1.
Cambia Health Solutions
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Cambia Health Solutions is a nonprofit health insurance corporation based in Portland, Oregon. Cambia also invests in healthcare technology and service companies, such as GNS Healthcare, Qliance. Before November 2013, Cambia was known as The Regence Group, Regence is licensed to sell health insurance plans under the Blue Cross Blue Shield name in Utah, and Oregon. It is licensed under the Blue Shield name in Idaho and western Washington and its non-Blue subsidiary uses the Asuris name in eastern Washington, because Premera acquired that territorys Blue Shield license in 1998 when it merged with Spokanes Medical Services Corporation. Regence has 2.5 million members in Idaho, Oregon, Utah and it has the largest enrollment of any health insurer in Oregon and Washington. It has offices in each state served, and employs 5,500 people, among the many medical bureaus and health plans that merged to become Regence is Pierce County Medical Bureau, formed in 1917 in Tacoma. Merger activity remained active among hospitals and health plans nationally in the 1990s, in the Pacific Northwest, there were approximately 30 health plans in 1997 and by 2002 there were 20. Richard Woolworths experience as chair of the BlueCross BlueShield Association would prove useful in his new role as CEO, skagit County Medical Bureau and Whatcom County Medical Bureau merged in 1998, as part of the unaligned movement, to form Northwest Washington Medical Bureau. In 2001, Northwest Washington Medical Bureau merged with Regence, in 2003, Dick Woolworth retired, his place taken by Mark Ganz. In 2006, Regence renamed one of its three Portland buildings in Woolworths honor, in 1999, RegenceRx was created as a nonprofit Pharmacy Benefit Manager. Its leadership on comparative research of prescription medications is respected within the industry. In 2005, Regence received 24. 8% of the customer complaints with the Washington Insurance Commissioner, Regence’s president, Mark Ganz, earned $897,671 from Regence BlueShield in Washington in 2008, including a bonus of $550,548. In Oregon, his compensation package totaled $872,665, in both states, Ganz brought home $1,770,336. Regence’s treasurer, Steve Hooker, treasurer, who’s announced his retirement, earned $337,543 from Washington, william Barr, executive vice president of operations, took home $430,926 from Washington, and $377,119 from Oregon for a total of $808,045. And, Kerry Barnett, executive president of Regence’s corporate division, earned $312,482 from Washington. According to its website, Regence used 86.3 cents of each dollar in 2010 to pay medical claims. Oregon publishes this medical loss ratio information for insurers in that state. Cambia Health Solutions Profit Climbs by 95 Percent, cambias HealthSparq subsidiary acquires another health site
2.
Jean-Baptiste Santerre
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Jean-Baptiste Santerre, was a French painter often associated with Jean-Honoré Fragonard but notable in his own right. Santerre was born at Magny-en-Vexin, near Pontoise, a pupil of Bon Boullogne, he began his painting career at a portraitist, with a notable work being a portrait of Marie Leszczyńska with the Maison de St Cyr in the background. He won a reputation thanks to his academies. His most notable work is his Susanna Bathing, the work executed by him in 1704. The Susanna and his Portrait of a Lady in Venetian Costume give an impression of Santerres taste and of his elaborate, refined
3.
Louis XV of France
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Louis XV, known as Louis the Beloved, was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1 September 1715 until his death. He succeeded his great-grandfather Louis XIV at the age of five, Cardinal Fleury was his chief minister from 1726 until the Cardinals death in 1743, at which time the young king took sole control of the kingdom. During his reign, Louis returned the Austrian Netherlands, territory won at the Battle of Fontenoy of 1745, Louis also ceded New France in North America to Spain and Great Britain at the conclusion of the Seven Years War in 1763. He incorporated the territories of Lorraine and Corsica into the kingdom of France and he was succeeded by his grandson Louis XVI in 1774. French culture and influence were at their height in the first half of the eighteenth century, however, many scholars believe that Louis XVs decisions damaged the power of France, weakened the treasury, discredited the absolute monarchy, and made it more vulnerable to distrust and destruction. Evidence for this view is provided by the French Revolution, which broke out 15 years after his death, norman Davies characterized Louis XVs reign as one of debilitating stagnation, characterized by lost wars, endless clashes between the Court and Parliament, and religious feuds. A few scholars defend Louis, arguing that his negative reputation was based on propaganda meant to justify the French Revolution. Jerome Blum described him as a perpetual adolescent called to do a mans job, Louis XV was born in the Palace of Versailles on 15 February 1710 during the reign of Louis XIV. His grandfather, Louis Le Grand Dauphin, had three sons with his wife Marie Anne Victoire of Bavaria, Louis, Duke of Burgundy, Philippe, Duke of Anjou, and Charles, Duke of Berry. Louis XV was the son of the Duke of Burgundy and his wife Marie Adélaïde of Savoy, the eldest daughter of Victor Amadeus II, Duke of Savoy. At birth, Louis XV received a title for younger sons of the French royal family. In April 1711, Louis Le Grand Dauphin suddenly died, making Louis XVs father, the Duke of Burgundy, at that time, Burgundy had two living sons, Louis, Duke of Brittany and his youngest son, the future Louis XV. A year later, Marie Adélaïde, Duchess of Burgundy, contracted smallpox and her husband, said to be heartbroken by her death, died the same week, also having contracted smallpox. Within a week of his death, it was clear that the two children had also been infected. The elder son was treated by bloodletting in an unsuccessful effort to save him. Fearing that the Dauphin would die, the Court had both the Dauphin and the Duke of Anjou baptised, the Dauphin died the same day,8 March 1712. His younger brother, the Duke of Anjou, was treated by his governess, Madame de Ventadour. The two year old Dauphin survived the smallpox, on 1 September 1715, Louis XIV died of gangrene, having reigned for 72 years
4.
Guillaume Dubois
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Guillaume Dubois was a French cardinal and statesman. Dubois, the third of the four great Cardinal-Ministers, was born in Brive-la-Gaillarde and he was educated at the school of the Brothers of the Christian Doctrine at Brive, where he received the tonsure at the age of thirteen. In 1672, having finished his course, he was given a scholarship at the college of St. Michel in Paris by the lieutenant-general of the Limousin. He was present with his pupil at the Battle of Steenkerque, sent to join the French embassy in London, he made himself so active that he was recalled by the request of the ambassador, who feared his intrigues. This, however, tended to raise his credit with the king, when the Duc DOrléans became regent Dubois, who had for some years acted as his secretary, was made councillor of state, and the chief power passed gradually into his hands. Dubois policy was directed towards maintaining the peace of Utrecht. To counteract Alberonis intrigues, he suggested an alliance with Britain and in the face of great difficulties succeeded in negotiating the Triple Alliance, in 1719 he sent armies into Spain as part of the Quadruple Alliance which forced Philip V to dismiss Alberoni. Otherwise his policy remained that of peace, Dubois success strengthened him against the bitter opposition of a large section of the court. Dubois was instrumental during the Cellamare Conspiracy of 1718 and he prayed the regent to give him the archbishopric of Cambrai, the richest in France. This demand was supported by George I and the regent yielded, in one day all the usual orders were conferred upon him, and even the great preacher Massillon consented to take part in the ceremonies. It is estimated that this cardinalate cost France about eight million francs, in the following year he was named first minister of France. He was soon after received at the Académie française, and he was named President of the Assembly of Clergy, when Louis XV attained his majority in 1723 Dubois remained chief minister. He had accumulated an immense private fortune possessing in addition to his see the revenues of seven abbeys and he was, however, a prey to the most terrible pains of body and agony of mind. His health was ruined by his debaucheries, and a surgical operation became necessary and this was almost immediately followed by his death, at Versailles, on 10 August 1723. Dubois portrait was drawn by his long-time rival, the Duc de St Simon, He was a little, pitiful, wizened, herringgutted man, in a flaxen wig, with a weasels face. All the vices - perfidy, avarice, debauchery, ambition and he was so consummate a liar that, when taken in the fact, he could brazenly deny it. Even his wit and knowledge of the world were spoiled, and his affected gaiety was touched with sadness and this famous picture is certainly biased. In 1789 appeared Vie privée du Cardinal Dubois, attributed to one of his secretaries, Mongez, see also A Chéruel, Saint-Simon et labbé Dubois, L Wiesener, Le Régent, labbé Dubois et les Anglais, and memoirs of the time
5.
History of France
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The first written records for the history of France appear in the Iron Age. The Gauls, the largest and best attested group, were Celtic people speaking what is known as the Gaulish language, over the course of the 1st millennium BC the Greeks, Romans and Carthaginians established colonies on the Mediterranean coast and the offshore islands. Afterwards a Gallo-Roman culture emerged and Gaul was increasingly integrated into the Roman Empire, in the later stages of the Roman Empire, Gaul was subject to barbarian raids and migration, most importantly by the Germanic Franks. The Frankish king Clovis I united most of Gaul under his rule in the late 5th century, Frankish power reached its fullest extent under Charlemagne. The war formally began in 1337 following Philip VIs attempt to seize the Duchy of Aquitaine from its holder, Edward III of England. Despite early Plantagenet victories, including the capture and ransom of John II of France, among the notable figures of the war was Joan of Arc, a French peasant girl who led French forces against the English, establishing herself as a national heroine. The war ended with a Valois victory in 1453, victory in the Hundred Years War had the effect of strengthening French nationalism and vastly increasing the power and reach of the French monarchy. During the period known as the Ancien Régime, France transformed into an absolute monarchy. During the next centuries, France experienced the Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation, Henry, King of Navarre, scion of the Bourbon family, would be victorious in the conflict and establish the French Bourbon dynasty. A burgeoning worldwide colonial empire was established in the 16th century, French political power reached a zenith under the rule of Louis XIV, The Sun King, builder of Versailles Palace. In the late 18th century the monarchy and associated institutions were overthrown in the French Revolution, the country was governed for a period as a Republic, until the French Empire was declared by Napoleon Bonaparte. France was one of the Triple Entente powers in World War I, fighting alongside the United Kingdom, Russia, Italy, Japan, the United States and smaller allies against Germany and the Central Powers. France was one of the Allied Powers in World War II, the Third Republic was dismantled, and most of the country was controlled directly by Germany while the south was controlled until 1942 by the collaborationist Vichy government. Living conditions were harsh as Germany drained away food and manpower, Charles de Gaulle led the Free France movement that one-by-one took over the colonial empire, and coordinated the wartime Resistance. Following liberation in summer 1944, a Fourth Republic was established, France slowly recovered economically, and enjoyed a baby boom that reversed its very low fertility rate. Long wars in Indochina and Algeria drained French resources and ended in political defeat, in the wake of the Algerian Crisis of 1958, Charles de Gaulle set up the French Fifth Republic. Into the 1960s decolonization saw most of the French colonial empire become independent, while smaller parts were incorporated into the French state as overseas departments, since World War II France has been a permanent member in the UN Security Council and NATO. It played a role in the unification process after 1945 that led to the European Union
6.
