1.
Chagrin Falls, Ohio
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The village was established and has grown around a natural waterfall on the Chagrin River. As of the 2010 census, the population was 4,113. The village was incorporated in 1844 from parts of three townships in two counties, neighboring Chagrin Falls Township was established in 1845. Chagrin Falls was laid out in 1837, the community takes its name from a waterfall on the Chagrin River in the middle of town. According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has an area of 2.14 square miles. As of the census of 2010,4,113 people,1,872 households, the population density was 1,977.4 inhabitants per square mile. The 2,042 housing units averaged 981.7 per square mile. The racial makeup of the village was 98. 0% White,0. 4% African American 0. 8% Asian,0. 1% Pacific Islander,0. 1% from other races, hispanics or Latinos of any race were 0. 9% of the population. About 39. 9% of all households were made up of individuals, the average household size was 2.16 and the average family size was 2.94. The gender makeup of the village was 46. 2% male and 53. 8% female, as of the census of 2000,4,024 people,1,862 households, and 1,100 families resided in the village. The population density was 1,943.2 people per square mile, the 2,041 housing units averaged 985.6 per square mile. In the village, the population was distributed as 22. 2% under age 18,3. 5% from 18 to 24,27. 8% from 25 to 44,26. 9% from 45 to 64, the median age was 43 years. For every 100 females, there were 84.8 males, for every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 77.6 males. The median income for a household in the village was $62,917, males had a median income of $69,609 versus $36,319 for females. The per capita income for the village was $42,885, about 2. 4% of families and 3. 6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6. 3% of those under age 18 and none of those age 65 or over. Chagrin Falls is in the Chagrin Falls Exempted Village School District, which serves the villages of Chagrin Falls, South Russell, and Bentleyville, Chagrin Falls High School was rated 97th in Newsweeks Complete List of the 1,200 Top U. S. This study was based largely on the ratio of Advanced Placement or International Baccalaureate tests taken to the number of graduating high school seniors, also in 2006, the Chagrin Falls district was given an Excellent rating for the sixth year in a row by Newsweek. On December 4,2008, Chagrin Falls High School was once ranked in the top 100 public high schools in the country
2.
Los Angeles
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Los Angeles, officially the City of Los Angeles and often known by its initials L. A. is the cultural, financial, and commercial center of Southern California. With a census-estimated 2015 population of 3,971,883, it is the second-most populous city in the United States, Los Angeles is also the seat of Los Angeles County, the most populated county in the United States. The citys inhabitants are referred to as Angelenos, historically home to the Chumash and Tongva, Los Angeles was claimed by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo for Spain in 1542 along with the rest of what would become Alta California. The city was founded on September 4,1781, by Spanish governor Felipe de Neve. It became a part of Mexico in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence, in 1848, at the end of the Mexican–American War, Los Angeles and the rest of California were purchased as part of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, thereby becoming part of the United States. Los Angeles was incorporated as a municipality on April 4,1850, the discovery of oil in the 1890s brought rapid growth to the city. The completion of the Los Angeles Aqueduct in 1913, delivering water from Eastern California, nicknamed the City of Angels, Los Angeles is known for its Mediterranean climate, ethnic diversity, and sprawling metropolis. Los Angeles also has an economy in culture, media, fashion, science, sports, technology, education, medicine. A global city, it has been ranked 6th in the Global Cities Index, the city is home to renowned institutions covering a broad range of professional and cultural fields, and is one of the most substantial economic engines within the United States. The Los Angeles combined statistical area has a gross metropolitan product of $831 billion, making it the third-largest in the world, after the Greater Tokyo and New York metropolitan areas. The city has hosted the Summer Olympic Games in 1932 and 1984 and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics and thus become the second city after London to have hosted the Games three times. The Los Angeles area also hosted the 1994 FIFA mens World Cup final match as well as the 1999 FIFA womens World Cup final match, the mens event was watched on television by over 700 million people worldwide. The Los Angeles coastal area was first settled by the Tongva, a Gabrielino settlement in the area was called iyáangẚ, meaning poison oak place. Gaspar de Portolà and Franciscan missionary Juan Crespí, reached the present site of Los Angeles on August 2,1769, in 1771, Franciscan friar Junípero Serra directed the building of the Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, the first mission in the area. The Queen of the Angels is an honorific of the Virgin Mary, two-thirds of the settlers were mestizo or mulatto with a mixture of African, indigenous and European ancestry. The settlement remained a small town for decades, but by 1820. Today, the pueblo is commemorated in the district of Los Angeles Pueblo Plaza and Olvera Street. New Spain achieved its independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821, during Mexican rule, Governor Pío Pico made Los Angeles Alta Californias regional capital
3.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
4.
Ruskin School of Drawing and Fine Art
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The Ruskin School of Art, known as the Ruskin, is an art school at the University of Oxford in Oxford, England. The Head of School is Dr Hanneke Grootenboer, the School can trace its origins to 1871 when John Ruskin founded a drawing school in the University Galleries to encourage artisanship and technical skills. The Ruskin remained at the Ashmolean until 1975 when it moved to 74 High Street and it also occupies a further building at 128 Bullingdon Road. The School was originally called the Ruskin School of Drawing, Fine Art was added as a discrete focus in 1945. In 2014 the school was renamed the Ruskin School of Art, the Slade School of Fine Art relocated to the Ruskin for the duration of the Second World War. For full list, see Category, Alumni of the Ruskin School of Drawing and Fine Art Ruskin School of Art University of Oxford Admissions
5.
Oxford
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Oxford is a city in the South East region of England and the county town of Oxfordshire. With an estimated 2015 population of 168,270, it is the 52nd largest city in the United Kingdom, the city is situated 57 miles from London,69 miles from Bristol,65 miles from both Southampton and Birmingham and 25 miles from Reading. The city is known worldwide as the home of the University of Oxford, buildings in Oxford demonstrate notable examples of every English architectural period since the late Saxon period. Oxford is known as the city of dreaming spires, a term coined by poet Matthew Arnold, Oxford has a broad economic base. Its industries include motor manufacturing, education, publishing and a number of information technology and science-based businesses. Oxford was first settled in Saxon times and was known as Oxenaforda, meaning Ford of the Oxen. It began with the establishment of a crossing for oxen around AD900. In the 10th century, Oxford became an important military frontier town between the kingdoms of Mercia and Wessex and was on several occasions raided by Danes, Oxford was heavily damaged during the Norman Invasion of 1066. Following the conquest, the town was assigned to a governor, Robert DOyly, the castle has never been used for military purposes and its remains survive to this day. DOyly set up a community in the castle consisting of a chapel. The community never grew large but it earned its place in history as one of Britains oldest places of formal education and it was there that in 1139 Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote his History of the Kings of Britain, a compilation of Arthurian legends. Mary at Oseney and to the canons serving God in that place and we have made this concession and confirmation in the Common council of the City and we have confirmed it with our common seal. These are those who have made this concession and confirmation, a grandson of King John established Rewley Abbey for the Cistercian Order, and friars of various orders all had houses of varying importance at Oxford. Parliaments were often held in the city during the 13th century, the Provisions of Oxford were instigated by a group of barons led by Simon de Montfort, these documents are often regarded as Englands first written constitution. Richard I of England and John, King of England the sons of Henry II of England, were born at Beaumont Palace in Oxford, on 8 September 1157 and 24 December 1166 respectively. A plaque in Beaumont Street commemorates these events, the University of Oxford is first mentioned in 12th century records. Of the hundreds of Aularian houses that sprang up across the city, what put an end to the halls was the emergence of colleges. Oxfords earliest colleges were University College, Balliol and Merton and these colleges were established at a time when Europeans were starting to translate the writings of Greek philosophers
6.
Royal College of Art
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The Royal College of Art or RCA is a public research university in London, in the United Kingdom. This was the third year that QS had awarded it the number 1 position for Art & Design. The RCA was founded in Somerset House in 1837 as the Government School of Design or Metropolitan School of Design, richard Burchett became head of the school in 1852. In 1853 it was expanded and moved to Marlborough House, and then, in 1853 or 1857 and it was renamed the Normal Training School of Art in 1857 and the National Art Training School in 1863. During the later 19th century it was primarily a training college, pupils during this period included George Clausen, Christopher Dresser, Luke Fildes, Kate Greenaway. In 1896 or 1897 the school received the name Royal College of Art, teaching of graphic design, industrial design and product design began in the mid-twentieth century. The school expanded further in the 1960s, and in 1967 it received a Royal Charter which gave it the status of an independent university with the power to grant its own degrees, the RCA has two campuses, in South Kensington and in Battersea. The Darwin Building in Kensington Gore dates from the 1960s and is a Grade II listed building and it was designed by a team of RCA staff members, H. T. Cadbury-Brown, Hugh Casson and Robert Goodden. In 1991 the sculpture department moved to a converted factory across the river Thames in Battersea, in the early 2000s the college conceived a substantial second campus being created on the site, with a minibus service linking it to Kensington. Thus, after a redevelopment of the premises by Wright & Wright. A masterplan was commissioned by Haworth Tompkins and phase 1 of their three phase design was completed with the opening of the Sackler Building on 19 November 2009 and its name commemorates a major gift by The Dr Mortimer and Theresa Sackler Foundation. The Dyson Building, named in honour of James Dyson, whose educational charity donated £5m to the development, was opened on 24 September 2012 and it is the home for printmaking and photography, and contains an innovation wing where start-up designers can launch their businesses. The Woo Building was opened on 30 September 2015, completing the Battersea project and it is named in honour of Sir Po-Shing and Lady Helen Woo, who have funded scholarships at the RCA since the 1990s. It accommodates the Ceramics & Glass and Jewellery & Metal programmes, the buildings anodised aluminium gates were designed by alumnus Max Lamb. The RCA offers MA, MPhil and PhD degrees in twenty-four subject areas, divided into six schools, architecture, communication, design, fine art, humanities, and materials. In April 2011 the RCA was ranked first on a list of UK graduate art schools compiled by Modern Painters magazine from a survey of professionals in the art world. In August 2015 it was ranked first on a list of courses in fashion by Business of Fashion. In 2015 the RCA placed first in the art and design subject area in the QS World University Rankings published by Quacquarelli Symonds, in 2016 and 2017 it held onto the position, increasing its overall score from 96. 0/100 to 98. 4/100
7.
