1.
1989 Loma Prieta earthquake
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The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake occurred in Northern California on October 17 at 5,04 p. m. local time. With a moment magnitude of 6.9 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX, no surface faulting occurred, though a large number of other ground failures and landslides were present, especially in the Summit area of the Santa Cruz Mountains. Due to the coverage of the 1989 World Series, it became the first major earthquake in the United States that was broadcast live on national television. Andrew Lawson, a geologist from the University of California, Berkeley, had named the fault after the San Andreas Lake and later led an investigation into that event. The San Andreas Fault ruptured for a length of 290 mi during the 1906 shock, several long term forecasts for a large shock along the San Andreas Fault in that area had been made public prior to 1989 but the earthquake that transpired was not what had been anticipated. The 1989 Loma Prieta event originated on an undiscovered oblique-slip reverse fault that is located adjacent to the San Andreas Fault, since many forecasts had been presented for the region near Loma Prieta, seismologists were not taken by surprise by the October 1989 event. Two moderate shocks, referred to as the Lake Elsman earthquakes by the USGS, occurred in the Santa Cruz Mountains region in June 1988, each events aftershock sequence and effect on stress drop was closely examined, and their study indicated that the shocks affected the mainshocks rupture process. The June 27,1988, shock occurred with an intensity of VI. Its effects included broken windows in Los Gatos, and other damage in Holy City. Farther away from the Santa Cruz Mountains, pieces of concrete fell from a structure at the Sunnyvale Town Center. More moderate damage resulted from the August 8,1989, shock when chimneys were toppled in Cupertino, Los Gatos, other damage included cracked walls and foundations and broken underground pipes. At the office of the Los Gatos City Manager, a window that was cracked had also broken in the earlier shock. Also in Los Gatos, one man died when he exited a building through a window, the Loma Prieta earthquake was named for Loma Prieta Peak in the Santa Cruz Mountains, which lies just to the east of the mainshock epicenter. At sites with rocky terrain, the duration was shorter and the shaking was much less intense, the strong motion records also allowed for the causative fault to be determined – the rupture was related to the San Andreas Fault System. While a Mercalli Intensity of VIII covered a large swath of territory relatively close to the further to the north. At more than 44 miles distant, the San Francisco Bay Area recorded peak horizontal accelerations that were as high as 0. 26g, in a general way, the location of aftershocks of the event delineated the extent of the faulting, which extended about 24 miles in length. Because the rupture took place bilaterally, the duration of strong shaking was about half of what it would have been had it ruptured in one direction only, the duration of a typical M6.9 shock with a comparable rupture length would have been about twice as long. Gregory Beroza, a seismologist with Stanford University, made several distinctions regarding the 1906 and 1989 events, near Loma Prieta, the 1906 rupture was more shallow, had more strike-slip, and occurred on a fault that was near vertical
2.
Glued laminated timber
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In North America the material providing the laminations is termed laminating stock or lamstock. By laminating a number of pieces of lumber, a single large, strong. These structural members are used as columns or horizontal beams. Glulam is readily produced in curved shapes and it is available in a range of species, connections are usually made with bolts or plain steel dowels and steel plates. Glulam optimizes the structural values of a renewable resource – wood, because of their composition, large glulam members can be manufactured from a variety of smaller trees harvested from second- and third-growth forests and plantations. Glulam provides the strength and versatility of large wood members without relying on the old growth-dependent solid-sawn timbers, Glulam has much lower embodied energy than reinforced concrete and steel, although of course it does entail more embodied energy than solid timber. However, the process allows timber to be used for much longer spans, heavier loads. Glulam is two-thirds the weight of steel and one sixth the weight of concrete – the embodied energy to produce it is six times less than the same strength of steel. Glulam can be manufactured to a variety of straight and curved configurations so it offers architects artistic freedom without sacrificing structural requirements, the size is limited only by transportation and handling constraints. The building is now the Marriage Room of Southampton Register Office, the first industrial patented use was in Weimar, Germany. Here in 1872 Otto Hetzer set up a sawmill and carpentry business in Kohlstrasse. Beginning in 1892, he took out a series of patents, DRP No.63018 was for a ventilated timber floor deck that could be tightened laterally after installation, to compensate for shrinkage. Hetzer continued to patent various ingenious systems, but the first of these that could be compared with subsequently standardised horizontal glulam was DRP No and this entailed vertical columns which transitioned into curved glued laminated eaves zones, and then became sloped rafters, all in a single laminated unit. Each component, bonded under pressure, comprised three or more horizontally arranged laminations, the result was the first glulam portal. In 1895, Hetzer moved his company to Ettersburger Strasse, still in Weimar, at the height of production, in around 1917, he employed about 300 workers, and Müller includes a fine engraving of the railway sidings and works in 1921. In 1909, the Swiss engineering consultants Terner & Chopard purchased permission to use Hetzers patent and these included the distinctive bell-shaped roof dome of the former Hygiene Institute, Zurich,1911, now the main building of the University of Zurich. A significant development in the industry was the introduction of fully water-resistant phenol-resorcinol adhesive in 1942. This allowed glulam to be used in exposed exterior environments without concern of gluline degradation, the first U. S. manufacturing standard for glulam was Commercial Standard CS253-63, which was published by the Department of Commerce in 1963
3.
