1.
Synthesizer
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A synthesizer is an electronic musical instrument that generates electric signals that are converted to sound through instrument amplifiers and loudspeakers or headphones. Synthesizers may either imitate instruments like piano, Hammond organ, flute, vocals, natural sounds like ocean waves, etc. or generate new electronic timbres. Synthesizers without built-in controllers are called sound modules, and are controlled via USB, MIDI or CV/gate using a controller device. Synthesizers use various methods to generate electronic signals, synthesizers were first used in pop music in the 1960s. In the 1970s, synths were used in disco, especially in the late 1970s, in the 1980s, the invention of the relatively inexpensive, mass market Yamaha DX7 synth made synthesizers widely available. 1980s pop and dance music often made use of synthesizers. In the 2010s, synthesizers are used in genres of pop, rock. Contemporary classical music composers from the 20th and 21st century write compositions for synthesizer, the beginnings of the synthesizer are difficult to trace, as it is difficult to draw a distinction between synthesizers and some early electric or electronic musical instruments. One of the earliest electric musical instruments, the telegraph, was invented in 1876 by American electrical engineer Elisha Gray. He accidentally discovered the sound generation from a self-vibrating electromechanical circuit and this musical telegraph used steel reeds with oscillations created by electromagnets transmitted over a telegraph line. Gray also built a simple loudspeaker device into later models, consisting of a diaphragm in a magnetic field. This instrument was a remote electromechanical musical instrument that used telegraphy, though it lacked an arbitrary sound-synthesis function, some have erroneously called it the first synthesizer. In 1897, Thaddeus Cahill invented the Teleharmonium, which used dynamos, and was capable of additive synthesis like the Hammond organ, however, Cahills business was unsuccessful for various reasons, and similar but more compact instruments were subsequently developed, such as electronic and tonewheel organs. In 1906, American engineer, Lee De Forest ushered in the electronics age and he invented the first amplifying vacuum tube, called the Audion tube. This led to new entertainment technologies, including radio and sound films, ondes Martenot and Trautonium were continuously developed for several decades, finally developing qualities similar to later synthesizers. In the 1920s, Arseny Avraamov developed various systems of graphic sonic art, in 1938, USSR engineer Yevgeny Murzin designed a compositional tool called ANS, one of the earliest real-time additive synthesizers using optoelectronics. The earliest polyphonic synthesizers were developed in Germany and the United States, during the three years that Hammond manufactured this model,1,069 units were shipped, but production was discontinued at the start of World War II. Both instruments were the forerunners of the electronic organs and polyphonic synthesizers
2.
Computer Music Center
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The Computer Music Center at Columbia University is the oldest center for electronic and computer music research in the United States. The Center was founded in the 1950s as the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center, the CMC is housed in Prentis Hall,632 West 125th Street, New York City, across the street from Columbias new 17-acre Manhattanville campus. The facility consists of a graduate research facility specializing in computer music and multimedia research, as well as a number of composition. Projects to come out of the CMC since the 1990s include, originally concerned with experiments in music composition involving the new technology of reel-to-reel tape, the studio soon branched out into all areas of electronic music research. The Center was officially established with a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation in 1959 which was used to finance the acquisition of the RCA Mark II Sound Synthesizer from its owner, RCA. The flagship piece of Center equipment, the RCA Mark II Sound Synthesizer, was delivered to the Center in 1957 after it was developed to Ussachevsky, the RCA were re-housed in Prentis Hall, a building off the main Columbia campus on 125th Street. In 1961 Columbia Records released an album titled simply Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center, the Center also acted as a consulting agency for other electronic music studios in the Western Hemisphere, giving them advice on optimum studio design and helping them to purchase equipment, etc. The staff engineers at the Center under Peter Mauzey developed a variety of customized equipment designed to solve the needs of the composers working at the center. These include early prototypes of tape delay machines, quadraphonic mixing consoles, the Center also had a large collection of Buchla, Moog, and Serge Modular synthesizers. By the late 1970s the Electronic Music Center was rapidly nearing obsolescence as the classical analog tape techniques it used were being surpassed by parallel work in the field of computer music. The original Columbia facility was re-organized in 1995 under the leadership of Brad Garton and was renamed the Columbia University Computer Music Center and it is six floors and covers 121,752 square feet. Columbia acquired it in 1949 and had used it for a chemical engineering laboratory. The architect was Frank A. Rooke
3.
Harry Olson
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Harry Ferdinand Olson was a prominent engineer at RCA Victor and a pioneer in the field of 20th century acoustical engineering. Harry F. Olson was born in Mount Pleasant, Iowa to Swedish immigrant parents, technically inclined from an early age, he built and flew model airplanes, constructed a steam engine and invented a wood-fired boiler that drove a 100-volt DC generator. Olson designed and built a radio transmitter, gaining enough proficiency to be granted an operators license. Immediately after completing his course of study in 1928, Olson moved to New Jersey to work for RCA Laboratories, Olson would remain at RCA for almost four decades. Olson had a continuing interest in music, acoustics, and sound reproduction, after the war Olson, along with Herbert Belar, developed the first modern electronic synthesizer. Equipped with electron tubes, the Mark II Sound Synthesizer was used to compose music and he also authored 135 articles and ten books including an interdisciplinary text charting the dynamical analogies between electrical, acoustical and mechanical systems. In 1949, Olson was honored by being the first recipient of the Audio Engineering Societys John H. Potts Memorial Award, an award program which was later renamed the Gold Medal. In 1953-4 Olson served as president of the Acoustical Society of America, which awarded him the very first Silver Medal in Engineering Acoustics in 1974 and the Gold Medal in 1981. He won the IEEE Lamme Medal in 1970, was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1959, Olson retired from RCA in 1967, continuing as a consultant for RCA Laboratories. Shortly after World War II, Dr. Olson conducted an experiment, now considered a classic, previous experimenters had found that listeners seemed to prefer a high-frequency cutoff of 5000 Hz for reproduced music. Dr. Olson suspected that this was due to imperfections in the sound, especially in the higher frequencies. These imperfections included clicks and pops, added noise, hiss and harmonic distortion, if the sound was free of these problems, he reasoned, listeners would prefer full frequency reproduction. In his experiment, he set up a room which was divided diagonally by a visually opaque, the screen incorporated a concealed low-pass acoustical filter having an upper frequency cutoff of 5000 Hz. This filter could be opened or closed, allowing either the range of frequencies to pass or the range only below 5000 Hz. At first, a small orchestra sat and performed on one side of the screen, while a group of test subjects sat on the other, the listeners were asked to select their preference between two conditions, full bandwidth or restricted bandwidth. There was overwhelming preference in favor of the full bandwidth, next, the orchestra was replaced with a sound-reproduction system with loudspeakers positioned behind the screen instead. When the sound system was free of distortion, the listeners preferred the full bandwidth, but when he introduced small amounts of nonlinear distortion, the subjects preferred a restricted bandwidth, thus demonstrating clearly the importance of high quality in audio systems. The design and manufacture of everything from microphones, to tape recorders, vinyl records, amplifiers, harry F. Olson was born in Mt. Pleasant, Iowa, on December 18,1901
4.
RCA
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RCA Corporation, founded as the Radio Corporation of America, was an American electronics company in existence from 1919 to 1986. General Electric took over the company in late 1985 and split it up the following year, after World War I began in August 1914, radio traffic across the Atlantic Ocean increased dramatically after the western Allies cut the German transatlantic telegraph cables. In 1917 the government of the United States took charge of the owned by the major companies involved in radio manufacture in the United States to devote radio technology to the war effort. All production of equipment was allocated to the U. S. Army, U. S. Navy, U. S. Marine Corps. The War Department and the Navy Department sought to maintain a monopoly of all uses of radio technology. The wartime takeover of all radio systems ended late in 1918, the war ended in November of that year. The ending of the governments monopoly in radio communications did not prevent the War. On 8 April 1919, naval Admiral W. H. G. Bullard, the proposal presented by the government was that if GE created an American-owned radio company, then the Army and Navy would effect a monopoly of long-distance radio communications via this company. This marked the beginning of a series of negotiations through which GE would buy the American Marconi company, the Army and the Navy granted RCA the former American Marconi radio terminals that had been confiscated during the War. Admiral Bullard received a seat on the Board of Directors of RCA for his efforts in establishing RCA, the result was federally-created monopolies in radio for GE and the Westinghouse Corporation and in telephone systems for the American Telephone & Telegraph Company. The first chief officer of RCA was Owen D. Young. RCAs incorporation papers required that a majority of its stock be held by American citizens, as the years went on, RCA either took over, or produced for itself, a large number of patents, including that of the superheterodyne receiver invented by Edwin Armstrong. Over the years, RCA continued to operate international services, under its subsidiary RCA Communications, Inc. GE used RCA as its retail arm for radio sales from 1919, Westinghouse also marketed home radios through RCA until 1930. In 1929, RCA purchased the Victor Talking Machine Company, then the worlds largest manufacturer of phonographs and this included a majority ownership of the Victor Company of Japan. The new subsidiary then became RCA Victor, with Victor, RCA acquired New World rights to the Nipper His Masters Voice trademark. This trademark is used by the British music & entertainment company HMV. RCA began selling the first electronic turntable in 1930, in 1931, RCA Victor began selling 33⅓ rpm records
5.
