1.
Quilters (musical)
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Quilters is a musical with a book by Molly Newman and Barbara Damashek, and lyrics and music by Barbara Damashek. It is about the lives of American pioneer women based on the book The Quilters, Women and Domestic Art by Patricia Cooper, the show was originally developed and produced by the Denver Center Theater Company, Brockman Seawell, executive producer. It had a run on Broadway in 1984. The Denver Center Theater Company produced the premiere of Quilters in 1982. Damashek directed Quilters at the Edinburgh Festival, The Dublin Theatre Festival, The Pittsburgh Public Theater, Quilters opened on Broadway at the Jack Lawrence Theatre on September 25,1984 and closed on October 14,1984 after 24 performances and 5 previews. It was directed by Barbara Damashek, with design by Ursula Belden, costume design by Elizabeth Palmer, and lighting design by Allen Lee Hughes. Despite an unfavorable review from Frank Rich in the New York Times and short run, the musical has been performed by numerous college and community theater groups across the United States. Composers Tania S. Wahl and Carrie Kraft were employed, respectively, as Director, a full, stage-size quilt was constructed at the University of North Dakota for the outdoor production. Some in the conservative midwestern area questioned the inclusion of the herbal abortion allusion in the Frontier Follies production, the Denver Center Theater Company again presented the musical May 22 through June 12,2009. Barbara Damashek was the director for Quilters at the Edinburgh Festival, The Pittsburgh Public Theater, in 2009, the Missouri History Museum, Forest Park presented Quilters in one of the settings from the musical. In the American West, a woman, Sarah, and six women. Rather than a storyline, the musical is presented as a series of short tales and tableaux matched with musical numbers. The patches or blocks show girlhood, marriage, childbirth, spinsterhood, twisters, fire, illness, the patches are ultimately put together to form one dramatic tableau. In his New York Times review Frank Rich wrote Quilters is a melange of skits, monologues. The Washington Post reviewer wrote, Quilters should probably be billed as a play with music, nothing is really big in this production. Its greatest strength is its unassuming honesty, at the start of each section, one of the actresses unfolds a piece of quilting, which incorporates that particular concern into its design. Handsome and tidy pieces of work, they combine at the end to one huge quilt, which is raised high. Plot at Dramatists Play Service Internet Broadway Database listing Synopsis at guidetomusicaltheatre. com
2.
Nishapur
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It had an estimated population of 239,185 as of 2011 and its county 433,105. Nearby are the mines that have supplied the world with turquoise for at least two millennia. The city was founded in the 3rd century by Shapur I as a Sasanian satrapy capital, Nishapur later became the capital of Tahirid dynasty and was reformed by Abdullah Tahir in 830, and was later selected as the capital of Seljuq dynasty by Tughril in 1037. From the Abbasid era to the Mongol invasion of Khwarezmia and Eastern Iran, the city evolved into a significant cultural, commercial, and intellectual center within the Islamic world. Nishapur reached the height of its prosperity under the Samanids in the 10th century, but was destroyed by Mongols in 1221 and they worked at Nishapur between 1935 and 1940, returning for a final season in the winter of 1947–48. What remains of old Nishapur region is a 3500-hectare Kohandejh area, little archaeology has been done on this vast and complicated site. George Curzon remarked that Nishapur had been destroyed and rebuilt more times than any city in history. The Metropolitan Museum of Art undertook excavations from 1935 that were interrupted in 1940, searching largely for museum-worthy trophies that they shared with the government of the Shah, the Metropolitans publications were limited to its own Nishapur ceramics. The site of Nishapur has been ransacked for half a century since World War II, shadiyakh was one of the main palaces of old Nishapur up to the 9th century AD, which became more important and populated after that. Some notable people like Attar lived there, attars tomb is nowadays in that area. This palace was completely ruined in the 13th century. Nishapur occupies an important strategic position astride the old Silk Road that linked Anatolia, on the Silk Road, Nishapur has often defined the flexible frontier between the Iranian plateau and Central Asia. The town derived its name from its founder, the Sassanian king Shapur I. Nearby are the mines that supplied the world with turquoise for at least two millennia. In the year 1000 CE, it was among the ten largest cities on earth, after the husband of Genghis Khans daughter was killed at Nishapur in 1221, she or Genghis ordered the death of the entire population of the city, which was reputedly 1.7 million. Their skulls were reputedly piled in pyramids by the Mongols and this massacre, combined with subsequent earthquakes destroyed the pottery industry. US band Santana released a track entitled Incident at Neshabur on their 1970 LP release. Carlos Santana says this was a reference to a place in Haiti, yo-Yo Ma released an instrumental track entitled Blue as the Turquoise Night of Neyshabur as part of the Silk Road Project
3.
Iran
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Iran, also known as Persia, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, is a sovereign state in Western Asia. Comprising a land area of 1,648,195 km2, it is the second-largest country in the Middle East, with 82.8 million inhabitants, Iran is the worlds 17th-most-populous country. It is the country with both a Caspian Sea and an Indian Ocean coastline. The countrys central location in Eurasia and Western Asia, and its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz, Tehran is the countrys capital and largest city, as well as its leading economic and cultural center. Iran is the site of to one of the worlds oldest civilizations, the area was first unified by the Iranian Medes in 625 BC, who became the dominant cultural and political power in the region. The empire collapsed in 330 BC following the conquests of Alexander the Great, under the Sassanid Dynasty, Iran again became one of the leading powers in the world for the next four centuries. Beginning in 633 AD, Arabs conquered Iran and largely displaced the indigenous faiths of Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism by Islam, Iran became a major contributor to the Islamic Golden Age that followed, producing many influential scientists, scholars, artists, and thinkers. During the 18th century, Iran reached its greatest territorial extent since the Sassanid Empire, through the late 18th and 19th centuries, a series of conflicts with Russia led to significant territorial losses and the erosion of sovereignty. Popular unrest culminated in the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1906, which established a monarchy and the countrys first legislative body. Following a coup instigated by the U. K. Growing dissent against foreign influence and political repression led to the 1979 Revolution, Irans rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 21 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the third-largest number in Asia and 11th-largest in the world. Iran is a member of the UN, ECO, NAM, OIC. Its political system is based on the 1979 Constitution which combines elements of a democracy with a theocracy governed by Islamic jurists under the concept of a Supreme Leadership. A multicultural country comprising numerous ethnic and linguistic groups, most inhabitants are Shia Muslims, the largest ethnic groups in Iran are the Persians, Azeris, Kurds and Lurs. Historically, Iran has been referred to as Persia by the West, due mainly to the writings of Greek historians who called Iran Persis, meaning land of the Persians. As the most extensive interactions the Ancient Greeks had with any outsider was with the Persians, however, Persis was originally referred to a region settled by Persians in the west shore of Lake Urmia, in the 9th century BC. The settlement was then shifted to the end of the Zagros Mountains. In 1935, Reza Shah requested the international community to refer to the country by its native name, opposition to the name change led to the reversal of the decision, and Professor Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, propagated a move to use Persia and Iran interchangeably
4.
Boykin, Alabama
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Boykin, also known as Gees Bend, is an African American majority community and census-designated place in a large bend of the Alabama River in Wilcox County, Alabama. As of the 2010 census, its population was 275, the Boykin Post Office was established in the community in 1949 and remains active, servicing the 36723 ZIP code. Gees Bend was named for Joseph Gee, a large land owner from Halifax County. Gee brought 18 African American slaves with him and established a cotton plantation within the bend, Boykin is a block of land enclosed on three sides by the Alabama River, within a horseshoe shaped turn of the river named Gees Bend. It is within the Black Belt of Alabama, the plantation started by Joseph Gee passed to his nephews Sterling and Charles Gee upon his death, along with 47 slaves. The brothers then sold it to their relative Mark H. Pettway in 1845 to settle a $29,000 debt, about a year later, the Pettway family moved from North Carolina to Gees Bend, bringing about one hundred slaves with them. When slavery was abolished many of them continued working for the Pettways as sharecroppers, many of the black tenants Arthur Rothstein photographed were named Pettway. The white Pettway family owned the property until 1895, when it was sold to Adrian Sebastian Van de Graaff, Van de Graaff, a lawyer from Tuscaloosa, then operated it as an absentee landlord. The community had received assistance from the Red Cross in 1932 and federal. Beginning in 1935, the Resettlement Administration made agricultural loans and offered farm, residents were also encouraged to replace oxen with more efficient mules. The agencys programs at Gees Bend continued after Rothsteins visit, during 1937, the agency purchased the old Pettway plantation and two adjacent farms, divided the land, and rented it to the tenants. The following year, a nurse working in the community, and construction began for a school, store, blacksmith shop. By 1939 enough visible change had occurred for Roy Stryker to send Mary Post Wolcott to the community to photograph the signs of progress—to get the after pictures. During the 1940s, many families at Gees Bend bought their farms from the government for an average of $1,400 each. This was about $2,600 less per farm than the units had cost the government. Gees Bend continued to fascinate outsiders, in 1941, New York City speech professor and folklore collector Robert Sonkin recorded music, recitations, discussion, and a Fourth of July program at Gees Bend. When large numbers of residents began taking the ferry to the county seat of Camden to try to register to vote, the lack of ferry service forced the residents of the community to drive more than an hour in order to conduct business in Camden. The people of Gees Bend would be without a service for forty-four years
5.
Textile
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A textile or cloth is a flexible material consisting of a network of natural or artificial fibres. Yarn is produced by spinning raw fibres of wool, flax, cotton, hemp, Textiles are formed by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting, or felting. The words fabric and cloth are used in textile assembly trades as synonyms for textile, however, there are subtle differences in these terms in specialized usage. Textile refers to any material made of interlacing fibres, a fabric is a material made through weaving, knitting, spreading, crocheting, or bonding that may be used in production of further goods. Cloth may be used synonymously with fabric but is often a piece of fabric used for a specific purpose. The word textile is from Latin, from the adjective textilis, meaning woven, from textus, the word cloth derives from the Old English clað, meaning a cloth, woven or felted material to wrap around one, from Proto-Germanic kalithaz. The discovery of dyed flax fibres in a cave in the Republic of Georgia dated to 34,000 BCE suggests textile-like materials were made even in prehistoric times. The production of textiles is a craft whose speed and scale of production has been altered almost beyond recognition by industrialization, however, for the main types of textiles, plain weave, twill, or satin weave, there is little difference between the ancient and modern methods. Textiles have an assortment of uses, the most common of which are for clothing and for such as bags. In the household they are used in carpeting, upholstered furnishings, window shades, towels, coverings for tables, beds, and other flat surfaces, in the workplace they are used in industrial and scientific processes such as filtering. Textiles are used in traditional crafts such as sewing, quilting. Textiles for industrial purposes, and chosen for other than their appearance, are commonly referred to as technical textiles. Technical textiles include textile structures for applications, medical textiles, geotextiles, agrotextiles. In all these applications stringent performance requirements must be met, woven of threads coated with zinc oxide nanowires, laboratory fabric has been shown capable of self-powering nanosystems using vibrations created by everyday actions like wind or body movements. Fashion designers commonly rely on textile designs to set their fashion collections apart from others, armani, the late Gianni Versace, and Emilio Pucci can be easily recognized by their signature print driven designs. Textiles can be made from many materials and these materials come from four main sources, animal, plant, mineral, and synthetic. In the past, all textiles were made from natural fibres, including plant, animal, in the 20th century, these were supplemented by artificial fibres made from petroleum. Textiles are made in various strengths and degrees of durability, from the finest gossamer to the sturdiest canvas, microfibre refers to fibres made of strands thinner than one denier
6.