Minor (law)
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In law, a minor is a person under a certain age—usually the age of majority—which legally demarcates childhood from adulthood. The age of majority depends upon jurisdiction and application, but is generally 18, minor may also be used in contexts unconnected to the overall age of majority. For example, the age in the United States is usually 21. These age limits are different from the age of majority. The concept of minor is not sharply defined in most jurisdictions, in many countries, including Australia, India, Philippines, Brazil, Croatia, and Colombia, a minor is defined as a person under the age of 18. In Japan, Taiwan and Thailand, a minor is a person under 20 years of age, for all provincial laws, the provincial and territorial governments have the power to set the age of majority in their respective province or territory, and the age varies across Canada. In Saskatchewan, the legal gaming age and the drinking age are both 19. For Federal Law, the age of majority is 18, in Italy, law nr.39 of March 8,1975, states that a minor is a person under the age of 18. Citizens under the age of 18 may not vote, be elected, crimes committed in Italy by minors are tried in a juvenile court. In all 31 states, a minor is referred to as someone under the age of 18, minors aged 16 or 17 who are charged with crimes could sometimes be treated as an adult. A minor is restricted from doing juristic acts—for example, sign contracts, when a minor wishes to do a juristic act, he has to obtain the consent from his legal representative, usually the parents and otherwise the act is voidable. A minor can make a will at the age of fifteen, in England and Wales and in Northern Ireland a minor is a person under the age of 18, in Scotland, under the age of 16. The age of responsibility in England and Wales and in Northern Ireland is 10, and 12 in Scotland, formerly 8. In England and Wales, cases of breaking the law are often dealt with by the Youth Offending Team. If they are incarcerated, they are sent to a Young Offender Institution, driving certain large vehicles, acting as personal license holder for licensed premises, and adopting a child are only permitted after the age of 21. The minimum age to drive a HGV1 vehicle was reduced to 18, however, certain vehicles, e. g. steamrollers, require that someone be 21 years of age to obtain an operating license. In the United States as of 1995, minor is generally defined as a person under the age of 18. Although in the context of alcohol or gambling laws, people under the age of 21 may also sometimes be referred to as minors, however, not all minors are considered juveniles in terms of criminal responsibility
7.
Louis XIV of France
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Louis XIV, known as Louis the Great or the Sun King, was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1643 until his death in 1715. His reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest of any monarch of a country in European history. In the age of absolutism in Europe, Louis XIVs France was a leader in the centralization of power. Louis began his rule of France in 1661, after the death of his chief minister. By these means he became one of the most powerful French monarchs, under his rule, the Edict of Nantes, which granted rights to Huguenots, was abolished. The revocation effectively forced Huguenots to emigrate or convert in a wave of dragonnades, which managed to virtually destroy the French Protestant minority. During Louis reign, France was the leading European power, and it fought three wars, the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg. There were also two lesser conflicts, the War of Devolution and the War of the Reunions, warfare defined Louis XIVs foreign policies, and his personality shaped his approach. Impelled by a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique, in peacetime he concentrated on preparing for the next war. He taught his diplomats their job was to create tactical and strategic advantages for the French military, Louis XIV was born on 5 September 1638 in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, to Louis XIII and Anne of Austria. He was named Louis Dieudonné and bore the title of French heirs apparent. At the time of his birth, his parents had married for 23 years. His mother had experienced four stillbirths between 1619 and 1631, leading contemporaries thus regarded him as a divine gift and his birth a miracle of God. Sensing imminent death, Louis XIII decided to put his affairs in order in the spring of 1643, in defiance of custom, which would have made Queen Anne the sole Regent of France, the king decreed that a regency council would rule on his sons behalf. His lack of faith in Queen Annes political abilities was his primary rationale and he did, however, make the concession of appointing her head of the council. Louis relationship with his mother was uncommonly affectionate for the time, contemporaries and eyewitnesses claimed that the Queen would spend all her time with Louis. Both were greatly interested in food and theatre, and it is likely that Louis developed these interests through his close relationship with his mother. This long-lasting and loving relationship can be evidenced by excerpts in Louis journal entries, such as, but attachments formed later by shared qualities of the spirit are far more difficult to break than those formed merely by blood
8.
Prince regent
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A prince regent, or prince-regent, is a prince who rules a monarchy as regent instead of a monarch, e. g. as a result of the Sovereigns incapacity or absence. Regents Park, Regent Street and Regents Canal in London were all named in honour of him. Nash, under the patronage of the HRH Prince Regent, planned a palatial summer residence for the Prince,50 detached villas in a parkland setting and elegant terraces around the exterior of the park. This was all part of a plan, to develop The Regents Park and lay out an elegant new street, Regents Street, to link it to St Jamess Park. This period is known as the British Regency, or just the Regency, the title was conferred by the Regency Act on February 5,1811. Subject to certain limitations for a period, the Prince Regent was able to exercise the powers of the King. The precedent of the Regency Crisis of 1788 was followed, the Prince of Wales continued as regent until his fathers death in 1820, when he became George IV. The years of Luitpolds regency were marked by artistic and cultural activity in Bavaria. Numerous streets in Bavarian cities and towns are called Prinzregentenstraße, many institutions are named in Luitpolds honour, e. g. the Prinzregententheater in Munich. Prinzregententorte is a cake with chocolate butter cream named in Luitpolds honour. At Luitpolds death in 1912, his son Prince Ludwig succeeded as Prince Regent, Ludwig held the title for less than a year, since the Bavarian Legislature decided to recognise him as king. Prince Charles of Belgium served as Prince Regent of Belgium from 1944 to 1950 during the German captivity and then exile to Switzerland of his elder brother, King Leopold III of Belgium. On 5 September 1944 the Soviet Union declared war on the Kingdom of Bulgaria and on 8 September Soviet armies crossed the Romanian border, in the Kingdom of Swaziland, queen mothers have temporarily stepped in when the sovereign was either a minor or unable to reign for other reasons. More prince-regents are to be found in List of regents, crown Prince Frederick of Denmark served as regent from 1784 to 1808 for his father, King Christian VII of Denmark, who was insane. Prince William of Prussia served as regent from 1858 to 1861 for his older brother King Frederick William IV of Prussia, who had become mentally unfit to rule. Prince Dorgon of the early Qing dynasty served as regent for his nephew, Dorgon was instrumental in moving Manchu forces into Beijing in 1644, proclaiming the Qing dynasty to be the legitimate successor to the Ming dynasty. In Qing dynasty historical records, Dorgon was the first to be referred to as Shezhengwang, rameses The Great Prince Chun of the late Qing dynasty served as regent from 1908 to 1911 for his son Puyi, the Xuantong Emperor. Apart from Dorgon, Zaifeng was the person in Chinese history who was specifically referred to as Prince Regent
9.
Louis Auguste, Duke of Maine
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Louis-Auguste de Bourbon, duc du Maine was a legitimised son of the French king Louis XIV and his official mistress, Madame de Montespan. The kings favourite son, he was the founder of the semi-royal House of Bourbon-Maine named after his title, Louis-Auguste de Bourbon was born at the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye on 31 March 1670. His siblings, Louis-César, Louise-Françoise and Louise Marie Anne de Bourbon were also there after their births. Their mother, living with the king at Versailles, rarely saw her children, on 19 December 1673, when Louis-Auguste was three years old, Louis XIV legitimised his children by Montespan by letters patent registered by the Parlement de Paris. At this time, Louis-Auguste received the title of duc du Maine, in 1674, at the age of four, Louis-Auguste and his siblings were officially introduced to the court at Versailles. In the same year, he was made a colonel-general of the Swiss Guards, du Maines greatest enemy at court became his fathers sister-in-law, the duchesse dOrléans, known at court as Madame. The maréchal du Luxembourg, a military strategist, was put in charge of the childs military training. Despite this, Louis-Auguste never became more than a mediocre soldier and he was made Grand Maître de France. As a result, Louis-Auguste became the comte dEu, sovereign Prince of the Dombes and he also received the governorship of Languedoc and was awarded the Order of the Holy Spirit. In April 1684 du Maine represented the king at the wedding of the Duke of Savoy to du Maines cousin, in 1688, Louis Auguste was made a capitaine général des galères. However, the Grand Condé, a distant relative of the king. So du Maine was allowed to choose among the three unmarried daughters of Condés son, the duc dEnghien and he chose Louise Bénédicte, Mademoiselle de Charolais, over her sisters, Anne Marie, Mademoiselle de Condé and Marie Anne, Mademoiselle de Montmorency. All three were small, the eldest was beautiful, and full of sense and wit. Presided over by the Cardinal de Bouillon, the guest of honour was the exiled James II of England, Madame de Montespan, who had fallen out of favour with the king after the Affaire des Poisons, did not attend her sons wedding. The duc du Maine received a gift of one million livres from his father at his wedding and his bride was given a hundred thousand livres in cash, with clothes and jewels worth an additional two hundred thousand livres. Louise Bénédicte felt disgraced by her marriage to a légitimé de France and was often unfaithful, as the groom and bride were both physically handicapped, people at court snickered, Voici lunion dun boiteux et dune manchote. Nonetheless, the couple eventually had three children who grew to adulthood and their daughter, baptised at Versailles on 9 April 1714, was known as Mademoiselle du Maine and named Louise-Françoise de Bourbon. In 1707, Madame de Montespan died, and the duc du Maine inherited a portion of her fortune, including the château de Clagny
10.
