1.
Software developer
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A software developer is a person concerned with facets of the software development process, including the research, design, programming, and testing of computer software. Other job titles which are used with similar meanings are programmer, software analyst. According to developer Eric Sink, the differences between system design, software development, and programming are more apparent, even more so that developers become systems architects, those who design the multi-leveled architecture or component interactions of a large software system. In a large company, there may be employees whose sole responsibility consists of one of the phases above. In smaller development environments, a few people or even an individual might handle the complete process. The word software was coined as a prank as early as 1953, before this time, computers were programmed either by customers, or the few commercial computer vendors of the time, such as UNIVAC and IBM. The first company founded to provide products and services was Computer Usage Company in 1955. The software industry expanded in the early 1960s, almost immediately after computers were first sold in mass-produced quantities, universities, government, and business customers created a demand for software. Many of these programs were written in-house by full-time staff programmers, some were distributed freely between users of a particular machine for no charge. Others were done on a basis, and other firms such as Computer Sciences Corporation started to grow. The computer/hardware makers started bundling operating systems, systems software and programming environments with their machines, new software was built for microcomputers, so other manufacturers including IBM, followed DECs example quickly, resulting in the IBM AS/400 amongst others. The industry expanded greatly with the rise of the computer in the mid-1970s. In the following years, it created a growing market for games, applications. DOS, Microsofts first operating system product, was the dominant operating system at the time, by 2014 the role of cloud developer had been defined, in this context, one definition of a developer in general was published, Developers make software for the world to use. The job of a developer is to crank out code -- fresh code for new products, code fixes for maintenance, code for business logic, bus factor Software Developer description from the US Department of Labor
2.
Quark (company)
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Quark Software Inc. is a privately owned software company which specializes in enterprise publishing software for automating the production of customer communications. The companys original goal was to create software that would be the platform for publishing, the company is best known for its desktop page layout and design software, QuarkXPress, although this has now become secondary to its other products and services. Quark was founded with $2000 in 1981 in Denver, Colorado, between 1981 and 1985 their primary products were Word Juggler and Catalyst. Word Juggler was the first word processor on the Apple III, Catalyst was a program that was distributed bundled with the Apple IIe, and allowed users to run floppy-disk based applications from their hard drive. They also attempted a line called Quark Peripherals, but the market for storage devices at the time resulted in a huge financial loss. In March 1987 Quark released QuarkXPress 1.0, which due to its precision quickly gained market share from Aldus Pagemaker. With the release of QuarkXPress 3.0 in 1990, Quark quickly achieved a dominant position in the publishing market. By the end of the 1990s they gathered a market share of around 90%, in the late 1990s, Quark faced intense criticism for slow innovation cycles, high prices, and a poor response to customer needs. Therefore, many welcomed the release of Adobe InDesign in 1999 as a viable alternative. The release of Adobe Creative Suite in 2003, essentially including InDesign with Photoshop and Illustrator, as a result, under the new leadership of Raymond Schiavone, Quark started to refocus its resources towards the enterprise dynamic publishing market, announcing a new strategy in March 2008. Quark was founded under the name Quark Engineering 1981 by Tim Gill, in 1986 Fred Ebrahimi joined Quark as CEO and co-owner. In 1990, Mark Pope sold his share of the company to the other partners, in 2000 Tim Gill left Quark and sold all his shares to Ebrahimi. In keeping with its India focus, Quark appointed Kamar Aulakh, in June 2005, Quark informed its employees that Aulakh was no longer with the company. At the end of 2006 Fred Ebrahimi gave all his shares of Quark Inc. to his children, on November 1,2006, Quark appointed Raymond Schiavone, former CEO of Arbortext, as its new CEO. On August 9,2011, the Ebrahimi family sold all their shares to Platinum Equity, Quarks first products were word processing software for the Apple II and Apple III. In 1987 it released its best known product, QuarkXPress, for Apple Macintosh, in 1992 it also released the product for Microsoft Windows. Along with Adobes PostScript, Photoshop and Apples computers, QuarkXPress could be considered one of the blocks of Desktop Publishing. QuarkXPress offered a degree of precision and set of features which were needed to make desktop publishing viable, in the 1990s QuarkXPress 3. x gained around 90% market share of page layout applications
3.
Software release life cycle
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Usage of the alpha/beta test terminology originated at IBM. As long ago as the 1950s, IBM used similar terminology for their hardware development, a test was the verification of a new product before public announcement. B test was the verification before releasing the product to be manufactured, C test was the final test before general availability of the product. Martin Belsky, a manager on some of IBMs earlier software projects claimed to have invented the terminology, IBM dropped the alpha/beta terminology during the 1960s, but by then it had received fairly wide notice. The usage of beta test to refer to testing done by customers was not done in IBM, rather, IBM used the term field test. Pre-alpha refers to all activities performed during the project before formal testing. These activities can include requirements analysis, software design, software development, in typical open source development, there are several types of pre-alpha versions. Milestone versions include specific sets of functions and are released as soon as the functionality is complete, the alpha phase of the release life cycle is the first phase to begin software testing. In this phase, developers generally test the software using white-box techniques, additional validation is then performed using black-box or gray-box techniques, by another testing team. Moving to black-box testing inside the organization is known as alpha release, alpha software can be unstable and could cause crashes or data loss. Alpha software may not contain all of the features that are planned for the final version, in general, external availability of alpha software is uncommon in proprietary software, while open source software often has publicly available alpha versions. The alpha phase usually ends with a freeze, indicating that no more features will be added to the software. At this time, the software is said to be feature complete, Beta, named after the second letter of the Greek alphabet, is the software development phase following alpha. Software in the stage is also known as betaware. Beta phase generally begins when the software is complete but likely to contain a number of known or unknown bugs. Software in the phase will generally have many more bugs in it than completed software, as well as speed/performance issues. The focus of beta testing is reducing impacts to users, often incorporating usability testing, the process of delivering a beta version to the users is called beta release and this is typically the first time that the software is available outside of the organization that developed it. Beta version software is useful for demonstrations and previews within an organization
4.
Operating system
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An operating system is system software that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. All computer programs, excluding firmware, require a system to function. Operating systems are found on many devices that contain a computer – from cellular phones, the dominant desktop operating system is Microsoft Windows with a market share of around 83. 3%. MacOS by Apple Inc. is in place, and the varieties of Linux is in third position. Linux distributions are dominant in the server and supercomputing sectors, other specialized classes of operating systems, such as embedded and real-time systems, exist for many applications. A single-tasking system can run one program at a time. Multi-tasking may be characterized in preemptive and co-operative types, in preemptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates a slot to each of the programs. Unix-like operating systems, e. g. Solaris, Linux, cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to provide time to the other processes in a defined manner. 16-bit versions of Microsoft Windows used cooperative multi-tasking, 32-bit versions of both Windows NT and Win9x, used preemptive multi-tasking. Single-user operating systems have no facilities to distinguish users, but may allow multiple programs to run in tandem, a distributed operating system manages a group of distinct computers and makes them appear to be a single computer. The development of networked computers that could be linked and communicate with each other gave rise to distributed computing, distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a work in cooperation, they form a distributed system. The technique is used both in virtualization and cloud computing management, and is common in large server warehouses, embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy and they are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design, Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems. A real-time operating system is a system that guarantees to process events or data by a specific moment in time. A real-time operating system may be single- or multi-tasking, but when multitasking, early computers were built to perform a series of single tasks, like a calculator. Basic operating system features were developed in the 1950s, such as resident monitor functions that could run different programs in succession to speed up processing
5.
Classic Mac OS
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This is a list of macOS components, features that are included in the current Mac operating system. Latest version 2.7 Automator is a developed by Apple Inc. Automator enables the repetition of tasks across a variety of programs, including Finder, Safari, Calendar, Contacts. It can also work with third-party applications such as Microsoft Office, the icon features a robot holding a pipe, a reference to pipelines, a computer science term for connected data workflows. Automator was first released with Mac OS X Tiger, Automator provides a graphical user interface for automating tasks without knowledge of programming or scripting languages. Tasks can be recorded as they are performed by the user or can be selected from a list, the output of the previous action can become the input to the next action. Automator comes with a library of Actions that act as individual steps in a Workflow document, a Workflow document is used to carry out repetitive tasks. Workflows can be saved and reused, unix command line scripts and AppleScripts can also be invoked as Actions. The actions are linked together in a Workflow, the Workflow can be saved as an application, Workflow file or a contextual menu item. Options can be set when the Workflow is created or when the Workflow is run, a workflow file created in Automator is saved in /Users//Library/Services. Latest version 10.8 Calculator is a calculator application made by Apple Inc. It has three modes, basic, scientific, and programmer, Basic includes a number pad, buttons for adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing, as well as memory keys. Scientific mode supports exponents and trigonometric functions, and programmer mode gives the user access to more options related to computer programming, Apple currently ships a different application called Grapher. Calculator has Reverse Polish notation support, and can speak the buttons pressed. The Calculator appeared first as an accessory in first version of Macintosh System for the 1984 Macintosh 128k. Its design was maintained with the basic math operations until the final release of classic Mac OS in 2002. A Dashboard Calculator widget is included in all versions of macOS from Mac OS X Tiger onwards and it only has the basic mode of its desktop counterpart. Since the release of OS X Yosemite, there is also a simple calculator widget available in the notifications area, since the release of Mac OS X Leopard, simple arithmetic functions can be calculated from Spotlight feature
6.
MacOS
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Within the market of desktop, laptop and home computers, and by web usage, it is the second most widely used desktop OS after Microsoft Windows. Launched in 2001 as Mac OS X, the series is the latest in the family of Macintosh operating systems, Mac OS X succeeded classic Mac OS, which was introduced in 1984, and the final release of which was Mac OS9 in 1999. An initial, early version of the system, Mac OS X Server 1.0, was released in 1999, the first desktop version, Mac OS X10.0, followed in March 2001. In 2012, Apple rebranded Mac OS X to OS X. Releases were code named after big cats from the release up until OS X10.8 Mountain Lion. Beginning in 2013 with OS X10.9 Mavericks, releases have been named after landmarks in California, in 2016, Apple rebranded OS X to macOS, adopting the nomenclature that it uses for their other operating systems, iOS, watchOS, and tvOS. The latest version of macOS is macOS10.12 Sierra, macOS is based on technologies developed at NeXT between 1985 and 1997, when Apple acquired the company. The X in Mac OS X and OS X is pronounced ten, macOS shares its Unix-based core, named Darwin, and many of its frameworks with iOS, tvOS and watchOS. A heavily modified version of Mac OS X10.4 Tiger was used for the first-generation Apple TV, Apple also used to have a separate line of releases of Mac OS X designed for servers. Beginning with Mac OS X10.7 Lion, the functions were made available as a separate package on the Mac App Store. Releases of Mac OS X from 1999 to 2005 can run only on the PowerPC-based Macs from the time period, Mac OS X10.5 Leopard was released as a Universal binary, meaning the installer disc supported both Intel and PowerPC processors. In 2009, Apple released Mac OS X10.6 Snow Leopard, in 2011, Apple released Mac OS X10.7 Lion, which no longer supported 32-bit Intel processors and also did not include Rosetta. All versions of the system released since then run exclusively on 64-bit Intel CPUs, the heritage of what would become macOS had originated at NeXT, a company founded by Steve Jobs following his departure from Apple in 1985. There, the Unix-like NeXTSTEP operating system was developed, and then launched in 1989 and its graphical user interface was built on top of an object-oriented GUI toolkit using the Objective-C programming language. This led Apple to purchase NeXT in 1996, allowing NeXTSTEP, then called OPENSTEP, previous Macintosh operating systems were named using Arabic numerals, e. g. Mac OS8 and Mac OS9. The letter X in Mac OS Xs name refers to the number 10 and it is therefore correctly pronounced ten /ˈtɛn/ in this context. However, a common mispronunciation is X /ˈɛks/, consumer releases of Mac OS X included more backward compatibility. Mac OS applications could be rewritten to run natively via the Carbon API, the consumer version of Mac OS X was launched in 2001 with Mac OS X10.0. Reviews were variable, with praise for its sophisticated, glossy Aqua interface
7.