Quilt
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In the twenty-first century, quilts are frequently displayed as non-utilitarian works of art but historically quilts were often used as bedcovers, and this use persists today. There are many traditions regarding the uses of quilts, Quilts may be made or given to mark important life events such as marriage, the birth of a child, a family member leaving home, or graduations. Modern quilts are not always intended for use as bedding, and may be used as wall hangings, table runners, quilting techniques are often incorporated into garment design as well. Quilt shows and competitions are held locally, regionally, and nationally, there are international competitions as well, particularly in the United States, Japan, and Europe. The following list summarizes most of the reasons a person decide to make a quilt, Bedding Decoration Armor Commemoration Education Campaigning Documenting events / social history. Imported fabric was expensive, and local homespun fabric was labor-intensive to create. It was essential for most families to use and preserve textiles efficiently, saving or salvaging small scraps of fabric was a part of life for all households. Small pieces of fabric were joined together to make larger pieces, in units called “blocks. ”Creativity could be expressed in the designs, or simple “utility quilts, ” with minimal decorative value. Crib quilts for infants were needed in the cold of winter, quilting was often a communal activity, involving all the women and girls in a family or in a larger community. The tops were prepared in advance, and a bee was arranged. Quilting bees were important social events in communities, and were typically held between periods of high demand for farm labor. Quilts were frequently made to commemorate major events, such as marriages. There are many traditions regarding the number of quilts a young woman was expected to have prior to her wedding. Given the demands on a new wife, and the curve in her new role. Specific wedding quilts continue to be made today, Wedding ring quilts, which have a patchwork design of interlocking rings, have been made since the 1930s. White wholecloth quilts with high-quality, elaborate quilting, and often trapunto decorations as well, are traditional for weddings. Interestingly, it was considered bad luck to incorporate heart motifs in a wedding quilt, Quilts were often made for other events as well, such as graduations, or when individuals left their homes for other communities. One example of this is the quilts made as gifts for pastors
7.
Batting (material)
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Padding is thin cushioned material sometimes added to clothes. Padding may also be referred to as batting when used as a layer in lining quilts or as a packaging or stuffing material. When padding is used in clothes, it is often done in an attempt to soften impacts on certain zones of the body or enhance appearance by improving a physical feature, often a sexually significant one. In fashion, there is padding for, Breasts – sometimes called falsies The male crotch – usually called a codpiece, height – usually in shoes and often called elevator shoes. Width of shoulders, called shoulder pads – in coats and other garments for men, some padding is added to emphasize particular physical features that are usually not present. Women, for instance, rarely have prominent shoulders, but for some years shoulder pads have been added to dresses, the effect was unnatural for women, but gave them a more masculine outline which was sometimes thought to be of benefit in business situations. Padding in undergarments is also used by some crossdressers. This may include a form of padding in the shape of male genitals worn in the underwear of a female who is passing as a male, or hip, padding is also added to clothing for insulation or cushioning reasons. Thus, many coats and outergarments are padded with such materials as felt or down or feathers or artificial insulations, cushioning padding is included in some sporting goods, especially those intended for use in combat sports. Garments intended for use in combat were once commonly padded. If included in a vest, such armor makes a bullet-proof vest, padding is also used by athletes in sports where friction is an issue, most notably in cycling shorts where it is termed a cycling pad
8.
Sewing needle
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A sewing needle for hand-sewing is a long slender tool with a pointed tip at one end and a hole or eye at the other. The earliest needles were made of bone or wood, modern ones are manufactured from carbon steel wire and are nickel- or 18K gold-plated for corrosion resistance. The highest quality embroidery needles are plated with platinum and one-third titanium alloy. Traditionally, needles have been kept in books or needlecases which have become objects of adornment. Sewing needles may also be kept in an etui, a box that held needles and other items such as scissors, pencils. Hand sewing needles come in a variety of types/ classes designed according to their intended use, sharp Needles, used for general hand sewing, built with a sharp point, a round eye, and are of medium length. Those with a double-eyes are able to carry two strands of thread while minimizing fabric friction, appliqué, These are considered another all-purpose needle for sewing, appliqué, and patch work. Embroidery, Also known as needles, identical to sharps but have a longer eye to enable easier threading of multiple embroidery threads. Milliners, A class of needles generally longer than sharps, useful for basting and pleating, normally used in millinery work. Beading, These needles are very fine, with an eye to enable them to fit through the centre of beads and sequins along with a long shaft to thread. Bodkin, Also called ballpoints, this is a long, thick needle with a ballpoint end and they can be flat or round and are generally used for threading elastic, ribbon or tape through casings and lace openings. Chenille, These are similar to tapestry needles but with large, long eyes, darning, Sometimes called finishing needles, these are designed with a blunt tip and large eye making them similar to tapestry needles but longer, yarn darners are the heaviest sub-variety. Doll, Not designed for hand sewing at all, these needles are made long and thin and are used for soft sculpturing on dolls, particularly facial details. Leather, Also known as glovers and as wedge needles, these have a point designed to pierce leather without tearing it, often used on leather-like materials such as vinyl. Sailmaker, Similar to leather needles, but the triangular point extends further up the shaft, tatting, These are built long with an even thickness for their entire length, including at the eye, to enable thread to be pulled through the double stitches used in tatting. Straight sizes, 3-12 long, curved,1. 5-6 long, needle size is denoted by one or more numbers on the manufacturers packet. The general convention for sizing of needles, like that of wire gauges, is that any given class of needle the length. For example, a size 9 needle will be thicker and longer than a size 12 needle, however, the needle sizes are not standardized and so a size 10 of one class may be either thinner or finer than a size 12 of another type
9.
Yarn
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Yarn is a long continuous length of interlocked fibres, suitable for use in the production of textiles, sewing, crocheting, knitting, weaving, embroidery, and ropemaking. Thread is a type of yarn intended for sewing by hand or machine, modern manufactured sewing threads may be finished with wax or other lubricants to withstand the stresses involved in sewing. Embroidery threads are yarns specifically designed for hand or machine embroidery, the word yarn comes from Middle English, from the Old English gearn, akin to Old High Germans garn yarn, Greeks chordē string, and Sanskrits hira band. Yarn can be made from a number of natural or synthetic fibers, many types of yarn are made differently though. There are two types of yarn, spun and filament. The most common plant fiber is cotton, which is spun into fine yarn for mechanical weaving or knitting into cloth. Cotton and polyester are the most commonly spun fibers in the world, cotton is grown throughout the world, harvested, ginned, and prepared for yarn spinning. Polyester is extruded from polymers derived from gas and oil. Synthetic fibers are generally extruded in continuous strands of gel-state materials and these strands are drawn, annealed, and cured to obtain properties desirable for later processing. Synthetic fibers come in three forms, staple, tow, and filament. Staple is cut fibers, generally sold in lengths up to 120mm, tow is a continuous rope of fibers consisting of many filaments loosely joined side-to-side. Filament is a continuous strand consisting of anything from 1 filament to many, synthetic fiber is most often measured in a weight per linear measurement basis, along with cut length. Denier and Dtex are the most common weight to length measures, cut-length only applies to staple fiber. Filament extrusion is sometimes referred to as spinning but most people equate spinning with spun yarn production, the most commonly spun animal fiber is wool harvested from sheep. For hand knitting and hobby knitting, thick, wool and acrylic yarns are frequently used, other animal fibers used include alpaca, angora, mohair, llama, cashmere, and silk. More rarely, yarn may be spun from camel, yak, possum, musk ox, cat, dog, wolf, rabbit, or buffalo hair, and even turkey or ostrich feathers. Natural fibers such as these have the advantage of being slightly elastic and very breathable, while trapping a great deal of air, other natural fibers that can be used for yarn include linen and cotton. These tend to be much less elastic, and retain less warmth than the animal-hair yarns, the finished product will also look rather different from the woollen yarns
10.
Sewing machine
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A sewing machine is a machine used to stitch fabric and other materials together with thread. Sewing machines were invented during the first Industrial Revolution to decrease the amount of manual sewing work performed in clothing companies, home sewing machines are designed for one person to sew individual items while using a single stitch type. Industrial sewing machines, by contrast to machines, are larger, faster, and more varied in their size, cost, appearance. Charles Fredrick Wiesenthal, a German-born engineer working in England was awarded the first British patent for a device to aid the art of sewing. His invention consisted of a pointed needle with an eye at one end. In 1790, the English inventor Thomas Saint invented the first sewing machine design and his machine was meant to be used on leather and canvas material. His sewing machine used the chain stitch method, in which the machine uses a thread to make simple stitches in the fabric. Saints machine was designed to aid the manufacture of leather goods, including saddles and bridles, but it was also capable of working with canvas. Although his machine was advanced for the era, the concept would need steady improvement over the coming decades before it could become a practical proposition. In 1804, a machine was built by the Englishmen Thomas Stone and James Henderson. An Austrian tailor, Josef Madersperger, began developing his first sewing machine in 1807 and he presented his first working machine in 1814. The first practical and widely used sewing machine was invented by Barthélemy Thimonnier, the patent for his machine was issued on 17 July 1830, and in the same year, he opened the first machine-based clothing manufacturing company in the world to create army uniforms for the French Army. However, the factory was burned down, reportedly by workers fearful of losing their following the issuing of the patent. A model of the machine is exhibited at the London Science Museum, the machine is made of wood and uses a barbed needle which passes downward through the cloth to grab the thread and pull it up to form a loop to be locked by the next loop. The first American lockstitch sewing machine was invented by Walter Hunt in 1832 and his machine used an eye-pointed needle carrying the upper thread and a falling shuttle carrying the lower thread. The curved needle moved through the fabric horizontally, leaving the loop as it withdrew, the shuttle passed through the loop, interlocking the thread. The feed let the machine down, requiring the machine to be stopped frequently, Hunt eventually lost interest in his machine and sold individual machines without bothering to patent his invention, and only patenting it at a late date of 1854. In 1842, John Greenough patented the first sewing machine in the United States, the British partners Newton and Archibold introduced the eye-pointed needle and the use of two pressing surfaces to keep the pieces of fabric in position, in 1841
11.