John Law (economist)
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John Law was a Scottish economist who believed that money was only a means of exchange that did not constitute wealth in itself and that national wealth depended on trade. He was appointed Controller General of Finances of France under the Duke of Orleans, regent for the youthful king and he was responsible for the Mississippi Company bubble and a chaotic economic collapse in France, which has been compared to the early-17th century tulip mania in Holland. The Mississippi Bubble was contemporaneous with the South Sea Company bubble of England, Law was a gambler and a brilliant mental calculator. He was known to win games by mentally calculating the odds. He originated economic ideas such as The Scarcity Theory of Value, Laws views held that money creation will stimulate the economy, that paper money is preferable to metallic money, and that shares are a superior form of money since they pay dividends. Law was born into a family of bankers and goldsmiths from Fife, his father had purchased Lauriston Castle, Law joined the family business at age fourteen and studied the banking business until his father died in 1688. Law subsequently neglected the firm in favour of more extravagant pursuits and he subsequently lost large sums of money in gambling. On 9 April 1694, John Law fought a duel with another British Dandy, Wilson had challenged Law over the affections of Elizabeth Villiers. Law killed Wilson with a pass and thrust of his sword. He was arrested, charged with murder and stood trial at the Old Bailey and he appeared before the infamously sadistic hanging-judge, Salathiel Lovell and was found guilty of murder, and sentenced to death. He was initially incarcerated in Newgate Prison to await execution and his sentence was later commuted to a fine, upon the ground that the offence only amounted to manslaughter. Wilsons brother appealed and had Law imprisoned, but he managed to escape to Amsterdam, Law urged the establishment of a national bank to create and increase instruments of credit and the issue of banknotes backed by land, gold, or silver. The first manifestation of Laws system came when he had returned to Scotland and he published a text entitled Money and Trade Considered, with a Proposal for Supplying the Nation with Money. Laws propositions of creating a bank in Scotland were ultimately rejected. He spent ten years moving between France and the Netherlands, dealing in financial speculations, problems with the French economy presented the opportunity to put his system into practice. He had the idea of abolishing minor monopolies and private farming of taxes and he would create a bank for national finance and a state company for commerce, ultimately to exclude all private revenue. This would create a monopoly of finance and trade run by the state. The council called to consider Laws proposal, including such as Samuel Bernard
11.
Philip V of Spain
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Before his reign, Philip occupied an exalted place in the royal family of France as a grandson of King Louis XIV. His father, Louis, the Grand Dauphin, had the strongest genealogical claim to the throne of Spain when it became vacant in 1700. It was well known that the union of France and Spain under one monarch would upset the balance of power in Europe, Philip was the first member of the House of Bourbon to rule as king of Spain. The sum of his two reigns,45 years and 21 days, is the longest in modern Spanish history and he was a younger brother of Louis, Duke of Burgundy, the father of Louis XV of France. At birth, Philip was created Duke of Anjou, a title for younger sons in the French royal family. He would be known by name until he became the king of Spain. Philip was tutored with his brothers by François Fénelon, Archbishop of Cambrai, the three were also educated by Paul de Beauvilliers. In 1700 the King Charles II of Spain died childless and his will named the turning 17-year-old Philip, grandson of Charles half-sister Maria Theresa, the first wife of Louis XIV, as his successor. Upon any possible refusal, the crown of Spain would be offered next to Philips younger brother, Philip had the better genealogical claim to the Spanish throne, because his Spanish grandmother and great-grandmother were older than the ancestors of the Archduke Charles of Austria. However, the Austrian branch claimed that Philips grandmother had renounced the Spanish throne for herself and this was countered by the French branchs claim that it was on the basis of a dowry that had never been paid. After the Royal Council decided to accept the provisions of the will of Charles II naming Philip king of Spain, the ambassador, along with his son, knelt before Philip and made a long speech in Spanish which Philip did not understand, although Louis XIV did. Philip only later learned to speak Spanish, on 2 November 1701 the almost 18 year old Philip married the 13-year-old Maria Luisa of Savoy, as chosen by his grandfather King Louis XIV, by then an old man of 63. She was the daughter of Victor Amadeus II, Duke of Savoy, there was a proxy ceremony at Turin, the capital of the Duchy of Savoy, and another one at Versailles on 11 September. As queen of Spain, Maria Luisa proved very popular with her subjects and she served as regent for her husband on several occasions. Her most successful term was when Philip was away touring his Italian domains for nine months in 1702, in 1714, she died at the age of 26 from tuberculosis, a devastating emotional blow to her husband. The actions of Louis XIV heightened the fears of the English, the Dutch, however, a second act of the French king justified a hostile interpretation, pursuant to a treaty with Spain, Louis occupied several towns in the Spanish Netherlands. This was the spark that ignited the powder keg created by the issues of the War of the League of Augsburg. Almost immediately the War of the Spanish Succession began, inside Spain, the Crown of Castile supported Philip of France
12.
John V of Portugal
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Dom John V, known as the Magnanimous and the Portuguese Sun King, was a monarch of the House of Braganza who ruled as King of Portugal and the Algarves during the first half of the 18th century. John Vs reign saw the rise of the prestige of Portugal and its monarchy, John Vs reign saw an enormous influx of gold into the coffers of the royal treasury, supplied largely by the royal fifth that was received from the Portuguese colonies of Brazil and Maranhão. John nearly depleted his countrys tax revenues on ambitious architectural works, most notably Mafra Palace, disregarding traditional Portuguese institutions of governance, John V ruled as an absolute monarch. On the imperial front, John V pursued an expansionist policy, with significant territorial gains in Portuguese India, John V was a very pious man who devoted large parts of his day to prayer and religious study. He rewarded his long-awaited recognition as a monarch by Pope Benedict XIV with a fervent devotion to the Catholic Church. The Pope granted John V the style Most Faithful Majesty, which appealed to him greatly, however, Johns relationship with the papacy varied at different periods in his reign, there were both close relations and conflicts at different times during the reigns of five different popes. John was born on 22 October 1689 at Ribeira Palace in Lisbon to King Pedro II and he was baptized on November 19 at the Royal Palace Chapel and given the name João Francisco António José Bento Bernardo. John was not his fathers first son, he had a brother, João, Prince of Brazil. Upon his baptism, John was not given the titles of the heir apparent to the Portuguese throne, Prince of Brazil and Duke of Braganza. This was intended as a sign of respect for his brothers death. John had a stimulating upbringing surrounded by some of the most brilliant minds of Europe at the time. It was agreed by the court that Johns care as a child was to be run by women only, a custom of the Portuguese court. Johns governess was Maria de Lencastre, the Marquise of Unhão, the political policies of Johns father had made the Portuguese court wealthy, the national economy stable, and the imperial military strong. This made a varied and interesting childhood possible for John. As a child, he was under the tutelage and heavy influence of the Jesuit Fathers Francisco da Cruz, John Seco, and Luís Gonzaga. Father Luís Gonzaga was in charge of the education of all of King Pedros children, he taught them military education, politics, astronomy, nautical studies, mathematics, and history. As the prince grew up, he was mentored in political affairs by Luís da Cunha and this was formalised when he and his brother Francisco, Duke of Beja, were admitted into the Order of Christ on 7 April 1696. Later that year, the king decided to confer on John the titles of the heir apparent, namely Prince of Brazil
13.
George I of Great Britain
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George I was King of Great Britain and Ireland from 1 August 1714 until his death, and ruler of the Duchy and Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg in the Holy Roman Empire from 1698. George was born in Hanover and inherited the titles and lands of the Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg from his father, a succession of European wars expanded his German domains during his lifetime, and in 1708 he was ratified as prince-elector of Hanover. At the age of 54, after the death of his second cousin Queen Anne of Great Britain, in reaction, Jacobites attempted to depose George and replace him with Annes Catholic half-brother, James Francis Edward Stuart, but their attempts failed. During Georges reign, the powers of the monarchy diminished and Britain began a transition to the system of cabinet government led by a prime minister. Towards the end of his reign, actual power was held by Sir Robert Walpole. George died of a stroke on a trip to his native Hanover, George was born on 28 May 1660 in Hanover in the Holy Roman Empire. He was the eldest son of Ernest Augustus, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Sophia was the granddaughter of King James I of England through her mother, Elizabeth of Bohemia. For the first year of his life, George was the heir to the German territories of his father. In 1661 Georges brother, Frederick Augustus, was born and the two boys were brought up together, after Sophias tour she bore Ernest Augustus another four sons and a daughter. In her letters, Sophia describes George as a responsible, conscientious child who set an example to his brothers and sisters. In 1679 another uncle died unexpectedly without sons and Ernest Augustus became reigning Duke of Calenberg-Göttingen, Georges surviving uncle, George William of Celle, had married his mistress in order to legitimise his only daughter, Sophia Dorothea of Celle, but looked unlikely to have any further children. Under Salic law, where inheritance of territory was restricted to the male line, in 1682, the family agreed to adopt the principle of primogeniture, meaning George would inherit all the territory and not have to share it with his brothers. The same year, George married his first cousin, Sophia Dorothea of Celle, the marriage of state was arranged primarily as it ensured a healthy annual income and assisted the eventual unification of Hanover and Celle. His mother was at first against the marriage because she looked down on Sophia Dorotheas mother and she was eventually won over by the advantages inherent in the marriage. In 1683, George and his brother, Frederick Augustus, served in the Great Turkish War at the Battle of Vienna, and Sophia Dorothea bore George a son, George Augustus. The following year, Frederick Augustus was informed of the adoption of primogeniture and it led to a breach between father and son, and between the brothers, that lasted until Frederick Augustuss death in battle in 1690. With the imminent formation of a single Hanoverian state, and the Hanoverians continuing contributions to the Empires wars, Georges prospects were now better than ever as the sole heir to his fathers electorate and his uncles duchy. Sophia Dorothea had a child, a daughter named after her, in 1687
14.
Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor
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Archduchess Maria Amalia of Austria was an Archduchess of Austria and the younger sister of Empress Maria Theresa. Maria Amalia was born at the Hofburg Imperial Palace in Vienna and she was the last daughter of Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, and Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. Like her sister, Maria Anna, her birth was not well received by her father and she died at 19 April 1730, in Vienna. Maria Amalia was the last member of the Austrian Habsburgs, after the death of her father, who had no male heirs, the imperial crown passed to Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor, as the husband of Maria Theresa. The Habsburg dynasty of Austria became extinct in the line with the death of Charles VI
15.
Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia
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Victor Amadeus II was Duke of Savoy from 1675 to 1730. He also held the titles of marquis of Saluzzo, duke of Montferrat, prince of Piedmont, count of Aosta, Moriana, Louis XIV organised his marriage in order to maintain French influence in the Duchy but Victor Amadeus soon broke away from the influence of France. Having fought in the War of the Spanish Succession, he became king of Sicily in 1713 but he was forced to exchange this title, Victor Amadeus was born in Turin to Charles Emmanuel II, Duke of Savoy and his second wife Marie Jeanne of Savoy. Named after his paternal grandfather Victor Amadeus I he was their only child, as an infant he was styled as the Prince of Piedmont, traditional title of the heir apparent to the duchy of Savoy. A weak child, his health was greatly monitored, as an infant he had a passion for soldiers and was noted as being very intelligent. His father died in June 1675 Turin at the age of forty after a series of convulsive fevers and his mother was declared Regent of Savoy and Marie Jeanne, known as Madame Royale at court, took power. The duchy would revert to the Kingdom of Portugal at her death. Victor Amadeus refused and a party was formed which refused to recognise his leaving Savoy. Despite a marriage contract being signed between Portugal and Savoy on 15 May 1679, the marriage between Victor Amadeus and the Infanta came to nothing and was thus cancelled, other candidates included Maria Antonia of Austria, a Countess Palatine of Neuburg and Anna Maria Luisa de Medici. Victor Amadeus was keen on the match with Tuscany and negotiations were kept secret from France even though the match never happened, under the influence of Louis XIV and Marie Jeanne, Victor Amadeus was forced to marry a French princess Anne Marie dOrléans. His mother was keen on the match and had always promoted French interests having been born in Paris a member of a branch of the House of Savoy. A significant event of his mothers regency was the Salt Wars of 1680 and these rebellions were caused by the unpopular taxes on salt in all cities in Savoy. The system had been put in place by Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy in order to raise money for the crown, the unrest caused an army to be sent to stop the unrest in the town, which was pacified quickly. However, in the town of Montaldo, the unrest began again and was more serious than before,200 soldiers were killed in warfare which lasted for several days. The news of these rebellions soon reached a wider scope and it clear that soon the whole of Piedmont was on the verge of revolt. The event had allowed Victor Amadeus a chance to some power. Having succeeded in ending his mothers power in Savoy, Victor Amadeus looked to his marriage with the youngest child of Philippe I, Duke of Orléans. The contract of marriage between Anne Marie and the Duke of Savoy was signed at Versailles on 9 April, On 10 April 1684, Anne Marie was married at Versailles, by proxy, the couple were married in person on 6 May 1684
16.
Louis Alexandre, Count of Toulouse
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Louis Alexandre de Bourbon, comte de Toulouse, duc de Penthièvre, a legitimated prince of the blood royal, was the son of Louis XIV and of his mistress Françoise-Athénaïs, marquise de Montespan. At the age of five, he became admiral of France. Born at the Château de Clagny in Versailles, Louis Alexandre de Bourbon was the third son, at birth, he was put in the care of Madame de Monchevreuil along with his older sister Françoise-Marie de Bourbon. Louis Alexandre was created Count of Toulouse in 1681 at the time of his legitimation, in February 1684, he became colonel of an infantry regiment named after him and in 1693 mestre de camp of a cavalry regiment. During the War of Spanish Succession, he was given the task of defending Sicily, in January 1689, he was named governor of Guyenne, a title which he exchanged for that of governor of Brittany six years later. On 3 January 1696, he was created a marshal of France, during the War of the Spanish Succession he commanded the French fleet at the Battle of Vélez-Málaga in 1704. He remained in this capacity until being succeeded by Joseph Fleuriau dArmenonville in 1722, the proposal of his marriage to Charlotte de Lorraine, Mademoiselle dArmagnac, member of a cadet branch of the House of Guise had met with the categorical refusal of Louis XIV. On 2 February 1723, the comte de Toulouse married Marie Victoire de Noailles and she was the widow of Louis de Pardaillan de Gondrin, his nephew, son of his half-brother Louis Antoine de Pardaillan de Gondrin, whose mother was Madame de Montespan. The marriage was kept secret until the death of the regent, the couple had one son, Louis Jean Marie de Bourbon, Duke of Penthièvre. He and his sisters tried to avoid the court and the intrigues of their brother, the duc du Maine, and his wife Anne Louise Bénédicte de Bourbon, the duchess, at the Château de Sceaux. The decision was reversed after the death of Louis XIV when Louis Alexandres cousin, Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, the comte de Toulouse died at the Château de Rambouillet on 1 December 1737. He was buried in the village 12th century Saint-Lubin church, on 30 September 1766, the countess died at the Hôtel de Toulouse, the Parisian mansion not far from the Louvre which the count had bought from Phélypeaux, marquis de La Vrillière, in 1712. She too was buried in the crypt in the Rambouillet church. Upon the counts death, the duc de Penthièvre, succeeded his father in his posts and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Toulouse, Louis Alexandre de Bourbon, Count of. Mgr le comte de Toulouse, son père. »
17.
Prince du sang
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A prince du sang is a person legitimately descended in dynastic line from any of a realms hereditary monarchs. In some European kingdoms, especially France, this appellation was a rank in its own right. Under the House of Capet, the monarchy was feudal, in the feudal era, the agnates of the king held no special status. This was because agnatic primogeniture had not yet received its sanction as the law governing the succession to the French throne, following the Valois succession, the agnates of the king, being capable of the crown, rose in prominence. New peerages were created for the kings agnates, and for a time this continued to be so. Over time, the dignity of a peer, which is feudal in nature, and the dignity of a prince of the blood, non-royal peers and princes of the blood who were peers constantly disputed for higher precedence than the other. As the royal line contracted, each prince of the blood gained greater prominence, in France, the rank of prince du sang was the highest held at court after the immediate family of the king during the ancien régime and the Bourbon Restoration. The rank of prince du sang or princesse du sang was restricted to legitimate agnates of the Capetian dynasty who were not members of the family of the king. In theory, the princes of the blood included all members of the Capetian dynasty, in practice, only the agnatic descendants of Saint Louis IX, such as the Valois and the Bourbons, were acknowledged as princes du sang. Frances kings, for instance, refused to recognize the Courtenay Capetians as princes of the blood, the Courtenays descended in legitimate male-line from King Louis VI, but had become impoverished, minor nobles over the centuries. Their repeated petitions for recognition to the Bourbon rulers were in vain, in 1715 Louis-Charles de Courtenay, his son Charles-Roger and his brother Roger were once again rebuffed in their attempt to seek recognition of their status. They descended from Jean, seigneur de Carency, the youngest son of Jean I de Bourbon, since 1733, all legitimate Capetians were of the House of Bourbon, of the Vendôme branch, descended from Charles, Duke of Vendôme. A cadet branch of the Condés was the House of Conti, though the Parlement de Paris refused to register the decree, the king exercised his right to compel registration by conducting a lit de justice. The edict was revoked and annulled on 18 August 1715 by the Parlement on the authority of the regent after the kings death, as a chancellor of Louis XIV had warned, a king could only make princes of the blood through his queen. Those who held this rank were usually styled by their main ducal peerage, the style Serene Highness was used in writing only. This was the style of the First Prince of the Blood, in practice, it was not always clear who was entitled to the rank, and it often took a specific act of the king to make the determination. The rank carried with it various privileges, including the right to a household out of state revenues. The rank was held for life, the birth of a new, the Princes of Condé used the style of Monsieur le Prince for over a century
18.
Parlement
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A parlement was a provincial appellate court in the France of the Ancien Régime, i. e. before the French Revolution. In 1789,13 parlements existed, the most important of which was by far the Parlement of Paris, while the English word parliament derives from this French term, parlements were not legislative bodies. They consisted of a dozen or more judges, or about 1,100 judges nationwide. They were the court of appeal of the judicial system. Laws and edicts issued by the Crown were not official in their respective jurisdictions until the parlements gave their assent by publishing them, the members were aristocrats called nobles of the gown who had bought or inherited their offices, and were independent of the King. From 1770 to 1774 the Lord Chancellor, Maupeou, tried to abolish the Parlement of Paris in order to strengthen the Crown, however, when King Louis XV died in 1774, the parlements were reinstated. The parlements spearheaded the resistance to the absolutism and centralization of the Crown, but they worked primarily for the benefit of their own class. Alfred Cobban argues that the parlements were the obstacles to any reform before the Revolution. In November 1789, early in the French Revolution, all parlements were suspended, the political institutions of the Parlement in Ancien Régime France developed out of the Kings Council, and consequently enjoyed ancient, customary consultative and deliberative prerogatives. In the 13th century, the parlements acquired judicial functions, then the droit de remontrance against the king, the Paris parlements jurisdiction covered the entire kingdom as it was in the 14th century, but did not automatically advance in step with the Crowns ever expanding realm. The Parlement of Paris played a role in stimulating the nobility to resist the expansion of royal power by military force in the Fronde. In the end, the King won out and the nobility was humiliated, in such a case, the parlements powers were suspended for the duration of this royal session. King Louis XIV moved to centralize authority into his own hands, in 1665, he ordained that a Lit de justice could be held without the king having to appear in person. In 1667, he limited the number of remonstrances to only one, in 1671–1673, however, the parlements resisted the taxes occasioned by the Dutch War. In 1673, the king imposed additional restrictions that stripped the parlements of any influence upon new laws by ordaining that remonstrances could only be issued after registration of the edicts. After Louis death in 1715, all the restrictions were discontinued by the regent and these locations were provincial capitals of those provinces with strong historical traditions of independence before they were annexed to France. Nevertheless, the Parlement of Paris had the largest jurisdiction of all the parlements, covering the part of northern and central France. In some regions provincial States-General also continued to meet and legislate with a measure of self-governance, tenure on the court was generally bought from the royal authority, and such positions could be made hereditary by payment of a tax to the King called la Paulette
19.
Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis
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Saint-Denis is a commune in the northern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located 9.4 km from the centre of Paris, Saint-Denis is a subprefecture of the department of Seine-Saint-Denis, being the seat of the arrondissement of Saint-Denis. Saint-Denis is home to the necropolis of the Basilica of Saint Denis and was also the location of the associated abbey. It is also home to Frances national football and rugby stadium, Saint-Denis is a formerly industrial suburb currently changing its economic base. Inhabitants of Saint-Denis are called Dionysiens, until the 3rd century, Saint-Denis was a small settlement called Catolacus or Catulliacum, probably meaning estate of Catullius, a Gallo-Roman landowner. About 250 AD, the first bishop of Paris, Saint Denis, was martyred on Montmartre hill, shortly after 250 his grave became a shrine and a pilgrimage centre, with the building of the Abbey of Saint Denis, and the settlement was renamed Saint-Denis. In 1793, during the French Revolution, Saint-Denis was renamed Franciade in a gesture of rejection of religion, in 1803, however, under the Consulate of Napoléon Bonaparte, the city reverted to its former name of Saint-Denis. During its history, Saint-Denis has been associated with the French royal house. Starting from Dagobert I, almost every French king was buried in the Basilica, however, Saint-Denis is older than that. In the 2nd century, there was a Gallo-Roman village named Catolacus on the location that Saint-Denis occupies today, Saint Denis, the first bishop of Paris and patron saint of France, was martyred in about 250 and buried in the cemetery of Catolacus. Denis tomb quickly became a place of worship, around 475, Sainte Geneviève had a small chapel erected on Denis tomb, which by then had become a popular destination for pilgrims. It was this chapel that Dagobert I had rebuilt and turned into a royal monastery, during the Middle Ages, because of the privileges granted by Dagobert, Saint-Denis grew to become very important. Merchants from all over Europe came to visit its market, in 1140, Abbot Suger, counselor to the King, granted further privileges to the citizens of Saint-Denis. He also started the work of enlarging the Basilica of Saint Denis that still exists today, the new church was consecrated in 1144. Saint-Denis suffered heavily in the Hundred Years War, of its 10,000 citizens, during the French Wars of Religion, the Battle of Saint-Denis was fought between Catholics and Protestants on 10 November 1567. The Protestants were defeated, but the Catholic commander Anne de Montmorency was killed, in 1590, the city surrendered to Henry IV, who converted to Catholicism in 1593 in the abbey of Saint-Denis. King Louis XIV started several industries in Saint-Denis, weaving and spinning mills and dyehouses. His successor, Louis XV, whose daughter was a nun in the Carmelite convent, took a lively interest in the city, he added a chapel to the convent and also renovated the buildings of the royal abbey
20.
Madame de Ventadour
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Charlotte de La Motte Houdancourt, Duchess of Ventadour was the governess of King Louis XV of France, great-grandson of King Louis XIV. She is credited with saving Louis XV from the ministrations of the royal doctors when he was ill as a child and she was the Gouvernante des enfants royaux, Governess of the Children of France like her mother, granddaughter, granddaughter in law and great grand daughter. Charlottes sisters were, Françoise Angélique de La Mothe Houdancourt, Dame of Fayel, Marie Isabelle Angélique de la Mothe Houdancourt, Duchess of La Ferté Senneterre. Charlotte married Louis Charles de Lévis, Duke of Ventadour and governor of the Limousin, … a lot of duchesses came in, including the beautiful and charming Duchess of Ventadour. There was a bit of a delay before they brought her the sacred stool, I turned to the Grand Master and I said, Oh, just give it to her. It certainly cost her enough, and he agreed, Charlotte and Louis Charles had one daughter, Anne Geneviève de Lévis, born in February 1673. Anne Geneviève first married in 1691 Louis-Charles de la Tour dAuvergne, prince de Turenne, the son of Maurice Godefroy de La Tour dAuvergne, Duke of Bouillon, and his wife, Marie Anne Mancini. After the death of her first husband, Anne Geneviève married secondly in 1694 Hercule Mériadec de Rohan, through this second marriage, Anne Geneviève de Lévis became the grandmother of Charlotte de Rohan, the wife of Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé. Madame de Ventadour was appointed governess to the children in 1704. In 1712, an outbreak of measles struck the French royal family, first to die was the Dauphine, Marie Adélaïde of Savoy. The sickness, however, had not yet run its course, deciding that she would not allow the same treatment to be applied to the Duke of Anjou, Madame de Ventadour locked herself up with three nursery maids and refused to allow the doctors near the boy. Louis survived his disease, becoming King of France upon the death of his three years later. Madame de Ventadour continued in her position as royal governess until 1717 and her husband died in the same year. She then became Lady-in-waiting to Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate, Dowager Duchess of Orléans, widow of Philippe de France, Duke of Orléans and she died at the Château de Glatigny, her residence in Versailles. Through her daughter she is an ancestress of the Princes of Guéméné of the House of Rohan, texte établi, présenté et annoté par Roger Duchêne
21.
Tuileries Palace
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The Tuileries Palace was a royal and imperial palace in Paris which stood on the right bank of the River Seine. It was the usual Parisian residence of most French monarchs, from Henry IV to Napoleon III, built in 1564, it was gradually extended until it closed off the western end of the Louvre courtyard and displayed an immense façade of 266 metres. After the accidental death of Henry II of France in 1559 and she sold the medieval Hôtel des Tournelles, where her husband had died, and began building the palace of Tuileries in 1564, using architect Philibert de lOrme. The name derives from the tile kilns or tuileries which had occupied the site. The palace was formed by a range of long, narrow buildings. During the reign of Henry IV, the building was enlarged to the south, so it joined the long gallery, the Grande Galerie. During the reign of Louis XIV major changes were made to the Tuileries Palace, from 1659 to 1661 it was extended to the north by the addition of the Théâtre des Tuileries. From 1664 to 1666 the architect Louis Le Vau and his assistant François dOrbay made other significant changes, a new grand staircase was installed in the entrance of the north wing of the palace, and lavishly decorated royal apartments were constructed in the south wing. The kings rooms were on the floor, facing toward the Louvre. At the same time, Louis gardener, André Le Nôtre, the Court moved into the Tuileries Palace in November 1667, but left in 1672, and soon thereafter went to the Palace of Versailles. The Tuileries Palace was virtually abandoned and used only as a theatre, the boy-king Louis XV was moved from Versailles to the Tuileries Palace on 1 January 1716, four months after ascending to the throne. He moved back to Versailles on 15 June 1722, three months before his coronation, both moves were made at the behest of the Regent, the duc dOrléans. The king also resided at the Tuileries for short periods during the 1740s, on 6 October 1789, during the French Revolution, Louis XVI and his family were forced to leave Versailles and brought to the Tuileries where they were kept under surveillance. For the next two years the palace remained the residence of the king. The Tuileries covered riding ring, the Salle du Manège, home to the royal equestrian academy, the royal family tried to escape after dark, on 20 June 1791, but were captured at Varennes and brought back to the Tuileries. The Paris National Guard defended the King, but the daughter of King Louis XVI claimed that many of the guard were already in favor of the revolution, in November 1792, the Armoire de fer incident took place at the Tuileries palace. This was the discovery of a place at the royal apartments. The incident created a scandal that served to discredit the King
22.
Guillaume Delisle
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Guillaume Delisle, also spelled Guillaume de lIsle, was a French cartographer known for his popular and accurate maps of Europe and the newly explored Americas and Europe. Deslile was the son of Marie Malaine and Claude Delisle, who later remarried Charlotte Millet de la Croyère after his first wife died following childbirth and it is possible that the couple had as many as 12 children, but many of them died at a young age. Although Claude Delisle had studied law, he taught history. Guillaume and his two of half-brothers, Joseph Nicolas and Louis, ended up pursuing similar careers in science, while Claude certainly has to be given credit for Guillaume’s education, the latter showed early signs of being an exceptional talent. He would soon contribute to the workshop by drawing maps for his father’s historical works. In order to perfect his skills, Guillaume Delisle became the student of the astronomer Jean-Dominique Cassini, early on he produced high quality maps, the first being his Carte de la Nouvelle-France et des Pays Voisins in 1696. At 27, Delisle was admitted into the French Académie Royale des Sciences, after that date, he signed his maps with the title of “Géographe de l’Académie”. Five years later, he moved to the Quai de l’Horloge in Paris, Delisle’s ascension through the ranks culminated in 1718 when he received the title of Premier Géographe du Roi. His new office consisted in teaching geography to the Dauphin, King Louis XIV’s son, again, Claude Delisle’s reputation as a man of science probably helped Guillaume. In Delisle’s case, it could be said that his accomplishments surpassed his father’s, like many cartographers of his day, Delisle did not travel with the explorers and elaborated the maps mostly in his office. The quality of his maps depended on a network that would provide him first-hand information. Given the family’s reputation and his own, Delisle had access to fairly recent accounts of travellers who were coming back from the New World, being a member of the Académie, he was also aware of recent discoveries, especially in astronomy and measurement. When he could not confirm the accuracy of his source, he would indicate it clearly on his maps, Delisles search for exactitude and intellectual honesty entangled him in a legal dispute in 1700 with Jean-Baptiste Nolin, a fellow cartographer. Noticing Nolin had used details that were considered original from his Map of the World, in the end, Delisle managed to convince the jury of scientists that Nolin only knew the old methods of cartography and therefore that he had stolen the information from his manuscript. Nolins maps were confiscated and he was forced to pay the court costs, the scientificity of the work produced by the Delisle family contrasted with the workshop of Sanson. While Sanson knowingly published outdated facts and mistakes, Delisle strived to present up-to-date knowledge, after Guillaume Delisles death in 1726, his widow tried to preserve the workshop and protect the family. She appealed to the king with the help of the abbot Bignon, by that time, Guillaumes brothers Joseph-Nicolas and Louis had already left to serve Peter the Great in Russia. The youngest Delisle, Simon Claude, lacked practical knowledge in cartography, the Delisle workshop was then bequeathed to Philippe Buache
23.