Thor
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In Norse mythology, Thor is a hammer-wielding god associated with thunder, lightning, storms, oak trees, strength, the protection of mankind, and also hallowing and fertility. The cognate deity in wider Germanic mythology and paganism was known in Old English as Þunor and in Old High German as Donar, into the modern period, Thor continued to be acknowledged in rural folklore throughout Germanic regions. Thor is frequently referred to in place names, the day of the week Thursday bears his name, in Norse mythology, largely recorded in Iceland from traditional material stemming from Scandinavia, numerous tales and information about Thor are provided. With Sif, Thor fathered the goddess Þrúðr, with Járnsaxa, he fathered Magni, with a mother whose name is not recorded, he fathered Móði, and he is the stepfather of the god Ullr. The same sources list Thor as the son of the god Odin and the earth, Jörð. Thor has two servants, Þjálfi and Röskva, rides in a cart or chariot pulled by two goats, Tanngrisnir and Tanngnjóstr, and is ascribed three dwellings. Thor wields the mountain-crushing hammer, Mjölnir, wears the belt Megingjörð and the iron gloves Járngreipr, Thor has inspired numerous works of art and references to Thor appear in modern popular culture. Like other Germanic deities, veneration of Thor is revived in the period in Heathenry. The name of the god is the origin of the weekday name Thursday, by employing a practice known as interpretatio germanica during the Roman Empire period, the Germanic peoples adopted the Roman weekly calendar, and replaced the names of Roman gods with their own. Latin dies Iovis was converted into Proto-Germanic *Þonares dagaz, from which stems modern English Thursday, beginning in the Viking Age, personal names containing the theonym Thórr are recorded with great frequency. Prior to the Viking Age, no examples are recorded, thórr-based names may have flourished during the Viking Age as a defiant response to attempts at Christianization, similar to the wide scale Viking Age practice of wearing Thors hammer pendants. They regard it as a duty to offer to him, on fixed days. Hercules and Mars they appease by animal offerings of the permitted kind, in this instance, Tacitus refers to the god Odin as Mercury, Thor as Hercules, and the god Týr as Mars, and the identity of the Isis of the Suebi has been debated. In Thors case, the identification with the god Hercules is likely at least in part due to similarities between Thors hammer and Hercules club. In his Annals, Tacitus again refers to the veneration of Hercules by the Germanic peoples, Donar, the southern Germanic form of the gods name. According to an account, the Christian missionary Saint Boniface felled an oak tree dedicated to Jove in the 8th century. Around the second half of the 8th century, Old English mentions of a figure named Thunor are recorded, gabriel Turville-Petre saw this as an invented origin for the placename demonstrating loss of memory that Thunor had been a gods name. Adam details that Thor, they reckon, rules the sky, he governs thunder and lightning, winds and storms, fine weather and fertility and that Thor, with his mace, looks like Jupiter
4.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
5.