Longarm quilting
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Longarm quilting is the process by which a longarm sewing machine is used to sew together a quilt top, quilt batting and quilt backing into a finished quilt. The longarm sewing machine frame typically ranges from 10 to 14 feet in length, Quilting using a longarm machine can take significantly less time than hand quilting or more traditional machine quilting. This time saving is a factor in the gain in popularity of longarm quilting. The advent of the machine led to an idea known as a “quilting machine. The first quilting frame and machine consisted only of two bars that allowed the user to move the quilt and the frame beneath the machine to quilt straight, parallel lines on the fabric. By roughly 1877, the design had been modified, and began to look similar to the design quilters now know as a longarm quilting machine, before electricity, the operator used a hand crank to move the machine along the rails and over the fabric. Almost 30 years later, the designs and patents for quilting machines had changed drastically, while the Depression era caused a decrease in the interest in sewing machines and an increase in hand sewing, the quilting machine still managed to take on new and exciting designs. During the past 20 years the longarm sewing machine has become a popular and familiar concept to quilters, the speed and ease with which a quilter can have a quilt top finished by a longarm quilter has caused an increase in recent years for quilting. These machines allow quilters to have their quilts finished without going through the time-consuming process associated with normal machine quilting or hand quilting, sewers can now take their finished quilt tops to professional longarm quilting businesses and pay a fee to have their quilting done by a longarm quilter. The availability of relatively quick and reasonably affordable quilting services has helped to cause a surge in the quilting business, the longarm quilting machine comes equipped with a sewing machine head, a worktable, several fabric rollers, and a metal frame. The overall dimensions of the frame can range from 10 to 14 feet in length by two-and-a-half to four feet in depth, the machine comes equipped with a table region. The table size ranges in lengths like the machine, larger table sizes can accommodate up to king sized quilts. Typically, the contains a flat region on which a layer of thin, clear plastic lies, on which patterns. The sewing machine head is large and made of industrial strength metal and it can be either hand-guided or computer guided, with controls at both the front and back ends to guide the head. For a full range of movement, the machine head is placed on wheels that run on metal tracks along the frame of the machine. The sewing machine head can also come with a laser pointer, pantographs are placed underneath the clear plastic region of the table. The hand-guided machine head contains handles by which the quilter can guide the machine along the fabric to sew the design of choice, a computer-guided machine head is hooked up to a computer system that allows the quilter to select the chosen design to be sewn onto the fabrics. With the push of a button on the keyboard, the longarm sewing machine will sew the design onto the quilt with minimal physical assistance
12.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
13.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
14.
Pharaoh
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The word pharaoh ultimately derive from the Egyptian compound pr-ˤ3 great house, written with the two biliteral hieroglyphs pr house and ˤ3 column, here meaning great or high. It was used only in larger phrases such as smr pr-ˤ3 Courtier of the High House, with specific reference to the buildings of the court or palace. From the twelfth dynasty onward, the word appears in a wish formula Great House, may it live, prosper, and be in health, but again only with reference to the royal palace and not the person. During the reign of Thutmose III in the New Kingdom, after the rule of the Hyksos during the Second Intermediate Period. During the eighteenth dynasty the title pharaoh was employed as a designation of the ruler. From the nineteenth dynasty onward pr-ˤ3 on its own was used as regularly as hm. f, the term, therefore, evolved from a word specifically referring to a building to a respectful designation for the ruler, particularly by the twenty-second dynasty and twenty-third dynasty. For instance, the first dated appearance of the pharaoh being attached to a rulers name occurs in Year 17 of Siamun on a fragment from the Karnak Priestly Annals. Here, an induction of an individual to the Amun priesthood is dated specifically to the reign of Pharaoh Siamun and this new practice was continued under his successor Psusennes II and the twenty-second dynasty kings. Shoshenq I was the successor of Siamun. Meanwhile, the old custom of referring to the sovereign simply as pr-ˤ3 continued in traditional Egyptian narratives, by this time, the Late Egyptian word is reconstructed to have been pronounced *par-ʕoʔ whence Herodotus derived the name of one of the Egyptian kings, Φερων. In the Bible, the title also occurs as פרעה, from that, Septuagint φαραώ pharaō and then Late Latin pharaō, both -n stem nouns. The Quran likewise spells it فرعون firawn with n, interestingly, the Arabic combines the original pharyngeal ayin sound from Egyptian, along with the -n ending from Greek. English at first spelt it Pharao, but the King James Bible revived Pharaoh with h from the Hebrew, meanwhile in Egypt itself, *par-ʕoʔ evolved into Sahidic Coptic ⲡⲣ̅ⲣⲟ prro and then rro. Scepters and staves were a sign of authority in ancient Egypt. One of the earliest royal scepters was discovered in the tomb of Khasekhemwy in Abydos, kings were also known to carry a staff, and Pharaoh Anedjib is shown on stone vessels carrying a so-called mks-staff. The scepter with the longest history seems to be the heqa-scepter, the earliest examples of this piece of regalia dates to pre-dynastic times. A scepter was found in a tomb at Abydos that dates to the late Naqada period, another scepter associated with the king is the was-scepter. This is a long staff mounted with an animal head, the earliest known depictions of the was-scepter date to the first dynasty
15.
Ancient Egypt
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Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. It is one of six civilizations to arise independently, Egyptian civilization followed prehistoric Egypt and coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh Narmer. In the aftermath of Alexander the Greats death, one of his generals, Ptolemy Soter and this Greek Ptolemaic Kingdom ruled Egypt until 30 BC, when, under Cleopatra, it fell to the Roman Empire and became a Roman province. The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River valley for agriculture, the predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, which supported a more dense population, and social development and culture. Its art and architecture were widely copied, and its antiquities carried off to far corners of the world and its monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of travelers and writers for centuries. The Nile has been the lifeline of its region for much of human history, nomadic modern human hunter-gatherers began living in the Nile valley through the end of the Middle Pleistocene some 120,000 years ago. By the late Paleolithic period, the climate of Northern Africa became increasingly hot and dry. In Predynastic and Early Dynastic times, the Egyptian climate was less arid than it is today. Large regions of Egypt were covered in treed savanna and traversed by herds of grazing ungulates, foliage and fauna were far more prolific in all environs and the Nile region supported large populations of waterfowl. Hunting would have been common for Egyptians, and this is also the period when many animals were first domesticated. The largest of these cultures in upper Egypt was the Badari, which probably originated in the Western Desert, it was known for its high quality ceramics, stone tools. The Badari was followed by the Amratian and Gerzeh cultures, which brought a number of technological improvements, as early as the Naqada I Period, predynastic Egyptians imported obsidian from Ethiopia, used to shape blades and other objects from flakes. In Naqada II times, early evidence exists of contact with the Near East, particularly Canaan, establishing a power center at Hierakonpolis, and later at Abydos, Naqada III leaders expanded their control of Egypt northwards along the Nile. They also traded with Nubia to the south, the oases of the desert to the west. Royal Nubian burials at Qustul produced artifacts bearing the oldest-known examples of Egyptian dynastic symbols, such as the crown of Egypt. They also developed a ceramic glaze known as faience, which was used well into the Roman Period to decorate cups, amulets, and figurines. During the last predynastic phase, the Naqada culture began using written symbols that eventually were developed into a system of hieroglyphs for writing the ancient Egyptian language. The Early Dynastic Period was approximately contemporary to the early Sumerian-Akkadian civilisation of Mesopotamia, the third-century BC Egyptian priest Manetho grouped the long line of pharaohs from Menes to his own time into 30 dynasties, a system still used today
16.
Mongolia
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Mongolia /mɒŋˈɡoʊliə/ is a landlocked unitary sovereign state in East Asia. Its area is equivalent with the historical territory of Outer Mongolia. It is sandwiched between China to the south and Russia to the north, while it does not share a border with Kazakhstan, Mongolia is separated from it by only 36.76 kilometers. At 1,564,116 square kilometers, Mongolia is the 18th largest and it is also the worlds second-largest landlocked country behind Kazakhstan and the largest landlocked country that does not border a closed sea. The country contains very little land, as much of its area is covered by grassy steppe, with mountains to the north and west. Ulaanbaatar, the capital and largest city, is home to about 45% of the countrys population, approximately 30% of the population is nomadic or semi-nomadic, horse culture is still integral. The majority of its population are Buddhists, the non-religious population is the second largest group. Islam is the dominant religion among ethnic Kazakhs, the majority of the states citizens are of Mongol ethnicity, although Kazakhs, Tuvans, and other minorities also live in the country, especially in the west. Mongolia joined the World Trade Organization in 1997 and seeks to expand its participation in regional economic, the area of what is now Mongolia has been ruled by various nomadic empires, including the Xiongnu, the Xianbei, the Rouran, the Turkic Khaganate, and others. In 1206, Genghis Khan founded the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history. His grandson Kublai Khan conquered China to establish the Yuan dynasty, after the collapse of the Yuan, the Mongols retreated to Mongolia and resumed their earlier pattern of factional conflict, except during the era of Dayan Khan and Tumen Zasagt Khan. In the 16th century, Tibetan Buddhism began to spread in Mongolia, being led by the Manchu-founded Qing dynasty. By the early 1900s, almost one-third of the male population were Buddhist monks. After the collapse of the Qing dynasty in 1911, Mongolia declared independence from the Qing dynasty, shortly thereafter, the country came under the control of the Soviet Union, which had aided its independence from China. In 1924, the Mongolian Peoples Republic was declared as a Soviet satellite state, after the anti-Communist revolutions of 1989, Mongolia conducted its own peaceful democratic revolution in early 1990. This led to a multi-party system, a new constitution of 1992, homo erectus inhabited Mongolia from 850,000 years ago. Modern humans reached Mongolia approximately 40,000 years ago during the Upper Paleolithic, the Khoit Tsenkher Cave in Khovd Province shows lively pink, brown, and red ochre paintings of mammoths, lynx, bactrian camels, and ostriches, earning it the nickname the Lascaux of Mongolia. The venus figurines of Malta testify to the level of Upper Paleolithic art in northern Mongolia, the wheeled vehicles found in the burials of the Afanasevans have been dated to before 2200 BC
17.