Microsoft Windows
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Microsoft Windows is a metafamily of graphical operating systems developed, marketed, and sold by Microsoft. It consists of families of operating systems, each of which cater to a certain sector of the computing industry with the OS typically associated with IBM PC compatible architecture. Active Windows families include Windows NT, Windows Embedded and Windows Phone, defunct Windows families include Windows 9x, Windows 10 Mobile is an active product, unrelated to the defunct family Windows Mobile. Microsoft introduced an operating environment named Windows on November 20,1985, Microsoft Windows came to dominate the worlds personal computer market with over 90% market share, overtaking Mac OS, which had been introduced in 1984. Apple came to see Windows as an encroachment on their innovation in GUI development as implemented on products such as the Lisa. On PCs, Windows is still the most popular operating system, however, in 2014, Microsoft admitted losing the majority of the overall operating system market to Android, because of the massive growth in sales of Android smartphones. In 2014, the number of Windows devices sold was less than 25% that of Android devices sold and this comparison however may not be fully relevant, as the two operating systems traditionally target different platforms. As of September 2016, the most recent version of Windows for PCs, tablets, smartphones, the most recent versions for server computers is Windows Server 2016. A specialized version of Windows runs on the Xbox One game console, Microsoft, the developer of Windows, has registered several trademarks each of which denote a family of Windows operating systems that target a specific sector of the computing industry. It now consists of three operating system subfamilies that are released almost at the time and share the same kernel. Windows, The operating system for personal computers, tablets. The latest version is Windows 10, the main competitor of this family is macOS by Apple Inc. for personal computers and Android for mobile devices. Windows Server, The operating system for server computers, the latest version is Windows Server 2016. Unlike its clients sibling, it has adopted a strong naming scheme, the main competitor of this family is Linux. Windows PE, A lightweight version of its Windows sibling meant to operate as an operating system, used for installing Windows on bare-metal computers. The latest version is Windows PE10.0.10586.0, Windows Embedded, Initially, Microsoft developed Windows CE as a general-purpose operating system for every device that was too resource-limited to be called a full-fledged computer. The following Windows families are no longer being developed, Windows 9x, Microsoft now caters to the consumers market with Windows NT. Windows Mobile, The predecessor to Windows Phone, it was a mobile operating system
8.
Desktop publishing
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Desktop publishing is the creation of documents using page layout skills on a personal computer primarily for print. Desktop publishing software can generate layouts and produce typographic quality text and images comparable to traditional typography and this technology allows individuals, businesses, and other organizations to self-publish a wide range of printed matter. Desktop publishing is also the reference for digital typography. When used skillfully, desktop publishing allows the user to produce a variety of materials, from menus to magazines and books. Desktop publishing methods provide more control over design, layout, however, word processing software has evolved to include some, though by no means all, capabilities previously available only with professional printing or desktop publishing. Although what is classified as DTP software is usually limited to print and PDF publications, the content produced by desktop publishers may also be exported and used for electronic media. Desktop publishing began in 1983 with a developed by James Davise at a community newspaper in Philadelphia. The program Type Processor One ran on a PC using a card for a WYSIWYG display and was offered commercially by Best info in 1984. Later on, Adobe PageMaker overtook Microsoft Word in professional DTP in 1985, before the advent of desktop publishing, the only option available to most people for producing typed documents was a typewriter, which offered only a handful of typefaces and one or two font sizes. Indeed, one popular desktop publishing book was entitled The Mac is not a typewriter, newspapers and other print publications made the move to DTP-based programs from older layout systems such as Atex and other programs in the early 1980s. By the standards of the 2010s, early 1980s desktop publishing was a primitive affair, however, it was a revolutionary combination at the time, and was received with considerable acclaim. Behind-the-scenes technologies developed by Adobe Systems set the foundation for professional desktop publishing applications, the LaserWriter and LaserWriter Plus printers included high quality, scalable Adobe PostScript fonts built into their ROM memory. Macintosh-based systems continued to dominate the market into 1986, when the GEM-based Ventura Publisher was introduced for MS-DOS computers and this made it suitable for manuals and other long-format documents. Software was published even for 8-bit computers like the Apple II and Commodore 64, Home Publisher, The Newsroom, however, some desktop publishers who mastered the programs were able to realize truly professional results. DTP skill levels range from what may be learned in a few hours to what requires a college education, the discipline of DTP skills range from technical skills such as prepress production and programming to creative skills such as communication design and graphic image development. There are two types of pages in desktop publishing, electronic pages and virtual paper pages to be printed on physical paper pages, all computerized documents are technically electronic, which are limited in size only by computer memory or computer data storage space. Some desktop publishing programs allow custom sizes designated for large format printing used in posters, billboards, a virtual page for printing has a predesignated size of virtual printing material and can be viewed on a monitor in WYSIWYG format. Each page for printing has trim sizes and an area if bleed printing is not possible as is the case with most desktop printers
9.
Software license
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A software license is a legal instrument governing the use or redistribution of software. Under United States copyright law all software is copyright protected, in code as also object code form. The only exception is software in the public domain, most distributed software can be categorized according to its license type. Two common categories for software under copyright law, and therefore with licenses which grant the licensee specific rights, are proprietary software and free, unlicensed software outside the copyright protection is either public domain software or software which is non-distributed, non-licensed and handled as internal business trade secret. Contrary to popular belief, distributed unlicensed software is copyright protected. Examples for this are unauthorized software leaks or software projects which are placed on public software repositories like GitHub without specified license. As voluntarily handing software into the domain is problematic in some international law domains, there are also licenses granting PD-like rights. Therefore, the owner of a copy of software is legally entitled to use that copy of software. Hence, if the end-user of software is the owner of the respective copy, as many proprietary licenses only enumerate the rights that the user already has under 17 U. S. C. §117, and yet proclaim to take away from the user. Proprietary software licenses often proclaim to give software publishers more control over the way their software is used by keeping ownership of each copy of software with the software publisher. The form of the relationship if it is a lease or a purchase, for example UMG v. Augusto or Vernor v. Autodesk. The ownership of goods, like software applications and video games, is challenged by licensed. The Swiss based company UsedSoft innovated the resale of business software and this feature of proprietary software licenses means that certain rights regarding the software are reserved by the software publisher. Therefore, it is typical of EULAs to include terms which define the uses of the software, the most significant effect of this form of licensing is that, if ownership of the software remains with the software publisher, then the end-user must accept the software license. In other words, without acceptance of the license, the end-user may not use the software at all, one example of such a proprietary software license is the license for Microsoft Windows. The most common licensing models are per single user or per user in the appropriate volume discount level, Licensing per concurrent/floating user also occurs, where all users in a network have access to the program, but only a specific number at the same time. Another license model is licensing per dongle which allows the owner of the dongle to use the program on any computer, Licensing per server, CPU or points, regardless the number of users, is common practice as well as site or company licenses
10.
WYSIWYG
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WYSIWYG is an acronym for what you see is what you get. WYSIWYG implies a user interface allows the user to view something very similar to the end result while the document is being created. In general, WYSIWYG implies the ability to manipulate the layout of a document without having to type or remember names of layout commands. The actual meaning depends on the perspective, e. g. WYSIWYG also describes ways to manipulate 3D models in stereo-chemistry, computer-aided design. Modern software does a job of optimizing the screen display for a particular type of output. For example, a processor is optimized for output to a typical printer. The software often emulates the resolution of the printer in order to get as close as possible to WYSIWYG, however, that is not the main attraction of WYSIWYG, which is the ability of the user to be able to visualize what they are producing. In many situations, the differences between what the user sees and what the user gets are unimportant. A preview mode, in which the attempts to present a representation that is as close to the final result as possible. Before the adoption of WYSIWYG techniques, text appeared in editors using the standard typeface. Users were required to enter special non-printing control codes to indicate that text should be in boldface, italics. In this environment there was little distinction between text editors and word processors. These applications typically used an arbitrary markup language to define the codes/tags, each program had its own special way to format a document, and it was a difficult and time-consuming process to change from one word processor to another. The use of tags and codes remains popular today in some applications due to their ability to store complex formatting information. When the tags are made visible in the editor, however, they occupy space in the text and so disrupt the desired layout. The Alto monitor was designed so that one page of text could be seen and then printed on the first laser printers. Bravo was released commercially and the software included in the Xerox Star can be seen as a direct descendant of it. The first release, named BRUNO, ran on the HP1000 minicomputer taking advantage of HPs first bitmapped computer terminal the HP2640, BRUNO was then ported to the HP-3000 and re-released as HP Draw
11.
Adobe InDesign
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Adobe InDesign is a desktop publishing software application produced by Adobe Systems. It can be used to create such as posters, flyers, brochures, magazines, newspapers. InDesign can also publish content suitable for devices in conjunction with Adobe Digital Publishing Suite. Graphic designers and production artists are the users, creating and laying out periodical publications, posters. It also supports export to EPUB and SWF formats to create e-books and digital publications, including digital magazines, in addition, InDesign supports XML, style sheets, and other coding markup, making it suitable for exporting tagged text content for use in other digital and online formats. The Adobe InCopy word processor uses the same formatting engine as InDesign, InDesign is the successor to Adobe PageMaker, which was acquired with the purchase of Aldus in late 1994. By 1998 PageMaker had lost almost the entire professional market to the comparatively feature-rich QuarkXPress 3.3, released in 1992, quark stated its intention to buy out Adobe and to divest the combined company of PageMaker to avoid anti-trust issues. Adobe rebuffed the offer and instead continued to work on a new page layout application, the project had been started by Aldus and was code-named Shuksan. It was later code-named K2 and was released as InDesign 1.0 in 2000, in 2002, InDesign was the first Mac OS X-native desktop publishing software. In version 3 it received a boost in distribution by being bundled with Photoshop, Illustrator, InDesign exports documents in Adobes Portable Document Format and has multilingual support. Later versions of the software introduced new file formats, to support the new features, especially typographic, introduced with InDesign CS, both the program and its document format are not backward-compatible. Instead, InDesign CS2 has the backward-compatible INX format, an XML-based document representation, InDesign CS versions updated with the 3.1 April 2005 update can read InDesign CS2-saved files exported to the. inx format. The InDesign Interchange format does not support versions earlier than InDesign CS, with InDesign CS5, Adobe replaced INX with InDesign Markup Language, another XML-based document representation. Adobe CEO Bruce Chizen had announced that Adobe will be first with a line of universal applications. Adobe developed the CS3 application integrating Macromedia products, rather than recompiling CS2, unfortunately, there are no workarounds for these known issues. Apple fixed this with their OS X10.5.4 update, in October 2005, Adobe released InDesign Server CS2, a modified version of InDesign for Windows and Macintosh server platforms. It does not provide any editing client, rather it is for use by developers in creating client-server solutions with the InDesign plug-in technology, in March 2007 Adobe officially announced Adobe InDesign CS3 Server as part of the Adobe InDesign family. The mime type is not official, newer versions can as a rule open files created by older versions, but the reverse is not true
12.