Operating system
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An operating system is system software that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. All computer programs, excluding firmware, require a system to function. Operating systems are found on many devices that contain a computer – from cellular phones, the dominant desktop operating system is Microsoft Windows with a market share of around 83. 3%. MacOS by Apple Inc. is in place, and the varieties of Linux is in third position. Linux distributions are dominant in the server and supercomputing sectors, other specialized classes of operating systems, such as embedded and real-time systems, exist for many applications. A single-tasking system can run one program at a time. Multi-tasking may be characterized in preemptive and co-operative types, in preemptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates a slot to each of the programs. Unix-like operating systems, e. g. Solaris, Linux, cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to provide time to the other processes in a defined manner. 16-bit versions of Microsoft Windows used cooperative multi-tasking, 32-bit versions of both Windows NT and Win9x, used preemptive multi-tasking. Single-user operating systems have no facilities to distinguish users, but may allow multiple programs to run in tandem, a distributed operating system manages a group of distinct computers and makes them appear to be a single computer. The development of networked computers that could be linked and communicate with each other gave rise to distributed computing, distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a work in cooperation, they form a distributed system. The technique is used both in virtualization and cloud computing management, and is common in large server warehouses, embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy and they are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design, Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems. A real-time operating system is a system that guarantees to process events or data by a specific moment in time. A real-time operating system may be single- or multi-tasking, but when multitasking, early computers were built to perform a series of single tasks, like a calculator. Basic operating system features were developed in the 1950s, such as resident monitor functions that could run different programs in succession to speed up processing
6.
Tetris
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Tetris is a tile-matching puzzle video game, originally designed and programmed by Russian game designer Alexey Pajitnov. It was released on June 6,1984, while he was working for the Dorodnitsyn Computing Centre of the Academy of Science of the USSR in Moscow and he derived its name from the Greek numerical prefix tetra- and tennis, Pajitnovs favorite sport. Tetris was the first entertainment software to be exported from the USSR to the US, the Tetris game is a popular use of tetrominoes, the four-element special case of polyominoes. Polyominoes have been used in popular puzzles since at least 1907, however, even the enumeration of pentominoes is dated to antiquity. It has even inspired Tetris serving dishes and been played on the sides of various buildings, electronic Gaming Monthlys 100th issue had Tetris in first place as Greatest Game of All Time. In 2007, Tetris came in place in IGNs 100 Greatest Video Games of All Time. Tetriminos are game pieces shaped like tetrominoes, geometric shapes composed of four blocks each. A random sequence of Tetriminos fall down the playing field, the objective of the game is to manipulate these Tetriminos, by moving each one sideways and rotating it by 90 degree units, with the aim of creating a horizontal line of ten units without gaps. When such a line is created, it disappears, and any block above the line will fall. When a certain number of lines are cleared, the game enters a new level. As the game progresses, each level causes the Tetriminos to fall faster, some games also end after a finite number of levels or lines. All of the Tetriminos are capable of single and double clears, I, J, and L are able to clear triples. Only the I Tetrimino has the capacity to four lines simultaneously. Pajitnovs original version for the Electronika 60 computer used green brackets to represent blocks, prior to The Tetris Companys standardization in the early 2000s, those colors varied widely from implementation to implementation. The scoring formula for the majority of Tetris products is built on the idea that more difficult line clears should be awarded more points. For example, a line clear in Tetris Zone is worth 100 points, clearing four lines at once is worth 800. Nearly all Tetris games allow the player to press a button to increase the speed of the current pieces descent, rather than waiting for it to fall. The player can stop the pieces increased speed before the piece reaches the floor by letting go of the button
7.
Corel
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Corel Corporation is a Canadian software company headquartered in Ottawa, Ontario, specializing in graphics processing. It is known for producing software titles such as CorelDRAW, and for acquiring PaintShop Pro, Video Studio, Corel was founded by Michael Cowpland in 1985, as a research laboratory. The company had success early in the high-tech boom of the 1990s and early 2000s with the product CorelDRAW, and became, for a time. In 1996 it acquired Novell WordPerfect and started competing with the thought of being Pepsi to Microsofts Coke as Microsoft Word was the word processing software at the time. Corel was in a position as Microsoft pushed pre-loaded copies of its software onto new computers. This mainly consisted of Microsoft Works office applications, but a variant called Works Suite also bundled the Microsoft Word software. The company held the rights to the home arena for the NHLs Ottawa Senators from February 1996 until January 2006 as the Corel Centre. In 1997 Corel sold its Corel ChemLab studio and its CD Home Collection consisting of over 60 multimedia titles as well as the Corel ChemLab studio to Hoffmann + Associates, as part of the deal, Corel acquired a minority interest in Hoffmann + Associates and received royalties. In August 2000 Cowpland was accused of trading and left. A new board of directors was appointed and Derek Burney Jr. announced that the product line would be split into several brands—DeepWhite, ProCreate. However, these plans would be scrapped, and only the Corel brand would remain, Corel acquired the graphics software company Micrografx in late 2001. In August 2003, Corel was bought out by the equity firm Vector Capital for $1.05 a share. The company was delisted from the NASDAQ and Toronto Stock Exchanges. Some U. S. shareholders alleged the management benefited from the buyout personally while the price was too low. A lawsuit was filed in the U. S. to stop the buyout and was unsuccessful, Corel contended that WordPerfect was the only viable alternative to Microsoft Office, with sales 70 times more than Lotus SmartSuite. On April 26,2006, Corel completed its return to the market with an initial public offering on NASDAQ, the same day finalizing the acquisition of WinZip. On December 12,2006, Corel completed its acquisitions of InterVideo, the InterVideo acquisition was valued at around $196 million. In May 2008, CEO David Dobson announced that he was leaving the company to take a senior role at Pitney Bowes
8.