Columbia University
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Columbia University is a private Ivy League research university in Upper Manhattan, New York City. It was established in 1754 as Kings College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain, after the American Revolutionary War, Kings College briefly became a state entity, and was renamed Columbia College in 1784. Columbia is one of the fourteen founding members of the Association of American Universities and was the first school in the United States to grant the M. D. degree. The university also has global research outposts in Amman, Beijing, Istanbul, Paris, Mumbai, Rio de Janeiro, Santiago, Asunción, Columbia administers annually the Pulitzer Prize. Additionally,100 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Columbia as students, researchers, faculty, Columbia is second only to Harvard University in the number of Nobel Prize-winning affiliates, with over 100 recipients of the award as of 2016. In 1746 an act was passed by the assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college. Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the colleges first president, Dr. Johnson was the only instructor of the colleges first class, which consisted of a mere eight students. Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse adjoining Trinity Church, located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan, in 1763, Dr. Johnson was succeeded in the presidency by Myles Cooper, a graduate of The Queens College, Oxford, and an ardent Tory. In the charged political climate of the American Revolution, his opponent in discussions at the college was an undergraduate of the class of 1777. The suspension continued through the occupation of New York City by British troops until their departure in 1783. The colleges library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a hospital first by American. Loyalists were forced to abandon their Kings College in New York, the Loyalists, led by Bishop Charles Inglis fled to Windsor, Nova Scotia, where they founded Kings Collegiate School. After the Revolution, the college turned to the State of New York in order to restore its vitality, the Legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1,1784, it passed an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called Kings College. The Regents finally became aware of the colleges defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee, in April of that same year, a new charter was adopted for the college, still in use today, granting power to a private board of 24 Trustees. On May 21,1787, William Samuel Johnson, the son of Dr. Samuel Johnson, was unanimously elected President of Columbia College, prior to serving at the university, Johnson had participated in the First Continental Congress and been chosen as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. The colleges enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century, with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned. In 1857, the college moved from the Kings College campus at Park Place to a primarily Gothic Revival campus on 49th Street and Madison Avenue, during the last half of the 19th century, under the leadership of President F. A. P. Barnard, the institution assumed the shape of a modern university
6.
Sound synthesis
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A synthesizer is an electronic musical instrument that generates electric signals that are converted to sound through instrument amplifiers and loudspeakers or headphones. Synthesizers may either imitate instruments like piano, Hammond organ, flute, vocals, natural sounds like ocean waves, etc. or generate new electronic timbres. Synthesizers without built-in controllers are called sound modules, and are controlled via USB, MIDI or CV/gate using a controller device. Synthesizers use various methods to generate electronic signals, synthesizers were first used in pop music in the 1960s. In the 1970s, synths were used in disco, especially in the late 1970s, in the 1980s, the invention of the relatively inexpensive, mass market Yamaha DX7 synth made synthesizers widely available. 1980s pop and dance music often made use of synthesizers. In the 2010s, synthesizers are used in genres of pop, rock. Contemporary classical music composers from the 20th and 21st century write compositions for synthesizer, the beginnings of the synthesizer are difficult to trace, as it is difficult to draw a distinction between synthesizers and some early electric or electronic musical instruments. One of the earliest electric musical instruments, the telegraph, was invented in 1876 by American electrical engineer Elisha Gray. He accidentally discovered the sound generation from a self-vibrating electromechanical circuit and this musical telegraph used steel reeds with oscillations created by electromagnets transmitted over a telegraph line. Gray also built a simple loudspeaker device into later models, consisting of a diaphragm in a magnetic field. This instrument was a remote electromechanical musical instrument that used telegraphy, though it lacked an arbitrary sound-synthesis function, some have erroneously called it the first synthesizer. In 1897, Thaddeus Cahill invented the Teleharmonium, which used dynamos, and was capable of additive synthesis like the Hammond organ, however, Cahills business was unsuccessful for various reasons, and similar but more compact instruments were subsequently developed, such as electronic and tonewheel organs. In 1906, American engineer, Lee De Forest ushered in the electronics age and he invented the first amplifying vacuum tube, called the Audion tube. This led to new entertainment technologies, including radio and sound films, ondes Martenot and Trautonium were continuously developed for several decades, finally developing qualities similar to later synthesizers. In the 1920s, Arseny Avraamov developed various systems of graphic sonic art, in 1938, USSR engineer Yevgeny Murzin designed a compositional tool called ANS, one of the earliest real-time additive synthesizers using optoelectronics. The earliest polyphonic synthesizers were developed in Germany and the United States, during the three years that Hammond manufactured this model,1,069 units were shipped, but production was discontinued at the start of World War II. Both instruments were the forerunners of the electronic organs and polyphonic synthesizers
7.
Rockefeller Foundation
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The Rockefeller Foundation is a private foundation based at 420 Fifth Avenue, New York City. It was established by the six-generation Rockefeller family, the Foundation was started by Standard Oil owner John D. Rockefeller, along with his son John D. Rockefeller Jr. Its stated mission is promoting the well-being of humanity throughout the world, as of 2015, the Foundation was ranked as the 39th largest U. S. foundation by total giving. By year-end 2008 assets were tallied at $3.1 billion from $4.6 billion in 2007, on January 5,2017, the Board of Trustees announced the unanimous selection of Dr. Rajiv Shah to serve as the 13th president of the foundation. Shah became the youngest person, at 43, and first-ever Indian-American to serve as president of the foundation. He assumed the position March 1, succeeding Dr. Judith Rodin who served as president for twelve years and announced her retirement, at age 71. Rodin in turn had succeeded Gordon Conway in 2005, a former president of the University of Pennsylvania, Rodin was the first woman to head the foundation. It was in that year he gave the first $100,000 to fund the University of Chicago, over the next two decades, $35 million dollars were gifted to the institution by Rockefeller. It was also in 1906 that the Russell Sage Foundation was established, though its program was limited to working women, Rockefellers would thus not be the first foundation in America, but it brought to it unprecedented international scale and scope. On May 14,1913, New York Governor William Sulzer approved a charter for the foundation - two years after the Carnegie Corporation - with Junior becoming the first president. With its large-scale endowment, a part of Seniors fortune was insulated from inheritance taxes. On December 5, the Board made its first grant of $100,000 to the American Red Cross to purchase property for its headquarters in Washington, D. C. At the beginning the foundation was global in its approach and concentrated in its first decade entirely on the sciences, public health and medical education. In 1913 the foundation set up the International Health Commission, the first appropriation of funds for work outside the US and its early field research on hookworm, malaria, and yellow fever provided the basic techniques to control these diseases and established the pattern of modern public health services. In 1913 it also began a 20-year support program of the Bureau of Social Hygiene, whose mission was research and education on birth control, maternal health and sex education. Also in 1914, the set up a new Department of Industrial Relations. The foundation henceforth confined itself to funding responsible organizations involved in this and other controversial fields, during its first few years of work, the LSRM awarded funds primarily to social workers, with its funding decisions guided primarily by John D. Rockefeller Jr. In January 1929, LSRM funds were folded into the Rockefeller Foundation, John D. Rockefeller Jr. became the foundation chairman in 1917
8.
Telharmonium
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The Telharmonium was an early electrical organ, developed by Thaddeus Cahill circa 1896 and patented in 1897. The electrical signal from the Telharmonium was transmitted over wires, it was heard on the end by means of horn speakers. Like the later Hammond organ, the Telharmonium used tonewheels to generate musical sounds as electrical signals by additive synthesis and it is considered to be the first synthetic instrument due to its ability to generate sounds electromechanically because the sound is produced by moving parts rather than electronic oscillators. Cahill built three versions, The Mark I version weighed 7 tons, the Mark II version weighed almost 200 tons, as did the Mark III. Each was an advancement over the features of its predecessor. A small number of performances in front of an audience were given in addition to the telephone transmissions. Performances in New York City were well received by the public in 1906, the Telharmonium foreshadowed modern electronic musical equipment in a number of ways. For instance, its sound came in the form of connecting ordinary telephone receivers to large paper cones — a primitive form of loudspeaker. Indeed, Cahill was noted for saying that electromagnetic diaphragms were the most preferable means of outputting its distinctive sound, the Telharmoniums demise came for a number of reasons. Its immense size, weight and power consumption caused obvious problems, in addition, problems began to arise when telephone broadcasts of Telharmonium music were subject to crosstalk and unsuspecting telephone users would be interrupted by strange electronic music. By 1912, interest in this instrument had changed. Cahill died in 1934, his brother retained the Mark I for decades. This was the last version to be scrapped, in 1962, Telharmonium tones are clear and pure — referring to the electronic sine wave tones it was capable of producing. However, it was not restricted to such simple sounds, each tonewheel of the instrument corresponded to a single note, and, to broaden its possibilities, Cahill added several extra tonewheels to add harmonics to each note. The Telharmonium needed 670 kilowatts of power and had 153 keys that allowed it to work properly, refining Sound, A Practical Guide to Synthesis and Synthesizers. Patent Telharmonium, Audion Piano, Luigi Russsolo et les bruitistes sonhors. free. fr, French The Telharmonium the Telharmonium on 120 years Of Electronic Music
9.