PostScript
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PostScript is a page description language in the electronic publishing and desktop publishing business. It is a typed, concatenative programming language and was created at Adobe Systems by John Warnock, Charles Geschke, Doug Brotz, Ed Taft. The concepts of the PostScript language were seeded in 1976 when John Warnock was working at Evans & Sutherland, at that time John Warnock was developing an interpreter for a large three-dimensional graphics database of New York harbor. Warnock conceived the Design System language to process the graphics, concurrently, researchers at Xerox PARC had developed the first laser printer and had recognized the need for a standard means of defining page images. In 1975-76 Bob Sproull and William Newman developed the Press format, but Press, a data format rather than a language, lacked flexibility, and PARC mounted the Interpress effort to create a successor. In 1978 Evans & Sutherland asked Warnock to move from the San Francisco Bay Area to their headquarters in Utah. He then joined Xerox PARC to work with Martin Newell and they rewrote Design System to create J & M which was used for VLSI design and the investigation of type and graphics printing. This work later evolved and expanded into the Interpress language, Warnock left with Chuck Geschke and founded Adobe Systems in December 1982. They, together with Doug Brotz, Ed Taft and Bill Paxton created a language, similar to Interpress, called PostScript. At about this time they were visited by Steve Jobs, who urged them to adapt PostScript to be used as the language for driving laser printers. In March 1985, the Apple LaserWriter was the first printer to ship with PostScript, the combination of technical merits and widespread availability made PostScript a language of choice for graphical output for printing applications. For a time an interpreter for the PostScript language was a component of laser printers. However, the cost of implementation was high, computers output raw PS code that would be interpreted by the printer into an image at the printers natural resolution. This required high performance microprocessors and ample memory, the LaserWriter used a 12 MHz Motorola 68000, making it faster than any of the Macintosh computers to which it attached. When the laser printer engines themselves cost over a thousand dollars the added cost of PS was marginal, the first version of the PostScript language was released to the market in 1984. The term Level 1 was added when Level 2 was introduced, PostScript 3 came at the end of 1997, and along with many new dictionary-based versions of older operators, introduced better color handling, and new filters. Prior to the introduction of PostScript, printers were designed to print character output given the text—typically in ASCII—as input and this changed to some degree with the increasing popularity of dot matrix printers. The characters on these systems were drawn as a series of dots, dot matrix printers also introduced the ability to print raster graphics
13.
TrueType
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TrueType is an outline font standard developed by Apple and Microsoft in the late 1980s as a competitor to Adobes Type 1 fonts used in PostScript. It has become the most common format for fonts on the classic Mac OS, macOS, with widely varying rendering technologies in use today, pixel-level control is no longer certain in a TrueType font. TrueType was known during its development stage, first by the codename Bass, the system was developed and eventually released as TrueType with the launch of Mac System 7 in May 1991. The initial TrueType outline fonts, four-weight families of Times Roman, Helvetica, Courier, Apple also replaced some of their bitmap fonts used by the graphical user-interface of previous Macintosh System versions with scalable TrueType outline-fonts. For compatibility with older systems, Apple shipped these fonts, a TrueType Extension, for compatibility with the Laserwriter II, Apple developed fonts like ITC Bookman and ITC Chancery in TrueType format. All of these fonts could now scale to all sizes on screen and printer, the early TrueType systems — being still part of Apples QuickDraw graphics subsystem — did not render Type 1 fonts on-screen as they do today. At the time, many users had already invested money in Adobes still proprietary Type 1 fonts. As part of Apples tactic of opening the font format versus Adobes desire to keep it closed to all but Adobe licensees, Apple licensed TrueType to Microsoft. Meanwhile, in exchange for TrueType, Apple got a license for TrueImage and this was never actually included in any Apple products when a later deal was struck between Apple and Adobe, where Adobe promised to put a TrueType interpreter in their PostScript printer boards. Part of Adobes response to learning that TrueType was being developed was to create the Adobe Type Manager software to scale Type 1 fonts for anti-aliased output on-screen. Although ATM initially cost money, rather than coming free with the operating system, Apple extended TrueType with the launch of TrueType GX in 1994, with additional tables in the sfnt which formed part of QuickDraw GX. This offered powerful extensions in two main areas, first was font axes, for example allowing fonts to be smoothly adjusted from light to bold or from narrow to extended — competition for Adobes multiple master technology. While maintaining the backing store of characters necessary for spell-checkers and text searching, however, the lack of user-friendly tools for making TrueType GX fonts meant there were no more than a handful of GX fonts. Much of the technology in TrueType GX, including morphing and substitution, few font-developers outside Apple attempt to make AAT fonts, instead, OpenType has become the dominant sfnt format despite its lack of support for axes or multiple masters. To ensure its adoption, Apple licensed TrueType to Microsoft for free. By 1991 Microsoft added TrueType into the Windows 3.1 operating system and this included the fonts that are standard with Windows to this day, Times New Roman, Arial and Courier New. Microsoft has heavily marketed ClearType, and sub-pixel rendering techniques for text are now used on all platforms. Microsoft also developed a smart font technology, named TrueType Open in 1994, while some fonts provided with the new operating systems are now in the OpenType format, most free or inexpensive third-party fonts use plain TrueType
14.
QuarkXPress
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QuarkXPress is a computer application for creating and editing complex page layouts in a WYSIWYG environment. It runs on macOS and Windows and it was first released by Quark, Inc. in 1987 and is still owned and published by them. The most recent version, QuarkXPress 2016, allows publishing in English and 36 other languages, including Arabic, Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, German, Korean, Russian, French, and Spanish. QuarkXPress once dominated the market for page layout software, with over 95% market share among professional users, as of 2010, one publisher estimated that US market share has fallen to below 25% and Adobe InDesign has become the market leader, although QuarkXPress still had significant market share. The first version of QuarkXPress was released in 1987 for the Macintosh, Five years passed before a Microsoft Windows version followed in 1992. In the 1990s, QuarkXPress became widely used by professional designers, the typesetting industry. In particular, the Mac version of 3.3 was seen as stable and trouble-free, in 1989, QuarkXPress incorporated an application programming interface called XTensions which allows third-party developers to create custom add-on features to the desktop application. Xtensions, along with Apple Computers HyperCard, was one of the first examples of a developer allowing others to create software add-ons for their application, after QuarkXPress 3.3, QuarkXPress was seen as needing significant improvements and users criticized it for its overly long innovation cycles. The release of QuarkXPress version 5 in 2002 led to disappointment from Apples user base, as QuarkXPress did not support Mac OS X, while InDesign 2.0 did, launched in the same week. At the same time, Quark CEO Fred Ebrahimi exclaimed that the Macintosh platform is shrinking, only with Version 6 did QuarkXPress support Mac OS X, however, the first really adopted version was QuarkXPress 7. Quark started to lower its pricing levels in 2004, a QuarkXPress document contains text and graphics boxes. The boxes can be reshaped, layered, and given varying levels of transparency, both box positioning and graphic or text positioning is allowed within a box with an accuracy of one-thousandth of an inch. Color control allows the full-use of printing-press standard Pantone or Hexachrome inks, draft output can be printed on conventional desktop printers. Process color separation films can be produced for printing-presses, QuarkXPress also offers the ability for composite work-flows, both with PostScript and PDF output. QuarkXPress offers layout synchronization, multiple undo/redo functionality, XML and web page features, documents can be verified before printing. This high-level print preview automatically identifies conflicts and other printing problems, Adobe has a similar feature in InDesign. Composition zones feature makes it the only desktop application with multi-user capabilities by allowing users to edit different zones on the same page. Composition Zones pushes collaboration a step further than just simultaneous text/picture, as it allows layout, user-defined rules, output specs, and layout specs can be used for intelligent templates and enable resource sharing
15.
Apple Inc.
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Apple is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Cupertino, California that designs, develops, and sells consumer electronics, computer software, and online services. Apples consumer software includes the macOS and iOS operating systems, the media player, the Safari web browser. Its online services include the iTunes Store, the iOS App Store and Mac App Store, Apple Music, Apple was founded by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne in April 1976 to develop and sell personal computers. It was incorporated as Apple Computer, Inc. in January 1977, Apple joined the Dow Jones Industrial Average in March 2015. In November 2014, Apple became the first U. S. company to be valued at over US$700 billion in addition to being the largest publicly traded corporation in the world by market capitalization. The company employs 115,000 full-time employees as of July 2015 and it operates the online Apple Store and iTunes Store, the latter of which is the worlds largest music retailer. Consumers use more than one billion Apple products worldwide as of March 2016, Apples worldwide annual revenue totaled $233 billion for the fiscal year ending in September 2015. This revenue accounts for approximately 1. 25% of the total United States GDP.1 billion, the corporation receives significant criticism regarding the labor practices of its contractors and its environmental and business practices, including the origins of source materials. Apple was founded on April 1,1976, by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, the Apple I kits were computers single-handedly designed and hand-built by Wozniak and first shown to the public at the Homebrew Computer Club. The Apple I was sold as a motherboard, which was less than what is now considered a personal computer. The Apple I went on sale in July 1976 and was market-priced at $666.66, Apple was incorporated January 3,1977, without Wayne, who sold his share of the company back to Jobs and Wozniak for $800. Multimillionaire Mike Markkula provided essential business expertise and funding of $250,000 during the incorporation of Apple, during the first five years of operations revenues grew exponentially, doubling about every four months. Between September 1977 and September 1980 yearly sales grew from $775,000 to $118m, the Apple II, also invented by Wozniak, was introduced on April 16,1977, at the first West Coast Computer Faire. It differed from its rivals, the TRS-80 and Commodore PET, because of its character cell-based color graphics. While early Apple II models used ordinary cassette tapes as storage devices, they were superseded by the introduction of a 5 1/4 inch floppy disk drive and interface called the Disk II. The Apple II was chosen to be the platform for the first killer app of the business world, VisiCalc. VisiCalc created a market for the Apple II and gave home users an additional reason to buy an Apple II. Before VisiCalc, Apple had been a distant third place competitor to Commodore, by the end of the 1970s, Apple had a staff of computer designers and a production line
16.