Crusades
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The First Crusade arose after a call to arms in a 1095 sermon by Pope Urban II. Urban urged military support for the Byzantine Empire and its Emperor, Alexios I, the response to Urbans preaching by people of many different classes across Western Europe established the precedent for later Crusades. Volunteers became Crusaders by taking a vow and receiving plenary indulgences from the church. Some were hoping for apotheosis at Jerusalem, or forgiveness from God for all their sins, others participated to satisfy feudal obligations, gain glory and honour, or find opportunities for economic and political gain. Many modern Historians have polarised opinions of the Crusaders behaviour under Papal sanction, to some it was incongruous with the stated aims and implied moral authority of the papacy and the Crusades, to the extent that on occasions that the Pope excommunicated Crusaders. Crusaders often pillaged as they travelled, while their leaders retained control of captured territory rather than returning it to the Byzantines. During the Peoples Crusade thousands of Jews were murdered in what is now called the Rhineland massacres, Constantinople was sacked during the Fourth Crusade rendering the reunification of Christendom impossible. These tales consequently galvanised medieval romance, philosophy and literature, but the Crusades also reinforced the connection between Western Christendom, feudalism, and militarism. Crusade is not a term, instead the terms iter for journey or peregrinatio for pilgrimage were used. Not until the word crucesignatus for one who was signed with the cross was adopted at the close of the century was specific terminology developed. The Middle English equivalents were derived from old French, croiserie in the 13th–15th centuries, croisade appeared in English c1575, and continued to be the leading form till c1760. By convention historians adopt the term for the Christian holy wars from 1095, the Crusades in the Holy Land are traditionally counted as nine distinct campaigns, numbered from the First Crusade of 1095–99 to the Ninth Crusade of 1271/2. Usage of the term Crusade may differ depending on the author, pluralists use the term Crusade of any campaign explicitly sanctioned by the reigning Pope. This reflects the view of the Roman Catholic Church that every military campaign given Papal sanction is equally valid as a Crusade, regardless of its cause, justification, generalists see Crusades as any and all holy wars connected with the Latin Church and fought in defence of their faith. Popularists limit the Crusades to only those that were characterised by popular groundswells of religious fervour – that is, only the First Crusade, Medieval Muslim historiographers such as Ali ibn al-Athir refer to the Crusades as the Frankish Wars. The term used in modern Arabic, ḥamalāt ṣalībiyya حملات صليبية, campaigns of the cross, is a loan translation of the term Crusade as used in Western historiography. The Islamic prophet Muhammad founded Islam in the Arabian Peninsula, the resulting unified polity in the seventh and eighth centuries led to a rapid expansion of Arab power. This influence stretched from the northwest Indian subcontinent, across Central Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, southern Italy, tolerance, trade, and political relationships between the Arabs and the Christian states of Europe waxed and waned
18.
Middle East
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The Middle East is a transcontinental region centered on Western Asia and Egypt. The corresponding adjective is Middle-Eastern and the noun is Middle-Easterner. The term has come into usage as a replacement of the term Near East beginning in the early 20th century. Arabs, Turks, Persians, Kurds, and Azeris constitute the largest ethnic groups in the region by population. Indigenous minorities of the Middle East include Jews, Assyrians and other Arameans, Baloch, Berbers, Copts, Druze, Lurs, Mandaeans, Samaritans, Shabaks, Tats, in the Middle East, there is also a Romani community. European ethnic groups form a diaspora in the region include Albanians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Crimean Tatars, Franco-Levantines. Among other migrant populations are Bengalis as well as other Indians, Chinese, Filipinos, Indonesians, Pakistanis, the history of the Middle East dates back to ancient times, with the importance of the region being recognized for millennia. Most of the countries border the Persian Gulf have vast reserves of crude oil. The term Middle East may have originated in the 1850s in the British India Office, however, it became more widely known when American naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan used the term in 1902 to designate the area between Arabia and India. During this time the British and Russian Empires were vying for influence in Central Asia, Mahan realized not only the strategic importance of the region, but also of its center, the Persian Gulf. Mahan first used the term in his article The Persian Gulf and International Relations, published in September 1902 in the National Review, a British journal. The Middle East, if I may adopt a term which I have not seen, will some day need its Malta, as well as its Gibraltar, it does not follow that either will be in the Persian Gulf. The British Navy should have the facility to concentrate in force if occasion arise, about Aden, India, mahans article was reprinted in The Times and followed in October by a 20-article series entitled The Middle Eastern Question, written by Sir Ignatius Valentine Chirol. During this series, Sir Ignatius expanded the definition of Middle East to include regions of Asia which extend to the borders of India or command the approaches to India. After the series ended in 1903, The Times removed quotation marks from subsequent uses of the term, in the late 1930s, the British established the Middle East Command, which was based in Cairo, for its military forces in the region. After that time, the term Middle East gained broader usage in Europe, the description Middle has also led to some confusion over changing definitions. Before the First World War, Near East was used in English to refer to the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire, while Middle East referred to Iran, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Turkestan. The first official use of the term Middle East by the United States government was in the 1957 Eisenhower Doctrine, the Associated Press Stylebook says that Near East formerly referred to the farther west countries while Middle East referred to the eastern ones, but that now they are synonymous
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Gambeson
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A gambeson is a padded defensive jacket, worn as armour separately, or combined with mail or plate armour. Gambesons were produced with a technique called quilting. Usually constructed of linen or wool, the varied. During the 14th century, illustrations usually show buttons or laces up the front, an arming doublet worn under armour, particularly plate armour of fifteenth- and sixteenth-century Europe, contains arming points for attaching plates. Fifteenth century examples may include goussets sewn into the elbows and armpits to protect the wearer in locations not covered by plate, German gothic armour arming doublets were generally shorter than Italian white armour doublets, which could extend to the upper thigh. In late fifteenth century Italy this also became a civilian fashion, men who were not knights wore arming doublets, probably because the garment suggested status and chivalry. In medieval Norse, the garment was known as vápntreyja, literally weapon shirt, panzari/panzer is probably also a loan from Low German, though the word has its likely origin in Italian, and is related to Latin pantex abdomen. Also known as, Aketon, acton, arming coat, auqueton, gambeson, hacketon, haqueton, panzari/panzer, vápntreyja, wambais, wambesium, wambuis or wambs. Quilted leather open jackets and trousers were worn by Scythian horsemen before the 4th century BC, the European gambeson can be traced at least to the late 10th century, but it is likely to have been in use in various forms for longer than that. In Europe, its use became widespread in the 13th century, the gambeson was used both as a complete armour unto itself and underneath mail and plate in order to cushion the body and prevent chafing. It was very insulatory and thus uncomfortable, but its protection was vital for the soldier, there are two distinctive designs of gambeson, those designed to be worn beneath another armour, and those designed to be worn as independent armour. The latter tend to be thicker and higher in the collar and this variant is usually referred to as padded jack and made of several layers of cotton, linen or wool. It is quite probable that Egypt still produced cotton well after the 7th and 8th centuries, however logistics and expense of equipping a town militia or army with large amounts of cotton-based garments is doubtful, when flax-based textiles was in widespread use. Doublet Buff coat The Function of Armor in Medieval and Renaissance Europe, how a man shall be armed for his ease when he shall fight on foot a translation of the mid-fifteenth century treatise on armor, translated into modern English and accompanied by pictorial references
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Middle Ages
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In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
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Mail (armour)
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Mail is a type of armour consisting of small metal rings linked together in a pattern to form a mesh. A coat of armour is often referred to as a hauberk. The earliest example of surviving mail was found in a chieftains burial located in Ciumești and its invention is commonly credited to the Celts, but there are examples of Etruscan pattern mail dating from at least the 4th century BC. Mail may have inspired by the much earlier scale armour. Mail spread to North Africa, West Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, India, Tibet, South East Asia, the origins of the word mail are not fully known. One theory is that it derives from the Latin word, macula. Another theory relates the word to the old French, maillier, in modern French, maille refers to a loop or stitch. The Arabic words burnus, برنوس, a burnoose, a cloak, also a chasuble and barnaza, برنز, to bronze. The first attestations of the mail are in Old French and Anglo-Norman, maille, maile, or male or other variants. The modern usage of terms for mail armour is highly contested in popular and, to a lesser degree, since then the word mail has been commonly, if incorrectly, applied to other types of armour, such as in plate-mail. The more correct term is plate armour, civilizations that used mail invented specific terms for each garment made from it. The standard terms for European mail armour derive from French, leggings are called chausses, a hood is a mail coif, a mail collar hanging from a helmet is a camail or aventail. A shirt made from mail is a hauberk if knee-length and a haubergeon if mid-thigh length, a layer of mail sandwiched between layers of fabric is called a jazerant. A waist-length coat in medieval Europe was called a byrnie, although the construction of a byrnie is unclear. Only on artistic and some sources because of the lack of archaeological examples. It was also long, reaching below the hips and covering most of the arms. Other historians claim instead that the Carolingian byrnie was nothing more than a coat of mail, without more certain evidence, this dispute will continue. The use of mail as battlefield armour was common during the Iron Age, the Roman army adopted the technology for their troops in the form of the lorica hamata which was used as a primary form of armour through the Imperial period