Novell
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/noʊˈvɛl/ was a software and services company headquartered in Provo, Utah. It had been instrumental in making Utah Valley a focus for technology, Novell technology contributed to the emergence of local area networks, which displaced the dominant mainframe computing model and changed computing worldwide. The company began in 1979 in Orem, Utah as Novell Data Systems Inc. a hardware manufacturer producing CP/M-based systems, former Eyring Research Institute employee Dennis Fairclough was the member of the original team that started Novell Data Systems. It was co-founded by George Canova, Darin Field, and Jack Davis, victor V. Vurpillat brought the deal to Pete Musser, chairman of the board of Safeguard Scientifics, Inc. who provided the seed funding. The company initially did not do well, the microcomputer produced by the company was comparatively weak against performance by competitors. In order to compete on systems sales Novell Data Systems planned a program to more than one microcomputer to operate together. The former ERI employees Drew Major, Dale Neibaur and Kyle Powell, the Safeguard board then ordered Musser to shut Novell down. Davis left Novell Data Systems in November 1981, followed by Canova in March 1982, rubinstein and Dolin, along with Jack Messman, interviewed and hired Raymond Noorda. The required funding was obtained through an offering to Safeguard shareholders, managed by the Cleveland brokerage house, Prescott, Ball and Turben. Major, Neibaur and Powell continued to support Novell through their SuperSet Software Group, in January 1983, the companys name was shortened to Novell, Inc. and Raymond Noorda became the head of the firm. Later that same year, the company introduced its most significant product, a network interface card was developed for the IBM PC industry standard architecture bus. The server was using the first network operating system called ShareNet, later, ShareNet was ported to run on the Intel platform and renamed NetWare. The first commercial release of NetWare was version 1.5, Novell based its network protocol on Xerox Network Systems, and created its own standards from IDP and SPP, which it named Internetwork Packet Exchange and Sequenced Packet Exchange. File and print services ran on the NetWare Core Protocol over IPX, as did Routing Information Protocol, NetWare uses Novell DOS as a boot loader. Novell DOS is similar to MS-DOS and IBM PC DOS, but no license for DOS is required. Novell had already acquired Kanwal Rekhis company Excelan, which manufactured smart Ethernet cards and commercialized the Internet protocol TCP/IP, Novell did extremely well throughout the 1980s. It aggressively expanded its share by selling its expensive Ethernet cards at cost. By 1990, Novell had an almost monopolistic position in NOS for any business requiring a network, with this market leadership, Novell began to acquire and build services on top of its NetWare operating platform
9.