HyperCard
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HyperCard is application software and a programming tool for Apple Macintosh and Apple IIGS computers. It is among the first successful hypermedia systems before the World Wide Web and it combines database abilities with a graphical, flexible, user-modifiable interface. HyperCard also features HyperTalk, a language for manipulating data. This combination of features – simple form layout, database abilities, HyperCard was originally released in 1987 for $49.95 and was included for free with all new Macs sold then. It was withdrawn from sale in March 2004 after its final update in 1998, HyperCard ran in the Classic Environment, but was not ported to Mac OS X. Through its influence on Robert Cailliau, HyperCard influenced the development of the Web in late 1990, in this sense, like the Web it did form a brain-like association- or link-based experience of information browsing, despite not operating remotely over the TCP/IP protocol then. Like the Web, it allowed for the connections of many different kinds of media. HyperCard is based on the concept of a stack of virtual cards, cards hold data, just as they would in a Rolodex card-filing device. Each card contains a set of objects, including text fields, check boxes, buttons. Users browse the stack by navigating from card to card, using built-in navigation features, users build new stacks or modify extant ones by adding new cards. They place GUI objects on the using a interactive layout engine based on a simple drag-and-drop interface. This way, a stack of cards with a common layout, the layout engine is similar in concept to a form as used in most rapid application development environments. The database features of the HyperCard system are based on the storage of the state of all of the objects on the cards in the physical file representing the stack. The database did not exist as a system within the HyperCard stack. Instead, the state of any object in the system was considered to be live, such changes are immediately saved when complete, so typing into a field caused that text to be stored to the stacks physical file. The system operates in a largely stateless fashion, with no need to save during operation and this is in common with many database-oriented systems, although somewhat different from document-based applications. The final key element in HyperCard was the script, a single code-carrying element of every object within the stack, the script was a text field which contents were interpreted in the HyperTalk language. Like any other property, the script of any object could be edited at any time, when the user invokes actions in the GUI, like clicking on a button or typing into a field, these actions are translated into events by the HyperCard runtime
17.
Adobe PageMaker
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PageMaker was one of the first desktop publishing programs, introduced in 1985 by Aldus, initially for the Apple Macintosh and, in 1987, for PCs running Windows 1.0. As an application relying on a user interface, PageMaker helped to popularize the Macintosh platform. PageMaker relies on Adobe Systems PostScript page description language, in 1994, Adobe Systems acquired Aldus and PageMaker. Aldus Pagemaker 1.0 was released in July 1985 for the Macintosh, Aldus Pagemaker 1.2 for Macintosh was released in 1986 and added support for PostScript fonts built into LaserWriter Plus or downloaded to the memory of other output devices. PageMaker was awarded an SPA Excellence in Software Award for Best New Use of a Computer in 1986, in October 1986, a version of Pagemaker was made available for Hewlett-Packards HP Vectra computers. In 1987, Pagemaker was available on Digital Equipments VAXstation computers, Aldus Pagemaker 2 was released in 1987. Until May 1987, the initial Windows release was bundled with a version of Windows 1.0.3, after that date. Thus, users who did not have Windows could run the application from MS-DOS, Aldus Pagemaker 3 for Macintosh was shipped in April 1988. PageMaker 3.0 for the PC was shipped in May 1988 and required Windows 2.0, version 3.01 was available for OS/2 and took extensive advantage of multithreading for improved user responsiveness. Aldus PageMaker 4 for Macintosh was released in 1990 and offered new word-processing capabilities, expanded typographic controls, a version for the PC was available by 1991. Aldus PageMaker 5.0 was released in January 1993, Adobe PageMaker 6.0 was released in 1995. Adobe PageMaker 6.5 was released in 1996, support for versions 4.0,5.0,6.0, and 6.5 is no longer offered through the official Adobe support system. Due to Aldus use of closed, proprietary formats, this poses substantial problems for users who have works authored in these legacy versions. The final version available is PageMaker 7.0, released 9 July 2001. The Macintosh version runs only in Mac OS9 or earlier, there is no support for Mac OS X. It does not run well under Classic, and Adobe recommends that customers use an older Macintosh capable of booting into Mac OS9, the Windows version supports Windows XP, but according to Adobe, PageMaker 7. x does not install or run on Windows Vista. Quark stated its intention to buy out Adobe and to divest the company of PageMaker to avoid anti-trust issues. Adobe rebuffed the offer and instead continued to work on a new page layout application code-named Shuksan, originally started by Aldus and this was released as Adobe InDesign 1.0 in 1999
18.
Adobe Creative Suite
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Adobe Creative Suite is a software suite of graphic design, video editing, and web development applications developed by Adobe Systems. The last version, Adobe Creative Suite 6, was launched at an event on April 23,2012. Adobe also announced that it would continue to support CS6 and would provide bug fixes, the Creative Suite packages were pulled from Adobes online store, but still remain available via a section of their website. The following are brief description of the applications in the various Adobe Creative Suite editions. Each edition may come with all or subset of these apps, Adobe Acrobat creates, edits and manages documents in Portable Document Format. Adobe After Effects is a motion graphics and compositing software published by Adobe Systems. It is often used in film and video post-production, Adobe Audition is a digital audio editor. It has more editing features than its sibling, Adobe Soundbooth, Adobe Bridge is an image organizer and digital asset management app. It features limited integration with other Adobe apps but has no editing capabilities of its own, Adobe Contribute is an HTML editor and a content management system. It allows a variety of people within an organization to update web pages. Adobe Device Central helps preview and test web pages, raster image, Adobe Dreamweaver is an HTML editor geared towards professional web development. Adobe Dynamic Link integrates After Effects with Premiere Pro and with Encore, Adobe Encore is a specialized transcoding app, it converts the output of Adobe Premiere and Adobe After Effects to a format suitable for DVD and Blu-ray players. Files are automatically transcoded to MPEG-2 or H. 264/MPEG-4 AVC video, DVD and Blu-ray menus can be created and edited in Adobe Photoshop using layering techniques. Adobe Fireworks is a raster graphics editor for web designers. It could create interactive contents and animations, Adobe Animate, a multimedia authoring program used to create web apps, flash games, films and mobile widgets in the eponymous Adobe Flash format. Its features include a scripting language called ActionScript and bi-directional streaming of digital audio, Adobe Flash Catalyst, an interaction design tool that allow users to transform Adobe Photoshop, Illustrator, and Fireworks artwork into interactive Adobe Flash projects without writing code. Flash Catalyst was discontinued in 2012 and not included in CS6, Adobe GoLive is a discontinued HTML editor geared towards professional web development. It was discontinued in favor of Adobe Dreamweaver, Adobe Illustrator is a vector graphics editor geared towards print publications
19.
Adobe Photoshop
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Adobe Photoshop is a raster graphics editor developed and published by Adobe Systems for macOS and Windows. Photoshop was created in 1988 by Thomas and John Knoll and it can edit and compose raster images in multiple layers and supports masks, alpha compositing and several color models including RGB, CMYK, CIELAB, spot color and duotone. Photoshop has vast support for file formats but also uses its own PSD. In addition to graphics, it has limited abilities to edit or render text, vector graphics, 3D graphics. Photoshops featureset can be expanded by Photoshop plug-ins, programs developed and distributed independently of Photoshop that can run inside it, Photoshops naming scheme was initially based on version numbers. Photoshop CS3 through CS6 were also distributed in two different editions, Standard and Extended, in June 2013, with the introduction of Creative Cloud branding, Photoshops licensing scheme was changed to that of software as a service rental model and the CS suffixes were replaced with CC. Historically, Photoshop was bundled with software such as Adobe ImageReady, Adobe Fireworks, Adobe Bridge, Adobe Device Central. Alongside Photoshop, Adobe also develops and publishes Photoshop Elements, Photoshop Lightroom, Photoshop Express, collectively, they are branded as The Adobe Photoshop Family. It is currently a licensed software, Photoshop was developed in 1987 by the American brothers Thomas and John Knoll, who sold the distribution license to Adobe Systems Incorporated in 1988. Thomas Knoll, a PhD student at the University of Michigan, began writing a program on his Macintosh Plus to display images on a monochrome display. This program, called Display, caught the attention of his brother John Knoll, an Industrial Light & Magic employee, Thomas took a six-month break from his studies in 1988 to collaborate with his brother on the program. Thomas renamed the program ImagePro, but the name was already taken, during this time, John traveled to Silicon Valley and gave a demonstration of the program to engineers at Apple and Russell Brown, art director at Adobe. Both showings were successful, and Adobe decided to purchase the license to distribute in September 1988, while John worked on plug-ins in California, Thomas remained in Ann Arbor writing code. Photoshop 1.0 was released on 19 February 1990 for Macintosh exclusively, the Barneyscan version included advanced color editing features that were stripped from the first Adobe shipped version. The handling of color slowly improved with each release from Adobe, at the time Photoshop 1.0 was released, digital retouching on dedicated high end systems, such as the Scitex, cost around $300 an hour for basic photo retouching. Photoshop files have default file extension as. PSD, which stands for Photoshop Document, a PSD file stores an image with support for most imaging options available in Photoshop. These include layers with masks, transparency, text, alpha channels and spot colors, clipping paths and this is in contrast to many other file formats that restrict content to provide streamlined, predictable functionality. A PSD file has a height and width of 30,000 pixels
20.
Adobe Illustrator
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Adobe Illustrator is a vector graphics editor developed and marketed by Adobe Systems. The latest version, Illustrator CC2017, is the twenty-first generation in the product line, Adobe Illustrator was first developed for the Apple Macintosh in December 1986 as a commercialization of Adobes in-house font development software and PostScript file format. Adobe Illustrator is the product of Adobe Photoshop. Early magazine advertisements referred to the product as the Adobe Illustrator, Illustrator 88, the product name for version 1.7, was released in 1988 and introduced many new tools and features. BYTE in 1989 listed Illustrator 88 as among the Distinction winners of the BYTE Awards, although during its first decade Adobe developed Illustrator primarily for Macintosh, it sporadically supported other platforms. In the early 1990s, Adobe released versions of Illustrator for NeXT, Silicon Graphics, and Sun Solaris platforms, the first version of Illustrator for Windows, version 2.0, was released in early 1989 and flopped. Version 4 was, however, the first version of Illustrator to support editing in preview mode, version 6 was the last truly Macintosh version of Illustrator. The interface changed radically with the version to make it more Windows-friendly. The changes remained until CS6 when some small steps were taken to restore the app to a slightly more Mac-like interface. With the introduction of Illustrator 7 in 1997, Adobe made critical changes in the interface with regard to path editing. Illustrator also began to support TrueType, effectively ending the font wars between PostScript Type 1 and TrueType, like Photoshop, Illustrator also began supporting plug-ins, greatly and quickly extending its abilities. With true user interface parity between Macintosh and Windows versions starting with 7.0, designers could finally standardize on Illustrator, corel did port CorelDRAW6.0 to the Macintosh in late 1996, but it was received as too little, too late. Designers tended to prefer Illustrator, Drawcord, or Free Hand based on which software they learned first, as an example, there are capabilities in Freehand still not available in Illustrator. Famously, Aldus did a comparison matrix between its own Freehand, Illustrator and Draw, and Draws one win was that it came with three different clip art views of the human pancreas, Adobe bought Aldus in 1994 for PageMaker. As a result, Macromedia acquired FreeHand in 1995 from its developer, Altsys. Using the Adobe SVG Viewer, introduced in 2000, allowed users to view SVG images in most major browsers until it was discontinued in 2009, native support for SVG was not complete in all major browsers until Internet Explorer 9 in 2011. Version 9 included a feature, similar to that within Adobes discontinued product Streamline. Illustrator CS was the first version to include 3-dimensional capabilities allowing users to extrude or revolve shapes to create simple 3D objects, Illustrator CS2 was available for both the Mac OS X and Microsoft Windows operating systems
21.