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Plate armour
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Plate armour is a historical type of personal body armour made from iron or steel plates, culminating in the iconic suit of armour entirely encasing the wearer. In Europe, plate armour reached its peak in the late 15th, the full suit of armour is thus a feature of the very end of the Middle Ages and of the Renaissance period. Its popular association with the knight is due to the specialised jousting armour which developed in the 16th century. Full suits of Gothic plate armour were worn on the battlefields of the Burgundian and Italian Wars, the use of plate armour declined in the 17th century, but it remained common both among the nobility and for the cuirassiers throughout the European wars of religion. After 1650, plate armour was reduced to the simple breastplate worn by cuirassiers. This was due to the development of the musket, which could penetrate armour at a considerable distance. For infantry, the breastplate gained renewed importance with the development of shrapnel in the late Napoleonic wars, the use of steel plates sewn into flak jackets dates to World War II, replaced by more modern materials such as fibre-reinforced plastic since the 1950s. Parthian and Sassanian heavy cavalry known as Clibanarii used cuirasses and small, overlapping plates in the manner of the manica for the protection of arms. Single plates of armour were again used from the late 13th century on, to protect joints and shins. Gradually the number of components of medieval armour increased, protecting further areas of the body. Armourers developed skills in articulating the lames or individual plates for parts of the body that needed to be flexible, the rest of an army wore inconsistent mixtures of pieces, with maille still playing an important part. By about 1420, complete suits of armour had been developed. A complete suit of armour made from well-tempered steel would weigh around 15–25 kg. The wearer remained highly agile and could jump, run and otherwise move freely as the weight of the armour was spread throughout the body. The armour was articulated and covered an entire body completely from neck to toe. In the 15th and 16th centuries, large bodies of men-at-arms numbering thousands or even more than ten men were fighting on foot wearing full plate next to archers. This was commonly seen in the Western European armies especially of France and England during the Hundred Years War, European leaders in armouring techniques were northern Italians, especially from Milan, and southern Germans, who had somewhat different styles. Ottoman Turkey also made use of plate armour but incorporated large amounts of mail into their armour
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Tristan Quilt
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The Tristan Quilt, sometimes called the Tristan and Isolde Quilt or the Guicciardini Quilt, is one of the earliest surviving quilts in the world. Depicting scenes from the story of Tristan and Isolde, a romance and tragedy. There are at least two sections of the quilt, one of which is displayed in the Victoria and Albert Museums Medieval and Renaissance Galleries, and the other in the Bargello in Florence. A third quilt, also depicting Tristan and Isolde, but not thought to be part of the V&A, the Tristan Quilts are the only known surviving examples of medieval quilts. The quilt is made from two layers of linen, stitched together with wadding in between, the foliage on the quilt includes ivy and grape vines, a reference to the plants that grew and intertwined from the tombs of the doomed Tristan and Isolde. The scenes on the V&A quilt are not in their original order, each scene has a caption in the Sicilian language. Caption, COMU LU AMORODU FERIU, TRISTAINU A TRaDIMANTU2, A castle with a king and queen, partial caption. SITA, IN AIRLANDIA3, Tristan, with a three-horned shield, fights Morholt on an island. Caption, COMU, TRISTAINU FERIU LU AMOROLLDU In TESTA4, A page with a saddled horse, caption, COMU, LU InNA DELU AMOROLDU, ASPECTTAUA LU PATRUNU5, A ship being pushed away by Tristans foot. Caption, COMU TRISTAINU BUCTA, LA VARCA, ARRETU, INTU ALLU MARU6, Tristan with his horse, caption, COMU, TRISTAINU, ASPECTA, LU AMOROLDU, ALLA ISOLA DI LU MARU, SANSA UINTURA There are also eight scenes in the border. Along the lower edge are two scenes,7, Mark of Cornwall receives a letter from two kneeling ambassadors while Tristan stands behind them. Caption, COMU ISSAGIERI, SO UINNTI, AL RRE, MARGU, Per LU TRIBUTU DI SECTI ANNI8, The ambassadors, in a ship rowed by soldiers and bearing a fleur-de-lis banner. Caption, COMU, LU RRE, LANGUIs, MANDA, Per LU TRABUTU In CORNUALIA On the left side, from the top,9, A ship, bearing fleur-de-lis banners with a man blowing a boatswains call in the poop deck. Caption, COMU, LU AMOROLDU, EUINUTU, IN CORNUALGIA, CUm XXXX GALS10, caption, COMU, Tristainu DAI, LU GUAnTU ALLU AMOROLDU DELA BACTAGLIA11, A Cornish noble paying money to seven of Morholts men. Caption, COMU, LU AMOROLDU, SULDARI, LA GENTI On the right side, from the top,12, A ship bearing a fleur-de-lis banner with Morholt in the poop deck with a man blowing a boatswains call. Caption, COMU, LU AMOROLDU VAI, In CORNUALGIA13, King Languis, caption, COMU, LURRE, LANGUIS, CUMANDA, CHI VAIA, LO OSTI, CORNUAGLIA14, Morholt, with a mace, with a herald blowing a trumpet. Caption, COMO, LU AMOROLDU FAB ANDIRI, LU OSTI, some of the scenes on the Bargello quilt portray Tristan leaving his foster-fathers court to go to Mark of Cornwall, the meeting of Tristan with Morholt for combat, and their fight on horseback. The V&A quilt measures 320 cm high by 287 cm wide and these measurements were verified in 2006 when it was prepared for display in the new Medieval and Renaissance Galleries. The Bargello quilt measures 2. 47m high by 2. 07m wide, recent research has suggested that the quilts were made as a pair of wall hangings, and subsequently altered
24.
Tristan
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Tristan, also known as Tristram, is the hero of the Arthurian Tristan and Iseult story. He was a Cornish knight of the Round Table and he is the son of Blancheflor and Rivalen, and the nephew of King Mark of Cornwall, sent to fetch Iseult back from Ireland to wed the king. However, he and Iseult accidentally consume a love potion while en route, the pair undergo numerous trials that test their secret affair. Although the oldest stories concerning Tristan are lost, some of the derivatives still exist, the name Tristan is also known as Trischin in the Maltese culture. Arthurian romancier Chrétien de Troyes mentioned in his poem Cligès that he composed his own account of the story, however, there are no surviving copies or records of any such text. In the thirteenth century, during the period of prose romances. This long, sprawling, and often lyrical work follows Tristan from the legend into the realm of King Arthur where Tristan participates in the Quest for the Holy Grail. In the fifteenth century, Sir Thomas Malory shortened this French version into his own take, The Book of Sir Tristram de Lyones, in addition, there was a Tristan who bore witness to a legal document at the Swabian Abbey of Saint Gall in 807 AD. Another strange aspect is his kingdom, Lyonesse, for whose existence there is no evidence, however, there were two places called Leonais, one in Brittany, the other the Old French transcription of Lothian. However, the Isles of Scilly have also proposed to be this place, since they were possibly one island until Roman times. Regardless, Tristan being a prince of Lothian would make his name more sensible, there are also records of a Turstan Crectune, whose name gave the Lothian village of Crichton its name. He was granted lands in 1128 by King David of Scotland, one other suggestion is that he could have been adopted into the family of Mark of Cornwall, a historical practice attested in Roman law. Possible evidence for his Cornish roots is the 5th century inscribed Tristan Stone and it measures some 7 feet in height and has been set in a modern concrete base. Until the 1980s it was in its original position some yards from the road in a field near the turn down to the small harbour of Polkerris. It was then closer to Castle Dore and may have been the origin of the association of this site with the story of the love of Tristan. Cynvawr, in turn, is said by the ninth-century author Nennius, eisner concludes that the author of the Tristan story used the names and some of the local traditions of his own recent past. To these figures he attached adventures which had handed down from Roman. He lived in the north of Britain, was associated with a monastery, from 1857 to 1859, Richard Wagner composed the opera Tristan and Isolde, now considered one of the most influential pieces of music of the 19th century
25.
Victoria and Albert Museum
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The Victoria and Albert Museum, London, is the worlds largest museum of decorative arts and design, housing a permanent collection of over 4.5 million objects. It was founded in 1852 and named after Queen Victoria and Prince Albert and these include the Natural History Museum, the Science Museum and the Royal Albert Hall. The museum is a public body sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media. Like other national British museums, entrance to the museum has been free since 2001, the V&A covers 12.5 acres and 145 galleries. Its collection spans 5,000 years of art, from ancient times to the present day, from the cultures of Europe, North America, Asia and North Africa. The museum owns the worlds largest collection of sculpture, with the holdings of Italian Renaissance items being the largest outside Italy. The departments of Asia include art from South Asia, China, Japan, Korea, the East Asian collections are among the best in Europe, with particular strengths in ceramics and metalwork, while the Islamic collection is amongst the largest in the Western world. Overall, it is one of the largest museums in the world, New 17th- and 18th-century European galleries were opened on 9 December 2015. These restored the original Aston Webb interiors and host the European collections 1600–1815, at this stage the collections covered both applied art and science. Several of the exhibits from the Exhibition were purchased to form the nucleus of the collection, by February 1854 discussions were underway to transfer the museum to the current site and it was renamed South Kensington Museum. In 1855 the German architect Gottfried Semper, at the request of Cole, produced a design for the museum, but it was rejected by the Board of Trade as too expensive. The site was occupied by Brompton Park House, this was extended including the first refreshment rooms opened in 1857, the official opening by Queen Victoria was on 22 June 1857. In the following year, late night openings were introduced, made possible by the use of gas lighting, in these early years the practical use of the collection was very much emphasised as opposed to that of High Art at the National Gallery and scholarship at the British Museum. George Wallis, the first Keeper of Fine Art Collection, passionately promoted the idea of art education through the museum collections. From the 1860s to the 1880s the scientific collections had been moved from the museum site to various improvised galleries to the west of Exhibition Road. In 1893 the Science Museum had effectively come into existence when a director was appointed. The laying of the stone of the Aston Webb building on 17 May 1899 was the last official public appearance by Queen Victoria. It was during this ceremony that the change of name from the South Kensington Museum to the Victoria, the exhibition which the museum organised to celebrate the centennial of the 1899 renaming, A Grand Design, first toured in North America from 1997, returning to London in 1999
26.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
27.