Theremin
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The theremin is an early electronic musical instrument controlled without physical contact by the thereminist. It is named after the Westernized name of its Russian inventor, Léon Theremin, the electric signals from the theremin are amplified and sent to a loudspeaker. The theremin was used in soundtracks such as Miklós Rózsas Spellbound, The Lost Weekend. It has also used in theme songs for television shows such as the ITV drama Midsomer Murders. This has led to its association with eerie situations, Theremins are also used in concert music and in popular music genres such as rock. The theremin was originally the product of Soviet government-sponsored research into proximity sensors, the instrument was invented by a young Russian physicist named Lev Sergeyevich Termen in October 1920 after the outbreak of the Russian Civil War. After a lengthy tour of Europe, during which time he demonstrated his invention to packed houses, Theremin moved to the United States, subsequently, Theremin granted commercial production rights to RCA. Although the RCA Thereminvox, was not a success, it fascinated audiences in America. Clara Rockmore, a well-known thereminist, toured to wide acclaim, performing a repertoire in concert halls around the United States. In 1938, Theremin left the United States, though the circumstances related to his departure are in dispute. Many accounts claim he was taken from his New York City apartment by NKVD agents, taken back to the Soviet Union and made to work in a sharashka laboratory prison camp at Magadan, in any case, Theremin did not return to the United States until 1991. However, a niche interest in the theremin persisted, mostly among electronics enthusiasts, one of these electronics enthusiasts, Robert Moog, began building theremins in the 1950s, while he was a high-school student. Moog subsequently published a number of articles about building theremins, Moog credited what he learned from the experience as leading directly to his groundbreaking synthesizer, the Moog. Since the release of the film Theremin, An Electronic Odyssey in 1994, even though many theremin sounds can be approximated on many modern synthesizers, some musicians continue to appreciate the expressiveness, novelty, and uniqueness of using an actual theremin. The film itself has garnered excellent reviews, both theremin instruments and kits are available from manufacturers such as Moog Music Inc. Burns Theremins, Harrison Instruments, Inc. Theremaniacs LLC, PAiA Corporation USA, and Jaycar Electronics, the theremin is distinguished among musical instruments in that it is played without physical contact. The thereminist stands in front of the instrument and moves his or her hands in the proximity of two metal antennas, the distance from one antenna determines frequency, and the distance from the other controls amplitude. Higher notes are played by moving the hand closer to the pitch antenna, louder notes are played by moving the hand away from the volume antenna
10.
Music sequencer
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This software also improved on the quality of the earlier sequencers which tended to be mechanical sounding and were only able to play back notes of exactly equal duration. Software-based sequencers allowed musicians to program performances that were more expressive and these new sequencers could also be used to control external synthesizers, especially rackmounted sound modules, and it was no longer necessary for each synthesizer to have its own devoted keyboard. As the technology matured, sequencers gained more features, such as the ability to record multitrack audio, Sequencers used for audio recording are called digital audio workstations. Many modern sequencers can be used to control virtual instruments implemented as software plug-ins and this allows musicians to replace expensive and cumbersome standalone synthesizers with their software equivalents. Today the term sequencer is used to describe software. Workstation keyboards have their own proprietary built-in MIDI sequencers, drum machines and some older synthesizers have their own step sequencer built in. There are still also standalone hardware MIDI sequencers, although the demand for those has diminished greatly due to the greater feature set of their software counterparts. Music sequencers are often categorized by handling data types, as following, or, the phrase samplers including Groove machines, etc. Also, music sequencer can be categorized by its construction and supporting modes, realtime sequencers record the musical notes in real-time as on audio recorders, and play back musical notes with designated tempo, quantizations, and pitch. For editing, usually punch in/punch out feature originated in the recording is provided. For detailed editing, possibly another visual editing modes under graphical user interface may be more suitable, anyway, this mode provides usability similar to the audio recorder already familiarized by musicians, and it is widely supported on software sequencer, DAW, and built-in hardware sequencers. Analog sequencers are typically implemented with analog electronics, and play the musical notes designated by a series of knobs or sliders corresponding to each musical note and it is designed for both composition and live performance, users can change the musical notes at any time without regarding recording mode. And also possibly, the time-interval between each note can be independently adjustable. Typically, analog sequencer is used to generate the repeated minimalistic phrases which is reminiscent of Tangerine Dream, on the bass machines, select a step note from a chromatic keypads, then select a step duration from a group of length-buttons, sequentially. In general, step mode, along with roughly quantized semi-realtime mode, is supported on the analog drum machines, bass machines. Software sequencer is a class of application software providing a functionality of music sequencer, the features provided as sequencers vary widely depending on the software, even an analog sequencer can be simulated. The user may control the software sequencer either by using the user interfaces or a specialized input devices. The early music sequencers were sound producing devices such as musical instruments, music boxes, mechanical organs, player pianos
11.
Composer
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A composer is a person who creates or writes music, which can be vocal music, instrumental music or music which combines both instruments and voices. The core meaning of the term refers to individuals who have contributed to the tradition of Western classical music through creation of works expressed in written musical notation, many composers are also skilled performers, either as singers, instrumentalists, and/or conductors. Examples of composers who are well known for their ability as performers include J. S. Bach, Mozart. In many popular genres, such as rock and country. For a singer or instrumental performer, the process of deciding how to perform music that has previously composed and notated is termed interpretation. Different performers interpretations of the work of music can vary widely, in terms of the tempos that are chosen. Composers and songwriters who present their own music are interpreting, just as much as those who perform the music of others, although a musical composition often has a single author, this is not always the case. A piece of music can also be composed with words, images, or, in the 20th and 21st century, a culture eventually developed whereby faithfulness to the composers written intention came to be highly valued. This musical culture is almost certainly related to the esteem in which the leading classical composers are often held by performers. The movement might be considered a way of creating greater faithfulness to the original in works composed at a time that expected performers to improvise. In Classical music, the composer typically orchestrates her own compositions, in some cases, a pop songwriter may not use notation at all, and instead compose the song in her mind and then play or record it from memory. In jazz and popular music, notable recordings by influential performers are given the weight that written scores play in classical music. The level of distinction between composers and other musicians varies, which issues such as copyright and the deference given to individual interpretations of a particular piece of music. In the development of European classical music, the function of composing music initially did not have greater importance than that of performing it. The preservation of individual compositions did not receive attention and musicians generally had no qualms about modifying compositions for performance. In as much as the role of the composer in western art music has seen continued solidification, for instance, in certain contexts the line between composer and performer, sound designer, arranger, producer, and other roles, can be quite blurred. The term composer is often used to refer to composers of music, such as those found in classical, jazz or other forms of art. In popular and folk music, the composer is usually called a songwriter and this is distinct from a 19th-century conception of instrumental composition, where the work was represented solely by a musical score to be interpreted by performers
12.
Magnetic tape
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Magnetic tape is a medium for magnetic recording, made of a thin, magnetizable coating on a long, narrow strip of plastic film. It was developed in Germany, based on magnetic wire recording, devices that record and play back audio and video using magnetic tape are tape recorders and video tape recorders. A device that stores data on magnetic tape is a tape drive. Magnetic tape revolutionized broadcast and recording, when all radio was live, it allowed programming to be recorded. At a time when gramophone records were recorded in one take, it allowed recordings to be made in multiple parts, which were then mixed and edited with tolerable loss in quality. It was a key technology in computer development, allowing unparalleled amounts of data to be mechanically created, stored for long periods. Nowadays, other technologies can perform the functions of magnetic tape, in many cases, these technologies are replacing tape. Despite this, innovation in the technology continues, and Sony, over years, magnetic tape made in the 1970s and 1980s can suffer from a type of deterioration called sticky-shed syndrome. Caused by hydrolysis of the binder of the tape, it can render the tape unusable, the oxide side of a tape is the surface that can be magnetically manipulated by a tape head. This is the side that stores the information, the side is simply a substrate to hold the tape together. The name originates from the fact that the side of most tapes is made of an oxide of iron. Magnetic tape was invented for recording sound by Fritz Pfleumer in 1928 in Germany, based on the invention of magnetic wire recording by Oberlin Smith in 1888, pfleumers invention used a ferric oxide powder coating on a long strip of paper. This invention was developed by the German electronics company AEG, which manufactured the recording machines and BASF. In 1933, working for AEG, Eduard Schuller developed the ring-shaped tape head, previous head designs were needle-shaped and tended to shred the tape. An important discovery made in this period was the technique of AC biasing, due to the escalating political tensions, and the outbreak of World War II, these developments were largely kept secret. A wide variety of recorders and formats have developed since, most significantly reel-to-reel, the practice of recording and editing audio using magnetic tape rapidly established itself as an obvious improvement over previous methods. Many saw the potential of making the same improvements in recording television, television signals are similar to audio signals. A major difference is that video signals use more bandwidth than audio signals, existing audio tape recorders could not practically capture a video signal
13.