Painting
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Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface. The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, Painting is a mode of creative expression, and the forms are numerous. Drawing, gesture, composition, narration, or abstraction, among other aesthetic modes, may serve to manifest the expressive, Paintings can be naturalistic and representational, photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic, emotive, or political in nature. A portion of the history of painting in both Eastern and Western art is dominated by motifs and ideas. In art, the term painting describes both the act and the result of the action, the term painting is also used outside of art as a common trade among craftsmen and builders. What enables painting is the perception and representation of intensity, every point in space has different intensity, which can be represented in painting by black and white and all the gray shades between. In practice, painters can articulate shapes by juxtaposing surfaces of different intensity, thus, the basic means of painting are distinct from ideological means, such as geometrical figures, various points of view and organization, and symbols. In technical drawing, thickness of line is ideal, demarcating ideal outlines of an object within a perceptual frame different from the one used by painters. Color and tone are the essence of painting as pitch and rhythm are the essence of music, color is highly subjective, but has observable psychological effects, although these can differ from one culture to the next. Black is associated with mourning in the West, but in the East, some painters, theoreticians, writers and scientists, including Goethe, Kandinsky, and Newton, have written their own color theory. Moreover, the use of language is only an abstraction for a color equivalent, the word red, for example, can cover a wide range of variations from the pure red of the visible spectrum of light. There is not a register of different colors in the way that there is agreement on different notes in music. For a painter, color is not simply divided into basic, painters deal practically with pigments, so blue for a painter can be any of the blues, phthalocyanine blue, Prussian blue, indigo, cobalt, ultramarine, and so on. Psychological and symbolical meanings of color are not, strictly speaking, colors only add to the potential, derived context of meanings, and because of this, the perception of a painting is highly subjective. The analogy with music is quite clear—sound in music is analogous to light in painting, shades to dynamics and these elements do not necessarily form a melody of themselves, rather, they can add different contexts to it. Modern artists have extended the practice of painting considerably to include, as one example, collage, some modern painters incorporate different materials such as sand, cement, straw or wood for their texture. Examples of this are the works of Jean Dubuffet and Anselm Kiefer, there is a growing community of artists who use computers to paint color onto a digital canvas using programs such as Adobe Photoshop, Corel Painter, and many others. These images can be printed onto traditional canvas if required, rhythm is important in painting as it is in music
8.
Printmaking
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Printmaking is the process of making artworks by printing, normally on paper. Printmaking normally covers only the process of creating prints that have an element of originality, except in the case of monotyping, the process is capable of producing multiples of the same piece, which is called a print. Each print produced is not considered a copy but rather is considered an original, a print may be known as an impression. Printmaking is not chosen only for its ability to multiple impressions. Prints are created by transferring ink from a matrix or through a screen to a sheet of paper or other material. Screens made of silk or synthetic fabrics are used for the screenprinting process, other types of matrix substrates and related processes are discussed below. Multiple impressions printed from the matrix form an edition. Prints may also be printed in book form, such as illustrated books or artists books, Printmaking techniques are generally divided into the following basic categories, Relief, where ink is applied to the original surface of the matrix. Relief techniques include woodcut or woodblock as the Asian forms are known, wood engraving. Intaglio, where ink is applied beneath the surface of the matrix. Intaglio techniques include engraving, etching, mezzotint, aquatint, planographic, where the matrix retains its original surface, but is specially prepared and/or inked to allow for the transfer of the image. Planographic techniques include lithography, monotyping, and digital techniques, stencil, where ink or paint is pressed through a prepared screen, including screenprinting and pochoir. Other types of printmaking techniques outside these groups include collagraphy and viscosity printing, collagraphy is a printmaking technique in which textured material is adhered to the printing matrix. This texture is transferred to the paper during the printing process, Contemporary printmaking may include digital printing, photographic mediums, or a combination of digital, photographic, and traditional processes. Many of these techniques can also be combined, especially within the same family, for example, Rembrandts prints are usually referred to as etchings for convenience, but very often include work in engraving and drypoint as well, and sometimes have no etching at all. Woodcut, a type of print, is the earliest printmaking technique. It was probably first developed as a means of printing patterns on cloth, woodcuts of images on paper developed around 1400 in Japan, and slightly later in Europe. These are the two areas where woodcut has been most extensively used purely as a process for making images without text, the artist draws a design on a plank of wood, or on paper which is transferred to the wood
9.
Royal Academy of Arts
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The Royal Academy of Arts is an art institution based in Burlington House on Piccadilly in London. The Royal Academy of Arts was founded through an act of King George III on 10 December 1768 with a mission to promote the arts of design in Britain through education and exhibition. Supporters wanted to foster a national school of art and to encourage appreciation, fashionable taste in 18th-century Britain was based on continental and traditional art forms, providing contemporary British artists little opportunity to sell their works. From 1746 the Foundling Hospital, through the efforts of William Hogarth, the success of this venture led to the formation of the Society of Artists of Great Britain and the Free Society of Artists. Both these groups were primarily exhibiting societies, their success was marred by internal factions among the artists. The combined vision of education and exhibition to establish a school of art set the Royal Academy apart from the other exhibiting societies. It provided the foundation upon which the Royal Academy came to dominate the art scene of the 18th and 19th centuries, supplanting the earlier art societies. Sir William Chambers, a prominent architect, used his connections with George III to gain royal patronage and financial support of the Academy, the painter Joshua Reynolds was made its first president. Francis Milner Newton was elected the first secretary, a post he held for two decades until his resignation in 1788, the instrument of foundation, signed by George III on 10 December 1768, named 34 founder members and allowed for a total membership of 40. William Hoare and Johann Zoffany were added to this list later by the King and are known as nominated members, among the founder members were two women, a father and daughter, and two sets of brothers. The Royal Academy was initially housed in cramped quarters in Pall Mall, although in 1771 it was given temporary accommodation for its library and schools in Old Somerset House, then a royal palace. In 1780 it was installed in purpose-built apartments in the first completed wing of New Somerset House, located in the Strand and designed by Chambers, the Academy moved in 1837 to Trafalgar Square, where it occupied the east wing of the recently completed National Gallery. These premises soon proved too small to house both institutions, in 1868,100 years after the Academys foundation, it moved to Burlington House, Piccadilly, where it remains. Burlington House is owned by the British Government, and used rent-free by the Royal Academy, the first Royal Academy exhibition of contemporary art, open to all artists, opened on 25 April 1769 and ran until 27 May 1769. 136 works of art were shown and this exhibition, now known as the Royal Academy Summer Exhibition, has been staged annually without interruption to the present day. In 1870 the Academy expanded its programme to include a temporary annual loan exhibition of Old Masters. The range and frequency of these exhibitions have grown enormously since that time. Britains first public lectures on art were staged by the Royal Academy, led by Reynolds, the first president, a program included lectures by Dr. William Hunter, John Flaxman, James Barry, Sir John Soane, and J. M. W. Turner
10.
Golden Lion
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The Golden Lion is the highest prize given to a film at the Venice Film Festival. The prize was introduced in 1949 by the committee and is now regarded as one of the film industrys most distinguished prizes. In 1970, a second Golden Lion was introduced, this is an award for people who have made an important contribution to cinema. The prize was introduced in 1949 as the Golden Lion of Saint Mark, previously, the equivalent prize was the Gran Premio Internazionale di Venezia, awarded in 1947 and 1948. Before that, from 1934 until 1942, the highest awards were the Coppa Mussolini for Best Italian Film, no Golden Lions were awarded between 1969 and 1979. Sixty-eight produced a dramatic fracture with the past,14 French films have been awarded the Golden Lion, more than that of any other nation. However, there is considerable diversity in the winners. Five American filmmakers have won the Golden Lion, with awards for John Cassavetes and Robert Altman, as well as Ang Lee, Darren Aronofsky and Sofia Coppola. The Golden Lion, by contrast, has awarded to ten Asians during the same time period. Ang Lee won the Golden Lion twice within three years during the 2000s, once for an American film and once for a Chinese-language film, zhang Yimou has also won twice. Other Asians to win the Golden Lion since 1980 include Jia Zhangke, Hou Hsiao-Hsien, Tsai Ming-liang, Trần Anh Hùng, Takeshi Kitano, Kim Ki-duk, Jafar Panahi, Mira Nair, and Lav Diaz. Russian filmmakers have won the Golden Lion several times, including since the end of the USSR. Still, to date 33 of the 54 winners were European men, since 1949 only four women have ever won the Golden Lion for directing, Mira Nair, Sofia Coppola, German Margarethe von Trotta and Belgiums Agnès Varda. In comparison to the other major Western European festivals, the Berlinales Golden Bear has also awarded to four women. In the history of Cannes, only one woman filmmaker has been awarded the Palme dOr
11.
