messages on the server to another client to access them. However, there is no provision for flagging a specific message as seen, answered, or forwarded, alternatively, the Internet Message Access Protocol allows users to keep messages on the server, flagging them as appropriate. IMAP provides folders and sub-folders, which can be shared among different users with different access rights. Typically, the Sent, Drafts, and Trash folders are created by default, IMAP features an idle extension for real time updates, providing faster notification than polling, where long lasting connections are feasible. See also the remote messages section below, in addition, the mailbox storage can be accessed directly by programs running on the server or via shared disks. Direct access can be efficient but is less portable as it depends on the mailbox format, it is used by some email clients. Email clients usually contain user interfaces to display and edit text, some applications permit the use of a program-external editor. The email clients will perform formatting according to RFC5322 for headers and body, to better assist the user with destination fields, many clients maintain one or more address books and/or are able to connect to an LDAP directory server. For originator fields, clients may support different identities, client settings require the users real name and email address for each users identity, and possibly a list of LDAP servers
34.
Personal computer
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A personal computer is a multi-purpose electronic computer whose size, capabilities, and price make it feasible for individual use. PCs are intended to be operated directly by a end-user, rather than by an expert or technician. In the 2010s, PCs are typically connected to the Internet, allowing access to the World Wide Web, personal computers may be connected to a local area network, either by a cable or a wireless connection. In the 2010s, a PC may be, a multi-component desktop computer, designed for use in a location a laptop computer, designed for easy portability or a tablet computer. In the 2010s, PCs run using a system, such as Microsoft Windows, Linux. The very earliest microcomputers, equipped with a front panel, required hand-loading of a program to load programs from external storage. Before long, automatic booting from permanent read-only memory became universal, in the 2010s, users have access to a wide range of commercial software, free software and free and open-source software, which are provided in ready-to-run or ready-to-compile form. Since the early 1990s, Microsoft operating systems and Intel hardware have dominated much of the computer market, first with MS-DOS. Alternatives to Microsofts Windows operating systems occupy a minority share of the industry and these include Apples OS X and free open-source Unix-like operating systems such as Linux and Berkeley Software Distribution. Advanced Micro Devices provides the alternative to Intels processors. PC is an initialism for personal computer, some PCs, including the OLPC XOs, are equipped with x86 or x64 processors but not designed to run Microsoft Windows. PC is used in contrast with Mac, an Apple Macintosh computer and this sense of the word is used in the Get a Mac advertisement campaign that ran between 2006 and 2009, as well as its rival, Im a PC campaign, that appeared in 2008. Since Apples transition to Intel processors starting 2005, all Macintosh computers are now PCs, the “brain” may one day come down to our level and help with our income-tax and book-keeping calculations. But this is speculation and there is no sign of it so far, in the history of computing there were many examples of computers designed to be used by one person, as opposed to terminals connected to mainframe computers. Using the narrow definition of operated by one person, the first personal computer was the ENIAC which became operational in 1946 and it did not meet further definitions of affordable or easy to use. An example of an early single-user computer was the LGP-30, created in 1956 by Stan Frankel and used for science and it came with a retail price of $47, 000—equivalent to about $414,000 today. Introduced at the 1965 New York Worlds Fair, the Programma 101 was a programmable calculator described in advertisements as a desktop computer. It was manufactured by the Italian company Olivetti and invented by the Italian engineer Pier Giorgio Perotto, the Soviet MIR series of computers was developed from 1965 to 1969 in a group headed by Victor Glushkov
35.