Aketon
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A gambeson is a padded defensive jacket, worn as armour separately, or combined with mail or plate armour. Gambesons were produced with a technique called quilting. Usually constructed of linen or wool, the varied. During the 14th century, illustrations usually show buttons or laces up the front, an arming doublet worn under armour, particularly plate armour of fifteenth- and sixteenth-century Europe, contains arming points for attaching plates. Fifteenth century examples may include goussets sewn into the elbows and armpits to protect the wearer in locations not covered by plate, German gothic armour arming doublets were generally shorter than Italian white armour doublets, which could extend to the upper thigh. In late fifteenth century Italy this also became a civilian fashion, men who were not knights wore arming doublets, probably because the garment suggested status and chivalry. In medieval Norse, the garment was known as vápntreyja, literally weapon shirt, panzari/panzer is probably also a loan from Low German, though the word has its likely origin in Italian, and is related to Latin pantex abdomen. Also known as, Aketon, acton, arming coat, auqueton, gambeson, hacketon, haqueton, panzari/panzer, vápntreyja, wambais, wambesium, wambuis or wambs. Quilted leather open jackets and trousers were worn by Scythian horsemen before the 4th century BC, the European gambeson can be traced at least to the late 10th century, but it is likely to have been in use in various forms for longer than that. In Europe, its use became widespread in the 13th century, the gambeson was used both as a complete armour unto itself and underneath mail and plate in order to cushion the body and prevent chafing. It was very insulatory and thus uncomfortable, but its protection was vital for the soldier, there are two distinctive designs of gambeson, those designed to be worn beneath another armour, and those designed to be worn as independent armour. The latter tend to be thicker and higher in the collar and this variant is usually referred to as padded jack and made of several layers of cotton, linen or wool. It is quite probable that Egypt still produced cotton well after the 7th and 8th centuries, however logistics and expense of equipping a town militia or army with large amounts of cotton-based garments is doubtful, when flax-based textiles was in widespread use. Doublet Buff coat The Function of Armor in Medieval and Renaissance Europe, how a man shall be armed for his ease when he shall fight on foot a translation of the mid-fifteenth century treatise on armor, translated into modern English and accompanied by pictorial references
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Doublet (clothing)
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The doublet was hip length or waist length and worn over the shirt or drawers. Until the end of the 15th century, the doublet was worn under another layer of clothing such as a gown, mantle, originally it was a mere stitched and quilted lining, worn under a hauberk or cuirass to prevent bruising and chafing. Doublets were frequently opened to the waistline in a deep V, the edges might be left free or laced across the shirt front. If there was left it might be filled with a stomacher. By the 1520s, the edges of the doublet met at the center front, then, like many other originally practical items in the history of mens wear, from the late 15th century onward it became elaborated enough to be seen on its own. A similar jacket, the sherwani, is today in India. Throughout the 300 years of its use, the served the same purpose, to give fashionable shape and padding to the body, to support the hose by providing ties. The only thing that changed about the doublet over its history was its style, the doublet developed from the padded garments worn under armour, such as the gambeson, aketon, and arming doublet. Doublets of the 14th and 15th centuries were generally hip-length, sometimes, shorter, worn over the shirt and hose, with a houppelande or other form of overgown. From the late 14th century, doublets were cut and padded to give the wearer an egg-shaped or pigeon-breasted silhouette, in the early Elizabethan period, doublets were padded over the belly with bombast in a pouter pigeon or peascod silhouette. Sleeve attachments at the shoulder were disguised by decorative wings, tabs, or piccadills, padding gradually fell out of fashion again, and the doublet became close-fitting with a deep V-waistline. More images, Edward VI in an elaborately trimmed and pinked, long-skirted late Tudor doublet under a crimson gown with hanging sleeves, martin Frobisher in a peascod-bellied doublet under a buff jerkin. By the 17th century, doublets were short-waisted, a typical sleeve of this period was full and slashed to show the shirt beneath, a later style was full and paned or slashed to just below the elbow and snug below. Decorative ribbon points were pulled through eyelets on the breeches and the waist of the doublet to keep the breeches in place, and were tied in elaborate bows. 1500–1550 in fashion 1550–1600 in fashion 1600–1650 in fashion 1650-1700 in fashion Janet Arnold, Patterns of Fashion, the cut and construction of clothes for men and women 1560-1620, pajama 1985
29.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
30.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
31.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
32.
Colonial history of the United States
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The colonial history of the United States covers the history of European settlements from the start of colonization until their incorporation into the United States. In the late 16th century, England, France, Spain, small early attempts often disappeared, such as the English Lost Colony of Roanoke. Everywhere, the rate was very high among the first arrivals. Nevertheless, successful colonies were established several decades. European settlers came from a variety of social and religious groups, few aristocrats settled permanently, but a number of adventurers, soldiers, farmers, and tradesmen arrived. They built colonies with distinctive social, religious, political, non-British colonies were taken over and most of the inhabitants were assimilated, unlike in Nova Scotia, where the British expelled the French Acadian inhabitants. There were no civil wars among the 13 colonies. The colonies developed legalized systems of slavery, based largely in the Atlantic slave trade from Africa or by way of the Caribbean, Wars were recurrent between the French and the British—the French and Indian Wars especially—and involved French support for Native American attacks on the British frontiers. By 1760, France was defeated and the British seized its colonies, on the eastern seaboard of what became the United States, the four distinct British regions were, New England, the Middle Colonies, the Chesapeake Bay Colonies, and the Lower South. Some historians add a fifth region of the Frontier which was never separately organized, see timeline of Colonial America for list of historical events. Colonizers came from European kingdoms that had highly developed military, naval, governmental and these efforts were managed respectively by the Casa de Contratación and the Casa da Índia. England, France, and the Netherlands had also started colonies in both the West Indies and North America and they had the ability to build ocean-worthy ships but did not have as strong a history of colonization in foreign lands as did Portugal and Spain. However, English entrepreneurs gave their colonies a foundation of merchant-based investment that seemed to need much less government support, initially, matters concerning the colonies were dealt with primarily by the Privy Council and its committees. The Commission of Trade was set up in 1625 as the first special body convened to advise on colonial questions, mercantilism was the basic policy imposed by Britain on its colonies from the 1660s. The goal of mercantilism was to run trade surpluses, so that gold, the government took its share through duties and taxes, with the remainder going to merchants in Britain. The government spent much of its revenue on a superb Royal Navy which protected the British colonies, thus, the British Navy captured New Amsterdam in 1664. The colonies were captive markets for British industry, and the goal was to enrich the mother country, the prospect of religious persecution by authorities of the crown and the Church of England prompted a significant number of colonization efforts. People fleeing persecution by King Charles I were responsible for settling most of New England, anonymous Portuguese explorers were the first Europeans to map the future eastern seaboard of the U. S. from New York to Florida, as documented in the Cantino planisphere of 1502
33.
Needlework
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Needlework is a broad term for the handicrafts of decorative sewing and textile arts. Anything that uses a needle for construction can be called needlework, the definition may expand to include related textile crafts such as a crochet hook or tatting shuttles. Similar abilities often transfer well between different varieties of needlework, such as fine motor skill and a knowledge of textile fibres, some of the same tools may be used in several different varieties of needlework. For instance, a needle threader is useful in nearly all needlecrafts, needle lace Quilting Applique Embroidery Crochet Knitting Tatting Lucet Braiding and Tassel making Tapestry Needlepoint Bead Weaving, loom and off-loom Royal School of Needlework
34.
Broderie perse
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Broderie perse is a style of appliqué embroidery which uses printed elements to create a scene on the background fabric. It was most popular in Europe in the 17th century, and probably travelled from India, the technique could be considered an early form of puzzle piecing. Broderie perse can be done with any printed fabric on any ground, Chintz typically has clearly defined, separated motifs, which were cut out and invisibly applied onto the ground fabric. The typical intention was to create a scene from the motifs, the resulting fabric was often made into bedspreads, either unlined for summer or quilted for winter. They were typically saved for special occasions, such as guest beds
35.
Patchwork
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Patchwork or pieced work is a form of needlework that involves sewing together pieces of fabric into a larger design. The larger design is based on repeating patterns built up with different fabric shapes. These shapes are carefully measured and cut, basic geometric shapes making them easy to piece together. Patchwork is most often used to make quilts, but it can also be used to make bags, wall-hangings, warm jackets, cushion covers, skirts, waistcoats, some textile artists work with patchwork, often combining it with embroidery and other forms of stitchery. When used to make a quilt, this larger patchwork or pieced design becomes the top of a quilt, the middle layer being the batting. Evidence of patchwork—piecing small pieces of fabric together to create a larger piece, the earliest examples have been located in Egyptian tombs and also in early age of China about 5000 years ago. Further finds have dated from the early Middle Ages, where layers of quilted fabric were used in the construction of armor—this kept the soldiers warm. Japanese armor was made in a similar fashion, using this technique, quilts began to appear in households of the 11th to 13th centuries. The tradition of making quilts in this fashion was taken to America by the Pilgrims, patchwork enjoyed a widespread revival during the Great Depression as a way to recycle worn clothing into warm quilts. Even very small and worn pieces of material are suitable for use in patchwork, in the US, patchwork declined after World War II, but was again revived during the American bicentennial. In the past, hand quilting was often done in a group around a frame, instead of quilting, the layers are sometimes tied together at regular intervals with pieces of yarn, a practice known as tying or knotting, and which produces a comforter. The 2003 Quilting in America survey estimated that the value of the American quilting industry was $2.7 billion. International quilting exhibitions attract thousands of visitors, while countless smaller exhibitions are held every weekend in local regions, Quilt Art is established as a legitimate artistic medium, with quilted works of art selling for thousands of dollars to corporate buyers and galleries. The American Quilt Study Group is active in promotion of research on the history of quilting, in Indian stitching blanket using different small pieces of cloth is an art. It is popularly known as Kaudhi in Karnataka, such blankets are given as gifts to newborn babies in some parts of Karnataka. Lambani tribes wear skirts with such art There are three structures used to construct a patchwork or pieced composition, 1) the block, 2) overall. Traditional patchwork has identifying names based on the arrangement of colors, patchwork blocks are pieced squares made up of colored shapes that repeat specific shapes to create patterns within the square or block, of, say, light and dark, or contrasting colors. The blocks can all repeat the pattern, or blocks can have several different patterns
36.