Universal binary
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The same mechanism that is used to select between the PowerPC or Intel builds of an application is also used to select between the 32-bit or 64-bit builds of either PowerPC or Intel architectures. At the same time, Apple does not specify whether or not such third-party software publishers must bundle separate builds for both the 32-bit and 64-bit variants of either architecture, Universal binaries typically include both PowerPC and x86 versions of a compiled application. The operating system detects a universal binary by its header, and this allows the application to run natively on any supported architecture, with no negative performance impact beyond an increase in the storage space taken up by the larger binary. Presently, fat binaries would only be necessary for software that is designed to have compatibility with older versions of Mac OS X running on older hardware. There are two general alternative solutions, the first is to simply provide two separate binaries, one compiled for the x86 architecture and one for the PowerPC architecture. However, this can be confusing to software users unfamiliar with the difference between the two, although the confusion can be remedied through improved documentation, or the use of hybrid CDs. The other alternative is to rely on emulation of one architecture by a running the other architecture. This approach results in performance, and is generally regarded an interim solution to be used only until universal binaries or specifically compiled binaries are available. Universal binaries are larger than single-platform binaries, because copies of the compiled code must be stored. However, because some resources are shared by the two architectures, the size of the resulting universal binary can be, and usually is. They also do not require extra RAM because only one of two copies is loaded for execution. Apple previously used a similar technique during the transition from 68k processors to PowerPC in the mid-1990s and these dual-platform executables were called fat binaries, referring to their larger file size. The binary format underlying the universal binary, a Mach-O archive, is the format used for the fat binary in NeXTSTEP. Apples Xcode 2.1 supports the creation of these files, Applications originally built using other development tools might require additional modification. These reasons have been given for the delay between the introduction of Intel-based Macintosh computers and the availability of third-party applications in universal binary format, Apples delivery of Intel-based computers several months ahead of their previously announced schedule is another factor in this gap. Many software developers have provided universal binary updates for their products since the 2005 WWDC, as of December 2008, Apples website now lists more than 7,500 Universal applications. On April 16,2007, Adobe Systems announced the release of Adobe Creative Suite 3, the Unix file command can identify Mach-O universal binaries and report which architecture they support. Snow Leopards System Profiler provides this information on the Applications tab, Apple Developer Transition Resource Center Apple Universal Binary Programming Guidelines
22.
Computer Shopper (UK magazine)
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Computer Shopper is a magazine published monthly since 1988 in the UK by Dennis Publishing Ltd. It contains reviews of computers, consumer technology and software as well as technology-focused news, analysis. The current editorial staff include Chris Finnamore, Seth Barton, David Ludlow, Tom Morgan, Katherine Byrne, Richard Easton and Michael Passingham. Contributors of columns, features and specialist reviews include Mel Croucher, Kay Ewbank, Mike Bedford, Simon Handby, Ben Pitt, the first section of the magazine is dedicated to columns, opinions and the Letters pages. This is followed by several news spreads on recent developments in the technology industry, the magazine claims the UKs biggest reviews section with much of the magazine devoted to product tests of the latest hardware. The Reviews section is occupied by desktop PCs, laptops, PC components, smartphones, tablets, cameras, displays. This section of new products is typically followed by two or three Group Tests which pitch ten or more similar products against one another to find an overall Best Buy, previous tests have included budget laptops, cloud storage providers, action cameras and gaming PCs. The Best Buys section of the magazine is updated monthly to reflect the latest products the editorial team has deemed the overall best choice in each area of consumer technology. Two or three longer-form feature articles follow the reviews section, focusing on the world of technology. Recent features have included a history of coding, a guide on how to build racing, flight and train simulators as well as more consumer-focused features on broadband and mobile coverage. The magazine is tailed by several tutorial pages including Advanced Projects, Web Expert, Multimedia Expert, Business Help, the final page of the magazine is traditionally occupied by the Zygote column and the Great Moments in Computing comic. Computer Shoppers online presence is branded as Expert Reviews, Dennis Publishings consumer technology website, the editor of the website is Seth Barton
23.
Kerning
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In typography, kerning is the process of adjusting the spacing between characters in a proportional font, usually to achieve a visually pleasing result. Kerning adjusts the space between individual letter forms, while tracking adjusts spacing uniformly over a range of characters, in a well-kerned font, the two-dimensional blank spaces between each pair of characters all have a visually similar area. The related term kern denotes a part of a letter that overhangs the edge of the type block. The source of the word kern is from the French word carne, meaning projecting angle, the French term originated from the Latin cardo, cardinis, meaning hinge. In the days when all type was cast metal, parts of a sort that needed to overlap adjacent letters simply hung off the edge of the sort slug, the bit of metal that hung over the edge was called a kern. At that time, the word kerning only referred to manufacturing the sorts with kerns, because this method was not well-suited to some pairs of letters, ligatures were supplied for those glyph combinations, such as the French L’, or the combinations ff, fi and ffi. In metal typesetting, kerning was labour-intensive and expensive because the matrices had to be physically modified and it was therefore only employed on letter combinations which needed it the most, such as VA or AV. With the arrival of digital fonts, it became easier to kern many glyph combinations. The number is expressed in font units, one unit being a fraction of an em. Different fonts may use different units, but common values are 1000 and 2048 units/em, thus, for 1000 units/em, a kerning value of 15 means an increase in character spacing by 0.015 of the current type size. Most kerning adjustments are negative, and negative adjustments are generally larger than positive ones, adjustments for different pairs within a given font can range from a tiny 2 to over 100. The adjustments for a given pair vary greatly from one font to another and it is also used to fit a period or a comma closer to these and to F and P, as well as to the lower case letters r, v, w, and y. Some other combinations that use negative kerning are FA, LT, and LY, and letters like A, L, positive kerning is used mainly in conjunction with special characters and punctuation. Depending on the font, some small positive kerning may also be required for accented letters and for pairs like Bo, Dw, the table below contains a few exemplifying kerning pairs and their values. These values are based on 1000 units/em and the pairs are ordered from the most negative to the most positive kerning value. The samples are taken from the tables of the Minion Pro font. In other fonts the kerning may be very different, which letters need to be kerned depends on which languages the font is to be used with. Since some combinations of letters are not used in words in any language
24.
Typographic ligature
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In writing and typography, a ligature occurs where two or more graphemes or letters are joined as a single glyph. An example is the character æ as used in English, in which the letters a and e are joined, the common ampersand developed from a ligature in which the handwritten Latin letters e and t were combined. The origin of typographical ligatures comes from the invention of writing with a stylus on fibrous material or clay, the earliest known script, Sumerian cuneiform, includes many cases of character combinations that, over time, gradually evolve from ligatures into separately recognizable characters. Ligatures figure prominently in many manuscripts, notably the Brahmic abugidas. Medieval scribes who wrote in Latin increased their speed by combining characters. Others conjoined letters for aesthetic purposes, for example, in blackletter, letters with right-facing bowls and those with left-facing bowls were written with the facing edges of the bowls superimposed. In many script forms, characters such as h, m, scribes also used notational abbreviations to avoid having to write a whole character in one stroke. Manuscripts in the century employed hundreds of such abbreviations. In hand writing, a ligature is made by joining two or more characters in atypical fashion by merging their parts or by writing one above or inside the other. While in printing, a ligature is a group of characters that is typeset as a unit, for example, in some cases the fi ligature prints the letters f and i with a greater separation than when they are typeset as separate letters. When printing with movable type was invented around 1450, typefaces included many ligatures and additional letters, Ligatures began to fall out of use due to their complexity in the 20th century. Sans serif typefaces, increasingly used for text, generally avoid ligatures, though notable exceptions include Gill Sans. Inexpensive phototypesetting machines in the 1970s also generally avoid them, the trend was further strengthened by the desktop publishing revolution starting around 1977 with the production of the Apple II. Early computer software in particular had no way to allow for ligature substitution, as most of the early PC development was designed for the English language dependence on ligatures did not carry over to digital. Ligature use fell as the number of traditional hand compositors and hot metal typesetting machine operators dropped since the mass of the IBM Selectric brand of electric typewriter in 1961. A designer active in the period commented, some of the world’s greatest typefaces were quickly becoming some of the world’s worst fonts, Ligatures have grown in popularity over the last 20 years due to an increasing interest in creating typesetting systems that evoke arcane designs and classical scripts. One of the first computer typesetting programs to take advantage of computer-driven typesetting was Donald Knuths TeX program, now the standard method of mathematical typesetting, its default fonts are explicitly based on nineteenth-century styles. Many new fonts feature extensive ligature sets, these include FF Scala, Seria and others by Martin Majoor, mrs Eaves by Zuzana Licko contains a particularly large set to allow designers to create dramatic display text with a feel of antiquity
25.
Pantone
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Pantone Inc. is a corporation headquartered in Carlstadt, New Jersey. X-Rite Inc. a supplier of color measurement instruments and software, Pantone began in New York City in the 1950s as the commercial printing company of M & J Levine Advertising. In 1956, its founders, advertising executives brothers Mervin and Jesse Levine, for instance, a particular page might contain a number of yellows of varying tints. The idea behind the PMS is to allow designers to color match specific colors when a design enters production stage and this system has been widely adopted by graphic designers and reproduction and printing houses. Pantone recommends that PMS Color Guides be purchased annually, as their inks become yellowish over time, Color variance also occurs within editions based on the paper stock used, while interedition color variance occurs when there are changes to the specific paper stock used. The Pantone Color Matching System is largely a standardized color reproduction system, by standardizing the colors, different manufacturers in different locations can all refer to the Pantone system to make sure colors match without direct contact with one another. One such use is standardizing colors in the CMYK process, the CMYK process is a method of printing color by using four inks—cyan, magenta, yellow, and black. A majority of the printed material is produced using the CMYK process. Those that are possible to simulate through the CMYK process are labeled as such within the companys guides, however, most of the Pantone systems 1,114 spot colors cannot be simulated with CMYK but with 13 base pigments mixed in specified amounts. The Pantone system also allows for many special colors to be produced, such as metallics, while most of the Pantone system colors are beyond the printed CMYK gamut, it was only in 2001 that Pantone began providing translations of their existing system with screen-based colors. Screen-based colors use the RGB color model—red, green, blue—system to create various colors, the Goe system has RGB and LAB values with each color. Pantone colors are described by their allocated number, PMS colors are almost always used in branding and have even found their way into government legislation and military standards. In January 2003, the Scottish Parliament debated a petition to refer to the blue in the Scottish flag as Pantone 300, countries such as Canada and South Korea and organizations such as the FIA have also chosen to refer to specific Pantone colors to use when producing flags. US states including Texas have set legislated PMS colors of their flags and it has also been used in an art project by the Brazilian photographer Angelica Dass which applies Pantone to the human skin color spectrum. On September 5,2007, Pantone introduced the Goe System, Goe consisted of over 2,000 new colors in a new matching and numbering system. The Goe system was streamlined to use base colors and accommodate many technical challenges in reproducing colors on a press. The Pantone Goe system was discontinued in November 2013, in mid-2006 Pantone, partnering with Vermont-based Fine Paints of Europe, introduced a new line of interior and exterior paints. The color palette uses Pantones color research and trending and has more than 3,000 colors, in November 2015, Pantone partnered with Redland London to create a collection of bags inspired from Pantones authority on color
26.