Venice Biennale
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The Venice Biennale is an arts organization based in Venice, and also the original and principal exhibition it organizes. The organization changed its name to the Biennale Foundation in 2009, while the exhibition is called the Art Biennale to distinguish it from the organisation. The Art Biennale, a visual art exhibition, is so called as it is held biennially. A year later, the council decreed to adopt a by invitation system, to reserve a section of the Exhibition for foreign artists too, to works by uninvited Italian artists. The first Biennale, I Esposizione Internazionale dArte della Città di Venezia was opened on April 30,1895 by the Italian King and Queen, Umberto I, the first exhibition was seen by 224,000 visitors. In 1910 the first internationally well-known artists were displayed- a room dedicated to Gustav Klimt, a show for Renoir. A work by Picasso was removed from the Spanish salon in the central Palazzo because it was feared that its novelty might shock the public, by 1914 seven pavilions had been established, Belgium, Hungary, Germany, Great Britain, France, and Russia. During World War I, the 1916 and 1918 events were cancelled, in 1920 the post of mayor of Venice and president of the Biennale was split. The new secretary general, Vittorio Pica brought about the first presence of avant-garde art,1922 saw an exhibition of sculpture by African artists. Between the two World Wars, many important modern artists had their work exhibited there, in 1928 the Istituto Storico dArte Contemporanea opened, which was the first nucleus of archival collections of the Biennale. In 1930 its name was changed into Historical Archive of Contemporary Art, in 1933 the Biennale organised an exhibition of Italian art abroad. From 1938, Grand Prizes were awarded in the art exhibition section, during World War II, the activities of the Biennale were interrupted,1942 saw the last edition of the events. The Film Festival restarted in 1946, the Music and Theatre festivals were resumed in 1947, the Art Biennale was resumed in 1948 with a major exhibition of a recapitulatory nature. Peggy Guggenheim was invited to exhibit her famous New York collection,1949 saw the beginning of renewed attention to avant-garde movements in European—and later worldwide—movements in contemporary art. Abstract expressionism was introduced in the 1950s, and the Biennale is credited with importing Pop Art into the canon of art history by awarding the top prize to Robert Rauschenberg in 1964. From 1948 to 1972, Italian architect Carlo Scarpa did a series of interventions in the Biennales exhibition spaces. In 1954 the island San Giorgio Maggiore provided the venue for the first Japanese Noh theatre shows in Europe,1956 saw the selection of films following an artistic selection and no longer based upon the designation of the participating country. The 1957 Golden Lion went to Satyajit Rays Aparajito which introduced Indian cinema to the West,1962 included Arte Informale at the Art Exhibition with Jean Fautrier, Hans Hartung, Emilio Vedova, and Pietro Consagra
12.
Artist
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An artist is a person engaged in one or more of any of a broad spectrum of activities related to creating art, practicing the arts or demonstrating an art. The common usage in everyday speech and academic discourse is a practitioner in the visual arts only. The term is used in the entertainment business, especially in a business context, for musicians. Artiste is a variant used in English only in this context, use of the term to describe writers, for example, is valid, but less common, and mostly restricted to contexts like criticism. Wiktionary defines the noun artist as follows, A person who creates art, a person who makes and creates art as an occupation. A person who is skilled at some activity, a person whose trade or profession requires a knowledge of design, drawing, painting, etc. The adjectival Latin form of the word, technicus, became the source of the English words technique, technology, in ancient Greece sculptors and painters were held in low regard, somewhere between freemen and slaves, their work regarded as mere manual labour. The word art derives from the Latin ars, which, although literally defined, means skill method or technique, and conveys a connotation of beauty. During the Middle Ages the word artist already existed in countries such as Italy. An artist was able to do a work better than others, so the skilled excellency was underlined. In this period some artisanal products were more precious and expensive than paintings or sculptures. With the Academies in Europe the gap between fine and applied arts was definitely set, Artist is a descriptive term applied to a person who engages in an activity deemed to be an art. An artist also may be defined unofficially as a person who expresses him- or herself through a medium, the word is also used in a qualitative sense of, a person creative in, innovative in, or adept at, an artistic practice. Art historians and critics define artists as those who produce art within a recognized or recognizable discipline, contrasting terms for highly skilled workers in media in the applied arts or decorative arts include artisan, craftsman, and specialized terms such as potter, goldsmith or glassblower. The term may also be used loosely or metaphorically to denote highly skilled people in any activities, as well— law, medicine, mechanics, or mathematics. Often, discussions on the focus on the differences among artist and technician, entertainer and artisan, fine art and applied art, or what constitutes art. The French word artiste has been imported into the English language where it means a performer, use of the word artiste can also be a pejorative term. The English word artiste has thus a range of meaning than the word artiste in French
13.
Jews
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The Jews, also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating from the Israelites, or Hebrews, of the Ancient Near East. Jews originated as a national and religious group in the Middle East during the second millennium BCE, the Merneptah Stele appears to confirm the existence of a people of Israel, associated with the god El, somewhere in Canaan as far back as the 13th century BCE. The Israelites, as an outgrowth of the Canaanite population, consolidated their hold with the emergence of the Kingdom of Israel, some consider that these Canaanite sedentary Israelites melded with incoming nomadic groups known as Hebrews. The worldwide Jewish population reached a peak of 16.7 million prior to World War II, but approximately 6 million Jews were systematically murdered during the Holocaust. Since then the population has risen again, and as of 2015 was estimated at 14.3 million by the Berman Jewish DataBank. According to the report, about 43% of all Jews reside in Israel and these numbers include all those who self-identified as Jews in a socio-demographic study or were identified as such by a respondent in the same household. The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure, Israel is the only country where Jews form a majority of the population. The modern State of Israel was established as a Jewish state and defines itself as such in its Declaration of Independence and its Law of Return grants the right of citizenship to any Jew who requests it. The English word Jew continues Middle English Gyw, Iewe, according to the Hebrew Bible, the name of both the tribe and kingdom derive from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob. The Hebrew word for Jew, יְהוּדִי ISO 259-3 Yhudi, is pronounced, with the stress on the syllable, in Israeli Hebrew. The Ladino name is ג׳ודיו, Djudio, ג׳ודיוס, Djudios, Yiddish, ייִד Yid, ייִדן, Yidn. The etymological equivalent is in use in languages, e. g. but derivations of the word Hebrew are also in use to describe a Jew, e. g. in Italian. The German word Jude is pronounced, the corresponding adjective jüdisch is the origin of the word Yiddish, in such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a factual reconstruction for the origin of the Jews is a difficult and complex endeavor. It requires examining at least 3,000 years of ancient human history using documents in vast quantities, as archaeological discovery relies upon researchers and scholars from diverse disciplines, the goal is to interpret all of the factual data, focusing on the most consistent theory. In this case, it is complicated by long standing politics and religious, Jacob and his family migrated to Ancient Egypt after being invited to live with Jacobs son Joseph by the Pharaoh himself. The patriarchs descendants were later enslaved until the Exodus led by Moses, traditionally dated to the 13th century BCE, Modern archaeology has largely discarded the historicity of the Patriarchs and of the Exodus story, with it being reframed as constituting the Israelites inspiring national myth narrative. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite ethnic group
14.
Steel mill
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A steel mill or steelworks is an industrial plant for the manufacture of steel. Since the invention of the Bessemer process, steel mills have replaced ironwork, new ways to produce steel appeared later, from scraps melted in an electric arc furnace and, more recently, from direct reduced iron processes. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries the worlds largest steel mill was the Barrow Hematite Steel Company steelworks located in Barrow-in-Furness, today, the worlds largest steel mill is in Gwangyang, South Korea. An integrated steel mill has all the functions for primary production, iron making. The principal raw materials for a mill are iron ore, limestone. These materials are charged in batches into a blast furnace where the iron compounds in the ore give up excess oxygen and become liquid iron. At intervals of a few hours, the liquid iron is tapped from the blast furnace. Historically the Bessemer process was an advancement in the production of economical steel. Molten steel is cast into large blocks called blooms, during the casting process various methods are used, such as addition of aluminum, so that impurities in the steel float to the surface where they can be cut off the finished bloom. Even during periods of low demand, it may not be feasible to let the blast furnace grow cold. Integrated mills are large facilities that are only economical to build in 2,000, 000-ton per year annual capacity. Final products made by a plant are usually large structural sections, heavy plate, strip, wire rod, railway rails. Integrated mills may also adopt some of the used in mini-mills, such as arc furnaces and direct casting. World integrated steel production capacity is at or close to world demand, a minimill is traditionally a secondary steel producer, however, Nucor, as well as one of its competitors, Commercial Metals Company use minimills exclusively. Usually it obtains most of its iron from steel, recycled from used automobiles. Direct reduced iron is used with scrap, to help maintain desired chemistry of the steel. Originally the mini mill was adapted to production of bar products only, such as reinforcing bar, flats, angles, channels, pipe. Since the late 1980s, successful introduction of the direct strip casting process has made mini mill production of strip feasible, often a mini mill will be constructed in an area with no other steel production, to take advantage of local markets, resources, or lower-cost labour
15.
Teacher
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A teacher is a person who helps others to acquire knowledge, competences or values. Informally the role of teacher may be taken on by anyone, in some countries, teaching young people of school age may be carried out in an informal setting, such as within the family, rather than in a formal setting such as a school or college. Some other professions may involve a significant amount of teaching, in most countries, formal teaching is usually carried out by paid professional teachers. This article focuses on those who are employed, as their role, to teach others in a formal education context. A teachers role may vary among cultures, Teachers may provide instruction in literacy and numeracy, craftsmanship or vocational training, the arts, religion, civics, community roles, or life skills. Formal teaching tasks include preparing lessons according to agreed curricula, giving lessons, a teachers professional duties may extend beyond formal teaching. In some education systems, teachers may have responsibility for student discipline, Teaching is a highly complex activity. This is in part because teaching is a practice, that takes place in a specific context. Factors that influence what is expected of teachers include history and tradition, social views about the purpose of education, so the competences required by a teacher are affected by the different ways in which the role is understood around the world. Broadly, there seem to be four models, the teacher as manager of instruction, the teacher as caring person, the teacher as expert learner, some evidence-based international discussions have tried to reach such a common understanding. Scholarly consensus is emerging that what is required of teachers can be grouped under three headings, knowledge craft skills and dispositions and it has been found that teachers who showed enthusiasm towards the course materials and students can create a positive learning experience. These teachers do not teach by rote but attempt to find new invigoration for the materials on a daily basis. One of the challenges facing teachers is that they may have covered a curriculum until they begin to feel bored with the subject. Students who had enthusiastic teachers tend to rate them higher than teachers who didnt show much enthusiasm for the course materials, Teachers that exhibit enthusiasm can lead to students who are more likely to be engaged, interested, energetic, and curious about learning the subject matter. Recent research has found a correlation between teacher enthusiasm and students intrinsic motivation to learn and vitality in the classroom, students who experienced a very enthusiastic teacher were more likely to read lecture material outside of the classroom. There are various mechanisms by which teacher enthusiasm may facilitate higher levels of intrinsic motivation, teacher enthusiasm may contribute to a classroom atmosphere of energy and enthusiasm which feeds student interest and excitement in learning the subject matter. Enthusiastic teachers may also lead to becoming more self-determined in their own learning process. The concept of mere exposure indicates that the teachers enthusiasm may contribute to the expectations about intrinsic motivation in the context of learning
16.