Tab (GUI)
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It is an interface style most commonly associated with web browsers, web applications, text editors, and preference panes. GUI tabs are modeled after traditional card tabs inserted in paper files or card indexes, the WordVision DOS word processor for the IBM PC in 1982 was perhaps the first commercially available product with a tabbed interface. PC Magazine in 1994 wrote that it has served as a free R&D Balls for the software business—its bones picked over for a decade by programmers looking for so-called new ideas. The NeWS version of UniPresss Gosling Emacs text editor was another early product and it was used to develop an authoring tool for the Ben Shneidermans HyperTIES browser, in 1988. HyperTIES also supported pie menus for managing windows and browsing hypermedia documents with PostScript applets, HyperTIES was a hypermedia browser, a term first used by Ted Nelson in 1965. The first web browser came out later in 1990, and the term World Wide Web was not invented until 1990, in 1992 Borlands Quattro Pro popularized tabs for spreadsheets, Microsoft Word in 1993 used them to simplify submenus. In 1994, BookLink Technologies featured tabbed windows in its InternetWorks browser and that same year, the text editor UltraEdit also appeared with a modern multi-row tabbed interface. The tabbed interface approach was followed by the Internet Explorer shell NetCaptor in 1997. With the release of Internet Explorer 7 in 2006, all web browsers featured a tabbed interface. Users have quickly adopted the use of tabs in web browsing, a study of tabbed browsing behavior in June 2009 found that users switched tabs in 57% of tab sessions, and 36% of users used new tabs to open search engine results at least once during that period. Numerous special functions in association with browser tabs have emerged since then, one example is visual tabbed browsing in OmniWeb version 5, which displays preview images of pages in a drawer to the left or right of the main browser window. Another feature is the ability to re-order tabs and to all of the webpages opened in tab panes in a given window in a group or bookmark folder. There are minor usability issues such as whether a new tab opens in the end of the tab list or next to its parent, for example, Internet Explorer marks tab families with different colours. There is some debate about how the TDI fits in with the Microsoft Windows User Interface Guidelines, in many ways the Workbook window management model most closely resembles TDI. However this is a recent addition to the Windows User Interface Guidelines. Another advantage is that sets of related documents can be grouped within each of several windows, tabbed web browsers often allow users to save their browsing session and return to it later. Although the tabbed document interface does allow for multiple views under one window, one such problem is dealing with many tabs at once. When a window is tabbed to a number that exceeds the available area of the monitor
10.
NeXT
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NeXT was founded by Jobs after he was ousted at Apple, along with several co-workers. NeXT introduced the first NeXT Computer in 1988, and the smaller NeXTstation in 1990, the NeXT computers experienced relatively limited sales, with estimates of about 50,000 units shipped in total. Nevertheless, their innovative object-oriented NeXTSTEP operating system and development environment were highly influential, NeXT later released much of the NeXTSTEP system as a programming environment standard called OpenStep. NeXT withdrew from the business in 1993 to concentrate on marketing OPENSTEP for Mach, its own OpenStep implementation. NeXT also developed WebObjects, one of the first enterprise Web application frameworks, Apple purchased NeXT in 1997 for $429 million, and 1.5 million shares of Apple stock. As part of the agreement, Steve Jobs, Chairman and CEO of NeXT Software, returned to Apple, the founder promised to merge software from NeXT with Apples hardware platforms, eventually resulting in macOS, iOS, watchOS and tvOS. Parts of these systems incorporated the OPENSTEP foundation. In 1985, Apple co-founder Steve Jobs led Apples SuperMicro division, the Macintosh had been successful on university campuses partly because of the Apple University Consortium, which allowed students and institutions to buy the computers at a discount. The consortium had earned more than $50 million on computers by February 1984, while chairman, Jobs visited university departments and faculty members to sell Macintosh. Jobs met Paul Berg, a Nobel Laureate in chemistry, at a luncheon held in Silicon Valley to honor François Mitterrand, wet labs were prohibitively expensive for lower-level courses and were too complex to be simulated on personal computers of the time. Jobs was intrigued by Bergs concept of a workstation and contemplated starting a higher education company in the fall of 1985. Jobs division did not release upgraded versions of the Macintosh and most of the Macintosh Office, as a result, sales plummeted, and Apple was forced to write off millions of dollars in unsold inventory. Apples chief executive officer John Sculley ousted Jobs from his role at Apple. Later that year, Jobs began a struggle to regain control of the company. The board of directors sided with Sculley while Jobs took a visit to Western Europe. After several months of being sidelined, Jobs resigned from Apple on September 13,1985 and he told the board he was leaving to set up a new computer company, and that he would be taking several Apple employees from the SuperMicro division with him. He also told the board that his new company would not compete with Apple, Jobs named his new company Next, Inc. A number of former Apple employees followed him to Next, including Joanna Hoffman, Bud Tribble, George Crow, Rich Page, Susan Barnes, Susan Kare, and Danl Lewin
11.