CMYK color model
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The CMYK color model is a subtractive color model, used in color printing, and is also used to describe the printing process itself. CMYK refers to the four used in some color printing, cyan, magenta, yellow. Though it varies by print house, press operator, press manufacturer, the K in CMYK stands for key because in four-color printing, cyan, magenta and yellow printing plates are carefully keyed, or aligned, with the key of the black key plate. Some sources suggest that the K in CMYK comes from the last letter in black and was chosen because B already means blue. Some sources claim this explanation, although useful as a mnemonic, is incorrect, the CMYK model works by partially or entirely masking colors on a lighter, usually white, background. The ink reduces the light that would otherwise be reflected, such a model is called subtractive because inks subtract brightness from white. In additive color models such as RGB, white is the combination of all primary colored lights. In the CMYK model, it is the opposite, white is the color of the paper or other background. To save cost on ink, and to produce deeper black tones, unsaturated and dark colors are produced by using black ink instead of the combination of cyan, magenta, with halftoning, a full continuous range of colors can be produced. To improve print quality and reduce moiré patterns, the screen for each color is set at a different angle. Common reasons for using black ink include, In traditional preparation of color separations, in some cases a black keyline was used when it served as both a color indicator and an outline to be printed in black. Because usually the black plate contained the keyline, the K in CMYK represents the keyline or black plate, also sometimes called the key plate. A combination of 100% cyan, magenta, and yellow inks soaks the paper with ink, making it slower to dry, causing bleeding, adding black ink absorbs more light and yields much better blacks. Using black ink is less expensive than using the corresponding amounts of colored inks. When a very dark area is desirable, a colored or gray CMY bedding is applied first, then a black layer is applied on top, making a rich, deep black. A black made with just CMY inks is sometimes called a composite black, the amount of black to use to replace amounts of the other ink is variable, and the choice depends on the technology, paper and ink in use. Processes called under color removal, under addition, and gray component replacement are used to decide on the final mix. CMYK or process color printing is contrasted with spot color printing, some printing presses are capable of printing with both four-color process inks and additional spot color inks at the same time
27.
XML
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In computing, Extensible Markup Language is a markup language that defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. The W3Cs XML1.0 Specification and several other related specifications—all of them free open standards—define XML, the design goals of XML emphasize simplicity, generality, and usability across the Internet. It is a data format with strong support via Unicode for different human languages. Although the design of XML focuses on documents, the language is used for the representation of arbitrary data structures such as those used in web services. Several schema systems exist to aid in the definition of XML-based languages, hundreds of document formats using XML syntax have been developed, including RSS, Atom, SOAP, SVG, and XHTML. XML-based formats have become the default for many office-productivity tools, including Microsoft Office, OpenOffice. org and LibreOffice, XML has also provided the base language for communication protocols such as XMPP. Applications for the Microsoft. NET Framework use XML files for configuration, apple has an implementation of a registry based on XML. XML has come into use for the interchange of data over the Internet. IETF RFC7303 gives rules for the construction of Internet Media Types for use when sending XML and it also defines the media types application/xml and text/xml, which say only that the data is in XML, and nothing about its semantics. The use of text/xml has been criticized as a source of encoding problems. RFC7303 also recommends that XML-based languages be given media types ending in +xml, further guidelines for the use of XML in a networked context appear in RFC3470, also known as IETF BCP70, a document covering many aspects of designing and deploying an XML-based language. The material in this section is based on the XML Specification and this is not an exhaustive list of all the constructs that appear in XML, it provides an introduction to the key constructs most often encountered in day-to-day use. Character An XML document is a string of characters, almost every legal Unicode character may appear in an XML document. Processor and application The processor analyzes the markup and passes structured information to an application, the specification places requirements on what an XML processor must do and not do, but the application is outside its scope. The processor is often referred to colloquially as an XML parser, Markup and content The characters making up an XML document are divided into markup and content, which may be distinguished by the application of simple syntactic rules. Generally, strings that constitute markup either begin with the character < and end with a >, or they begin with the character &, strings of characters that are not markup are content. However, in a CDATA section, the delimiters <. > are classified as markup, in addition, whitespace before and after the outermost element is classified as markup. Tag A tag is a construct that begins with <
28.
HTML
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Hypertext Markup Language is the standard markup language for creating web pages and web applications. With Cascading Style Sheets and JavaScript it forms a triad of cornerstone technologies for the World Wide Web, Web browsers receive HTML documents from a webserver or from local storage and render them into multimedia web pages. HTML describes the structure of a web page semantically and originally included cues for the appearance of the document, HTML elements are the building blocks of HTML pages. With HTML constructs, images and other objects, such as interactive forms and it provides a means to create structured documents by denoting structural semantics for text such as headings, paragraphs, lists, links, quotes and other items. HTML elements are delineated by tags, written using angle brackets, tags such as <img /> and <input /> introduce content into the page directly. Include explicit close tags for elements that permit content but are left empty, by carefully following the W3Cs compatibility guidelines, a user agent should be able to interpret the document equally as HTML or XHTML. For documents that are XHTML1.0 and have made compatible in this way. When delivered as XHTML, browsers should use an XML parser, HTML4 defined three different versions of the language, Strict, Transitional and Frameset. The Transitional and Frameset versions allow for presentational markup, which is omitted in the Strict version, instead, cascading style sheets are encouraged to improve the presentation of HTML documents. Because XHTML1 only defines an XML syntax for the language defined by HTML4, as this list demonstrates, the loose versions of the specification are maintained for legacy support. However, contrary to popular misconceptions, the move to XHTML does not imply a removal of this legacy support, rather the X in XML stands for extensible and the W3C is modularizing the entire specification and opening it up to independent extensions. The primary achievement in the move from XHTML1.0 to XHTML1.1 is the modularization of the entire specification, the strict version of HTML is deployed in XHTML1.1 through a set of modular extensions to the base XHTML1.1 specification. Likewise, someone looking for the loose or frameset specifications will find similar extended XHTML1.1 support, the modularization also allows for separate features to develop on their own timetable. So for example, XHTML1.1 will allow quicker migration to emerging XML standards such as MathML, in summary, the HTML4 specification primarily reined in all the various HTML implementations into a single clearly written specification based on SGML. XHTML1.0, ported this specification, as is, next, XHTML1.1 takes advantage of the extensible nature of XML and modularizes the whole specification. XHTML2.0 was intended to be the first step in adding new features to the specification in a standards-body-based approach. The WHATWG considers their work as living standard HTML for what constitutes the state of the art in major browser implementations by Apple, Google, Mozilla, Opera, hTML5 is specified by the HTML Working Group of the W3C following the W3C process. HTML lacks some of the found in earlier hypertext systems, such as source tracking, fat links
29.
XHTML
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Extensible Hypertext Markup Language is part of the family of XML markup languages. It mirrors or extends versions of the widely used Hypertext Markup Language, XHTML documents are well-formed and may therefore be parsed using standard XML parsers, unlike HTML, which requires a lenient HTML-specific parser. XHTML1.0 became a World Wide Web Consortium Recommendation on January 26,2000, XHTML1.1 became a W3C Recommendation on May 31,2001. The standard known as XHTML5 is being developed as an XML adaptation of the HTML5 specification, XHTML1.0 is a reformulation of the three HTML4 document types as applications of XML1.0. The World Wide Web Consortium also continues to maintain the HTML4.01 Recommendation, and the specifications for HTML5 and XHTML5 are being actively developed. In the current XHTML1.0 Recommendation document, as published and revised to August 2002, by migrating to XHTML today, content developers can enter the XML world with all of its attendant benefits, while still remaining confident in their contents backward and future compatibility. However, in 2005, the Web Hypertext Application Technology Working Group formed, independently of the W3C, the WHATWG eventually began working on a standard that supported both XML and non-XML serializations, HTML5, in parallel to W3C standards such as XHTML2. In 2007, the W3Cs HTML working group voted to officially recognize HTML5, in 2009, the W3C allowed the XHTML2 Working Groups charter to expire, acknowledging that HTML5 would be the sole next-generation HTML standard, including both XML and non-XML serializations. Of the two serializations, the W3C suggests that most authors use the HTML syntax, rather than the XHTML syntax, XHTML was developed to make HTML more extensible and increase interoperability with other data formats. In addition, browsers were forgiving of errors in HTML, and most websites were displayed despite technical errors in the markup, the XML standard, approved in 1998, provided a simpler data format closer in simplicity to HTML4. By using namespaces, XHTML documents could provide extensibility by including fragments from other XML-based languages such as Scalable Vector Graphics, finally, the renewed work would provide an opportunity to divide HTML into reusable components and clean up untidy parts of the language. There are various differences between XHTML and HTML, the Document Object Model is a tree structure that represents the page internally in applications, and XHTML and HTML are two different ways of representing that in markup. Both are less expressive than the DOM, and generally XHTMLs XML syntax is a more expressive than HTML. First off, one source of differences is immediate, XHTML uses an XML syntax, secondly however, because the expressible contents of the DOM in syntax are slightly different, there are some changes in actual behavior between the two models. XML is case-sensitive for element and attribute names, while HTML is not, there are numerous other technical requirements surrounding namespaces and precise parsing of whitespace and certain characters and elements. The exact parsing of HTML in practice has been undefined until recently, see the HTML5 specification for full details, Second, in contrast to these minor syntactical differences, there are some behavioral differences, mostly arising from the underlying differences in serialization. For example, Most prominently, behavior on parse errors differ, a fatal parse error in XML causes document processing to be aborted. Most content requiring namespaces will not work in HTML, except the built-in support for SVG, javaScript processing is a little different in XHTML, with minor changes in case sensitivity to some functions, and further precautions to restrict processing to well-formed content
30.