Vienna
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Vienna is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austrias primary city, with a population of about 1.8 million, and its cultural, economic and it is the 7th-largest city by population within city limits in the European Union. Today, it has the second largest number of German speakers after Berlin, Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations and OPEC. The city is located in the part of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic, Slovakia. These regions work together in a European Centrope border region, along with nearby Bratislava, Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants. In 2001, the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, apart from being regarded as the City of Music because of its musical legacy, Vienna is also said to be The City of Dreams because it was home to the worlds first psycho-analyst – Sigmund Freud. The citys roots lie in early Celtic and Roman settlements that transformed into a Medieval and Baroque city and it is well known for having played an essential role as a leading European music centre, from the great age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century. The historic centre of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles, including Baroque castles and gardens, Vienna is known for its high quality of life. In a 2005 study of 127 world cities, the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked the city first for the worlds most liveable cities, between 2011 and 2015, Vienna was ranked second, behind Melbourne, Australia. Monocles 2015 Quality of Life Survey ranked Vienna second on a list of the top 25 cities in the world to make a base within, the UN-Habitat has classified Vienna as being the most prosperous city in the world in 2012/2013. Vienna regularly hosts urban planning conferences and is used as a case study by urban planners. Between 2005 and 2010, Vienna was the worlds number-one destination for international congresses and it attracts over 3.7 million tourists a year. The English name Vienna is borrowed from the homonymous Italian version of the name or the French Vienne. The etymology of the name is still subject to scholarly dispute. Some claim that the name comes from Vedunia, meaning forest stream, which produced the Old High German Uuenia. A variant of this Celtic name could be preserved in the Czech and Slovak names of the city, the name of the city in Hungarian, Serbo-Croatian and Ottoman Turkish has a different, probably Slavonic origin, and originally referred to an Avar fort in the area. Slovene-speakers call the city Dunaj, which in other Central European Slavic languages means the Danube River, evidence has been found of continuous habitation since 500 BC, when the site of Vienna on the Danube River was settled by the Celts. In 15 BC, the Romans fortified the city they called Vindobona to guard the empire against Germanic tribes to the north
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Maritime transport
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Ship transport is watercraft carrying people or goods. Freight transport has been achieved widely by sea throughout recorded history, although the importance of sea travel for passengers has decreased due to aviation, it is effective for short trips and pleasure cruises. Transport by water is cheaper than transport by air, despite fluctuating exchange rates, ship transport can be realized over any distance by boat, ship, sailboat or barge, over oceans and lakes, through canals or along rivers. Virtually any material can be moved by water, however, water transport becomes impractical when material delivery is highly time-critical such as types of perishable produce. Containerization revolutionized ship transport starting in the 1970s, general cargo includes goods packaged in boxes, cases, pallets, and barrels. When a cargo is carried in more than one mode, it is intermodal or co-modal, a nations shipping fleet consists of the ships operated by civilian crews to transport passengers or cargo from one place to another. Ores, Coal, and grains can travel along the rivers of the American midwest to Pittsburgh, professional mariners are merchant seaman, merchant sailor, and merchant mariner, or simply seaman, sailor, or mariners. The terms seaman or sailor may refer to a member of a countrys navy, according to the 2005 CIA World Factbook, the total number of merchant ships of at least 1,000 gross register tons in the world was 30,936. In 2010, it was 38,988, an increase of 26%, statistics for individual countries are available at the list of merchant navy capacity by country. A ships complement can be divided into four categories, the department, the engineering department, the stewards department. Officer positions in the department include but not limited to, Master and his Chief, Second. The official classifications for unlicensed members of the department are Able Seaman. Their time on board is spent learning the operations and tasks of life on a merchant vessel. A ships engineering department consists of the members of a crew that operate and maintain the propulsion. Marine Engineering staff also deal with the Hotel facilities on board, notably the sewage, lighting, air conditioning, on LPG and LNG tankers however, a cargo engineer works with the deck department during cargo operations, as well as being a watchkeeping engineer. Other possible positions include Motorman, Machinist, Electrician, Refrigeration Engineer, engine Cadets are trainee engineers who are completing sea time necessary before they can obtain a watchkeeping license. A typical Stewards department for a ship would be composed of a Chief Steward, a Chief Cook. All three positions are filled by unlicensed personnel
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Norway
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The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him
19.
Cargo ship
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A cargo ship or freighter is any sort of ship or vessel that carries cargo, goods, and materials from one port to another. Thousands of cargo carriers ply the worlds seas and oceans each year, cargo ships are usually specially designed for the task, often being equipped with cranes and other mechanisms to load and unload, and come in all sizes. Today, they are almost always built by welded steel, cargo ships/freighters can be divided into five groups, according to the type of cargo they carry. Tankers carry petroleum products or other liquid cargo, dry bulk carriers carry coal, grain, ore and other similar products in loose form. Multi-purpose vessels, as the name suggests, carry different classes of cargo – e. g. liquid, a Reefer ship is specifically designed and used for shipping perishable commodities which require temperature-controlled, mostly fruits, meat, fish, vegetables, dairy products and other foodstuffs. Specialized types of cargo vessels include ships and bulk carriers. Cargo ships fall into two categories that reflect the services they offer to industry, liner and tramp services. Those on a published schedule and fixed tariff rates are cargo liners. Tramp ships do not have fixed schedules, users charter them to haul loads. Generally, the shipping companies and private individuals operate tramp ships. Cargo liners run on fixed schedules published by the shipping companies, each trip a liner takes is called a voyage. However, some cargo liners may carry passengers also, a cargo liner that carries 12 or more passengers is called a combination or passenger-cum-cargo line. The desire to trade routes over longer distances, and throughout more seasons of the year. Before the middle of the 19th century, the incidence of piracy resulted in most cargo ships being armed, sometimes heavily, as in the case of the Manila galleons. They were also escorted by warships. Piracy is still common in some waters, particularly in the Malacca Straits. In 2004, the governments of three nations agreed to provide better protection for the ships passing through the Straits. The waters off Somalia and Nigeria are also prone to piracy, while smaller vessels are also in danger along parts of the South American, Southeast Asian coasts, the words cargo and freight have become interchangeable in casual usage
20.
Cooper Union
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Inspired in 1830 when Peter Cooper learned about the government-supported École Polytechnique in France, Cooper Union was established in 1859. The Cooper Union originally granted each admitted student a full-tuition scholarship, following its own financial crisis, the school decided to abandon this policy starting in the Fall of 2014, but each incoming student receives at least a half-tuition merit scholarship. The college is divided into three schools, the Irwin S. Chanin School of Architecture, the School of Art, and it offers undergraduate and masters degree programs exclusively in the fields of architecture, fine arts, and engineering. It is a member of the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology, until 2014 Cooper Union was one of the very few American institutions of higher learning to offer a full-tuition scholarship – valued at approximately $150,000 as of 2012 – to every admitted student. Cooper Union has historically been one of the most selective colleges in the United States, both the art and architecture schools have acceptance rates below 5%. Cooper Union received 2,536 applications for the 2014–2015 academic year, as a result of its record low acceptance ratio for the fall 2010 incoming class, Cooper Union was named by Newsweek as the #1 Most Desirable Small School and #7 Most Desirable School overall. The Cooper Union was founded in 1859 by American industrialist Peter Cooper, who was an inventor, successful entrepreneur. Cooper was a son who had less than a year of formal schooling, yet went on to become an industrialist. Cooper designed and built Americas first steam engine, and made a fortune with a glue factory. After achieving wealth, he turned his skills to successful ventures in real estate, insurance. Coopers dream was to give talented young people the one privilege he lacked and he also wished to make possible the development of talent that otherwise would have gone undiscovered. According to The New York Times in 1863, Those only are supposed to pay anything who are abundantly able, discrimination based on ethnicity, religion, or sex was expressly prohibited. Since the opening of this institute all who desire, and particularly those who work for their own support, can avail themselves, free of charge, of all the advantages the institution affords. The early institution also had a reading room open day and night, and a new four-year nighttime engineering college for men. A daytime engineering college was added in 1902 thanks to funds contributed by Andrew Carnegie Initial board members included Daniel F. Tiemann, Peter Coopers dream of providing an education equal to the best has since become reality. Since 1859, the Cooper Union has educated thousands of artists, architects, after 1864 there were a few attempts to merge Cooper Union and Columbia University, but these were never realized. The Cooper–Hewitt, National Design Museum, was founded in 1897 as part of Cooper Union by Sarah, Eleanor, Cooper Unions Foundation Building is an Italianate brownstone building designed by architect Fred A. Petersen, one of the founders of the American Institute of Architects. It was the first structure in New York City to feature rolled-iron I-beams for structural support, Petersen patented a fire-resistant hollow brick tile he used in the buildings construction
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New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
22.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
23.