Naming rights
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For properties like a multi-purpose arena, performing arts venue or an athletic field, the term ranges from three to 20 years. Longer terms are common for higher profile venues such as a professional sports facility. The distinctive characteristic for this type of naming rights is that the buyer gets a marketing property to promote products and services, there are several forms of corporate sponsored names. A presenting sponsor attaches the name of the corporation or brand at the end of a generic, usually traditional, a title sponsor replaces the original name of the property with a corporate-sponsored one, with no reference to the previous name. In a few cases, naming rights contracts have been terminated prematurely, such terminations may be the result of contractual options, sponsor bankruptcy, or scandals. Stadium naming may have shifted in recent years to promoting corporate trade names, the record for the highest amount paid for naming rights belongs to Citi Field and Barclays Center, both located in New York City, US. Each garnered deals of $20 million per year for at least 20 years and it ultimately fell short of that benchmark, with MetLife Stadium earning $17 million annually from its naming rights deal with MetLife. Naming rights in United States may have traced back to 1912 with the opening of Fenway Park in Boston. The stadiums owner had owned a realty company called Fenway Realty, despite this, it is more widely believed to have begun in 1926 when William Wrigley, the chewing gum magnate and owner of the Chicago Cubs, named his teams stadium Wrigley Field. In 1953, Anheuser-Busch head and St. Louis Cardinals owner August Busch, Jr. proposed renaming Sportsmans Park, occupied by the Cardinals, Budweiser Stadium. When this idea was rejected by Ford Frick, the Commissioner of Baseball at that time, the name was readily approved, and Anheuser-Busch subsequently released a new product called Busch Bavarian Beer. The name would later be shifted to the Busch Memorial Stadium in 1966, shortened in the 1970s to Busch Stadium, the public reaction to this practice is mixed. Selling the naming rights to a venue has been notably less successful. The general public continued to call the facility what it had known as for over three decades–i. e. After the agreement with 3Com expired, the rights were resold to Monster Cable, the initiative proved largely ceremonial, however, and it was overturned by the passage of Proposition C in 2009 in response to desperate economic times. The naming rights to the park were never resold and the closed in 2014. Sports stadiums with naming rights deals are not limited to the United States, in cricket, the most famous example is The Oval, home of Surrey County Cricket Club. It has had several sponsors over the years, and is known as The Kia Oval, having originally been known as the Kennington Oval
36.
SDCCU Stadium
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Qualcomm Stadium is a multi-purpose stadium in San Diego, California, United States. The stadium opened in 1967 as San Diego Stadium and was known for many years as Jack Murphy Stadium. Since 1997, the naming rights have been owned by Qualcomm. It is the home of the San Diego State Aztecs football team from San Diego State University, two college football bowl games, the Holiday Bowl and Poinsettia Bowl, are held in the stadium every December. The stadium was the home of two professional franchises, the San Diego Chargers of the National Football League and the San Diego Padres of Major League Baseball. The stadium has hosted three Super Bowl games, Super Bowl XXII in 1988, Super Bowl XXXII in 1998, humphrey Metrodome in Minneapolis and Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. Qualcomm Stadium is located immediately northwest of the interchange of Interstate 8, the stadium is served by the Qualcomm Stadium station of the San Diego Trolley, accessible via the Green Line running toward Downtown San Diego to the west, and Santee to the east. In the early 1960s, local sportswriter Jack Murphy, the brother of New York Mets broadcaster Bob Murphy, in November 1965, a $27 million bond was passed allowing construction to begin on a stadium, which was designed in the Brutalist style. Construction on the stadium began one month later, when completed, the facility was named San Diego Stadium. The Chargers played the first game ever at the stadium on August 20,1967, San Diego Stadium had a capacity of around 50,000, the three-tier grandstand was in the shape of a horseshoe, with the east end low. Due to expansion of Major League Baseball, this team was replaced by the current San Diego Padres major-league team beginning in the 1969 season and this was replaced in 1987 by a White Way Sign scoreboard, in which the video screen is surrounded almost entirely by three messageboards. The original video board was replaced in 1996 by a Sony JumboTron, after Jack Murphys death in September 1980, San Diego Stadium was renamed San Diego–Jack Murphy Stadium by a 6–2 vote of the San Diego City Council on January 6,1981. In 1983, over 9,000 bleachers were added to the deck on the open end of the stadium raising the capacity to 59,022. The most substantial addition was completed in 1997, when the stadium was fully enclosed, nearly 11,000 seats were added in readiness for Super Bowl XXXII in 1998, bringing the capacity to 70,561. Also in 1997, the facility was renamed Qualcomm Stadium after Qualcomm Corporation paid $18 million for the naming rights, the naming rights will belong to Qualcomm until 2017. In order to continue to honor Murphy, the city named the stadium site Jack Murphy Field, however, as part of the naming agreement Jack Murphy Field was not allowed to be used alongside Qualcomm Stadium. Some San Diegans, however, still refer to the stadium as Jack Murphy or simply The Murph, before his death in 2004, Bob Murphy still referred to it as Jack Murphy Stadium during New York Mets broadcasts, even after it was renamed. The stadium was temporarily renamed Snapdragon Stadium for 10 days in December 2011 as a tie in for Qualcomms Snapdragon brand
37.