Palais-Royal
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The Palais-Royal, originally called the Palais-Cardinal, is a palace located in the 1st arrondissement of Paris. The screened entrance court faces the Place du Palais-Royal, opposite the Louvre, the larger inner courtyard, the Cour dHonneur, has since 1986 contained Daniel Burens site-specific art piece Les Deux Plateaux, known as Les Colonnes de Buren. In 1830 the Cour dHonneur was enclosed to the north by what was probably the most famous of Pariss covered arcades, demolished in the 1930s, its flanking rows of columns still stand between the Cour dHonneur and the popular Palais-Royal Gardens. Originally called the Palais-Cardinal, the palace was the residence of Cardinal Richelieu. The architect Jacques Lemercier began his design in 1629, construction commenced in 1633 and was completed in 1639, upon Richelieus death in 1642 the palace became the property of the King and acquired the new name Palais-Royal. After Louis XIII died the year, it became the home of the Queen Mother Anne of Austria and her young sons Louis XIV and Philippe, duc dAnjou. From 1649, the palace was the residence of the exiled Henrietta Maria and Henrietta Anne Stuart, wife, the two had escaped England in the midst of the English Civil War and were sheltered by Henrietta Marias nephew, King Louis XIV. Henrietta Anne was later married to Louis younger brother, Philippe de France, the following year the new duchesse dOrléans gave birth to a daughter, Marie Louise dOrléans, inside the palace. After their marriage, the became the main residence of the House of Orléans. The Duchess created the gardens of the palace, which were said to be among the most beautiful in Paris. Under the new couple, the Palais-Royal would become the social center of the capital. The court gatherings at the Palais-Royal were famed all around the capital as well as all of France and it was at these parties that the crème de la crème of French society came to see and be seen. Guests included the members of the royal family like the Queen Mother, Anne of Austria, the duchesse de Montpensier, the Princes de Condé. Philippes favourites were also frequent visitors, the palace was redecorated and new apartments were created for the maids and staff of the Duchess. After Henrietta Anne died in 1670 the Duke took a wife, the Princess Palatine. Saint-Cloud thus became the residence of her eldest son and the heir to the House of Orléans. For the convenience of the bride, new apartments were built and it was at this time that Philippe commissioned the gallery for his famous Orleans Collection of paintings, which was easily accessible to the public. The architect was Jules Hardouin-Mansart, and the cost of reconstruction was totaled to be 400,000 livres
24.
Treaty of Utrecht
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The treaties between several European states, including Spain, Great Britain, France, Portugal, Savoy and the Dutch Republic, helped end the war. They marked the end of French ambitions of hegemony in Europe expressed in the wars of Louis XIV, the War of the Spanish Succession was occasioned by the failure of the Habsburg king, Charles II of Spain, to produce an heir. Dispute followed the death of Charles II in 1700, and fourteen years of war were the result, France and Great Britain had come to terms in October 1711, when the preliminaries of peace had been signed in London. The preliminaries were based on an acceptance of the partition of Spains European possessions. Following this, the Congress of Utrecht opened on 29 January 1712, with the British representatives being John Robinson, Bishop of Bristol, and Thomas Wentworth, Lord Strafford. Reluctantly the United Provinces accepted the preliminaries and sent representatives, and this assurance was given, and so in February the Imperial representatives made their appearance. As Philip was not yet recognized as its king, Spain did not at first send plenipotentiaries, but the Duke of Savoy sent one, and the Kingdom of Portugal was represented by Luís da Cunha. With Great Britain and France having agreed upon a truce, the pace of negotiation now quickened, and the main treaties were finally signed on 11 April 1713. The treaty recognised Louis XIVs grandson Philip, Duke of Anjou, as King of Spain, however, Philip was compelled to renounce for himself and his descendants any right to the French throne. In similar fashion various French princelings, including most notably the Duke of Berry, Utrecht marked the rise of Great Britain under Anne and later the House of Hanover, her exploits martial were due to Marlborough. Portugal had its sovereignty recognised over the lands between the Amazon and Oyapock rivers, in Brazil, in 1715, the Portuguese also recovered Colónia do Sacramento, previously taken by Spain in Uruguay. In North America, France ceded to Great Britain its claims to Newfoundland and they also ceded the Acadian colony of Nova Scotia. The formerly partitioned island of Saint Kitts was also ceded in its entirety to Britain, France was required to recognise British suzerainty over the Iroquois and commerce with the Far Indians was to be open to traders of all nations. France retained its other pre-war North American possessions, including Île-Saint-Jean, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, as well as Île Royale, a series of commercial treaties were also signed. The treatys territorial provisions did not go as far as the Whigs in Britain would have liked, considering that the French had made overtures for peace in 1706, the Whigs considered themselves the heirs of the staunch anti-French policies of William III and the Duke of Marlborough. However, in the Parliament of 1710 the Tories had gained control of the House of Commons, Queen Anne and her advisors had also come to agree. The French negotiator Melchior de Polignac taunted the Dutch with the scathing remark de vous, chez vous, sans vous, meaning that negotiations would be held about you, around you, without you. In any case, the Dutch achieved their condominium in the Austrian Netherlands with the Austro-Dutch Barrier Treaty of 1715
25.
Peter the Great
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Peter the Great, Peter I or Peter Alexeyevich ruled the Tsardom of Russia and later the Russian Empire from 7 May 1682 until his death, jointly ruling before 1696 with his elder half-brother, Ivan V. Through a number of successful wars he expanded the Tsardom into a larger empire that became a major European power. He led a revolution that replaced some of the traditionalist and medieval social and political systems with ones that were modern, scientific, westernized. Peters reforms made an impact on Russia and many institutions of Russian government trace their origins to his reign. From an early age, Peters education was put in the hands of tutors, most notably Nikita Zotov, Patrick Gordon. On 29 January 1676, Tsar Alexis died, leaving the sovereignty to Peters elder half-brother and this position changed when Feodor died in 1682. As Feodor did not leave any children, a dispute arose between the Miloslavsky family and Naryshkin family over who should inherit the throne, Peters other half-brother, Ivan V, was next in line for the throne, but he was chronically ill and of infirm mind. Consequently, the Boyar Duma chose the 10-year-old Peter to become Tsar with his mother as regent and this arrangement was brought before the people of Moscow, as ancient tradition demanded, and was ratified. Sophia Alekseyevna, one of Alexis daughters from his first marriage, in the subsequent conflict some of Peters relatives and friends were murdered, including Matveev, and Peter witnessed some of these acts of political violence. The Streltsy made it possible for Sophia, the Miloslavskys and their allies, to insist that Peter and Ivan be proclaimed joint Tsars, Sophia acted as regent during the minority of the sovereigns and exercised all power. For seven years, she ruled as an autocrat, a large hole was cut in the back of the dual-seated throne used by Ivan and Peter. Sophia would sit behind the throne and listen as Peter conversed with nobles, while feeding him information and giving him responses to questions and this throne can be seen in the Kremlin Armoury in Moscow. Peter was not particularly concerned that others ruled in his name and he engaged in such pastimes as shipbuilding and sailing, as well as mock battles with his toy army. Peters mother sought to force him to adopt a conventional approach. The marriage was a failure, and ten years later Peter forced his wife to become a nun, by the summer of 1689, Peter planned to take power from his half-sister Sophia, whose position had been weakened by two unsuccessful Crimean campaigns. When she learned of his designs, Sophia conspired with the leaders of the Streltsy, Sophia was eventually overthrown, with Peter I and Ivan V continuing to act as co-tsars. Peter forced Sophia to enter a convent, where she gave up her name, still, Peter could not acquire actual control over Russian affairs. Power was instead exercised by his mother, Natalya Naryshkina and it was only when Nataliya died in 1694 that Peter became an independent sovereign
26.
Grand Trianon
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The Grand Trianon is a château situated in the northwestern part of the Domain of Versailles. The Grand Trianon is set within its own park, which includes the Petit Trianon, in 1668, Louis XIV purchased Trianon, a hamlet on the outskirts of Versailles, and commissioned the architect Louis Le Vau to design a porcelain pavilion to be built there. The façade was made of white and blue Delft-style porcelain tiles from the French manufactures of Rouen, Lisieux, Nevers, construction began in 1670 and was finished in 1672. By 1687, the ceramic tiles had deteriorated to such a point that Louis XIV ordered the demolition of the pavilion. Commission of the work was entrusted to the architect Jules Hardouin Mansart, hardouin-Mansarts new structure was twice the size of the porcelain pavilion and the material used was red marble of Languedoc. Begun in June 1687, the new construction was finished in January 1688 and inaugurated by Louis XIV and his secret wife, the Grand Trianon would often play host to the King and his wife. The first set of Grands apartments lasted from 1688 to 1691, the next was from 1691 till 1701, then 1701 till his death at Versailles in 1715. From 1703 to 1711, the building was the residence of le Grand Dauphin, the domain was a favourite of the Duchess of Burgundy, the wife of his grandson Louis de France, the parents of Louis XV. In the later years of Louis XIVs reign, the Trianon was the residence of the Kings sister-in-law Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate, Dowager Duchess of Orléans and her son, Philippe dOrléans, future son-in-law of Louis XIV and Regent of France, lived there with his mother. The Kings youngest grandson Charles de France and his wife Marie Louise Élisabeth dOrléans also resided there. In 1717, Peter the Great of Russia, who was studying the palace and gardens of Versailles, resided at the Grand Trianon, Louis XV did not bring any changes to the Grand Trianon. In 1740 and 1743, his father-in-law, Stanislas Leszczynski, former king of Poland stayed there during his visits to Versailles. Later, it was during a stay at Trianon that Louis XV fell ill before being transported to the Palace of Versailles, no more than his predecessor had, Louis XVI brought no structural modifications to the Grand Trianon. During the French Revolution of 1789, the Grand Trianon was left to neglect, at the time of the First French Empire, Napoleon made it one of his residences, and furnished it in the Empire Style. Napoleon lived at Trianon with his second wife Marie Louise of Austria, to the Hungarians, the word Trianon remains to this day the symbol of one of their worst national disasters. 1963 saw Charles de Gaulle order a renovation of the building, a popular site for tourists visiting Versailles, it is also one of the French Republic presidential residences used to host foreign officials
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Regent Diamond
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The Regent Diamond is a 141 carats diamond owned by the French state and on display in the Louvre, worth as of 2015 £48,000,000. In 1698, a found the 410 carats uncut diamond in the Kollur Mine. An English sea captain stole the diamond from the slave, killed him, in a letter to his London agent dated 6 November 1701, Thomas Pitt, the Governor of Fort St. George, writes. This accompanyes the modell of a Stone I have lately seene and he dispatched the stone to London hidden in the heel of his son Roberts shoe aboard the East Indiaman Loyal Cooke, which left Madras on 9 October 1702. It was later cut in London by the diamond cutter Harris, Pitt bought the diamond for £20,400, and had it cut into a 141 carats cushion brilliant. The stone was set into the crown of Louis XV for his coronation in 1722 and it was also used to adorn a hat belonging to Marie Antoinette. In 1791, its value was £480,000. In 1792, during the furore in Paris, Le Régent, or the regent diamond, was stolen along with other crown jewels of France. It was found in some roof timbers in an attic in Paris, in 1801 the gem was being permanently redeemed by Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon used it for the pommel of his sword, designed by the goldsmiths Odiot, Boutet, in 1812 it appeared on the Emperors two-edged sword, which was a work of Nitot. Napoleons second wife, Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria, carried the Régent back to Austria upon his exile, later her father returned it to the French Crown Jewels. The diamond was mounted successively on the crowns of Louis XVIII, Charles X, today, mounted in a Greek diadem designed for Empress Eugenie, it remains in the French Royal Treasury at the Louvre. It has been on display there since 1887, experts have estimated the Regent Diamond value to be near £48,000,000. At the current 2016 exchange rate of $1.28 USD / £1, due to numerous scandals, and the misfortune of those who have been in possession of the stone, the Regent Diamond is said to be cursed. William Pitt, Earl of Chatham, The Great Commoner, allen & Unwin,1975 Hedges, William. The diary of William Hedges, esq. during his agency in Bengal, as well as on his voyage out, photo Regent diamond history in Great Diamonds of the Earth by Edwin Streeter
28.