G.I. Bill
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The Servicemens Readjustment Act of 1944, also known as the G. I. Bill, was a law provided a range of benefits for returning World War II veterans. It was designed by the American Legion, who helped push it through Congress by mobilizing its chapters and it avoided the highly disputed postponed cash bonus payout for World War I veterans that caused political turmoil for a decade and a half after that war. It was available to all veterans who had been on duty during the war years for at least 90 days and had not been dishonorably discharged—exposure to combat was not required. By 1956, roughly 8.8 million veterans had used the G. I, Bill education benefits, some 2.2 million to attend colleges or universities and an additional 5.6 million for some kind of training program. Historians and economists judge the G. I, canada operated a similar program for its World War II veterans, with a similarly beneficial economic impact. Since the original U. S.1944 law, the term has come to include other programs created to assist veterans of subsequent wars as well as peacetime service. During the 1940s, fly-by-night for-profit colleges sprang up to collect veterans education grants, similarly, for-profit colleges and their lead generators have taken advantage of the post-911 GI Bill to target veterans for subpar products and services. The Veterans Administration, however, does have a GI Bill feedback form for recipients to address their complaints against colleges, President Barack Obama also signed Executive Order 13607 which was to ensure that predatory colleges did not aggressively recruit vulnerable military service members, veterans, and their families. On June 22,1944, the Servicemens Readjustment Act of 1944, Bill of Rights, was signed into law. During the war, politicians wanted to avoid the confusion about veterans benefits that became a political football in the 1920s and 1930s. Ortiz says their efforts entrenched the VFW and the Legion as the pillars of the American veterans lobby for decades. Harry W. Colmery, Democrat and a former National Commander of the American Legion, is credited for writing the first draft of the G. I and he reportedly jotted down his ideas on stationery and a napkin at the Mayflower Hotel in Washington, D. C. Senator Ernest McFarland, Democrat-Arizona, was involved in the bills passage and is known, with Warren Atherton. One might then term Edith Nourse Rogers, R-Mass, who helped write, like Colmery, her contribution to writing and passing this legislation has been obscured by time. The bill that President Roosevelt initially proposed had a means test—only poor veterans would get one year of funding, the American Legion proposal provided full benefits for all veterans, including women and minorities, regardless of their wealth. An important provision of the G. I, Bill was low interest, zero down payment home loans for servicemen, with more favorable terms for new construction compared to existing housing. This encouraged millions of American families to move out of urban apartments, another provision was known as the 52–20 clause for unemployment
24.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
25.
David Hockney
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David Hockney, OM, CH, RA is an English painter, draughtsman, printmaker, stage designer and photographer. An important contributor to the pop art movement of the 1960s, Hockney was born in Bradford, England, to Laura and Kenneth Hockney, the fourth of five children. He was educated at Wellington Primary School, Bradford Grammar School, Bradford College of Art and the Royal College of Art in London, while there, Hockney said he felt at home and took pride in his work. At the Royal College of Art, Hockney featured in the exhibition Young Contemporaries—alongside Peter Blake—that announced the arrival of British Pop art and he was associated with the movement, but his early works display expressionist elements, similar to some works by Francis Bacon. When the RCA said it would not let him graduate in 1962 and he had refused to write an essay required for the final examination, saying he should be assessed solely on his artworks. Recognising his talent and growing reputation, the RCA changed its regulations, after leaving the RCA, he taught at Maidstone College of Art for a short time. The artist moved to Los Angeles in 1964, returned to London in 1968, in 1974 he began a decade-long personal relationship with Gregory Evans who moved with him to the US in 1976 and as of 2017 remains a business partner. In 1978 he rented the house in which he lived when he moved to Los Angeles. He also owned a 1, 643-square-foot beach house at 21039 Pacific Coast Highway in Malibu, Hockney is openly gay, and unlike Andy Warhol, whom he befriended, he openly explored the nature of gay love in his portraiture. Sometimes, as in We Two Boys Together Clinging, named after a poem by Walt Whitman, already in 1963, he painted two men together in the painting Domestic Scene, Los Angeles, one showering while the other washes his back. In summer 1966, while teaching at UCLA he met Peter Schlesinger, an art student who posed for paintings and drawings, Elliott was a first- and second-team player for Bridlington rugby club. It was reported that Hockneys partner drove Elliott to Scarborough General Hospital where he later died, the inquest returned a verdict of death by misadventure and Hockney was never implicated. In November 2015 Hockney sold his house in Bridlington, a five-bedroomed former guesthouse, for £625,000 and he retains a studio in London and a house in Malibu, California. Hockney has smoked cigarettes for over 60 years but has been teetotal since 1990 when he had a heart-attack and he holds a California Medical Marijuana Verification Card, which enables him to buy cannabis for medical purposes. He has used hearing aids since 1979, but realised he was going deaf long before that and he swims for half an hour each day and can stand for six hours at the easel. Hockney made prints, portraits of friends, and stage designs for the Royal Court Theatre, Glyndebourne, La Scala, born with synaesthesia, he sees synesthetic colours in response to musical stimuli. Hockney painted portraits at different periods in his career, from 1968, and for the next few years he painted friends, lovers, and relatives just under lifesize and in pictures that depicted good likenesses of his subjects. Hockneys own presence is implied, since the lines of perspective converge to suggest the artists point of view
26.
Peter Phillips (artist)
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Peter Phillips is an English artist. His work ranges from conventional oils on canvas to multi-media compositions and collages to sculptures and architecture. As an originator of Pop art, Phillips trained at the Royal College of Art with his contemporaries David Hockney, Allen Jones, R. B. Kitaj and others figures in British Pop Art. When he was awarded a Harkness Fellowship he moved to New York, Phillips later returned to Europe, where he now resides and continues to paint and exhibit. Phillips was born in 1939 in Birmingham, England, from 1953 to 1955, he studied at Moseley Road Secondary School of Art in Birmingham and from 1955 to 1959 at the Birmingham School of Art. In 1959, he visited Paris and started to exhibit at the RBA Galleries in London, between 1959 and 1962, Phillips studied at the Royal College of Art where he saw reproductions of work by Jasper Johns and Robert Rauschenberg. He was particularly aligned to American culture and reflected its commercial iconography, from 1962 to 1963, he taught at the Coventry College of Art and the Birmingham College of Art. In 1963, he was represented at the Paris Biennale, and in 1964 his work was included in the Pop Art exhibition shown at the Hague, Vienna, in 1965, he had his first one-man exhibition at the Kornblee Gallery, New York. A year later, Phillips returned to Europe, and from 1968 to 1969, in 1970, Peter Phillips married Claude Marion Xylander and they made frequent trips throughout Africa, the Far East, and the United States. Throughout the decade of the seventies, the Phillips resided in Zurich, in 1972, Phillips had a retrospective at the Westfälischer Kunstverein, Münster, and in 1976 at the Tate Gallery, London. In 1977 he had a retrospective in Milan, in 1981, Phillips travels took him to Australia. In 1986, Phillips moved from Zurich to Majorca, throughout the eighties his work was exhibited at galleries around Spain, including Barlecona, Valencia, Madrid, and Majorca. The decade of the nineties brought Phillips work to Canada and the United States, for exhibitions in Montreal, Boston, Houston and he was a featured artist at the Fundacio Miro and Casal Solleric in Majorca in 1996. In 1998, he was exhibited in London at the Freedom of Choices exhibition, at the same time, Phillips built and expanded his property in Majorca to his own design, which has been featured in numerous architecture, gardening, and home magazines. In 1995, he designed the Granada Television idents and endboards featuring the G-arrow, a Phillips retrospective was shown in 2002 at the Galleria Civica di Modena, Italy. Claude-Marion Phillips died from cancer on 30 January 2003, in 2004, Phillips staged an exhibition dedicated to his wife, Claude, at Whitford Fine Art and was featured at the Pop Art UK group exhibition at Galleriea Civica di Modena, Italy. In 2005 the Metamorphosis exhibition was shown at the Goulanderis Foundation, Phillips resides in Europe, where he continues to paint and exhibit. He travels frequently to New York, Los Angeles, San Francisco, over thirty of his prints are in the Tate Collection
27.
Allen Jones (artist)
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Allen Jones RA is a British pop artist best known for his paintings, sculptures, and lithography. He was awarded the Prix des Jeunes Artistes at the 1963 Paris Biennale and he is a Senior Academician at the Royal Academy of Arts. His works reside in a number of collections, including the Tate, the Museum Ludwig, the Warwick Arts Centre and his best known work Hatstand, Table and Chair, involving fibreglass fetish mannequins, debuted to protests in 1970. Jones was born in the English city of Southampton on 1 September 1937, the son of a Welsh factory worker, he was raised in the west London district of Ealing, and in his youth attended Ealing County Grammar School for Boys. Jones had an interest in art from an early age, in 1955, he began studying painting and lithography at Hornsey College of Art in London, where he would graduate in 1959. At the time the method at Hornsey was based on Paul Klees Pedagogical Sketchbook from the 1930s. While a student at Hornsey, Jones travelled to Paris and the French region of Provence and he also attended a Jackson Pollock show at the Whitechapel Gallery in 1958, and according to Jones, for me it was outside any known frame of reference. The scale, the ambition, the freedom, I felt like suing my teachers for not telling me what was happening in the world. He afterwards travelled to see the Musie Fernand Léger in the French commune of Biot, according to Jones, about his early ambitions, I wanted to kick over the traces of what was considered acceptable in art. I wanted to find a new language for representation, to get away from the idea that figurative art was romantic, that it wasnt tough. He was part of a generation of students at the Royal College. Kitaj, Peter Phillips, David Hockney, and Derek Boshier, dismayed, Jones signed up for a teacher training course and returned to his studies at Hornsey College of Art in 1960, graduating the following year. Despite his expulsion from the Royal College, in January 1961 Jones work was included in the Young Contemporaries 1961 exhibit, kitaj, Billy Apple, Derek Boshier, Joe Tilson, Patrick Caulfield, and Peter Blake, all of whom were variously influenced by American Pop. Among his works, Jones entered several paintings of London buses on shaped canvases, one of the gallerys directors then introduced Jones to the work of American pop artists such as Andy Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein and Claes Oldenburg, which proved inspirational to Jones. In 1961, he took a job teaching lithography at Croydon College of Art in London, around this time, Jones was influenced by the works of writers such as Friedrich Nietzsche, Sigmund Freud, and Carl Jung. According to Jones, his 1963 painting Hermaphrodite, depicting fused male/female couples as metaphors of the creative act, in 1963, Jones was awarded the Prix des Jeunes Artistes at the Paris Biennale. The following year, Jones and other Nouveau réalisme and pop artists such as Peter Phillips, intrigued by the toughness of American pop art, Jones moved to Manhattan in 1964 and took a studio at the Chelsea Hotel. In New York City, Jones recollects learning to present what you were saying as clearly as possible, for the year Jones remained in the city, he discovered a rich fund of imagery in sexually motivated popular illustration of the 1940s and 1950s
28.