Binary number
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The base-2 system is a positional notation with a radix of 2. Because of its implementation in digital electronic circuitry using logic gates. Each digit is referred to as a bit, the modern binary number system was devised by Gottfried Leibniz in 1679 and appears in his article Explication de lArithmétique Binaire. Systems related to binary numbers have appeared earlier in multiple cultures including ancient Egypt, China, Leibniz was specifically inspired by the Chinese I Ching. The scribes of ancient Egypt used two different systems for their fractions, Egyptian fractions and Horus-Eye fractions, the method used for ancient Egyptian multiplication is also closely related to binary numbers. This method can be seen in use, for instance, in the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, the I Ching dates from the 9th century BC in China. The binary notation in the I Ching is used to interpret its quaternary divination technique and it is based on taoistic duality of yin and yang. Eight trigrams and a set of 64 hexagrams, analogous to the three-bit and six-bit binary numerals, were in use at least as early as the Zhou Dynasty of ancient China. The Song Dynasty scholar Shao Yong rearranged the hexagrams in a format that resembles modern binary numbers, the Indian scholar Pingala developed a binary system for describing prosody. He used binary numbers in the form of short and long syllables, Pingalas Hindu classic titled Chandaḥśāstra describes the formation of a matrix in order to give a unique value to each meter. The binary representations in Pingalas system increases towards the right, the residents of the island of Mangareva in French Polynesia were using a hybrid binary-decimal system before 1450. Slit drums with binary tones are used to encode messages across Africa, sets of binary combinations similar to the I Ching have also been used in traditional African divination systems such as Ifá as well as in medieval Western geomancy. The base-2 system utilized in geomancy had long been applied in sub-Saharan Africa. Leibnizs system uses 0 and 1, like the modern binary numeral system, Leibniz was first introduced to the I Ching through his contact with the French Jesuit Joachim Bouvet, who visited China in 1685 as a missionary. Leibniz saw the I Ching hexagrams as an affirmation of the universality of his own beliefs as a Christian. Binary numerals were central to Leibnizs theology and he believed that binary numbers were symbolic of the Christian idea of creatio ex nihilo or creation out of nothing. Is not easy to impart to the pagans, is the ex nihilo through Gods almighty power. In 1854, British mathematician George Boole published a paper detailing an algebraic system of logic that would become known as Boolean algebra
14.
Paper tape
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Punched tape or perforated paper tape is a form of data storage, consisting of a long strip of paper in which holes are punched to store data. Paper tapes constructed from punched cards were used throughout the 19th century for controlling looms. Perforated paper tapes were first used by Basile Bouchon in 1725 to control looms, however, the paper tapes were expensive to create, fragile, and difficult to repair. By 1801 Joseph Marie Jacquard had developed machines to paper tapes by tying punched cards in a sequence. The resulting paper tape, also called a chain of cards, was stronger and simpler both to create and to repair and this led to the concept of communicating data not as a stream of individual cards, but one continuous card, or a tape. In 1846, Alexander Bain used punched tape to send telegrams, in 1880s, Tolbert Lanston invented a Monotype System, which consisted of a keyboard and a composition caster. The tape, punched with the keyboard, was read by the caster. The tape reader used compressed air, which passed through the holes and was directed into certain mechanisms of the caster, the system went into commercial use in 1897 and was in production well into 1970s, undergoing several changes along the way. Data were represented by the presence or absence of a hole at a particular location, tapes originally had five rows of holes for data. Later tapes had 6,7 and 8 rows, an early electro-mechanical calculating machine, the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator or Harvard Mark I, used paper tape with 24 rows. A row of smaller sprocket holes that were always punched served to feed the tape, later optical readers used the sprocket holes to generate timing pulses. The sprocket holes are a bit to one side, making it clear which way to orient the tape in the reader, text was encoded in several ways. The earliest standard character encoding was Baudot, which dates back to the century and had 5 holes. The Baudot code was never used in teleprinters, instead, modifications such as the Murray code, Western Union code, International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2, and American Teletypewriter code, were used, other standards, such as Teletypesetter, FIELDATA and Flexowriter, had 6 holes. In the early 1960s, the American Standards Association led a project to develop a code for data processing. This 7-level code was adopted by some users, including AT&T. Others, such as Telex. Tape for punching was 0.00394 inches thick, the two most common widths were 11/16 inch for five bit codes, and 1 inch for tapes with six or more bits
15.
Player piano
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The rise of the player piano grew with the rise of the mass-produced piano for the home in the late 19th and early 20th century. Sales peaked in 1924, then declined as the improvement in phonograph recordings due to electrical recording methods developed in the mid-1920s. The idea of musical devices can be traced back many centuries. These devices were later extended to operate musical boxes, which contain a set of tuned metal teeth plucked by the player mechanism, an early musical instrument to be automated was the organ, which is comparatively easy to operate automatically. The power for the notes is provided by air from a system. The playing task is performed by a pinned barrel. The piano is an instrument, requiring each note to be struck with a different force to control the dynamics of the performance. The entire force required to sound the note must be given by the hitting the keys. It proved to be difficult for a device to combine a variable percussive force. Barrels do not provide a force, but a relatively gentle switching motion. Early barrel pianos moved the back and forwards continuously as the operator turned the handle. The hammers hit repeatedly until the pin was removed and this played the note, but at a fixed dynamic and with a tremolo action quite unlike a pianist. The development of the piano was the gradual overcoming of the various difficulties of controlled percussive striking. The earliest practical piano playing device was probably the Forneaux Pianista and this bellows struck the piano key and so played the note. The acceleration of developments leading to the player device started in the 1840s. The start of the period can probably be seen as the Centennial Exposition of 1876 in Philadelphia. At this exhibition were a number of automatic devices, including the Pianista. The earliest description of a piano playing device using perforated paper rolls was Claude Seytres French patent of 1842, the concept was sound, but the device described was impractical in the way it read the roll and operated the piano
16.
Shellac
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Shellac is a resin secreted by the female lac bug, on trees in the forests of India and Thailand. It is processed and sold as dry flakes and dissolved in ethanol to make liquid shellac, Shellac functions as a tough natural primer, sanding sealant, tannin-blocker, odour-blocker, stain, and high-gloss varnish. Shellac was once used in applications as it possesses good insulation qualities. Phonograph and 78 rpm gramophone records were made of it until vinyl long-playing records from the 1950s onwards, Shellac comes from shell and lac, a calque of French laque en écailles, lac in thin pieces, later gomme-laque, gum lac. Most European languages have borrowed the word for the substance from English or from the German equivalent Schellack. Shellac is scraped from the bark of the trees where the female lac bug, Kerria lacca, though these tunnels are sometimes referred to as cocoons, they are not literally cocoons in the entomological sense. This insect is in the superfamily as the insect from which cochineal is obtained. The insects suck the sap of the tree and excrete sticklac almost constantly, the least coloured shellac is produced when the insects feed on the kusum tree. The number of lac bugs required to produce 1 kilogram of shellac has variously been estimated as 50,000,200,000, or 300,000. The root word lakh is a South Asian unit for 100,000 and presumably refers to the numbers of insects that swarm on host trees. The raw shellac, which contains bark shavings and lac bugs removed during scraping, is placed in canvas tubes and this causes the shellac to liquefy, and it seeps out of the canvas, leaving the bark and bugs behind. The thick, sticky shellac is then dried into a sheet and broken into flakes, or dried into buttons, then bagged. The end-user then crushes it into a powder and mixes it with ethyl alcohol before use, to dissolve the flakes. Liquid shellac has a shelf life, so is sold in dry form for dissolution before use. Liquid shellac sold in stores is often marked with the production date. Some manufacturers have ceased labeling shellac with the date but the production date may be discernible from the production lot code. Alternatively, old shellac may be tested to see if it is still usable, Shellac that remains tacky for a long time is no longer usable. Storage life depends on temperature, so refrigeration extends shelf life
17.
Modernism
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Among the factors that shaped modernism were the development of modern industrial societies and the rapid growth of cities, followed then by reactions of horror to World War I. Modernism also rejected the certainty of Enlightenment thinking, and many modernists rejected religious belief, the poet Ezra Pounds 1934 injunction to Make it new. Was the touchstone of the approach towards what it saw as the now obsolete culture of the past. In this spirit, its innovations, like the novel, atonal and twelve-tone music, divisionist painting and abstract art. Modernism explicitly rejected the ideology of realism and makes use of the works of the past by the employment of reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision, others focus on modernism as an aesthetic introspection. While J. M. W. Art critic Clement Greenberg describes the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood as proto-Modernists, There the proto-Modernists were, of all people, the Pre-Raphaelites actually foreshadowed Manet, with whom Modernist painting most definitely begins. They acted on a dissatisfaction with painting as practiced in their time, rationalism has also had opponents in the philosophers Søren Kierkegaard and later Friedrich Nietzsche, both of whom had significant influence on existentialism. A major 19th-century engineering achievement was The Crystal Palace, the huge cast-iron, Glass and iron were used in a similar monumental style in the construction of major railway terminals in London, such as Paddington Station and Kings Cross Station. These technological advances led to the building of structures like the Brooklyn Bridge. The latter broke all previous limitations on how tall man-made objects could be and these engineering marvels radically altered the 19th-century urban environment and the daily lives of people. Arguments arose that the values of the artist and those of society were not merely different, but that Society was antithetical to Progress, the philosopher Schopenhauer called into question the previous optimism, and his ideas had an important influence on later thinkers, including Nietzsche. Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection undermined religious certainty and the idea of human uniqueness, in particular, the notion that human beings were driven by the same impulses as lower animals proved to be difficult to reconcile with the idea of an ennobling spirituality. Karl Marx argued that there were fundamental contradictions within the capitalist system, historians, and writers in different disciplines, have suggested various dates as starting points for modernism. Everdell also thinks modernism in painting began in 1885–86 with Seurats Divisionism, the poet Baudelaires Les Fleurs du mal, and Flauberts novel Madame Bovary were both published in 1857. In the arts and letters, two important approaches developed separately in France, the first was Impressionism, a school of painting that initially focused on work done, not in studios, but outdoors. Impressionist paintings demonstrated that human beings do not see objects, the school gathered adherents despite internal divisions among its leading practitioners, and became increasingly influential. A significant event of 1863 was the Salon des Refusés, created by Emperor Napoleon III to display all of the paintings rejected by the Paris Salon. While most were in standard styles, but by artists, the work of Manet attracted tremendous attention
18.