French Crown Jewels
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The French Crown Jewels comprise the crowns, orb, sceptres, diadems and jewels that were symbols of Royal power between 752 and 1825. These were worn by many Kings and Queens of France, the set was finally broken up, with most of it sold off in 1885 by the Third French Republic. In addition, some gemstones and jewels are on display in the Treasury vault of the Mineralogy gallery in the Muséum national dhistoire naturelle, the Crown jewels comprise the instruments of the coronation called Regalia and the jewels of the ruling family. From 888 to 922, then 1027, all monarchs were crowned until the French revolution, after the revolution, only Emperor Napoleon I, Empress Josephine and King Charles X were crowned. Though not always used, a set of crown jewels did exist and was augmented by various monarchs. The Crown Jewels or Diamants de la Couronne de France consisting of gemstones, the Côte-de-Bretagne red spinel was then among the 8 main jewels. In 1814, Napoleon I had restored the Crown jewels to 65072 stones and pearls, the Regalia, much lightly hit in 1590, were originally kept in the treasure of the Basilica of Saint Denis from where they were removed in 1793 during the French Revolution. The litugical instruments kept in Reims suffered the same policy, the Regalia were restored or recreated for the coronation of Napoleon I, which at their turn suffered again partial destruction in 1819, and finally completed for the coronation of Charles X in 1825. Of about 20 documented royal crowns of the Ancien Régime, the surviving one from the destructions of 1590 and 1793 is the crown of Louis XV. At the junction of four arches is a small pedestal surrounded by two rows of small diamonds on either side of a row of small pearls. Eight larger diamonds set between this pedestal and the give the effect of a sunburst when the crown is viewed from above. On the pedestal rises a double fleur-de-lis formed of nine large diamonds, the gold brocade cap which lines the crown is also ornamented with large diamonds. The Crown of Napoleon was made by the jeweller Martin-Guillaume Biennais with antique cameos for the coronation of the Emperor in 1804 and his gilded crown of laurels was destroyed in 1819 by Louis XVIII with the one of Empress Josephine, the orb and the eagle sceptre. His coronation throne is at the Louvre and the ring of Empress Josephine at the Château de Malmaison. The Crown of Empress Eugenie was created in 1855 by Gabriel Lemonnier for the Worlds fair, but Napoleon III finally chose not to be crowned. The sword used during the coronation of the kings of France is displayed at the Louvre museum with its 13th-century scabbard, in the first part of the celebration, the king received the insignia of knighthood, consisting of spurs and the sword. Throughout the rest of the ceremony, the sword was entrusted to the Connétable, the treasury of Saint-Denis possessed several medieval swords including the one of Saint Louis. According to legend the coronation sword is Joyeuse, Charlemagnes sword and its unusual build and ornamentation makes it difficult to date, but the parts probably date back from the 10th to 13th centuries
29.
Leopold, Duke of Lorraine
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Leopold, surnamed the Good, was Duke of Lorraine and Bar from 1690 to his death. Leopold Joseph Charles Dominique Agapet Hyacinthe was the son of Charles V, Duke of Lorraine, and his wife Eleonora Maria Josefa of Austria, a half-sister of Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor. At the time of Leopolds birth, Lorraine and Bar had been occupied by Louis XIV of France, forcing his parents to move into exile to Austria, therefore, Leopold was born in the palace of Innsbruck and received his first name in honour of the Emperor. Leopold grew up in Innsbruck, while his father would be engaged in defending Vienna against the Turks, in 1690, his father died and eleven-year-old Leopold inherited the still occupied Duchies. His mother, trying to fulfil her husbands last wishes of returning her children to their patrimony, Leopold was sent to Vienna to receive a military education under the supervision of the Emperor. In Vienna, he grew up with his cousins, the Archdukes Joseph and Charles, Leopold was also created a Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece that year. Like his father before him, he entered the Imperial Army and, aged eighteen, three years later, he received the command of the Army of the Rhine. On 30 October 1697, the Nine Years War ended with the signing of the Treaty of Ryswick, the treaty restored the Duchies of Lorraine and Bar to the House of Lorraine, as Leopolds mother had hoped, she died four days later in Vienna. On 17 August 1698, Duke Lepold made a triumphant entry into his capital Nancy and he reconstructed and repopulated his war-stricken duchy, encouraging immigration. At the end of his reign the duchy was safe and prosperous, in his foreign policy, Leopold tried to further good relations with France and to appease his powerful neighbor. On 13 October 1698 at the Palace of Fontainebleau, Leopold married Élisabeth Charlotte dOrléans, the niece of Louis XIV, Elisabeth Charlotte turned out to be a caring mother and gave birth to thirteen children, of whom five survived into adulthood. Three of them died within a week in May 1711 due to an outbreak at the Château de Lunéville. Despite Leopolds diplomatic attempts, his capital, Nancy, was occupied by troops during the War of the Spanish Succession. Fearing for his family, Leopold relocated the court to the Château de Lunéville and it was here that his first child Leopold was born in 1700. In 1703, the Duke introduced the Code Léopold regulating the government of the Duchy and he tried to install his eldest daughter, Elisabeth Charlotte, as Abbess of Remiremont but failed due to the opposition of Pope Clement XI. Leopolds marital life was troubled in 1706, when he took Anne-Marguerite de Lignéville, Princess of Beauvau-Craon as his mistress, Elisabeth Charlotte however, following her mothers advice, remained silent. In 1708, Leopold had claimed the Duchy of Montferrat as the closest relative of his cousin, Charles III Gonzaga, erstwhile Duke of Mantua, who had been deposed and then died without male issue. However, the Emperor had already promised Montferrat to the Dukes of Savoy but wishing to compensate the House of Lorraine, during the visit, Leopold, as a foreign prince, received the style of Royal Highness
30.
Mariana Victoria of Spain
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Mariana Victoria of Spain was an Infanta of Spain by birth and was later the Queen of Portugal as wife of King Joseph I. The eldest daughter of Philip V of Spain and Elisabeth Farnese, rejected due to her age, the marriage never took place and she was sent back to Spain. In 1729 she was married to the son of John V of Portugal, as the mother of Maria I of Portugal, she also acted as regent of Portugal during the last months of her husbands life and acted as advisor to her daughter in her reign. Mariana Victoria was born at the Royal Alcazar of Madrid in Madrid and was given the same forenames as her paternal grandmother Maria Anna Victoria of Bavaria and she was an Infanta of Spain by birth and the eldest daughter of Philip V of Spain and his second wife Elisabeth Farnese. Her father was a grandson of Louis XIV and had inherited the Spanish throne in 1700, as an Infanta of Spain she had the style of Royal Highness. After the War of the Quadruple Alliance, France and Spain decided to reconcile by engaging the Infanta Mariana Victoria to her first cousin the young Louis XV of France, saint-Simon, the French ambassador, requested her hand on 25 November 1721. The exchange of the young Infanta and Mademoiselle de Montpensier was on the Île des Faisans and was the site was where their ancestors, Louis XIV. Mariana Victoria arrived in Paris on 2 March 1721 amongst much celebration, the young Infanta was nicknamed the linfante Reine as the couple were not to be married till Mariana Victoria reached a more mature age. Mariana Victoria was in awe of Louis XV and was popular with the court apart from the king himself who avoided her presence. According to the mother of the Régent, Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate and her education was placed in the care of Marie Anne de Bourbon, an illegitimate daughter of Louis XIV and Louise de La Vallière. In February 1723, Louis XV reached his majority and thus governed the country by his own accord and her establishment in France was not to be. Bourbon had wanted to maintain influence over the young Louis XV and offered his sister Henriette Louise de Bourbon as a wife who. The situation was not helped by the Spanish rejection of Louise Élisabeth dOrléans whose husband died having ruled as Louis I of Spain for only seven months. As their marriage had not been consummated, the Spanish refused to support her, Mariana Victoria left Versailles on 5 April 1725 and travelled to the frontier where she and the two Orléans daughters were then exchanged. Louis XV subsequently married Marie Leszczyńska in September 1725 and Mariana Victorias sister the Infanta Maria Teresa Rafaela married Louis XVs son in 1745 to reassure the insulted Spanish court and her arrival in Spain was taken as a great insult and caused a diplomatic rift between Spain and France. The offended Spanish soon after concluded a treaty with Austria in the form of the 1725 Treaty of Vienna, having remained unmarried, she was still eligible to inherit the throne but was displaced by her younger brother Infante Philip who was born in 1720. Discussions with the Kingdom of Portugal began in 1727 and a marriage was negotiated by the Portuguese ambassador the Marquis of Abrantes and she was a rumored bride for Emperor Peter II of Russia, grandson of Peter the Great. Mariana Victoria would marry the Infante José, Prince of Brazil, son and her older half brother Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias would marry Josés sister the Infanta Bárbara
31.