Patrick Caulfield
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Patrick Joseph Caulfield, CBE, RA, was an English painter and printmaker known for his bold canvases, which often incorporated elements of photorealism within a pared-down scene. Examples of his work are Pottery and Still Life Ingredients, Patrick Joseph Caulfield was born on 29 January 1936 in Acton, west London. During the second world war Caulfields family returned to Bolton in 1945, at 17, he joined the Royal Air Force at RAF Northwood, pre-empting requirement for national service. Inspired by the 1952 film Moulin Rouge about the artist Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Patrick Caulfield studied at Chelsea School of Art from 1956 to 1960, and during this time he won two prizes which funded a trip he made to Greece and Crete upon graduation. The visit to the island proved important, with Caulfield finding inspiration in the Minoan frescoes, one of his greatest friends was the abstract painter John Hoyland, whom he first met at the Young Contemporaries exhibition in 1959. Progressing to the Royal College of Art from 1960 to 1963, his contemporaries included David Hockney and he taught at Chelsea School of Art from 1963–71. In 1964, he exhibited at the New Generation show at Londons Whitechapel Gallery and this was a label Caulfield was opposed to throughout his career, seeing himself rather as a formal artist. From the mid-1970s he incorporated more detailed, realistic elements into his work, Caulfield later returned to his earlier, more stripped-down style of painting. Caulfields paintings are figurative, often portraying a few objects in an interior. Typically, he used flat areas of simple colour surrounded by black outlines, some of his works are dominated by a single hue. In 1987, Caulfield was nominated for the Turner Prize for his show The Artists Eye at the National Gallery in London, in 1996 he was made a CBE. On 24 May 2004, a fire in a storage warehouse destroyed many works from the Saatchi collection and he died in London in 2005 and is buried in Highgate Cemetery. His estate is represented by Alan Cristea Gallery and Waddington Custot Galleries in London and his work is held in the private collections of Charles Saatchi and David Bowie. Later in his career, Caulfield worked on commissions in addition to his painting and printmaking. In 1990 he designed a glass window for The Ivy restaurant, it is visible from within the restaurant. In 1992 he designed a 12-metre carpet for the British Councils Manchester headquarters and in 1984 and 1995 set designs for Party Game, Caulfield painted the doors of the Great West Organ at Portsmouth Cathedral in 2001. Caulfield, P. Patrick Caulfield, Paintings 1963–1992, ISBN 1-85490-180-X Caulfield and Hoyland joint interview
29.
Sandra Fisher
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Sandra Maureen Fisher, an expat American figure painter in London, was born in New York City on 6 May 1947. The family moved to Miami in 1948 where her father Gene Fisher was a homebuilder and her mother Ethel Fisher, a painter, taught her to draw and paint at an early age. In 1961 her mother abandoned the family to travel in Europe and after a divorce, Sandra graduated from Metter High School and, after moving to Los Angeles, California, enrolled in art school. Her first marriage to Garry Gregson ended in divorce in 1970, after a brief return to Los Angeles, Fisher moved to London, England on 8 August 1971 to pursue a painting career full-time. More about her career in London follows below and she died at age 47 from hyperacute haemorrhagic leuco-encephalitis. From 1970 to 1971 she was personal assistant to the American printmaker Ken Tyler at Gemini G. E. L. The print atelier he founded in Los Angeles, during this period Fisher re-united with her mother, who now lived and painted in Los Angeles and who once again became an important source of inspiration as well as an intellectual ally. At Gemini, she met Robert Irwin and R B Kitaj and she worked a few hours a week for the historian Ariel Durant, whose ideas about art history helped her come to terms with her current emphasis on style, an artifact from her years at Chouinard. Durant warned her against painting death masks like one might see in Greek cemeteries, within a short time Fisher distanced herself from conceptual art to favor portraiture, the male and female nude, and depictions of dancers, singers, actors and musicians. She occasionally sat in on classes by David Hockney at the Slade School of Art, later in her career, intrigued by the writing of Paris-based painter Avigdor Arikha about plein-air painting and his practice of alla prima painting, she sought to complete a picture in one session. She was a lecturer at the art schools within and outside of London. Fisher was a lively, welcome figure at the heart of Londons art community and she collaborated with the poet Thomas Meyer on three books and her drawings often appeared in the journal London Magazine. She obtained permission to draw at opera rehearsals in London, including that of Wozzeck and her work entered collections held by the British Museum, the London Transport Museum, Pembroke College, Cambridge, and the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art, among others. She created a series of paintings for Heineken Brewery as part of a 1993 commission and she died before completing the commission. When Fisher and R B Kitaj re-met in London in October 1971, Fisher was hired by Marlborough Gallery in 1972 as Kitajs studio assistant. Fisher and Kitaj married in 1983 and their son Max was born in 1984 and Fisher became stepmother to Kitajs two children from a prior marriage. After her death Kitaj was to write, She came into my life in 1970 as a passionate Jewishness began to form crazily in me and she seemed like a shining California miracle of new-old Jewish womanhood invented in the Diaspora. In Los Angeles No.13 the two of them are pushing a pram with a Hockneyesque child in it reminiscent of the ensemble pushed by a Warburgian Maenad four decades earlier in the Ohio Gang
30.
Camberwell College of Arts
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Camberwell College of Arts is a constituent college of the University of the Arts London, and is regarded as one of the UKs foremost art and design institutions. It is located in Camberwell in South London, England, with two sites, located in Peckham Road and Wilson Road and it offers further and higher education programmes, including postgraduate and PhD awards. The College has retained single degree options within Fine Art, offering specialist Bachelor of Arts courses in painting, sculpture, photography and drawing. The College also runs graduate and postgraduate courses in art conservation and fine art as well as courses such as Graphic Design, Illustration. The Colleges history is intertwined with that of the South London Gallery. Manager of the South London Working Mens College in 1868, William Rossiter, the resulting Gallery opened in 1891, followed by the Technical Institute, the schools first guise in 1898. The philanthropist, John Passmore Edwards, gave a sum of money for the erection of the building in memory of Lord Leighton. The school and gallery were the fruition of a movement in Camberwell, supported by Edward Burne-Jones, Lord Leighton, Walter Crane. The school aimed to give the best artistic and technical education to all classes in the district, originally, the school offered classes in specific trades, such as architecture, cabinet design, embroidery, wood carving, wood block and stencil cutting. By 1920, a Fine Art Department had been created, during World War II, Victor Pasmore was appointed head of the schools Painting Department. He brought in William Coldstream, who in turn brought in Joe Dixon from the RCA and these three eminent Euston Road School painters, whose own work was figurative, initiated an exciting period for the School. Many well-known artists, including Frank Auerbach, Lawrence Gowing and Edward Ardizzone taught at Camberwell during this period, the prominent painter Robert Medley was Head of Painting in the early 1960s. Ron Kitaj, Kenneth Martin, Patrick Procktor, Euan Uglow, Frank Bowling, during this period, the School had a thriving art history department, headed by Conal Shields, that employed painters such as Harold Cohen and academics, including T. J. Clark. In 1973, the School expanded into a modern purpose-built block next to the existing premises, both of them are now Listed Buildings. The College is currently undergoing a major £62 million redevelopment, working with Stephen Marshall Architects, in the 1980s, Wendy Smith became the head of Fine Art and employed Noel Forster, John Hilliard, Cornelia Parker, Phyllida Barlow, Gavin Jantjes and Ian McKeever. Tony Messenger and Eileen Hogan took charge of the department, Eileen Hogan established and ran The Camberwell Press. The school was renamed Camberwell College of Arts in 1989, in 2014 the American academic Hal Foster was appointed as Practitioner in Residence within the Fine Art Department, In 2016 Griselda Pollock assumed this title. Camberwell also has a number of prominent artists acting as researchers and lecturers such as the painters Humphrey Ocean and John Keane, with strong links to the local community, Camberwell has a purpose built community art and exhibition space, Peckham Space designed by PENSON in Peckham Square
31.
Slade School of Fine Art
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The UCL Slade School of Fine Art is the art school of University College London and is based in London, United Kingdom. It is world-renowned and is ranked as the UKs top art. The school is organised as a department of UCLs Faculty of Arts, distinguished past teachers include Henry Tonks, Wilson Steer, Randolph Schwabe, William Coldstream, Andrew Forge, Lucian Freud, Phyllida Barlow, John Hilliard, Bruce McLean, Alfred Gerrard. Edward Allington is currently a Professor of Fine Art and Head of Graduate Sculpture, two of its most important periods were immediately before, and immediately after, the turn of the twentieth century, described by Henry Tonks as its two crises of brilliance. R. W. The Slade Centre for Electronic Media in Fine Art was opened in 1995, the centre provides opportunities for research into electronic media and fine art with the goal of contributing to debate on national and international levels. The Slade had previously been home to Malcolm Hughess Computer and Experimental Department in the 1970s, in 1997 SCEMFA presented Collision, a public lecture series by artists, writers, and curators working with interactivity, telematics, and digital works. Throughout 1998, SCEMFA collaborated with Channel 4 UK to organise Cached, funded by the Arts Council, this series investigated the conceptual and practical issues of producing art for the internet through a series of artists presentations. Works by students and staff of the Slade School of Fine Art form the basis of the UCL Art museum today, in a 2008 survey conducted by The Sunday Times the Slade recorded perfect scores
32.