Serialism
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In music, serialism is a method or technique of composition that uses a series of values to manipulate different musical elements. Serialism began primarily with Arnold Schoenbergs twelve-tone technique, though some of his contemporaries were working to establish serialism as a form of post-tonal thinking. The idea of serialism is also applied in ways in the visual arts, design, and architecture. Integral serialism or total serialism is the use of series for such as duration, dynamics. Other terms, used especially in Europe to distinguish post–World War II serial music from music and its American extensions, are general serialism. Serialism is a method, highly specialized technique, or way of composition and it may also be considered, a philosophy of life, a way of relating the human mind to the world and creating a completeness when dealing with a subject. However, serialism is not by itself a system of composition, neither is pitch serialism necessarily incompatible with tonality, though it is most often used as a means of composing atonal music. It is sometimes used specifically to apply only to music where at least one element other than pitch is subjected to being treated as a row or series. In such usages post-Webernian serialism will be used to denote works that extend serial techniques to other elements of music, other terms used to make the distinction are twelve-note serialism for the former, and integral serialism for the latter. A row may be assembled pre-compositionally, or it may be derived from a spontaneously invented thematic or motivic idea, the structure of the row, however, does not in itself define the structure of a composition, which requires development of a comprehensive strategy. The basic set may have restrictions, such as the requirement that it use each interval only once. The series is not an order of succession, but indeed a hierarchy—which may be independent of order of succession. Stockhausen, for example, in early serial compositions such as Kreuzspiel and Formel and this provides an exemplary demonstration of that logical principle of seriality, every situation must occur once and only once. Prohibited intervals, like the octave, and prohibited successional relations, such as premature note repetitions, frequently occur, the number twelve no longer plays any governing, defining rôle, the pitch constellations no longer hold to the limitation determined by their formation. The dodecaphonic series loses its significance as a model of shape is played out. And the chromatic total remains active only, and provisionally, as a general reference, in the 1960s Pousseur took this a step further, applying a consistent set of predefined transformations to pre-existent music. In his opera Votre Faust Pousseur used a number of different quotations, themselves arranged into a scale for serial treatment, so as to bring coherence. He extended this serial polyphony of styles in a series of works in the late 1960s, as well as later in portions of Licht
19.
Rhythm
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Rhythm generally means a movement marked by the regulated succession of strong and weak elements, or of opposite or different conditions. In the performance arts, rhythm is the timing of events on a scale, of musical sounds and silences that occur over time, of the steps of a dance, or the meter of spoken language. In some performing arts, such as hip hop music, the delivery of the lyrics is one of the most important elements of the style. Rhythm may also refer to visual presentation, as timed movement through space, in recent years, rhythm and meter have become an important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these areas includes books by Maury Yeston, Fred Lerdahl and Ray Jackendoff, Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty, Godfried Toussaint, William Rothstein, and Joel Lester. In Thinking and Destiny, Harold W. Percival defined rhythm as the character and meaning of thought expressed through the measure or movement in sound or form, or by written signs or words. In his television series How Music Works, Howard Goodall presents theories that human rhythm recalls the regularity with which we walk, other research suggests that it does not relate to the heartbeat directly, but rather the speed of emotional affect, which also influences heartbeat. Yet other researchers suggest that certain features of human music are widespread. The perception and abstraction of rhythmic measure is the foundation of human instinctive musical participation, Joseph Jordania recently suggested that the sense of rhythm was developed in the early stages of hominid evolution by the forces of natural selection. Plenty of animals walk rhythmically and hear the sounds of the heartbeat in the womb, some types of parrots can know rhythm. There is not a report of an animal being trained to tap, peck. For this reason, the fast-transient sounds of percussion instruments lend themselves to the definition of rhythm, Musical cultures that rely upon such instruments may develop multi-layered polyrhythm and simultaneous rhythms in more than one time signature, called polymeter. Such are the cross-rhythms of Sub-Saharan Africa and the interlocking kotekan rhythms of the gamelan, for information on rhythm in Indian music see Tala. For other Asian approaches to rhythm see Rhythm in Persian music, Rhythm in Arabian music and Usul—Rhythm in Turkish music and this consists of a series of identical yet distinct periodic short-duration stimuli perceived as points in time. It is currently most often designated as a crotchet or quarter note in western notation, faster levels are division levels, and slower levels are multiple levels. Rhythms of recurrence arise from the interaction of two levels of motion, the faster providing the pulse and the slower organizing the beats into repetitive groups. Once a metric hierarchy has been established, we, as listeners, a durational pattern that synchronises with a pulse or pulses on the underlying metric level may be called a rhythmic unit. A rhythmic gesture is any pattern that, in contrast to the rhythmic unit
20.
Acoustic music
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Acoustic music is music that solely or primarily uses instruments that produce sound through acoustic means, as opposed to electric or electronic means. The retronym acoustic music appeared after the advent of electric instruments, such as the guitar, electric violin, electric organ. It has its origins in the music of the 1960s. The trend has also dubbed as acoustic rock in some cases. Navigating the Music Industry, Current Issues & Business Models, Music and the Modern Condition, Investigating the Boundaries
21.
Aesthetics
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Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy that explores the nature of art, beauty, and taste, with the creation and appreciation of beauty. It is more defined as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgements of sentiment. More broadly, scholars in the field define aesthetics as critical reflection on art, in modern English, the term aesthetic can also refer to a set of principles underlying the works of a particular art movement or theory, one speaks, for example, of the Cubist aesthetic. The word aesthetic is derived from the Greek αἰσθητικός, which in turn was derived from αἰσθάνομαι, for some, aesthetics is considered a synonym for the philosophy of art since Hegel, while others insist that there is a significant distinction between these closely related fields. In practice, aesthetic judgement refers to the sensory contemplation or appreciation of an object, philosophical aesthetics has not only to speak about art and to produce judgments about art works, but has also to give a definition of what art is. Art is an entity for philosophy, because art deals with the senses. Hence, there are two different conceptions of art in aesthetics, art as knowledge or art as action, any aesthetic doctrines that guided the production and interpretation of prehistoric art are mostly unknown. Western aesthetics usually refers to Greek philosophers as the earliest source of aesthetic considerations. Plato believed in beauty as a form in which beautiful objects partake and he felt that beautiful objects incorporated proportion, harmony, and unity among their parts. Similarly, in the Metaphysics, Aristotle found that the elements of beauty were order, symmetry. From the late 17th to the early 20th century Western aesthetics underwent a revolution into what is often called modernism. German and British thinkers emphasized beauty as the key component of art and of the aesthetic experience, and saw art as necessarily aiming at absolute beauty. For Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten aesthetics is the science of the experiences, a younger sister of logic. For Immanuel Kant the aesthetic experience of beauty is a judgment of a subjective but similar human truth, however, beauty cannot be reduced to any more basic set of features. For Friedrich Schiller aesthetic appreciation of beauty is the most perfect reconciliation of the sensual and rational parts of human nature, for Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, the philosophy of art is the organon of philosophy concerning the relation between man and nature. So aesthetics began now to be the name for the philosophy of art, Friedrich von Schlegel, August Wilhelm Schlegel, Friedrich Schleiermacher and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel also gave lectures on aesthetics as philosophy of art after 1800. For Hegel, all culture is a matter of absolute spirit coming to be manifest to itself, stage by stage, Art is the first stage in which the absolute spirit is manifest immediately to sense-perception, and is thus an objective rather than subjective revelation of beauty. It is thus for Schopenhauer one way to fight the suffering, the British were largely divided into intuitionist and analytic camps
22.
Computer
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A computer is a device that can be instructed to carry out an arbitrary set of arithmetic or logical operations automatically. The ability of computers to follow a sequence of operations, called a program, such computers are used as control systems for a very wide variety of industrial and consumer devices. The Internet is run on computers and it millions of other computers. Since ancient times, simple manual devices like the abacus aided people in doing calculations, early in the Industrial Revolution, some mechanical devices were built to automate long tedious tasks, such as guiding patterns for looms. More sophisticated electrical machines did specialized analog calculations in the early 20th century, the first digital electronic calculating machines were developed during World War II. The speed, power, and versatility of computers has increased continuously and dramatically since then, conventionally, a modern computer consists of at least one processing element, typically a central processing unit, and some form of memory. The processing element carries out arithmetic and logical operations, and a sequencing, peripheral devices include input devices, output devices, and input/output devices that perform both functions. Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source and this usage of the term referred to a person who carried out calculations or computations. The word continued with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century, from the end of the 19th century the word began to take on its more familiar meaning, a machine that carries out computations. The Online Etymology Dictionary gives the first attested use of computer in the 1640s, one who calculates, the Online Etymology Dictionary states that the use of the term to mean calculating machine is from 1897. The Online Etymology Dictionary indicates that the use of the term. 1945 under this name, theoretical from 1937, as Turing machine, devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using one-to-one correspondence with fingers. The earliest counting device was probably a form of tally stick, later record keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in hollow unbaked clay containers. The use of counting rods is one example, the abacus was initially used for arithmetic tasks. The Roman abacus was developed from used in Babylonia as early as 2400 BC. Since then, many forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European counting house, a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, the Antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest mechanical analog computer, according to Derek J. de Solla Price. It was designed to calculate astronomical positions and it was discovered in 1901 in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been dated to circa 100 BC
23.