Ericsson
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Ericsson is a multinational networking and telecommunications equipment and services company headquartered in Stockholm, Sweden. Ericsson had 35% market share in the 2G/3G/4G mobile network infrastructure market in 2012, the company was founded in 1876 by Lars Magnus Ericsson, as of 2016 it is headquartered in Stockholm, Sweden. The company employs around 113,000 people and operates in around 180 countries, Ericsson holds over 39,000 granted patents as of May 2015, including many in wireless communications. Lars Magnus Ericsson began his association with telephones in his youth as an instrument maker and he worked for a firm that made telegraph equipment for the Swedish government agency Telegrafverket. In 1876, at the age of 30, he started a repair shop with help from his friend Carl Johan Andersson in central Stockholm. In 1878 Ericsson began making and selling his own telephone equipment and his telephones were not technically innovative. In 1878 he made an agreement to supply telephones and switchboards to Swedens first telecommunications operating company, also in 1878, local telephone importer Numa Peterson hired Ericsson to adjust some telephones from the Bell Telephone Company. He bought a number of Siemens telephones and analyzed the technology and he was familiar with Bell and Siemens Halske telephones through his firms repair work for Telegrafverket and Swedish Railways. He improved these designs to produce a higher-quality instrument to be used by new companies such as Rikstelefon to provide cheaper service than the Bell Group. Ericsson had no patent or royalty problems because Bell had not patented their inventions in Scandinavia and his training as an instrument maker was reflected in the standard of finish and the ornate design of Ericsson telephones of this period. At the end of the year he started to manufacture telephones much like those of Siemens, Ericsson became a major supplier of telephone equipment to Scandinavia. Its factory could not keep up with demand, joinery and metal-plating were contracted out, much of its raw materials were imported, in the following decades Ericsson bought into a number of firms to ensure supplies of brass, wire, ebonite, and magnet steel. Much of the wood used for cabinets was imported from the United States. Stockholms telephone network expanded that year and the company reformed into a telephone manufacturer, when Bell bought the biggest telephone network in Stockholm, it only allowed its own telephones to be used with it. Ericssons equipment was mainly to free telephone associations in the Swedish countryside. The prices of Bell equipment and services led Henrik Tore Cedergren to form an independent telephone company called Stockholms Allmänna Telefonaktiebolag in 1883, as Bell would not deliver equipment to competitors, he formed a pact with Ericsson to supply the equipment for his new telephone network. In 1918 the companies were merged into Allmänna Telefonaktiebolaget LM Ericsson, in 1884, a multiple-switchboard manual telephone exchange was mostly copied from a design by C. E. Scribner at Western Electric. This was legal because the device was not patented in Sweden, a single switchboard could handle up to 10,000 lines
38.
Kyocera
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Kyocera Corporation is a Japanese multinational electronics and ceramics manufacturer headquartered in Kyoto, Japan. It was founded as Kyoto Ceramic Company, Limited in 1959 by Kazuo Inamori, the company has diversified its founding technology in ceramic materials through internal development as well as strategic mergers and acquisitions. Kyocera’s original product was a ceramic insulator known as a “kelcima” for use in television picture tubes, the company quickly adapted its technologies to produce an expanding range of ceramic components for electronic and structural applications. The company acquired electronic equipment manufacturing and radio communication technologies in 1979 through an investment in Cybernet Electronics Corporation, in the 1980s, Kyocera marketed audio components, such as CD players, receivers, turntables, and cassette decks. These featured unique elements, including Kyocera ceramic-based platforms, and are sought by collectors to the present day. At one time, Kyocera owned the famous KLH brand founded by Henry Kloss, though Kloss, in 1989, Kyocera stopped production of audio components and sought a buyer for the KLH brand. In 1989, Kyocera acquired Elco Corporation, a manufacturer of electronic connectors, expanding sales of photovoltaic solar energy products led the company to create Kyocera Solar Corporation in Japan in 1996, and Kyocera Solar, Inc. in the U. S. in 1999. On Aug 4,1999, Kyocera completed its merger with solar energy systems integrator Golden Genesis