Chintz
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Since the 19th century the term has also been used for the style of floral decoration developed in those calico textiles, but then used more widely, for example on chintzware pottery and wallpaper. Unglazed calico was traditionally called cretonne, the word calico is derived from the name of the Indian city Calicut to which it had a manufacturing association. Chintz was originally a woodblock printed, painted or stained calico produced in India from 1600 to 1800 and popular for bed covers, quilts and draperies. Around 1600, Portuguese and Dutch traders were bringing examples of Indian chintz into Europe on a small scale, by 1680 more than a million pieces of chintz were being imported into England per year, and a similar quantity was going to France and the Dutch Republic. These early imports were mostly used for curtains, furnishing fabrics. It has been suggested that wearing them as clothes began when these were replaced and given to maidservants, who made them into dresses, and also that they were first worn as linings. With imported chintz becoming so popular with Europeans during the late 17th century, French and English mills grew concerned, in 1686 the French declared a ban on all chintz imports. In 1720 Englands Parliament enacted a law forbade the Use and Warings in Apparel of imported chintz. Even though chintz was outlawed, there were loopholes in the legislation, the Court of Versailles was outside the law and fashionable young courtiers continued wearing chintz. In 1734, French naval officer, M and his letters and samples can be seen today in the Muséum national dHistoire naturelle in Paris. In 1742, another Frenchman, Father Coeurdoux also supplied details of the making process. In 1759 the ban against chintz was lifted, by this time French and English mills were able to produce chintz. Europeans at first produced reproductions of Indian designs, and later added original patterns, a well-known make was toile de Jouy, which was manufactured in Jouy, France, between 1700 and 1843. Modern chintz usually consists of bright overall floral patterns printed on a light background, an interview with chintz expert Rosemary Crill, senior curator at the Victoria and Albert Museum
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Calico
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Calico is a plain-woven textile made from unbleached and often not fully processed cotton. It may contain unseparated husk parts, for example, the fabric is far less fine than muslin, but less coarse and thick than canvas or denim, but it is still very cheap owing to its unfinished and undyed appearance. The fabric was originally from the city of Kozhikode in southwestern India and it was made by the traditional weavers called cāliyans. The raw fabric was dyed and printed in bright hues, Calico originated in Kozhikode in southwestern India during the 11th century. The cloth was known as cāliyan to the natives and it was mentioned in Indian literature by the 12th century when the writer Hēmacandra described calico fabric prints with a lotus design. By the 15th century calico from Gujǎrāt made its appearance in Egypt, trade with Europe followed from the 17th century onwards. Calico was woven using Sūrat cotton for both the warp and weft, in the 18th century, England was famous for its woollen and worsted cloth. That industry, centred in the east and south in such as Norwich. Cotton processing was tiny, in 1701 only 1,985,868 pounds of cottonwool was imported into England and this was due to commercial legislation to protect the woollen industry. Cheap calico prints, imported by the East India Company from Hindustān, had become popular, in 1700 an Act of Parliament passed to prevent the importation of dyed or printed calicoes from India, China or Persia. This caused demand to switch to imported grey cloth instead—calico that had not been finished—dyed or printed and these were printed with popular patterns in southern England. Also, Lancashire businessmen produced grey cloth with linen warp and cotton weft, known as fustian, cottonwool imports recovered though, and by 1720 were almost back to their 1701 levels. Again the woolen manufacturers, in true protectionist fashion, claimed that the imports were taking away from workers in Coventry. A new law passed, enacting fines against anyone caught wearing printed or stained calico muslins, the Lancashire manufacturers exploited this exemption, coloured cotton weft with linen warp were specifically permitted by the 1736 Manchester Act. There now was a demand for woven cloth. In 1764,3,870,392 pounds of cotton-wool were imported and it has been noted that this change in consumer demand a key part of the process that brought the Indian economy from sophisticated textile production to supply of raw materials. These events occurred under colonial rule and were described by Nehru, early Indian chintz, that is, glazed calico with a large floral pattern. Were primarily produced by painting techniques, later, the hues were applied by wooden blocks, and the cloth manufacturers in Britain printing calico used wooden block printing
38.
Brooklyn Museum
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The Brooklyn Museum is an art museum located in the New York City borough of Brooklyn. At 560,000 square feet, the museum is New York Citys third largest in physical size, the museum initially struggled to maintain its building and collection, only to be revitalized in the late 20th century, thanks to major renovations. Significant areas of the collection include antiquities, specifically their collection of Egyptian antiquities spanning over 3,000 years, African, Oceanic, and Japanese art make for notable antiquities collections as well. American art is represented, starting at the Colonial period. Artists represented in the collection include Mark Rothko, Edward Hopper, Norman Rockwell, Winslow Homer, Edgar Degas, Georgia OKeeffe, the museum also has a Memorial Sculpture Garden which features salvaged architectural elements from throughout New York City. The roots of the Brooklyn Museum extend back to the 1823 founding by Augustus Graham of the Brooklyn Apprentices’ Library in Brooklyn Heights, in 1890, under its director Franklin Hooper, Institute leaders reorganized as the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences and began planning the Brooklyn Museum. The initial design for the Brooklyn Museum was four times as large as the actualized version, Daniel Chester French, the noted sculptor of the Lincoln Memorial, was the principal designer of the pediment sculptures and the monolithic 12. 5-foot figures along the cornice. The figures were created by 11 sculptors and carved by the Piccirilli Brothers, by 1920, the New York City Subway reached the museum with a subway station, this greatly improved access to the once-isolated museum from Manhattan and other outer boroughs. The Brooklyn Institutes director Franklin Hooper was the museums first director and he was followed by Philip Newell Youtz, Laurance Page Roberts, Isabel Spaulding Roberts, Charles Nagel, Jr. and Edgar Craig Schenck. Thomas S. Buechner became the director in 1960, making him one of the youngest directors in the country. Buechner oversaw a major transformation in the way the museum displayed art and brought some one thousand works that had languished in the museums archives and put them on display. Buechner played a role in rescuing the Daniel Chester French sculptures from destruction due to an expansion project at the Manhattan Bridge in the 1960s. The Brooklyn Museum changed its name to Brooklyn Museum of Art in 1997, on March 12,2004, the museum announced that it would revert to its previous name. In April 2004, the museum opened the James Polshek-designed entrance pavilion on the Eastern Parkway façade, in September 2014, Lehman announced that he was planning to retire around June 2015. In May 2015, Creative Time president and artistic director Anne Pasternak was named the Museums next director, member institutions occupy land or buildings owned by the City of New York and derive part of their yearly funding from the City. The Brooklyn Museum also supplements its earned income with funding from Federal and State governments, as well as donations by individuals. Major benefactors include Frank Lusk Babbott, the museum is the site of the annual Brooklyn Artists Ball which has included celebrity hosts such as Sarah Jessica Parker and Liv Tyler. The Brooklyn Museum exhibits collections that seek to embody the rich heritage of world cultures
39.
Harriet Powers
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Harriet Powers was an African-American slave, folk artist, and quilt maker from rural Georgia. She used traditional techniques to record local legends, Bible stories. Only two of her quilts are known to have survived, Bible Quilt 1886 and Pictorial Quilt 1898 and her quilts are considered among the finest examples of nineteenth-century Southern quilting. Her work is on display at the National Museum of American History in Washington, DC, Powers was born into slavery near Athens, Georgia. In 1855, at the age of eighteen, Powers married Armstead Powers and they had at least nine children. In the 1880s, after being freed at the end of the Civil War, during the 1890s, due to financial difficulty, her husband slowly sold off parcels of their land, defaulted on taxes, and eventually left Harriet and their farm in 1895. Powers never remarried and probably supported herself as a seamstress, for most of her life she lived in Clarke County, mainly in Sandy Creek and Buck Branch. In 1886, Powers began exhibiting her quilts and her first quilt, known as the Bible Quilt, was shown at the Athens cotton Fair in 1886, it is this quilt that is now in the Smithsonian Institution. Jennie Smith, an artist and art teacher from the Lucy Cobb Institute, saw the quilt, which she found to be remarkable, at the fair and asked to purchase it, but Powers refused to sell. The two women remained in touch, however, and when Powers met with financial difficulties four years later, at the same time Powers vividly explained the imagery on the quilt, Smith recorded these explanations, adding notes of her own in her personal diary. She communicated with her narrative quits using themes from her own experience, the history of the second quilt is unclear. One account suggests that it was commissioned by the wives of faculty members of Atlanta University, according to another source, the quilt was purchased in Nashville, Tennessee, in 1898. Whatever its origins, the piece was presented to the Reverend Charles Cuthbert Hall of New York City, the reverends heirs sold the quilt to collector Maxim Karolik, who then donated it to the museum in Boston. Powers died on January 1,1910, and was buried in the Gospel Pilgrim Cemetery in Athens and her grave was rediscovered in January 2005. Bible Quilt 1886 and Pictorial Quilt 1898 consist of numerous pictorial squares depicting either biblical scenes or celestial phenomena. The reason for Powers interest in celestial bodies is unclear, it has suggested that they had religious significance for her. Her interpretations of both quilts have survived, though they likely have been influenced by their recorders, although we now know that Powers was literate, she might have used her quilts as teaching tools. In 2009, a copy of an 1896 letter from Harriet Powers to a prominent Keokuk, in the letter Powers shares insights into her life as a slave, when she learned to read and write, and descriptions of at least four quilts she stitched
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Quilting
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Quilting is the process of sewing two or more layers of fabric together to make a thicker padded material, usually to create a quilt or quilted garment. Typically quilting is done with three layers, the top fabric or quilt top, batting or insulating material and backing material, the process of quilting uses a needle and thread to join two or more layers of material to make a quilt. The quilters hand or sewing machine passes the needle and thread through all layers, the process is repeated across the entire area where quilting is wanted. Rocking, straight or running stitches are used with these stitches being purely functional or decorative. Quilting is done to create bed spreads, art quilt wall hangings, clothing, Quilting can make a project thick, or with dense quilting, can raise one area so that another stands out. The whole process of creating a quilt or quilted garment also involves other steps such as designing, piecing, appliqué, a person who works at quilting is termed a quilter. Quilting can be done by hand, via a sewing machine, Quilt stores often sell fabric, thread, patterns and other goods that are used for quilting. They often have group sewing and quilting classes where one can learn how to sew or quilt, the word quilt comes from the Latin culcita meaning a stuffed sack but it came into the English language from the French word cuilte. The origins of quilting remain unknown but sewing techniques of piecing, appliqué, the earliest known quilted garment is depicted on the carved ivory figure of a Pharaoh dating from the ancient Egyptian First Dynasty. In 1924 archaeologists discovered a quilted floor covering in Mongolia and they estimated its date as between 100 BC to 200 AD. Chinese patchwork continues as an folk art, there are numerous references to quilts in literature and inventories of estates. Crusaders brought quilted objects from the Middle East to Europe in the late 11th century, quilted garments known as gambesons were popular in the European Middle Ages. Knights wore them under their armor for comfort and sometimes as a garment to protect the metal armor from the weather. The earliest known surviving European bed quilt is from late fourteenth century Sicily and it is made of linen and padded with wool. The blocks across the center are scenes from the legend of Tristan, the quilt is 122 by 106 and is in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. Quilting has been part of the tradition in Europe from about the 5th century. Early objects contain Egyptian cotton, which may indicate that Egyptian and Mediterranean trade provided a conduit for the technique, quilted objects were relatively rare in Europe until approximately the twelfth century, when quilted bedding and other items appeared after the return of the Crusaders from the Middle East. The medieval quilted gambeson, aketon and arming doublet were garments worn under or instead of armor of maille or plate armor and these developed into the later quilted doublet worn as part of fashionable European male clothing from the fourteenth to seventeenth century