Xerox Alto
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The Xerox Alto was the first computer designed from its inception to support an operating system based on a graphical user interface, later using the desktop metaphor. The first machines were introduced on 1 March 1973, a decade before mass market GUI machines arose, the Alto uses a custom multi-chip central processing unit filling a small cabinet, and each machine cost tens of thousands of dollars despite its status as a personal computer. Only small numbers were initially, but by the late 1970s about 1,000 were in use at various Xerox labs. Total production was about 2,000 systems, the Alto became well known in Silicon Valley and its GUI was increasingly seen as the future of computing. In 1979, Steve Jobs arranged a deal in which Apple Computer would license the concepts from Xerox in exchange for Xerox being able to stock options in Apple. After two famous visits to see the Alto, Apple engineers used the concepts to introduce the Apple Lisa and Macintosh systems, Xerox eventually commercialized a heavily modified version of the Alto concepts as the Xerox Star, first introduced in 1981. A complete office system including several workstations, storage and a laser printer cost as much as $100,000, and like the Alto, the Star had little direct impact on the market. The Alto was conceived in 1972 in a written by Butler Lampson, inspired by the oN-Line System developed by Douglas Engelbart. It was designed mostly by Charles P. Thacker, due to the success of the pilot run, the team went on to produce approximately 2,000 units over the next ten years. Several Xerox Alto chassis are now on display at the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California, for his pioneering design and realization of the Alto, Charles P. Thacker was awarded the 2009 Turing Award of the Association for Computing Machinery on March 9,2010. The 2004 Charles Stark Draper Prize was awarded to Thacker, Alan C, Kay, Butler Lampson, and Robert W. Taylor for their work on Alto. The following description is based mostly on the August 1976 Alto Hardware Manual by Xerox PARC, Alto uses a microcoded design but, unlike many computers, the microcode engine is not hidden from the programmer in a layered design. Applications such as Pinball take advantage of this to accelerate performance, mass storage is provided by a hard disk drive that uses a removable 2.5 MB one-platter cartridge similar to those used by the IBM2310. The base machine and one disk are housed in a cabinet about the size of a small refrigerator, Alto both blurred and ignored the lines between functional elements. The microcode machine supports up to 16 cooperative tasks, each with fixed priority, the emulator task executes the normal instruction set to which most applications are written. Others tasks serve the display, memory refresh, disk, network, ethernet is likewise supported by minimal hardware, with a shift register that acts bidirectionally to serialize output words and deserialize input words. Its speed was designed to be 3 Mbit/s because the engine could not go faster and continue to support the video display, disk activity. Unlike most minicomputers of the era, Alto does not support a serial terminal for user interface and its input devices are a custom detachable keyboard, a three-button mouse, and an optional 5-key chorded keyboard
12.
C++
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C++ is a general-purpose programming language. It has imperative, object-oriented and generic programming features, while also providing facilities for low-level memory manipulation and it was designed with a bias toward system programming and embedded, resource-constrained and large systems, with performance, efficiency and flexibility of use as its design highlights. C++ is a language, with implementations of it available on many platforms and provided by various organizations, including the Free Software Foundation, LLVM, Microsoft, Intel. C++ is standardized by the International Organization for Standardization, with the latest standard version ratified and published by ISO in December 2014 as ISO/IEC14882,2014. The C++ programming language was standardized in 1998 as ISO/IEC14882,1998. The current C++14 standard supersedes these and C++11, with new features, the C++17 standard is due in 2017, with the draft largely implemented by some compilers already, and C++20 is the next planned standard thereafter. Many other programming languages have influenced by C++, including C#, D, Java. In 1979, Bjarne Stroustrup, a Danish computer scientist, began work on C with Classes, the motivation for creating a new language originated from Stroustrups experience in programming for his Ph. D. thesis. When Stroustrup started working in AT&T Bell Labs, he had the problem of analyzing the UNIX kernel with respect to distributed computing, remembering his Ph. D. experience, Stroustrup set out to enhance the C language with Simula-like features. C was chosen because it was general-purpose, fast, portable, as well as C and Simulas influences, other languages also influenced C++, including ALGOL68, Ada, CLU and ML. Initially, Stroustrups C with Classes added features to the C compiler, Cpre, including classes, derived classes, strong typing, inlining, furthermore, it included the development of a standalone compiler for C++, Cfront. In 1985, the first edition of The C++ Programming Language was released, the first commercial implementation of C++ was released in October of the same year. In 1989, C++2.0 was released, followed by the second edition of The C++ Programming Language in 1991. New features in 2.0 included multiple inheritance, abstract classes, static functions, const member functions. In 1990, The Annotated C++ Reference Manual was published and this work became the basis for the future standard. Later feature additions included templates, exceptions, namespaces, new casts, after a minor C++14 update released in December 2014, various new additions are planned for 2017 and 2020. According to Stroustrup, the name signifies the nature of the changes from C. This name is credited to Rick Mascitti and was first used in December 1983, when Mascitti was questioned informally in 1992 about the naming, he indicated that it was given in a tongue-in-cheek spirit