Portable Document Format
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The Portable Document Format is a file format used to present documents in a manner independent of application software, hardware, and operating systems. Each PDF file encapsulates a complete description of a fixed-layout flat document, including the text, fonts, graphics, PDF was developed in the early 1990s as a way to share computer documents, including text formatting and inline images. It was among a number of competing formats such as DjVu, Envoy, Common Ground Digital Paper, Farallon Replica, in those early years before the rise of the World Wide Web and HTML documents, PDF was popular mainly in desktop publishing workflows. Adobe Systems made the PDF specification available free of charge in 1993 and these proprietary technologies are not standardized and their specification is published only on Adobe’s website. Many of them are not supported by popular third-party implementations of PDF. So when organizations publish PDFs which use proprietary technologies, they present accessibility issues for some users. In 2014, ISO TC171 voted to deprecate XFA for ISO 32000-2, on January 9,2017, the final draft for ISO 32000-2 was published, thus reaching the approval stage. The PDF combines three technologies, A subset of the PostScript page description programming language, for generating the layout, a font-embedding/replacement system to allow fonts to travel with the documents. A structured storage system to bundle these elements and any associated content into a single file, PostScript is a page description language run in an interpreter to generate an image, a process requiring many resources. It can handle graphics and standard features of programming such as if. PDF is largely based on PostScript but simplified to remove flow control features like these, often, the PostScript-like PDF code is generated from a source PostScript file. The graphics commands that are output by the PostScript code are collected and tokenized, any files, graphics, or fonts to which the document refers also are collected. Then, everything is compressed to a single file, therefore, the entire PostScript world remains intact. PDF supports graphic transparency, PostScript does not, PostScript is an interpreted programming language with an implicit global state, so instructions accompanying the description of one page can affect the appearance of any following page. Therefore, all preceding pages in a PostScript document must be processed to determine the appearance of a given page. A PDF file is a 7-bit ASCII file, except for elements that may have binary content. A PDF file starts with a header containing the magic number, the format is a subset of a COS format. A COS tree file consists primarily of objects, of which there are eight types, Boolean values, representing true or false Numbers Strings, enclosed within parentheses, objects may be either direct or indirect
31.
Macworld
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Macworld is a web site dedicated to products and software of Apple Inc. published by Mac Publishing, which is headquartered in San Francisco, California. It started life as a print magazine in 1984 and had the largest audited circulation of Macintosh-focused magazines in North America, more than double its nearest competitor, Macworld was founded by David Bunnell and Andrew Fluegelman. In 1999, the company also purchased the online publication MacCentral Online. In late 2001 International Data Group bought out Ziff-Davis share of Mac Publishing, making it a wholly owned subsidiary of IDG, the magazine was published in many countries, either by other IDG subsidiaries or by outside publishers who have licensed the brand name and its content. These editions included Australia, Germany, Italy, Spain, Sweden, Turkey, the United Kingdom and its content was also incorporated into a number of other IDG publications. In addition to publishing a print magazine, Macworld also operates numerous web sites, including Macworld, Playlist, MacUser. Every year, Macworld uses its expertise in technology to find the best device in each category in the market, the Macworld Podcast is a weekly podcast published by Macworld, a magazine and web site devoted to Apples Macintosh computers. It was formally hosted by Macworld Senior Editor Chris Breen, and consists mostly of interviews with Macworld editors, Macworld editorial director Jason Snell is a frequent guest and occasional guest host. The programs original host was Cyrus Farivar, the Macworld Podcast began life on April 26,2005 as the Geek Factor Podcast, but was upgraded into the official Macworld Podcast with its fifth installment, in August 2005. Its current hosts as of August 2015 are Glenn Fleishman and Susie Ochs, Macworld Australia Macworld Macworld France Macworld UK Macwelt Macworld Italia Macworld MacWorld Macworld Macworld Macworld
32.
OpenType
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OpenType is a format for scalable computer fonts. It was built on its predecessor TrueType, retaining TrueTypes basic structure, OpenType is a registered trademark of Microsoft Corporation. The specification germinated at Microsoft, with Adobe Systems also contributing by the time of the announcement in 1996. OpenTypes origins date to Microsofts attempt to license Apples advanced typography technology GX Typography in the early 1990s and those negotiations failed, motivating Microsoft to forge ahead with its own technology, dubbed TrueType Open in 1994. Adobe joined Microsoft in those efforts in 1996, adding support for the glyph outline technology used in its Type 1 fonts and these efforts were intended by Microsoft and Adobe to supersede both Apples TrueType and Adobes Type 1 font formats. The name OpenType was chosen for the technologies, and the technology was announced later that year. Adobe and Microsoft continued to develop and refine OpenType over the next decade, adoption of the new standard reached formal approval in March 2007 as ISO Standard ISO/IEC 14496-22 called Open Font Format. It is also referred to as Open Font Format Specification. The initial standard was technically equivalent to OpenType 1.4 specification, the second edition of the Open Font Format was published in 2009 and was declared technically equivalent to the OpenType font format specification. Since then, the Open Font Format and the OpenType specification have continued to be maintained in sync, OFF is a free, publicly available standard. By 2001 hundreds of OpenType fonts were on the market, Adobe finished converting their entire font library to OpenType toward the end of 2002. As of early 2005, around 10,000 OpenType fonts had become available, by 2006, every major font foundry and many minor ones were developing fonts in OpenType format. In 2014, Adobe announced the creation of OpenType Collections, an OTC file bundles together multiple OpenType font files. This allows for efficient storage. For example, the Noto fonts CJK OTC is ~10MB smaller than the sum of the four separate OTFs of which it is comprised, additionally, OTFs can contain a maximum of 65,535 glyphs, the use of an OTC overcomes this limitation. OpenType uses the general sfnt structure of a TrueType font, but it adds several smartfont options that enhance the fonts typographic and language support capabilities. The glyph outline data in an OpenType font may be in one of two formats, either TrueType format outlines in a table, or Compact Font Format outlines in a CFF table. CFF outline data is based on the PostScript language Type 2 font format, however, the OpenType specification does not support the use of PostScript outlines in a TrueType Collection font file
33.
Unicode
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Unicode is a computing industry standard for the consistent encoding, representation, and handling of text expressed in most of the worlds writing systems. As of June 2016, the most recent version is Unicode 9.0, the standard is maintained by the Unicode Consortium. Unicodes success at unifying character sets has led to its widespread, the standard has been implemented in many recent technologies, including modern operating systems, XML, Java, and the. NET Framework. Unicode can be implemented by different character encodings, the most commonly used encodings are UTF-8, UTF-16 and the now-obsolete UCS-2. UTF-8 uses one byte for any ASCII character, all of which have the same values in both UTF-8 and ASCII encoding, and up to four bytes for other characters. UCS-2 uses a 16-bit code unit for each character but cannot encode every character in the current Unicode standard, UTF-16 extends UCS-2, using one 16-bit unit for the characters that were representable in UCS-2 and two 16-bit units to handle each of the additional characters. Many traditional character encodings share a common problem in that they allow bilingual computer processing, Unicode, in intent, encodes the underlying characters—graphemes and grapheme-like units—rather than the variant glyphs for such characters. In the case of Chinese characters, this leads to controversies over distinguishing the underlying character from its variant glyphs. In text processing, Unicode takes the role of providing a unique code point—a number, in other words, Unicode represents a character in an abstract way and leaves the visual rendering to other software, such as a web browser or word processor. This simple aim becomes complicated, however, because of concessions made by Unicodes designers in the hope of encouraging a more rapid adoption of Unicode, the first 256 code points were made identical to the content of ISO-8859-1 so as to make it trivial to convert existing western text. For other examples, see duplicate characters in Unicode and he explained that he name Unicode is intended to suggest a unique, unified, universal encoding. In this document, entitled Unicode 88, Becker outlined a 16-bit character model, Unicode could be roughly described as wide-body ASCII that has been stretched to 16 bits to encompass the characters of all the worlds living languages. In a properly engineered design,16 bits per character are more than sufficient for this purpose, Unicode aims in the first instance at the characters published in modern text, whose number is undoubtedly far below 214 =16,384. By the end of 1990, most of the work on mapping existing character encoding standards had been completed, the Unicode Consortium was incorporated in California on January 3,1991, and in October 1991, the first volume of the Unicode standard was published. The second volume, covering Han ideographs, was published in June 1992, in 1996, a surrogate character mechanism was implemented in Unicode 2.0, so that Unicode was no longer restricted to 16 bits. The Microsoft TrueType specification version 1.0 from 1992 used the name Apple Unicode instead of Unicode for the Platform ID in the naming table, Unicode defines a codespace of 1,114,112 code points in the range 0hex to 10FFFFhex. Normally a Unicode code point is referred to by writing U+ followed by its hexadecimal number, for code points in the Basic Multilingual Plane, four digits are used, for code points outside the BMP, five or six digits are used, as required. Code points in Planes 1 through 16 are accessed as surrogate pairs in UTF-16, within each plane, characters are allocated within named blocks of related characters
34.
Adobe Flash
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Adobe Flash is a multimedia software platform used for production of animations, rich Internet applications, desktop applications, mobile applications and mobile games. Flash displays text, vector graphics and raster graphics to provide animations, video games and it allows streaming of audio and video, and can capture mouse, keyboard, microphone and camera input. Artists may produce Flash graphics and animations using Adobe Animate, Software developers may produce applications and video games using Adobe Flash Builder, FlashDevelop, Flash Catalyst, or any text editor when used with the Apache Flex SDK. End-users can view Flash content via Flash Player, AIR or third-party players such as Scaleform, Adobe Flash Player enables end-users to view Flash content using web browsers. Adobe Flash Lite enabled viewing Flash content on older smartphones, but has discontinued and superseded by Adobe AIR. The ActionScript programming language allows the development of interactive animations, video games, web applications, desktop applications, programmers can implement Flash software using an IDE such as Adobe Animate, Adobe Flash Builder, Adobe Director, FlashDevelop and Powerflasher FDT. Adobe AIR enables full-featured desktop and mobile applications to be developed with Flash, and published for Windows, macOS, Android, iOS, Xbox One, PlayStation 4, Nintendo Switch, and Wii U. Content-providers frequently used to use Flash to display streaming video, advertising and interactive content on web pages. However, after the 2000s, the usage of Flash on Web sites declined, in the early 2000s, Flash was widely installed on desktop computers, and was commonly used to display interactive web pages, online games, and to playback video and audio content. In 2005, YouTube was founded by former PayPal employees, between 2000 and 2010, numerous businesses used Flash-based websites to launch new products, or to create interactive company portals. Notable users include Nike, Hewlett-Packard, Nokia, General Electric, World Wildlife Fund, HBO, Cartoon Network, after Adobe introduced hardware-accelerated 3D for Flash, Flash websites saw a growth of 3D content for product demonstrations and virtual tours. In 2007, YouTube offered videos in HTML5 format to support the iPhone and iPad, after a controversy with Apple, Adobe stopped developing Flash Player for Mobile, focussing its efforts on Adobe AIR applications and HTML5 animation. In 2015, Google introduced Google Swiffy to convert Flash animation to HTML5, in 2015, YouTube switched to HTML5 technology on all devices, however it will preserve the Flash-based video player for older web browsers. After Flash 5 introduced ActionScript in 2000, developers combined the visual and programming capabilities of Flash to produce interactive experiences, such Web-based applications eventually came to be known as Rich Internet Applications. In 2004, Macromedia Flex was released, and specifically targeted the application development market, Flex introduced new user interface components, advanced data visualization components, data remoting, and a modern IDE. Flex competed with Asynchronous JavaScript and XML and Microsoft Silverlight during its tenure, Flex was upgraded to support integration with remote data sources, using AMF, BlazeDS, Adobe LiveCycle, Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud, and others. As of 2015, Flex applications can be published for desktop platforms using Adobe AIR, between 2006 and 2016, the Speedtest. net web service conducted over 9.0 billion speed tests using an RIA built with Adobe Flash. In 2016, the service shifted to HTML5 due to the availability of Adobe Flash Player on PCs
35.