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Smithsonian Institution
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The Smithsonian Institution, established in 1846 for the increase and diffusion of knowledge, is a group of museums and research centers administered by the Government of the United States. Originally organized as the United States National Museum, that ceased to exist as an administrative entity in 1967. Additional facilities are located in Arizona, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York City, Texas, Virginia, more than 200 institutions and museums in 45 states, Puerto Rico, and Panama are Smithsonian Affiliates. The Institutions thirty million annual visitors are admitted without charge and its annual budget is around $1.2 billion with 2/3 coming from annual federal appropriations. Other funding comes from the Institutions endowment, private and corporate contributions, membership dues, and earned retail, concession, Institution publications include Smithsonian and Air & Space magazines. The British scientist James Smithson left most of his wealth to his nephew Henry James Hungerford, Congress officially accepted the legacy bequeathed to the nation, and pledged the faith of the United States to the charitable trust on July 1,1836. The American diplomat Richard Rush was dispatched to England by President Andrew Jackson to collect the bequest, Rush returned in August 1838 with 105 sacks containing 104,960 gold sovereigns. Once the money was in hand, eight years of Congressional haggling ensued over how to interpret Smithsons rather vague mandate for the increase, unfortunately, the money was invested by the US Treasury in bonds issued by the state of Arkansas which soon defaulted. The United States Exploring Expedition by the U. S. Navy circumnavigated the globe between 1838 and 1842, in 1846, the regents developed a plan for weather observation, in 1847, money was appropriated for meteorological research. The Institution became a magnet for young scientists from 1857 to 1866, the Smithsonian played a critical role as the U. S. partner institution in early bilateral scientific exchanges with the Academy of Sciences of Cuba. The Smithsonian Institution Building began construction in 1849, designed by architect James Renwick Jr. its interiors were completed by general contract Gilbert Cameron and the building opened in 1855. The Smithsonians first expansion came with construction of the Arts and Industries Building in 1881, Congress had promised to build a new structure for the museum if the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition generated enough income. It did, and the building was designed by architects Adolf Cluss and Paul Schulze, meigs of the United States Army Corps of Engineers. The National Zoological Park opened in 1889 to accommodate the Smithsonians Department of Living Animals and this structure was designed by the D. C. architectural firm of Hornblower & Marshall. More than 40 years would pass before the museum, the Museum of History. It was designed by the firm of McKim, Mead & White. That same year, the Smithsonian signed an agreement to take over the Cooper Union Museum for the Arts of Decoration, the National Portrait Gallery and the Smithsonian American Art Museum opened in the Old Patent Office Building on October 7,1968. The first new building to open since the National Museum of Natural History was the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden
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The Quilts of Gee's Bend
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The Quilts of Gees Bend are quilts created by a group of women and their ancestors who live or have lived in the isolated African-American hamlet of Gees Bend, Alabama along the Alabama River. The Quilts of Gees Bend are considered to be unique, just southeast of Selma, in the Black Belt of Alabama, Gees Bend is an isolated, rural community of about seven hundred inhabitants. The area is named after Joseph Gee, a landowner who came from North Carolina, in 1845 the plantation was sold to Mark H. Pettway, this name still remains predominant in the county as many members of the community still carry the name. After emancipation many freed slaves stayed on the plantation as sharecroppers and these indebted families watched as all their food, animals, tools and seed were taken away, and the community was saved by the distribution of Red Cross rations distributed. The government sold tracts of land to the families of the bend, thus giving the African American population control over the land, the community of Gees Bend was also the subject of several Farm Security Administration photographers, like Dorothea Lange. However, many inhabitants of the community stayed, in 1949, a U. S Post Office was established, and in 1965 Martin Luther King Jr. visited the area. From the 1960s onward, the community of Gees Bend, as well as the Freedom Quilting Bee in nearby Alberta, gained attention for the production of their quilts. The quilting tradition in Gees Bend goes back to the 19th century perhaps influenced in part by patterned African textiles, along the way they developed a distinctive style, noted for its lively improvisations and geometric simplicity. The quilts have been exhibited at the Museum of Fine Arts Houston, the Indianapolis Museum of Art, the Philadelphia Museum of Art, and the Whitney Museum of American Art, among others. Comparable effect can be seen in the quilts of isolated individuals such as Rosie Lee Tompkins, more than 50 quiltmakers currently make up the Gees Bend Collective, which is owned and operated by the women of Gee’s Bend. Every quilt sold by the Gee’s Bend Quilt Collective is unique, bridget R. Harriet Powers African American art List of African-American visual artists Rosie Lee Tompkins
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Underground Railroad
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The term is also applied to the abolitionists, both black and white, free and enslaved, who aided the fugitives. Various other routes led to Mexico or overseas, an earlier escape route running south toward Florida, then a Spanish possession, existed from the late 17th century until shortly after the American Revolution. However, the now generally known as the Underground Railroad was formed in the late 1700s. One estimate suggests that by 1850,100,000 slaves had escaped via the Railroad, British North America, where slavery was prohibited, was a popular destination, as its long border gave many points of access. Most former slaves settled in Ontario, more than 30,000 people were said to have escaped there via the network during its 20-year peak period, although U. S. Census figures account for only 6,000. Numerous fugitives stories are documented in the 1872 book The Underground Railroad Records by William Still, the resulting economic impact was minuscule, but the psychological influence on slaveholders was immense. With heavy lobbying by Southern politicians, the Compromise of 1850 was passed by Congress after the Mexican–American War, because the law required sparse documentation to claim a person was a fugitive, slave catchers also kidnapped free blacks, especially children, and sold them into slavery. Southern politicians often exaggerated the number of escaped slaves and often blamed escapes on Northerners interfering with Southern property rights. The law deprived suspected slaves of the right to themselves in court. In a de facto bribe, judges were paid a fee for a decision that confirmed a suspect as a slave than for one ruling that the suspect was free. Many Northerners who might have ignored slave issues in the South were confronted by local challenges that bound them to support slavery. This was a primary grievance cited by the Union during the American Civil War, the escape network was not literally underground nor a railroad. It was figuratively underground in the sense of being an underground resistance and it was known as a railroad by way of the use of rail terminology in the code. The Underground Railroad consisted of meeting points, secret routes, transportation, and safe houses, escaped slaves would move north along the route from one way station to the next. Conductors on the railroad came from various backgrounds and included blacks, white abolitionists, former slaves. Without the presence and support of black residents, there would have been almost no chance for fugitive slaves to pass into freedom unmolested. To reduce the risk of infiltration, many associated with the Underground Railroad knew only their part of the operation. Conductors led or transported the fugitives from station to station, a conductor sometimes pretended to be a slave in order to enter a plantation
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Slave narrative
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Most of the 26 audio-recorded interviews are held by the Library of Congress. These were part of a category of captivity narratives by English-speaking Europeans. Beginning in the 18th century, these accounts by colonists and American settlers in North America. Several well-known captivity narratives were published before the American Revolution, later North American accounts were by Americans captured by western tribes during 19th-century migrations. For the Europeans and Americans, the division between captivity as slaves and as prisoners of war was not always clear, given the problem of international contemporary slavery in the 20th and 21st centuries, additional slave narratives are being written and published. It is an issue that still persists and remains largely undocumented. The development of narratives from autobiographical accounts to modern fictional works led to the establishment of slave narratives as a literary Genre. They go further than just autobiographies, and are moreover a source for reconstructing historical experience, the freed slaves that wrote the narratives are considered as historians, since memory and history come together. These accounts link elements of the personal life and destiny with key historical events, such as the American Civil War. This change often entailed literacy as a means to overcome captivity, the narratives are very graphic to the extent as extensive accounts of e. g. whipping, abuse and rape of enslaved women are exposed in detail. The denunciation of the owners, in particular their cruelty and hypocrisy, is a recurring theme in slave narratives. According to James Olney, a typical outline looks the following way, an engraved portrait, signed by the narrator. A title page includes the claim, as an integral part of the title. A poetic epigraph, by preference from William Cowper, a first sentence beginning, I was born. Then specifying a place but not a date of birth,2, a sketchy account of parentage, often involving a white father,3. Description of a master, mistress, or overseer, details of first observed whipping and numerous subsequent whippings. An account of one strong, hardworking slave often pure African-who, because there is no reason for it. Record of the barriers raised against slave literacy and the difficulties encountered in learning to read
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Amish
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The Amish are a group of traditionalist Christian church fellowships with Swiss Anabaptist origins. They are closely related to, but distinct from, Mennonite churches, the Amish are known for simple living, plain dress, and reluctance to adopt many conveniences of modern technology. The history of the Amish church began with a schism in Switzerland within a group of Swiss and those who followed Ammann became known as Amish. In the early 18th century, many Amish and Mennonites emigrated to Pennsylvania for a variety of reasons, as of 2000, over 165,000 Old Order Amish lived in the United States and about 1,500 lived in Canada. Most of the Amish continue to have 6–7 children while benefiting from the decrease in infant. Between 1992 and 2013, the Amish population increased by 120%, Amish church membership begins with baptism, usually between the ages of 16 and 25. It is a requirement for marriage within the Amish church, once a person is baptized with the church, he or she may marry only within the faith. Church districts average between 20 and 40 families, and worship services are held every other Sunday in a members home, the district is led by a bishop and several ministers and deacons. Most Amish do not buy commercial insurance or participate in Social Security, as present-day Anabaptists, Amish church members practice nonresistance and will not perform any type of military service. The Amish value rural life, manual labor and humility, all under the auspices of living what they interpret to be Gods word, members who do not conform to these community expectations and who cannot be convinced to repent are excommunicated. In addition to excommunication, members may be shunned, a practice that limits social contacts to shame the wayward member into returning to the church, almost 90 percent of Amish teenagers choose to be baptized and join the church. Amish church groups seek to maintain a degree of separation from the non-Amish world, There is generally a heavy emphasis on church and family relationships. They typically operate their own schools and discontinue formal education after grade eight. Until the children turn 16, they have vocational training under the tutelage of their parents, community, the Amish Mennonite movement descends from the 16th century fellowship known as the Swiss Brethren. The Swiss Brethren were Anabaptists, and are viewed as having been a part of the Radical Reformation. Anabaptist means one who baptizes again—a reference to those who had baptized as infants, but later adopted a belief in believers baptism. These Swiss Brethren trace their origins to Felix Manz and Conrad Grebel and this pushed the Swiss Brethren into Canton Bern. The term Amish was first used as a schandename in 1710 by opponents of Jakob Amman, the first division between Swiss Brethren was recorded in the 17th century between Oberländers and Emmentaler