University of California, Berkeley
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The University of California, Berkeley, is a public research university located in Berkeley, California. In 1960s, UC Berkeley was particularly noted for the Free Speech Movement as well as the Anti-Vietnam War Movement led by its students. S, Department of Energy, and is home to many world-renowned research institutes and organizations including Mathematical Sciences Research Institute and Space Sciences Laboratory. Faculty member J. R. Oppenheimer, the father of the atomic bomb, Lawrence Livermore Lab also discovered or co-discovered six chemical elements. The Academic Ranking of World Universities also ranks the University of California, Berkeley, third in the world overall, in 1866, the private College of California purchased the land comprising the current Berkeley campus. Ten faculty members and almost 40 students made up the new University of California when it opened in Oakland in 1869, billings was a trustee of the College of California and suggested that the college be named in honor of the Anglo-Irish philosopher George Berkeley. In 1870, Henry Durant, the founder of the College of California, with the completion of North and South Halls in 1873, the university relocated to its Berkeley location with 167 male and 22 female students and held its first classes. In 1905, the University Farm was established near Sacramento, ultimately becoming the University of California, by the 1920s, the number of campus buildings had grown substantially, and included twenty structures designed by architect John Galen Howard. Robert Gordon Sproul served as president from 1930 to 1958, by 1942, the American Council on Education ranked UC Berkeley second only to Harvard University in the number of distinguished departments. During World War II, following Glenn Seaborgs then-secret discovery of plutonium, UC Berkeley physics professor J. Robert Oppenheimer was named scientific head of the Manhattan Project in 1942. Along with the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley is now a partner in managing two other labs, Los Alamos National Laboratory and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, originally, military training was compulsory for male undergraduates, and Berkeley housed an armory for that purpose. In 1917, Berkeleys ROTC program was established, and its School of Military Aeronautics trained future pilots, including Jimmy Doolittle, both Robert McNamara and Frederick C. Weyand graduated from UC Berkeleys ROTC program, earning B. A. degrees in 1937 and 1938, in 1926, future fleet admiral Chester W. Nimitz established the first Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps unit at Berkeley. The Board of Regents ended compulsory military training at Berkeley in 1962, during the McCarthy era in 1949, the Board of Regents adopted an anti-communist loyalty oath. A number of faculty members objected and were dismissed, ten years passed before they were reinstated with back pay, in 1952, the University of California became an entity separate from the Berkeley campus. Each campus was given autonomy and its own Chancellor. Then-president Sproul assumed presidency of the entire University of California system, Berkeley gained a reputation for student activism in the 1960s with the Free Speech Movement of 1964 and opposition to the Vietnam War. In the highly publicized Peoples Park protest in 1969, students and the school conflicted over use of a plot of land, then governor of California Ronald Reagan called the Berkeley campus a haven for communist sympathizers, protesters, and sex deviants. Modern students at Berkeley are less active, with a greater percentage of moderates and conservatives
33.
Aby Warburg
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At the heart of his research was the legacy of the Classical World, and the transmission of classical representation, in the most varied areas of western culture through to the Renaissance. Warburg described himself as, Amburghese di cuore, ebreo di sangue and his ancestors had come to Germany from Italy in the 17th century and settled in the town of Warburg in Westphalia, taking on the town’s name as their family name. In the 18th century the Warburgs moved to Altona near Hamburg, two brothers Warburg founded the banking firm M. M. Warburg & Co in Hamburg, which today again has an office there. Aby Warburg was the first of seven born to Moritz Warburg, director of the Hamburg bank. Aby Warburg showed an early interest in literature and history and the second eldest son, Max Warburg went into the Hamburg bank, younger brothers Paul, Max Warburg established the Warburg family bank as a global player. Warburg grew up in a conservative Jewish home environment, early on he demonstrated an unstable, unpredictable and volatile temperament. Warburg as a child reacted against the rituals which were punctiliously observed in his family. He did not want to be a rabbi, as his grandmother wished, against the resistance he met with from his relatives, he forced through his plans to study art history. He continued his studies in Munich and with Hubert Janitschek in Strasbourg, completing under him his dissertation on Botticelli’s paintings The Birth of Venus, from 1888 to 1889 he studied the sources of these pictures at the Kunsthistorisches Institut in Florence. He was now interested in applying the methods of science to the human sciences. The dissertation was completed in 1892 and printed in 1893, warburg’s study introduced into art history a new method, that of iconography or iconology, later developed by Erwin Panofsky. After receiving his doctorate Warburg studied for two semesters at the Medical Faculty of the University of Berlin, where he attended lectures on psychology, during this period he undertook a further trip to Florence. Paul Warburg married Nina Loeb, daughter of Solomon Loeb in New York late in 1895 and his long American journey took him to Colorado in winter, to New Mexico and then to Pasadena and Mount Lowe. He met the San Francisco boheme Les Jeunes around Gelett Burgess and then went back to the Pueblos in spring, to the Hopi, before going west, he had met veteran anthropologists James Mooney and Frank Hamilton Cushing at the Smithsonian Institution. Cushing had lived for years with the Zuni in New Mexico, first stop in the west was Mesa Verde to see the Anasazi cliff dwellings. Then he went from Pueblo town to Spanish town, to Cochiti and the Palace Hotel in Santa Fe, to Albuquerque and Acoma, Laguna and San Ildefonso, in Cochiti Warburg spoke to a priest and his son and received a cosmological drawing with a snake at its center. Warburg was fascinated with their still secluded culture, their architecture, ritual, their masks, mennonite missionary Heinrich R. Voth shared his knowledge of Hopi religion. Voth and Warburg saw a Hemis Kachina dance complete with obscene clowning, thanks to Voth he could also observe the preparations for this end-of-winter ceremony
34.
Hayward Gallery
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The Hayward Gallery is an art gallery within the Southbank Centre, part of an area of major arts venues on the South Bank of the River Thames, in central London, England. It is sited adjacent to the other Southbank Centre buildings and also the Royal National Theatre, following a rebranding of the South Bank Centre to Southbank Centre in early 2007, the Hayward Gallery was known as the Hayward until early 2011. The gallery was closed in September 2015, for two years of renovations. The Hayward Gallery was built by Higgs and Hill and opened on 9 July 1968 and its massing and extensive use of exposed concrete construction are typical of Brutalist architecture. Warren Chalk then developed the plan and connective first floor walkways. Alan Waterhouse, then Dennis Crompton, worked on the designs for the Hayward, the building is named after Sir Isaac Hayward, a former leader of the London County Council, the GLCs predecessor. Joanna Drew was the founding Director and Ralph Rugoff is the current Director, the Hayward hosts three/four major temporary modern or contemporary exhibitions each year and does not house any permanent collections. From 1968 to 1986, the gallery was managed by the Arts Council of Great Britain, the gallery is also the base of the Arts Councils National Touring Exhibitions programme, as it was, until 2002, of the Arts Council Collection. Unlike British galleries receiving state funding support, but in common with other exhibitions at British galleries. The Haywards exhibition policy embraces visual art from all periods, and past shows have included the works of Leonardo da Vinci, Edvard Munch and the French Impressionists. It has hosted two surveys of works from the Arts Council Collection, British Art 1940–1980 and How to Improve the World,60 Years of British Art. The design brief was for five gallery spaces, two levels of galleries and three outdoor sculpture courts in order to house the Arts Council collection. The two levels of the open to the public are linked by a pair of cast concrete staircases. These staircases, and lavatories at a level, are accommodated in a concrete box in between the eastern and western parts of the indoor galleries. One of these staircases also runs down to level with access to Belvedere Road. This almost hidden private entrance is located below the foyer and external walkway on the facade, above the car park. The building originally had a small main foyer area with cast aluminium doors similar to those of the Queen Elizabeth Hall. A shop had been added earlier inside the north-west end of the lower gallery, the two upper galleries can use heavily filtered natural light from the glass pyramids on their flat roofs
35.
W. H. Auden
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Wystan Hugh Auden was an English poet, who later became an American citizen. He was born in York, grew up in and near Birmingham in a professional middle-class family and he attended English independent schools and studied English at Christ Church, Oxford. After a few months in Berlin in 1928–29 he spent five years teaching in English public schools, then travelled to Iceland, in 1939 he moved to the United States and became an American citizen in 1946. He taught from 1941 to 1945 in American universities, followed by visiting professorships in the 1950s. From 1947 to 1957 he wintered in New York and summered in Ischia, from 1958 until the end of his life he wintered in New York and summered in Kirchstetten, Austria. Audens poetry was noted for its stylistic and technical achievement, its engagement with politics, morals, love, and religion and he came to wide public attention at the age of twenty-three, in 1930, with his first book, Poems, followed in 1932 by The Orators. Three plays written in collaboration with Christopher Isherwood in 1935–38 built his reputation as a political writer. Auden moved to the United States partly to escape this reputation, and his work in the 1940s, including the long poems For the Time Being and The Sea and the Mirror, focused on religious themes. He won the Pulitzer Prize in Poetry for his 1947 long poem The Age of Anxiety, in 1956–61 he was Professor of Poetry at Oxford, his lectures were popular with students and faculty and served as the basis of his 1962 prose collection The Dyers Hand. From around 1927 to 1939 Auden and Isherwood maintained a lasting, throughout his career he was both controversial and influential, and critical views on his work ranged from sharply dismissive, treating him as a lesser follower of W. B. Yeats and T. S. Eliot, to strongly affirmative, after his death, his poems became known to a much wider public than during his lifetime through films, broadcasts, and popular media. Auden was born in York, England, to George Augustus Auden, a physician, and Constance Rosalie Auden, née Bicknell, who had trained as a missionary nurse. He was the third of three sons, the eldest, George Bernard Auden, became a farmer, while the second, John Bicknell Auden and he traced his love of music and language partly to the church services of his childhood. He believed he was of Icelandic descent, and his fascination with Icelandic legends. In 1908 his family moved to Homer Road, Solihull, near Birmingham, Audens lifelong psychoanalytic interests began in his fathers library. From the age of eight he attended boarding schools, returning home for holidays, until he was fifteen he expected to become a mining engineer, but his passion for words had already begun. He wrote later, words so excite me that a story, for example. Auden attended St Edmunds School, Hindhead, Surrey, where he met Christopher Isherwood, later famous in his own right as a novelist
36.