Mary of Modena
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Mary of Modena was Queen of England, Scotland, and Ireland as the second wife of James II and VII. A devout Roman Catholic, Mary married the widowed James, who was then the younger brother and heir presumptive of Charles II. She was uninterested in politics and devoted to James and their children, two of whom survived to adulthood, the Jacobite claimant to the thrones, James Francis Edward, and Louisa Maria Teresa. Born a princess of the northwestern Italian Duchy of Modena, Mary is primarily remembered for the birth of James Francis Edward. It was widely rumoured that he was a changeling, brought into the chamber in a warming pan. She and her husband, William III of Orange, would reign jointly as William, exiled to France, the Queen over the water – as the Jacobites called Mary – lived with her husband and children in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, provided by Louis XIV of France. Mary was popular among Louis XIVs courtiers, James, however, was considered a bore, in widowhood, Mary spent much time with the nuns at the Convent of Chaillot, where she and her daughter Louisa Maria Teresa spent their summers. In 1701, when James II died, young James Francis Edward became king at age 13 in the eyes of the Jacobites, as he was too young to assume the nominal reins of government, Mary represented him until he reached the age of 16. Fondly remembered by her French contemporaries, Mary died of breast cancer in 1718. Mary Beatrice dEste, the second but eldest surviving child of Alfonso IV, Duke of Modena and her only younger brother, Francesco, succeeded their father as Duke upon the latters death in 1662, the year Mary turned four. Mary and Francescos mother, Laura, was strict with them, Marys education was excellent, she spoke French and Italian fluently, had a good knowledge of Latin and, later, mastered English. Mary was described by contemporaries as tall and admirably shaped, and was sought as a bride for James, Lord Peterborough was groom of the stole to the Duke of York. A widower, James was the brother and heir of Charles II of England. Duchess Laura was not initially forthcoming with a reply to Peterboroughs proposal, whatever the reason for Lauras initial reluctance, she finally accepted the proposal on behalf of Mary, and they were married by proxy on 30 September 1673 NS. Her reception in England was much cooler, Parliament, which was entirely composed of Protestants, reacted poorly to the news of a Catholic marriage, fearing it was a Papist plot against the country. The English public, who were predominantly Protestant, branded the Duchess of York — as Mary was thereafter known as until her husbands accession — the Popes daughter. The Duke of York, an avowed Catholic, was twenty-five years older than his bride, scarred by smallpox and he had secretly converted to Catholicism around 1668. Mary first saw her husband on 23 November 1673 OS, on the day of their marriage ceremony
32.
James II of England
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James II and VII was King of England and Ireland as James II and King of Scotland as James VII, from 6 February 1685 until he was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. He was the last Roman Catholic monarch of England, Scotland and Ireland, the second surviving son of Charles I, he ascended the throne upon the death of his brother, Charles II. Members of Britains Protestant political elite increasingly suspected him of being pro-French and pro-Catholic and he was replaced by his eldest, Protestant daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange. James made one attempt to recover his crowns from William. After the defeat of the Jacobite forces by the Williamites at the Battle of the Boyne in July 1690 and he lived out the rest of his life as a pretender at a court sponsored by his cousin and ally, King Louis XIV. James, the surviving son of King Charles I and his wife. Later that same year, he was baptised by William Laud and he was educated by private tutors, along with his brother, the future King Charles II, and the two sons of the Duke of Buckingham, George and Francis Villiers. At the age of three, James was appointed Lord High Admiral, the position was honorary, but would become a substantive office after the Restoration. He was designated Duke of York at birth, invested with the Order of the Garter in 1642, as the Kings disputes with the English Parliament grew into the English Civil War, James stayed in Oxford, a Royalist stronghold. When the city surrendered after the siege of Oxford in 1646, in 1648, he escaped from the Palace, aided by Joseph Bampfield, and from there he went to The Hague in disguise. When Charles I was executed by the rebels in 1649, monarchists proclaimed Jamess older brother as Charles II of England, Charles II was recognised as king by the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of Ireland, and was crowned King of Scotland at Scone in 1651. Although he was proclaimed King in Jersey, Charles was unable to secure the crown of England and consequently fled to France, like his brother, James sought refuge in France, serving in the French army under Turenne against the Fronde, and later against their Spanish allies. In the French army James had his first true experience of battle where, according to one observer, he ventures himself, in the meantime, Charles was attempting to reclaim his throne, but France, although hosting the exiles, had allied itself with Oliver Cromwell. In 1656, Charles turned instead to Spain – an enemy of France – for support, in consequence, James was expelled from France and forced to leave Turennes army. James quarrelled with his brother over the choice of Spain over France. In 1659, the French and Spanish made peace, James, doubtful of his brothers chances of regaining the throne, considered taking a Spanish offer to be an admiral in their navy. Ultimately, he declined the position, by the year the situation in England had changed. After Richard Cromwells resignation as Lord Protector in 1659 and the subsequent collapse of the Commonwealth in 1660, although James was the heir presumptive, it seemed unlikely that he would inherit the Crown, as Charles was still a young man capable of fathering children
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War of the Quadruple Alliance
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It saw the defeat of Spain by an alliance of Britain, France, Austria, and the Dutch Republic. Savoy later joined the coalition as the fifth ally, although fighting began as early as 1717, war was not formally declared until December 1718. It was brought to an end by the Treaty of The Hague in 1720, Charles II of Spain died in 1700 leaving no heirs to succeed him. By his will, he named Philip, Duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV of France, by the Treaty of Utrecht, Spain lost all its possessions in Italy and the Low Countries. The Spanish Netherlands, Duchy of Milan, Naples and Sardinia were given to Emperor Charles VI of Austria, while Sicily was awarded to the Duke of Savoy and Prussia received the Spanish Guelders. These lands had been under Spanish Habsburg control for two centuries, and their loss was perceived as a great blow to the country in both practical and prestige terms. However, the first priority for Spain was the restoration of the country after 13 years of war, the main architect of this operation was Giulio Alberoni. Alberoni was an Italian cardinal and steward of the archbishop of Piacenza, in 1714, Alberoni had arranged the marriage of the widowed Philip V to the 21-year-old Italian Elisabeth Farnese. In the process, Alberoni became the adviser of the new queen. In 1715, Alberoni became prime minister and reformed the countrys finances and he also initiated the rebuilding of the Spanish fleet and reformed the army. In 1717, Alberoni became a cardinal in the Roman Catholic Church, the Queen, who had several dynastic claims to advance in Italy, stimulated the Italian ambitions of her husband and their sons, supported by Alberoni. Philip V nevertheless claimed the French throne in the event of the death of the infant Louis, opposition to Philips ambitions led France, Great Britain, and the Dutch Republic, to join together in the Triple Alliance on 4 January 1717. Great Britain, in particular, had become concerned by Spanish ambitions in the Mediterranean Sea and Russian expansion in the Baltic. The French navy was badly weakened from the recent war, later in the year, to strengthen the Treaty of Utrecht, Britain, France, and Austria contemplated ceding Sicily to Emperor Charles VI. This arrangement displeased Spain, which wanted to regain Sicily, in August 1717 Philip attacked Austria, which was heavily engaged in the Austro-Turkish War of 1716–18. Spain invaded Sardinia, which was subdued by November 1717, finally, on 21 July 1718, the Treaty of Passarowitz ended the war with the Ottoman Empire. On 2 August, the Emperor joined the Triple Alliance, which became the Quadruple Alliance for which the war is named. Meanwhile, in July 1718 the Spanish, this time with 30,000 men again led by the Marquis of Lede, had also invaded Sicily and they took Palermo on 7 July and then divided their army in two
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Dutch Republic
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It preceded the Batavian Republic, the Kingdom of Holland, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, and ultimately the modern Kingdom of the Netherlands. Alternative names include the United Provinces, Seven Provinces, Federated Dutch Provinces, most of the Low Countries had come under the rule of the House of Burgundy and subsequently the House of Habsburg. In 1549 Holy Roman Emperor Charles V issued the Pragmatic Sanction, Charles was succeeded by his son, King Philip II of Spain. This was the start of the Eighty Years War, in 1579 a number of the northern provinces of the Low Countries signed the Union of Utrecht, in which they promised to support each other in their defence against the Spanish army. This was followed in 1581 by the Act of Abjuration, the declaration of independence of the provinces from Philip II. In 1582 the United Provinces invited Francis, Duke of Anjou to lead them, but after an attempt to take Antwerp in 1583. After the assassination of William of Orange, both Henry III of France and Elizabeth I of England declined the offer of sovereignty, however, the latter agreed to turn the United Provinces into a protectorate of England, and sent the Earl of Leicester as governor-general. This was unsuccessful and in 1588 the provinces became a confederacy, the Union of Utrecht is regarded as the foundation of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces, which was not recognized by the Spanish Empire until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. During the Anglo-French war, the territory was divided into groups, the Patriots, who were pro-French and pro-American and the Orangists. The Republic of the United Provinces faced a series of revolutions in 1783–1787. During this period, republican forces occupied several major Dutch cities, initially on the defence, the Orangist forces received aid from Prussian troops and retook the Netherlands in 1787. After the French Republic became the French Empire under Napoleon, the Batavian Republic was replaced by the Napoleonic Kingdom of Holland, the Netherlands regained independence from France in 1813. In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 the names United Provinces of the Netherlands, on 16 March 1815, the son of stadtholder William V crowned himself King William I of the Netherlands. Between 1815 and 1890 the King of the Netherlands was also in a union the Grand Duke of the sovereign Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. After Belgium gained its independence in 1830, the state became known as the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The County of Holland was the wealthiest and most urbanized region in the world, the free trade spirit of the time received a strong augmentation through the development of a modern, effective stock market in the Low Countries. The Netherlands has the oldest stock exchange in the world, founded in 1602 by the Dutch East India Company, while Rotterdam has the oldest bourse in the Netherlands, the worlds first stock exchange, that of the Dutch East-India Company, went public in six different cities. Later, a court ruled that the company had to reside legally in a city so Amsterdam is recognized as the oldest such institution based on modern trading principles
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