EPUB
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EPUB is an e-book file format with the extension. epub that can be downloaded and read on devices like smartphones, tablets, computers, or e-readers. It is a standard published by the International Digital Publishing Forum. The term is short for electronic publication and is sometimes styled ePub, EPUB became an official standard of the IDPF in September 2007, superseding the older Open eBook standard. The Book Industry Study Group endorses EPUB3 as the format of choice for packaging content and has stated that the book publishing industry should rally around a single standard. EPUB is the most widely supported vendor-independent XML-based e-book format, that is, EPUB2.0 was approved in October 2007, with a maintenance update approved in September 2010. The EPUB3.0 specification became effective in October 2011, new major features include support for precise layout or specialized formatting, such as for comic books, and MathML support. The current version of EPUB is 3.1, effective January 5,2017, the format specification underwent reorganization and clean-up, format supports remotely-hosted resources and new font formats and uses more pure HTML and CSS. In May 2016 IDPF Members approved World Wide Web Consortium merger, to align the publishing industry. Like an HTML web site, the format supports inline raster and vector images, metadata and this could affect the level of support for various DRM systems on devices and the portability of purchased e-books. Consequently, such DRM incompatibility may segment the EPUB format along the lines of DRM systems, undermining the advantages of a standard format. It is also used on many software readers such as iBooks on iOS and Google Books on Android. IBooks also supports the proprietary format, which is based on the EPUB format. As final product As in the eBook market PDF format is not generally sold at sites that sell eBooks, the main EPUB producers are suppliers of public domain and open licensed content, as Project Gutenberg, PubMed Central, SciELO and many others. In that context is growing and replacing the PDF format, data interchange EPUB is a popular way to feed ebook creation process, because is an open format and is based in HTML, while Amazons format is proprietary. EPUB is the first step content format in many production process, an EPUB file is a ZIP archive that contains, in effect, a website—including HTML files, images, CSS style sheets, and other assets. EPUB3 is the latest version, by using HTML5, publications can contain video, audio, and interactivity, just like websites in web browsers. An ePub publication is delivered as a single file and this file is an unencrypted zipped archive containing a set of interrelated resources. An OCF Abstract Container defines a system model for the contents of the container
36.
Blio
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Blio is a free-to-download e-reader software platform created by Ray Kurzweil that was unveiled at the Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas in early January 2010. Blio also comes with text-to-speech integration, with support for both a voice and synchronization with professionally recorded audiobooks. Blio iPhone app supports Rapid Serial Visual Presentation mode which lets you read up to 1000 words per minute with each word presented individually, the reader controls the rate of presentation with a screen thumb dial. Blio is available for download on Microsoft Windows, Google Android devices with a version optimized for Android 3.0 Honeycomb tablet computers, Blio also has a bookstore, backed by Baker & Taylor. It offers thousands of full color books from hundreds of publishers, with reviews, library borrowers may download Baker & Taylor ebooks and audiobooks borrowed from public libraries Axis 360 platform via the Blio app
37.
IPad
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IPad is a line of tablet computers designed, developed and marketed by Apple Inc. which run the iOS mobile operating system. The first iPad was released on April 3,2010, the most recent iPad models are the 9. 7-inch iPad Pro released on March 31,2016, the user interface is built around the devices multi-touch screen, including a virtual keyboard. The iPad includes built-in Wi-Fi and cellular connectivity on select models, as of January 2015, there have been over 250 million iPads sold. IPad tablets are second most popular, by sales, against Android-based ones, since 2013, an iPad can shoot video, take photos, play music, and perform Internet functions such as web-browsing and emailing. Other functions – games, reference, GPS navigation, social networking, as of March 2016, the App Store has more than one million apps for the iPad by Apple and third parties. There have been six versions of the iPad, the first generation established design precedents, such as the 9. 7-inch screen size and button placement, that have persisted through all models. The third generation added a Retina Display, the new Apple A5X processor with a graphics processor, a 5-megapixel camera, HD 1080p video recording, voice dictation. The fourth generation added the Apple A6X processor and replaces the 30-pin connector with an all-digital Lightning connector, the iPad Air added the Apple A7 processor and the Apple M7 motion coprocessor, and reduced the thickness for the first time since the iPad 2. The iPad Air 2 added the Apple A8X processor, the Apple M8 motion coprocessor, an 8-megapixel camera, and the Touch ID fingerprint sensor, there have been four versions of the iPad Mini. The first generation features a screen size of 7.9 inches and features similar internal specifications as the iPad 2 except it uses the Lightning connector. The iPad Mini 2 features the Retina Display, the Apple A7 processor, the iPad Mini 3 features the Touch ID fingerprint sensor. The iPad Mini 4 features the Apple A8 and the Apple M8 motion coprocessor, Apple co-founder Steve Jobs said in a 1983 speech that the companys strategy is really simple. What we want to do is we want to put a great computer in a book that you can carry around with you. And we really want to do it with a link in it so you don’t have to hook up to anything and you’re in communication with all of these larger databases. Apples first tablet computer was the Newton MessagePad 100, introduced in 1993, powered by an ARM6 processor core developed by ARM, Apple also developed a prototype PowerBook Duo based tablet, the PenLite, but decided not to sell it in order to avoid hurting MessagePad sales. Apple released several more Newton-based PDAs, the one, the MessagePad 2100, was discontinued in 1998. Apple re-entered the mobile-computing markets in 2007 with the iPhone, smaller than the iPad, but featuring a camera and mobile phone, it pioneered the multi-touch finger-sensitive touchscreen interface of Apples iOS mobile operating system. By late 2009, the release had been rumored for several years
38.
Microsoft Word
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Microsoft Word is a word processor developed by Microsoft. It was first released on October 25,1983 under the name Multi-Tool Word for Xenix systems, commercial versions of Word are licensed as a standalone product or as a component of Microsoft Office, Windows RT or the discontinued Microsoft Works suite. Microsoft Word Viewer and Office Online are freeware editions of Word with limited features, in 1981, Microsoft hired Charles Simonyi, the primary developer of Bravo, the first GUI word processor, which was developed at Xerox PARC. Simonyi started work on a word processor called Multi-Tool Word and soon hired Richard Brodie, a former Xerox intern, Microsoft announced Multi-Tool Word for Xenix and MS-DOS in 1983. Its name was simplified to Microsoft Word. Free demonstration copies of the application were bundled with the November 1983 issue of PC World and that year Microsoft demonstrated Word running on Windows. Unlike most MS-DOS programs at the time, Microsoft Word was designed to be used with a mouse and it was not initially popular, since its user interface was different from the leading word processor at the time, WordStar. However, Microsoft steadily improved the product, releasing versions 2.0 through 5.0 over the six years. In 1985, Microsoft ported Word to Mac OS and this was made easier by Word for DOS having been designed for use with high-resolution displays and laser printers, even though none were yet available to the general public. Following the precedents of LisaWrite and MacWrite, Word for Mac OS added true WYSIWYG features and it fulfilled a need for a word processor that was more capable than MacWrite. After its release, Word for Mac OSs sales were higher than its MS-DOS counterpart for at least four years, Word 3.0 included numerous internal enhancements and new features, including the first implementation of the Rich Text Format specification, but was plagued with bugs. Within a few months, Word 3.0 was superseded by a more stable Word 3.01, after MacWrite Pro was discontinued in the mid-1990s, Word for Mac OS never had any serious rivals. Word 5.1 for Mac OS, released in 1992, was a popular word processor owing to its elegance, relative ease of use. Many users say it is the best version of Word for Mac OS ever created, in 1986, an agreement between Atari and Microsoft brought Word to the Atari ST under the name Microsoft Write. The Atari ST version was a port of Word 1.05 for the Mac OS and was never updated due to the degree of software piracy on the Atari platform. The first version of Word for Windows was released in 1989, with the release of Windows 3.0 the following year, sales began to pick up and Microsoft soon became the market leader for word processors for IBM PC-compatible computers. When Microsoft became aware of the Year 2000 problem, it made Microsoft Word 5.5 for DOS available for download free, as of March 2014, it is still available for download from Microsofts web site. In 1991, Microsoft embarked on a project code-named Pyramid to completely rewrite Microsoft Word from the ground up, both the Windows and Mac OS versions would start from the same code base
39.
SWF
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SWF is an abbreviation for small web format, an Adobe Flash file format used for multimedia, vector graphics and ActionScript. They may also occur in programs, commonly browser games, using ActionScript, although Adobe Illustrator can generate SWF format files through its export function, it cannot open or edit them. Other than using Adobe products, one can build SWFs with open-source Motion-Twin ActionScript 2 Compiler, the open-source Ming library, various other third-party programs can also produce files in this format, such as Multimedia Fusion 2, Captivate and SWiSH Max. The term SWF has originated as an abbreviation for ShockWave Flash and this usage was changed to the backronym Small Web Format to eliminate confusion with a different technology, Shockwave, from which SWF derived. Anyway, there is no resolution to the acronym SWF by Adobe. The small company FutureWave Software originally defined the file format with one primary objective, the idea involved a format which player software could run on any system and which would work with slower network connections. FutureWave released FutureSplash Animator in May 1996, in December 1996 Macromedia acquired FutureWave and FutureSplash Animator became Macromedia Flash 1.0. As Flash became more popular than Shockwave itself, this decision became more of a liability. On May 1,2008, Adobe dropped its restrictions on the SWF format specifications. However, Rob Savoye, a member of the Gnash development team, has pointed to parts of the Flash format which remain closed. On July 1,2008, Adobe released code to Google and Yahoo, the main graphical primitive in SWF is the path, which is a chain of segments of primitive types, ranging from lines to splines or bezier curves. Additional primitives like rectangles, ellipses, and even text can be built from these, the graphical elements in SWF are thus fairly similar to SVG and MPEG-4 BIFS. SWF also uses display lists and allows naming and reusing previously defined components, the binary stream format SWF uses is fairly similar to QuickTime atoms, with a tag, length and payload—an organization that makes it very easy for players to skip contents they dont support. Originally limited to presenting vector-based objects and images in a sequential manner. Adobe introduced a new, low-level 3D API in version 11 of the Flash Player, initially codenamed Molehill, the official name given to this API was ultimately Stage3D. It was intended to be an equivalent of OpenGL or Direct3D, in Stage3D shaders are expressed in a low-level language called Adobe Graphics Assembly Language. GNU has started developing a free software SWF player called Gnash under the GNU General Public License, despite being a declared high-priority GNU project, funding for Gnash was fairly limited. Another player is the LGPL-licensed Swfdec, lightspark is a continuation of Gnash supporting more recent SWF versions