William Roberts (painter)
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William Roberts RA was a British painter of groups of figures and portraits, and was a war artist in both World War One and World War Two. Son of an Irish carpenter and his wife, Roberts was born in Hackney and he won a London County Council scholarship to the Slade School of Art in 1910. His contemporaries included a number of brilliant young students, among them Dora Carrington, Mark Gertler, Paul Nash, Christopher Nevinson, Stanley Spencer and David Bomberg. Roberts was intrigued by Post-impressionism and Cubism, an interest fuelled by his friendships at the Slade as well as by his travels in France, after leaving Omega he was taken up by Wyndham Lewis, who was forming a British alternative to Futurism. Ezra Pound had suggested the name Vorticism, and Robertss work was featured in editions of the Vorticist literary magazine BLAST. Roberts himself, however, later preferred the description Cubist for his work of this period, in 1916 Roberts enlisted in the Royal Regiment of Artillery as a gunner, serving on the Western Front. Having been told that artists were being chosen to do war paintings for the Canadian War Records Office, he applied and he was subsequently also commissioned by the British Ministry of Information, for whom he painted A Shell Dump, France. His experiences at the front – touched upon in his memoir 4, in 1915 Roberts had met Sarah Kramer, sister of fellow Slade student Jacob Kramer. Sarah appeared constantly in his work thereafter and they married in 1922, and had one son, John David Roberts, who, after studying physics at University College London, became a poet and guitar scholar. In 1922–6 he was commissioned to produce illustrations and decorations for Lawrences Seven Pillars of Wisdom. In 1923 he held his first one-man exhibition, at the Chenil Gallery in Chelsea, London, when the Second World War broke out, in September 1939, Roberts was too old for combat service. He spent the war years in Oxford, where he painted rural scenes. In 1946 he and Sarah returned to London and took a room at 14 St Marks Crescent, targets of earlier visual satires had included Walter Sickert and Roger Fry. To publicise his own work he also published Some Early Abstract and Cubist Work 1913–1920, what kind of art critic is this, who sets out to criticise my pictures, but criticises my gas stove and kitchen table instead. One admirer of his work has told how she saw him getting on to a number 74 bus and Fascinated to gain a sighting of the octogenarian recluse, aided by the chutzpah of youthful inexperience, she respectfully asked him if she were addressing Mr William Roberts. After what felt like a pause, and with his gaze defiantly averted, he replied. In 1961 Roberts received an award from the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation in recognition of his artistic achievement, in that same year he began painting The Vorticists at the Restaurant de la Tour Eiffel, Spring 1915, a nostalgic recollection of a boisterous Vorticist gathering in 1915. A major retrospective of his work, organised by the Arts Council of Great Britain, opened at the Tate Gallery in 1965, and a smaller version was also shown in Newcastle and Manchester
37.
Richard Carline
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Richard Cotton Carline was a British artist, arts administrator and writer. During the First World War, Carline served on the Western Front and in the Middle East, Carline held strong anti-fascist beliefs and also worked to gain appreciation for African art, naive art, child artists and even promote the artistic merits of postcard art. Richard Carline was born in Oxford, the youngest of the five children born to the artist George Francis Carline and Anne Smith and his brother, Sydney Carline and his sister Hilda were also artists, as was his brother-in-law, Stanley Spencer. During the First World War, Carline joined the Middlesex Regiment of the British army in 1916, before transferring to the Royal Flying Corps, RFC and he worked on wireless communications before he was tasked with developing camouflage designs for aeroplanes. After completing a course in aerial gunnery Carline was based, from July 1918, during this time Carline flew Bristol fighters in combat over the front lines. Carline was asked to nominate artists to work as war artists for the RFC. He nominated his own brother, Sydney, who was also in the RFC and had already shot down once. In January 1919 both brothers were sent to the Middle East by the Imperial War Museum, as war artists for the Royal Air Force with a brief to depict aerial combat. The brothers arrived in Port Said in January 1919 and then travelled to Ramleh where they were based with No.1 Squadron of the Australian Flying Corps. From there they moved to Jerusalem and began to travel around the region to other historical and archaeological sites. Near Aleppo they sketched the results of the RAF bombing raids on the Turkish airbase at Rayak. The brothers stayed in Cairo before moving to Baghdad where they remained until the middle of July when they went to Mosul from where the RAF were planning bombing raids against the Kurdish uprising. However, before that action, they were recalled to England for demobilisation, although between them the brothers had enough sketches for twenty-five large paintings the RAF Section of the IWM had no funds left to acquire new paintings. Eventually the Museum paid Richard for three finished paintings and bought four from Sydney, the brothers were allowed to keep the 300 plus sketches they had made in the Middle East and these formed the basis of their successful Groupil Gallery exhibition in March 1920. In 1920 Richard was elected to the London Group, throughout 1928, he undertook an extensive lecture tour of north America. In 1931 Carline held his first one-man exhibition at the Groupil Gallery, the Carline family home in Hampstead became the centre of an artistic circle that included Henry Lamb, Stanley Spencer, Mark Gertler and John Nash. Carlines 1925 painting Gathering on the Terrace at 47 Downshire Hill, Hampstead depicted several of these, in 1935, with Michael Sadler, Carline wrote a book entitled Arts of West Africa and organized an accompanying exhibition on the subject. Carline was active in the Artists International Association and during 1937 and 1938 he spent time in Mexico, in the run-up to World War Two, in 1938, Carline was among the founding members of the Artists Refugee Committee in Hampstead
38.
Maggi Hambling
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Maggi Hambling CBE is a British contemporary painter and sculptor. Perhaps her best-known public works are a sculpture for Oscar Wilde in central London and Scallop, both works have attracted a great degree of controversy. Hambling first studied art under Yvonne Drewry at the Amberfield School in Nacton, in 1980 Hambling became the first Artist in Residence at the National Gallery, London, after which she produced a series of portraits of the comedian Max Wall. Wall responded to Hamblings request to paint him with a saying, Re, painting little me. She has taught at Wimbledon School of Art, in 1995, she was awarded the Jerwood Painting Prize. In the same year she was awarded an OBE for her services to painting, Hamblings celebrated series of North Sea paintings have continued since late 2002. Portraits form part of Hamblings oeuvre, with works in the National Portrait Gallery. Women feature prominently in her portrait series, for example, Hambling was commissioned by the National Portrait Gallery to paint Professor Dorothy Hodgkin in 1985. The portrait features the Professor Hodgkin at a desk with four hands all engaged in different tasks and her wider body of work is held in many public collections including the British Museum, Tate Collection, National Gallery, Scottish Gallery of Modern Art and the Victoria and Albert Museum. In 2013, she exhibited at Snape during the Aldeburgh Festival, in 1998, she met and created charcoal portraits of her partner Henrietta Moraes in the last year of her life. As of November 2016 she lives with her partner of 33 years, Hambling gave up smoking in 2004 and was involved in the campaign against the total ban on smoking in public places in England which took effect on 1 July 2007. Speaking at a conference at the House of Commons on 7 February 2007, she said. Just because I gave up at 59, other people may not to. There must be freedom of choice, something that is fast disappearing in this so-called free country and she took up smoking again on her 65th birthday but only the ones that smell of toothpaste. In August 2014, Hambling was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to The Guardian opposing Scottish independence in the run-up to Septembers referendum on that issue
39.
Frank Auerbach
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Frank Helmut Auerbach is a German-British painter. Born in Germany, he has been a naturalised British citizen since 1947, Auerbach was born in Berlin, the son of Max Auerbach, a patent lawyer, and Charlotte Nora Burchardt, who had trained as an artist. Aged seven, Auerbach left Germany via Hamburg on 4 April 1939, left behind in Germany, Auerbachs parents later died in a concentration camp in 1942. In Britain, Auerbach became a pupil at Bunce Court School, near Faversham in Kent, indeed, he almost became an actor, even taking a small role in Peter Ustinovs play House of Regrets at the Unity Theatre in St Pancras, at the age of 17. But his interest in art proved a stronger draw and he began studying in London, first at St Martins School of Art from 1948 to 1952, and at the Royal College of Art from 1952 to 1955. From 1955, he began teaching in schools, but quickly moved into the visiting tutor circuit at numerous art schools, including Ravensbourne, Ealing, Sidcup. However, he was most frequently to be teaching at Camberwell School of Art. This show then toured, with additional works, to the Museum Folkwang, Essen. Exhibitions were also held at the Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam, in 1989, the Yale Center for British Art, New Haven, in 1991, and the National Gallery, London, in 1995. Auerbach was the subject of a film entitled Frank Auerbach, To the Studio, directed by Hannah Rothschild. This was first broadcast on the arts programme Omnibus on 10 November 2001, david Bowie bought and owned Auerbachs Head of Gerda Boehm as part of his private collection. After Bowies death in 2016, this piece was among many put up for auction in November 2016, Auerbach is a figurative painter, who focuses on portraits and city scenes in and around the area of London in which he lives, Camden Town. Although sometimes described as expressionistic, Auerbach is not an expressionist painter, in this the experience of the world is seen as essentially chaotic with the role of the artist being to impose an order upon that chaos and record that order in the painting. This ambition with the results in Auerbach developing intense relationships with particular subjects, particularly the people he paints. Speaking on this in 2001 he stated, If you pass something every day and it has a little character, it begins to intrigue you. This simple statement belies the intensity of the relationship develops between Auerbach and his subjects, which results in an astonishing desire to produce an image the artist considers right. It is in fact applied in a short space of time. Again a similar obsession with specific subjects, and a desire to return to them to try again is discernable in this use of the same models, a strong emphasis in Auerbachs work is its relationship to the history of art