Polyphony
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Within the context of the Western musical tradition, the term polyphony is usually used to refer to music of the late Middle Ages and Renaissance. Baroque forms such as fugue, which might be called polyphonic, are usually described instead as contrapuntal. In all cases the conception was probably what Margaret Bent calls dyadic counterpoint, with part being written generally against one other part. The term polyphony is also used more broadly, to describe any musical texture that is not monophonic. Such a perspective considers homophony as a sub-type of polyphony, traditional polyphony has a wide, if uneven, distribution among the peoples of the world. Most polyphonic regions of the world are in sub-Saharan Africa, Europe and it is believed that the origins of polyphony in traditional music vastly predate the emergence of polyphony in European professional music. Currently there are two approaches to the problem of the origins of vocal polyphony, the Cultural Model. Although the exact origins of polyphony in the Western church traditions are unknown,900, are usually considered the oldest extant written examples of polyphony. These treatises provided examples of two-voice note-against-note embellishments of chants using parallel octaves, fifths, rather than being fixed works, they indicated ways of improvising polyphony during performance. 1000, is the oldest extant example of notated polyphony for chant performance, European polyphony rose out of melismatic organum, the earliest harmonization of the chant. Twelfth-century composers, such as Léonin and Pérotin developed the organum that was introduced centuries earlier, the lyrics of love poems might be sung above sacred texts in the form of a trope, or the sacred text might be placed within a familiar secular melody. The oldest surviving piece of music is the English rota Sumer is icumen in. These musical innovations appeared in a context of societal change. After the first millennium, European monks decided to start translating the works of Greek philosophers into the vernacular, Western Europeans were aware of Plato, Socrates, and Hippocrates during the Middle Ages. However they had largely lost touch with the content of their surviving works because the use of Greek as a language was restricted to the lands of the Eastern Roman Empire. Once these ancient works started being translated thus becoming accessible, the philosophies had a impact on the mind of Western Europe. This sparked a number of innovations in medicine, science, art, European polyphony rose prior to, and during the period of the Western Schism. Avignon, the seat of the antipopes, was a center of secular music-making
24.
Oscillation
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Oscillation is the repetitive variation, typically in time, of some measure about a central value or between two or more different states. The term vibration is used to describe mechanical oscillation. Familiar examples of oscillation include a swinging pendulum and alternating current power, the simplest mechanical oscillating system is a weight attached to a linear spring subject to only weight and tension. Such a system may be approximated on an air table or ice surface, the system is in an equilibrium state when the spring is static. If the system is displaced from the equilibrium, there is a net restoring force on the mass, tending to bring it back to equilibrium. However, in moving the back to the equilibrium position, it has acquired momentum which keeps it moving beyond that position. If a constant force such as gravity is added to the system, the time taken for an oscillation to occur is often referred to as the oscillatory period. All real-world oscillator systems are thermodynamically irreversible and this means there are dissipative processes such as friction or electrical resistance which continually convert some of the energy stored in the oscillator into heat in the environment. Thus, oscillations tend to decay with time there is some net source of energy into the system. The simplest description of this process can be illustrated by oscillation decay of the harmonic oscillator. In addition, a system may be subject to some external force. In this case the oscillation is said to be driven, some systems can be excited by energy transfer from the environment. This transfer typically occurs where systems are embedded in some fluid flow, at sufficiently large displacements, the stiffness of the wing dominates to provide the restoring force that enables an oscillation. The harmonic oscillator and the systems it models have a degree of freedom. More complicated systems have more degrees of freedom, for two masses and three springs. In such cases, the behavior of each variable influences that of the others and this leads to a coupling of the oscillations of the individual degrees of freedom. For example, two pendulum clocks mounted on a wall will tend to synchronise. This phenomenon was first observed by Christiaan Huygens in 1665, more special cases are the coupled oscillators where energy alternates between two forms of oscillation
25.
White noise
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In signal processing, white noise is a random signal having equal intensity at different frequencies, giving it a constant power spectral density. The term is used, with this or similar meanings, in scientific and technical disciplines, including physics, acoustic engineering, telecommunications, statistical forecasting. White noise refers to a model for signals and signal sources. Depending on the context, one may require that the samples be independent and have identical probability distribution. In particular, if each sample has a distribution with zero mean. The samples of a noise signal may be sequential in time. The concept can be defined also for signals spread over more complicated domains, an infinite-bandwidth white noise signal is a purely theoretical construction. The bandwidth of noise is limited in practice by the mechanism of noise generation, by the transmission medium. Thus, a signal is considered white noise if it is observed to have a flat spectrum over the range of frequencies that is relevant to the context. For an audio signal, for example, the relevant range is the band of sound frequencies. Such a signal is heard as a sound, resembling the /sh/ sound in ash. In music and acoustics, the white noise may be used for any signal that has a similar hissing sound. White noise draws its name from white light, although light that appears white generally does not have a spectral power density over the visible band. The term white noise is used in the context of phylogenetically based statistical methods to refer to a lack of phylogenetic pattern in comparative data. It is sometimes used in non technical contexts, in the sense of random talk without meaningful contents. Being uncorrelated in time does not restrict the values a signal can take, any distribution of values is possible. Even a binary signal which can take on the values 1 or –1 will be white if the sequence is statistically uncorrelated. Noise having a distribution, such as a normal distribution
26.
Patch cable
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A patch cable or patch cord or patch lead is an electrical or optical cable used to connect one electronic or optical device to another for signal routing. Devices of different types are connected with patch cords, patch cords are usually produced in many different colors so as to be easily distinguishable, and are relatively short, perhaps no longer than two metres. However, patch cords typically refer only to short cords used with patch panels, patch cord cable differs from standard structured cabling cable in that patch cable is stranded for flexibility, whereas standard cable is solid copper. Because the patch cord is stranded copper construction the attenuation is higher on patch cords than solid cable so short lengths should be adhered to. Patch cords can be as short as 3 inches, to connect stacked components or route signals through a patch bay, as length increases, the cables are usually thicker and/or made with more shielding, to prevent signal loss and the introduction of unwanted radio frequencies and hum. Patch cords are made of coaxial cables, with the signal carried through a shielded core. Each end of the cable is attached to a connector so that the cord may be plugged in, connector types may vary widely, particularly with adapting cables. A pigtail is similar to a cord and is the informal name given to a cable fitted with a connector at one end. In the context of copper cabling, these cables are sometimes referred to as blunt patch cords, optical fiber pigtails, in contrast to copper pigtails, can be more accurately described as a connector than a cable or cord. A fiber pigtail is a single, short, usually tight-buffered, optical fiber that has an optical connector pre-installed on one end, the end of the fiber pigtail is stripped and fusion spliced to a single fiber of a multi-fiber trunk. Splicing of pigtails to each fiber in the trunk breaks out the cable into its component fibers for connection to the end equipment. A variety of cables are used to carry electrical signals in sound recording studios, microphones are typically connected to mixing boards or PA systems with XLR microphone cables which use three-pin XLR connectors. DJs using record players connect their turntables to mixers or PA systems with stereo RCA connectors, to resolve this problem, DJs can either use adapters or special cables. Heavier-gauge cables are used for carrying amplified signals from amplifiers to speakers, ¼ TRS phone connector cables can carry stereo signals, so they are used for stereo headphones and for some patching purposes. The patch bay is a panel of audio connectors where XLR cables. The cables could get tangled or mixed up, and it would be hard to know, when faced with 20 connectors at the end of the cable run, which cable was associated with which microphone or instrument. The patch bay is numbered, so that the engineer can note which microphone or instrument is plugged into each numbered connection, Cable management Crossover cable White Papers - Cable Anatomy
27.
Princeton University
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Princeton University is a private Ivy League research university in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The institution moved to Newark in 1747, then to the current site nine years later, Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering. The university has ties with the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton Theological Seminary, Princeton has the largest endowment per student in the United States. The university has graduated many notable alumni, two U. S. Presidents,12 U. S. Supreme Court Justices, and numerous living billionaires and foreign heads of state are all counted among Princetons alumni body. New Light Presbyterians founded the College of New Jersey in 1746 in order to train ministers, the college was the educational and religious capital of Scots-Irish America. In 1754, trustees of the College of New Jersey suggested that, in recognition of Governors interest, gov. Jonathan Belcher replied, What a name that would be. In 1756, the moved to Princeton, New Jersey. Its home in Princeton was Nassau Hall, named for the royal House of Orange-Nassau of William III of England, following the untimely deaths of Princetons first five presidents, John Witherspoon became president in 1768 and remained in that office until his death in 1794. During his presidency, Witherspoon shifted the focus from training ministers to preparing a new generation for leadership in the new American nation. To this end, he tightened academic standards and solicited investment in the college, in 1812, the eighth president the College of New Jersey, Ashbel Green, helped establish the Princeton Theological Seminary next door. The plan to extend the theological curriculum met with approval on the part of the authorities at the College of New Jersey. Today, Princeton University and Princeton Theological Seminary maintain separate institutions with ties that include such as cross-registration. Before the construction of Stanhope Hall in 1803, Nassau Hall was the sole building. The cornerstone of the building was laid on September 17,1754, during the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall, making Princeton the countrys capital for four months. The class of 1879 donated twin lion sculptures that flanked the entrance until 1911, Nassau Halls bell rang after the halls construction, however, the fire of 1802 melted it. The bell was then recast and melted again in the fire of 1855, James McCosh took office as the colleges president in 1868 and lifted the institution out of a low period that had been brought about by the American Civil War. McCosh Hall is named in his honor, in 1879, the first thesis for a Doctor of Philosophy Ph. D. was submitted by James F. Williamson, Class of 1877. In 1896, the officially changed its name from the College of New Jersey to Princeton University to honor the town in which it resides
28.