Company, also in 2000, Kyocera acquired the mobile phone manufacturing operations of Qualcomm Incorporated to form Kyocera Wireless Corp. In 2003, Kyocera Wireless Corp. established Kyocera Wireless India, KWI has established alliances with several leading players providing CDMA services in India. In 2008, Kyocera acquired Sanyo Mobile, the mobile division of Sanyo Electric Co. Ltd. and its associated operations in Japan. In April 2009, Kyocera unveiled its EOS concept phone at CTIA, with an OLED, the prototype phone also has a foldable design which is capable of morphing into a variety of shapes. In 2009 Kyocers sold its Indian R&D Division to Mindtree Limited, in March 2010, Kyocera launched its first Smartphone since 2001, after focusing on lower cost phones. In March,2010, Kyocera announced the merger of its two wholly owned subsidiaries, San Diego-based Kyocera Wireless Corp. and Kyocera Communications, Inc, the merged enterprise continued under the name Kyocera Communications, Inc. In June 2010, Kyocera acquired part of the thin film transistor liquid crystal display design, in October 2010, Kyocera acquired 100% ownership of the shares of TA Triumph-Adler AG and converted the daughter company into TA Triumph-Adler GmbH. TA Triumph-Adler GmbH currently distributes Kyocera-made printing devices and software with TA Triumph-Adler, TA Triumph-Adler GmbH is located in Nuremberg, Germany and UTAX GmbH in Norderstedt, Germany. The company name has since changed to Kyocera Unimerco A/S. In February 2012, Kyocera became the total stock holder of Optrex Corporation, in March 2016, it was announced that Kyocera would acquire an international cutting tool company called SGS Tool Company. They purchased it for $89 million, Kyocera Document Solutions Corporation manufactures a wide range of printers, MFPs. and toner cartridges which are sold throughout Europe, the Middle East, Africa, Australia and the Americas
39.
Application-specific integrated circuit
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An application-specific integrated circuit /ˈeɪsɪk/, is an integrated circuit customized for a particular use, rather than intended for general-purpose use. For example, a designed to run in a digital voice recorder or a high-efficiency Bitcoin miner is an ASIC. Application-specific standard products are intermediate between ASICs and industry standard integrated circuits like the 7400 or the 4000 series, as feature sizes have shrunk and design tools improved over the years, the maximum complexity possible in an ASIC has grown from 5,000 gates to over 100 million. Modern ASICs often include entire microprocessors, memory blocks including ROM, RAM, EEPROM, flash memory, such an ASIC is often termed a SoC. Designers of digital ASICs often use a hardware description language, such as Verilog or VHDL, for smaller designs or lower production volumes, FPGAs may be more cost effective than an ASIC design even in production. The non-recurring engineering cost of an ASIC can run into the millions of dollars, the initial ASICs used gate array technology. An early successful commercial application was the gate array circuitry found in the 8-bit ZX81 and ZX Spectrum low-end personal computers and these were used by Sinclair Research essentially as a low-cost I/O solution aimed at handling the computers graphics. Customization occurred by varying the metal interconnect mask, Gate arrays had complexities of up to a few thousand gates. Later versions became more generalized, with different base dies customised by both metal and polysilicon layers, some base dies include RAM elements. In the mid-1980s, a designer would choose an ASIC manufacturer, most designers ended up using factory-specific tools to complete the implementation of their designs. A solution to problem, which also yielded a much higher density device, was the implementation of standard cells. Standard-cell design is the utilization of these blocks to achieve very high gate density. Standard-cell design fits between Gate Array and Full Custom design in terms of both its non-recurring engineering and recurring component cost, by the late 1990s, logic synthesis tools became available. Such tools could compile HDL descriptions into a gate-level netlist, the design team constructs a description of an ASIC to achieve these goals using an HDL. This process is analogous to writing a program in a high-level language. This is usually called the RTL design, suitability for purpose is verified by functional verification. This may include such techniques as logic simulation, formal verification, emulation, each technique has advantages and disadvantages, and often several methods are used. Logic synthesis transforms the RTL design into a collection of lower-level constructs called standard cells
US$ 22.291 billion (2017)[1]
US$ 65.486 billion (2017)[1]