Milton Babbitt
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Milton Byron Babbitt was an American composer, music theorist, and teacher. He is particularly noted for his serial and electronic music, Babbitt was born in Philadelphia to Albert E. Babbitt and Sarah Potamkin. He was raised in Jackson, Mississippi, and began studying the violin when he was four but soon switched to clarinet, early in his life he was attracted to jazz and theater music. He was making his own arrangements of songs at seven. Babbitts father was a mathematician, and it was mathematics that Babbitt intended to study when he entered the University of Pennsylvania in 1931, however, he soon left and went to New York University instead, where he studied music with Philip James and Marion Bauer. At the university, he joined the faculty in 1938. During the Second World War, Babbitt divided his time between mathematical research in Washington, D. C. and Princeton, where he became a member of the faculty from 1943 to 1945. In 1948, Babbitt returned to Princeton Universitys music faculty and in 1973 became a member of the faculty at the Juilliard School in New York. K. Randall, the theatre composer Stephen Sondheim, composers and pianists Frederic Rzewski and Richard Aaker Trythall, in 1958, Babbitt achieved unsought notoriety through an article in the popular magazine High Fidelity. A title which reflects little of the letter and nothing of the spirit of the article, than as the composer of music to which you may or may not care to listen. Babbitt later became interested in electronic music and he was hired by RCA as consultant composer to work with their RCA Mark II Synthesizer at the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center, and in 1961 produced his Composition for Synthesizer. Babbitt was less interested in producing new timbres than in the precision he could achieve using the Mark II synthesizer. Philomel, for example, was written for soprano and a synthesized accompaniment stored on magnetic tape, from 1985 until his death he served as the Chairman of the BMI Student Composer Awards, the international competition for young classical composers. Milton Babbitt died in Princeton, New Jersey on January 29,2011 at the age of 94, N. d.1986 – MacArthur Fellow 1988 – Mississippi Institute of Arts and Letters Award for music composition. 2000 – National Patron of Delta Omicron, an international, professional music fraternity 2010 – The Max Reger Foundation of America – Extraordinary Life Time Musical Achievement Award, Twelve-Tone Invariants as Compositional Determinants, Musical Quarterly 46/2. Set Structure as Compositional Determinant, Journal of Music Theory 5/1, the Structure and Function of Musical Theory, College Music Symposium 5. Contemporary Music Composition and Music Theory as Contemporary Intellectual History, Perspectives in Musicology, Program in Music at the City University of New York, edited by Barry S. Brook, Edward Downes, and Sherman Van Solkema, 270–307. Reprinted, New York, Pendragon Press,1985, words About Music, The Madison Lectures, edited by Stephen Dembski and Joseph Straus
29.
Canon (music)
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In music, a canon is a contrapuntal compositional technique or texture that employs a melody with one or more imitations of the melody played after a given duration. The initial melody is called the leader, while the imitative melody, the follower must imitate the leader, either as an exact replication of its rhythms and intervals or some transformation thereof. Repeating canons in which all voices are identical are called rounds—Row, Row, Row Your Boat. Why are some composers fascinated with canons, Canons are not unlike puzzles and other brainteasers, from just a few rules, you can achieve so much. Plus, canons have the appeal of any puzzle, there is the initial challenge, the mystery of solving it, and the feeling of satisfaction you get from completing it. Accompanied canon is a canon accompanied by one or more independent parts which do not take part in imitating the melody. Only in the 16th century did the word canon begin to be used to describe the strict, imitative texture created by such a procedure. The word is derived from the Greek κανών, Latinised as canon, which means law or norm and this rule was usually given verbally, but could also be supplemented by special signs in the score, sometimes themselves called canoni. Canons featured in the music of the Italian Trecento and the 14th century music of France, a famous example from Italy is “Tosto che l’Alba” by Gheraldo da Firenze. In both France and Italy, canons were often used to illustrate hunting songs. The Italian word for hunting is “caccia”, the French word “chace. ”A well-known French Chace is the anonymous “Se je chant”. ”Guillaume de Machaut also used the 3-voice “chace” form in movements from his masterpiece Le Lai de la Fontaine. Referring to the setting of the stanza of this work. Like the Trinity itself, a well-wrought chace can be far more than the sum of its parts, and this particular chace is possible Machaut’s greatest feat of subtilitas. In Dufay’s song “Resvelons nous, amoureux”, the two voices are in canon, but the upper part is what David Fallows describes as a “florid top line”. Bach and Handel featured canons in their works,2, Beethoven’s works feature a number of passages in canon. The following comes from his Symphony No,4, Antony Hopkins describes the above as “a delightfully naïve canon. ”An even subtler example comes from Beethoven’s Piano Sonata 29 Op.106. Wilfrid Mellers describes the section of the scherzo movement, as “mysterious”, with a metrical ambiguity that “makes the melodic phrases irregular. ”When the tune is repeated, it is “now in the left hand. In canon with the bass line. ”Mellers concludes, “Here contrapuntal oneness serves to control any airy floating in the asymmetry, it is not merely the wide-spread texture that sounds hollow
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Charles Wuorinen
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Charles Peter Wuorinen is a Pulitzer Prize-winning American composer of contemporary classical music based in New York City. His catalog of more than 260 compositions includes works for orchestra, opera, Salman Rushdie and Annie Proulx have collaborated with him. Wuorinens work has described as serialist, but he has come to disparage that term as meaningless. Wuorinen was born on the Upper West Side of Manhattan in New York City and his mother, Alfhild Kalijarvi, received her M. A. in biology from Smith College. Wuorinen excelled academically, graduating from Trinity School as valedictorian in 1956, he received a B. A. Early supporters included Jacques Barzun and Edgard Varèse, Wuorinen began composing at age 5 and began piano lessons at 6. At 16 he was awarded the New York Philharmonics Young Composers Award, from 1952 to 1956 Wuorinen was President of the Trinity School Glee Club. He was pianist, librarian and General Manager of the Columbia University Orchestra in 1956–57, during the summers of 1955 and 1956 has was the organist at Saint Pauls Church in Gardner, Massachusetts, where his parents stayed during the summer months. He was awarded the Bearns Prize three times, the BMI Student Composers Award four times, and the Lili Boulanger Award and he was a fellow at the Bennington Composers Conference for several years. Many early professional performances of Wuorinens compositions took place on the Music of Our Time series at the 92nd Street Y run by violinist Max Pollikoff, in 1962 Wuorinen and fellow composer-performer Harvey Sollberger formed The Group for Contemporary Music. The ensemble raised the standard of new music performance in New York, championing such composers as Milton Babbitt, Elliott Carter and Stefan Wolpe, many of Wuorinens works were premiered by The Group, including Chamber Concerto for Cello and the Chamber Concerto for Flute. The 1970s were a fruitful period for Wuorinen, who taught at the Manhattan School of Music from 1971 to 1979. of Babylon with an original libretto by Renaud Charles Bruce. The ensemble, created by Raymond DesRoches recorded the Percussion Symphony on the Nonesuch record label which was released in 1978, what I wanted to do was to see whether or not these things sounded composed, sounded purposively chosen. They did, at least by my lights, the random sequences were not just any old random sequences but were that of a kind called 1/f randomness. Wuorinen was composer in residence with the San Francisco Symphony from 1984 to 1989, in addition to the Dante texts Wuorinen was influenced by the watercolors of William Blake. In 1985 Wuorinen was awarded a MacArthur Foundation Fellowship, major chamber works included the Saxophone Quartet for the Raschèr Saxophone Quartet, Percussion Quartet, Piano Quintet, and Sonata for Guitar and Piano. Orchestral works included the Concerto for Saxophone Quartet and Orchestra and Symphony Seven as well as the Dante works for the New York City Ballet, with the start of the 21st century, James Levine became a major champion of Wuorinens music. In honor of Wuorinens 70th birthday Levine conducted two performances of Wuorinens Ashberyana at the Guggenheim Museum, in 2004 the New York City Opera premiered his opera Haroun and the Sea of Stories based on the novel by Salman Rushdie, with a libretto by James Fenton
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Pulitzer Prize for Music
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The Pulitzer Prize for Music is one of the seven American Pulitzer Prizes that are annually awarded for Letters, Drama, and Music. It was first awarded in 1943, joseph Pulitzer did not call for such a prize in his will, but had arranged for a music scholarship to be awarded each year. Because of the requirement that the composition had its premiere during the year of its award. In 2004 the terms were modified to read, For a distinguished musical composition by an American that has had its first performance or recording in the United States during the year, in 1965, the jury unanimously decided that no major work was worthy of the Pulitzer Prize. In lieu they recommended a special citation be given to Duke Ellington in recognition of the body of his work, Ellington responded, Fate is being kind to me. Fate doesnt want me to be too famous too young, most Americans still take it for granted that European-based music—classical music, if you will—is the only really respectable kind. In 1996, after years of debate, the Pulitzer Prize board announced a change in the criteria for the music prize so as to attract the best of a wider range of American music. The result was that the following year Wynton Marsalis became the first jazz artist to win the Pulitzer Prize. However, his victory was controversial because according to the Pulitzer guidelines, his winning work, a three-hour-long oratorio about slavery, Blood on the Fields, should not have been eligible. Although a winning work was supposed to have had its first performance during that year, Marsalis piece premiered on April 1,1994 and its recording, yet, the piece won the 1997 prize. Marsalis management had submitted a version of Blood on the Fields which was premiered at Yale University after the composer made seven small changes. Six women have been awarded the Pulitzer Prize, Ellen Taaffe Zwilich,1983, Shulamit Ran,1991, Melinda Wagner,1999, Jennifer Higdon,2010, Caroline Shaw,2013, and Julia Wolfe,2015. In addition to being the first woman to receive the award, in 1992 the music jury, which that year consisted of George Perle, Roger Reynolds, and Harvey Sollberger, selected Ralph Shapeys Concerto Fantastique for the award. However, the Pulitzer Board rejected that decision and chose to give the prize to the second choice, Wayne Petersons The Face of the Night. The music jury responded with a statement stating that they had not been consulted in that decision. The Board responded that the Pulitzers are enhanced by having, in addition to the point of view, the laymans or consumers point of view. George Walker was the first African American composer to win the Prize, Walker is a graduate of the Oberlin Conservatory which he entered at the age of fourteen, and graduated at eighteen with the highest honors in his Conservatory class. Jay T. Harris, a member of the Pulitzer governing board said, the announced rule changes included altering the jury pool to include performers and presenters, in addition to composers and critics
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R. Luke DuBois
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Roger Luke DuBois is an American composer, performer, conceptual new media artist, programmer, record producer and pedagogue based in New York City. DuBois was born in New Jersey, moving at age 11 to London, England, DuBois holds both a masters and a doctorate in music composition from Columbia, and worked as a staff researcher at Columbias Computer Music Center until 2008. As a graduate student at Columbia he was a contributor to Real-Time Cmix, since 2000, he has worked for Cycling 74 on Max/MSP/Jitter. He was a member of the Freight Elevator Quartet, and has produced records for Bang on a Can composer Michael Gordon on the Nonesuch label. His music integrates real-time performer-computer interaction with algorithmic methodologies repurposed from other fields and his research into issues of musical time revolve around a technique called time-lapse phonography, as used in his piece Billboard. For example, his trio of pieces on gestalt media, Academy, Billboard and his piece Hindsight is Always 20/20, based on a statistical analysis of presidential State of the Union addresses, uses computational means as a lens into the politics of political rhetoric. His work is represented by bitforms gallery in New York City, and has exhibited worldwide, including at the 2007 Sundance Film Festival. In January,2014, R. Luke DuBois—Now opened at the Ringling Museum of Art and this first solo museum exhibition, organized by curator Matthew McLendon, surveyed DuBois output over the prior decade, and included performance, video, public installation, and generative works. The exhibition went on to the Orange County Museum of Art the following year, in December 2016, Hyperallergic named R. Luke DuBois—Now one of the top 15 exhibitions in the United States. Prior to becoming a well known musician, DuBois did most of his improvisation and performance on Buchla. In 2013, DuBois was awarded an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters by Goucher College and he was named the inaugural artist for the Times Square Residency at the CrossRoads Program in the Summer of 2015 and a speaker for TED2016
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Freight Elevator Quartet
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The Freight Elevator Quartet were a music performance group specializing in improvised electronic music active in and around New York City. In addition to using instruments, they also sported fairly unusual acoustic instrumentation, having a cellist. FEQ began as a band for a series of warehouse parties on 125th Street in New York City. Luke DuBois on a Buchla analog synthesizer and their second and subsequent records saw the gradual expansion of their instrumentation until by the time of their break-up in 2003 the entire band was effectively composed of multi-instrumentalists. As a conceptual project the Freight Elevator Quartet combined influences from experimental music, though always billing themselves as an electronica act, their music has many stylistic similarities to the later genre of post-rock. The Freight Elevator Quartet were for years the unofficial ensemble-in-residence of the Computer Music Center
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United States Air Force
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The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source
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Oscilloscope
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Other signals can be converted to voltages and displayed. Oscilloscopes are used to observe the change of a signal over time, such that voltage. The observed waveform can be analyzed for such properties as amplitude, frequency, rise time, time interval, distortion, modern digital instruments may calculate and display these properties directly. Originally, calculation of these values required manually measuring the waveform against the scales built into the screen of the instrument, the oscilloscope can be adjusted so that repetitive signals can be observed as a continuous shape on the screen. A storage oscilloscope allows single events to be captured by the instrument and displayed for a long time. Oscilloscopes are used in the sciences, medicine, engineering, automotive, general-purpose instruments are used for maintenance of electronic equipment and laboratory work. Special-purpose oscilloscopes may be used for purposes as analyzing an automotive ignition system or to display the waveform of the heartbeat as an electrocardiogram. Early oscilloscopes used cathode ray tubes as their display element and linear amplifiers for signal processing, storage oscilloscopes used special storage CRTs to maintain a steady display of a single brief signal. CROs were later superseded by digital storage oscilloscopes with thin panel displays, fast analog-to-digital converters. DSOs without integrated displays are available at lower cost and use a digital computer to process. The basic oscilloscope, as shown in the illustration, is divided into four sections. The display is usually a CRT or LCD panel which is out with both horizontal and vertical reference lines referred to as the graticule. In addition to the screen, most display sections are equipped with three controls, a focus knob, an intensity knob and a beam finder button. The vertical section controls the amplitude of the displayed signal and this section carries a Volts-per-Division selector knob, an AC/DC/Ground selector switch and the vertical input for the instrument. Additionally, this section is equipped with the vertical beam position knob. The horizontal section controls the base or sweep of the instrument. The primary control is the Seconds-per-Division selector switch, also included is a horizontal input for plotting dual X-Y axis signals. The horizontal beam position knob is located in this section
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Vacuum tube
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In electronics, a vacuum tube, an electron tube, or just a tube, or valve, is a device that controls electric current between electrodes in an evacuated container. Vacuum tubes mostly rely on thermionic emission of electrons from a hot filament or a cathode heated by the filament and this type is called a thermionic tube or thermionic valve. A phototube, however, achieves electron emission through the photoelectric effect, the simplest vacuum tube, the diode, contains only a heater, a heated electron-emitting cathode, and a plate. Current can only flow in one direction through the device between the two electrodes, as electrons emitted by the travel through the tube and are collected by the anode. Adding one or more control grids within the tube allows the current between the cathode and anode to be controlled by the voltage on the grid or grids, Tubes with grids can be used for many purposes, including amplification, rectification, switching, oscillation, and display. In the 1940s the invention of devices made it possible to produce solid-state devices, which are smaller, more efficient, more reliable, more durable. Hence, from the mid-1950s solid-state devices such as transistors gradually replaced tubes, the cathode-ray tube remained the basis for televisions and video monitors until superseded in the 21st century. However, there are still a few applications for which tubes are preferred to semiconductors, for example, the used in microwave ovens. One classification of vacuum tubes is by the number of active electrodes, a device with two active elements is a diode, usually used for rectification. Devices with three elements are used for amplification and switching. Additional electrodes create tetrodes, pentodes, and so forth, which have additional functions made possible by the additional controllable electrodes. X-ray tubes are vacuum tubes. Phototubes and photomultipliers rely on electron flow through a vacuum, though in those cases electron emission from the cathode depends on energy from photons rather than thermionic emission, since these sorts of vacuum tubes have functions other than electronic amplification and rectification they are described in their own articles. A vacuum tube consists of two or more electrodes in a vacuum inside an airtight enclosure, most tubes have glass envelopes, though ceramic and metal envelopes have been used. The electrodes are attached to leads which pass through the envelope via an airtight seal, Tubes were a frequent cause of failure in electronic equipment, and consumers were expected to be able to replace tubes themselves. In addition to the terminals, some tubes had an electrode terminating at a top cap. The principal reason for doing this was to avoid leakage resistance through the tube base, the bases were commonly made with phenolic insulation which performs poorly as an insulator in humid conditions. There was even a design that had two top cap connections
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Buchla Electronic Musical Instruments
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Buchla Electronic Musical Instruments is a manufacturer of synthesizers and unique MIDI controllers. The company was founded as Buchla & Associates by synthesizer pioneer Don Buchla in 1963 in Berkeley, in 2012 the company was acquired by a group of Australian investors trading as Audio Supermarket Pty. Ltd. The company was renamed Buchla Electronic Musical Instruments as part of the acquisition, Subotnick envisioned a voltage-controlled instrument that would allow musicians and composers to create sounds suited to their own specifications. Previously, one had to use either discrete audio generators, such as test oscillators—or musique concrète, Buchla designed the synthesizer in a modular fashion, combining separate components that each generated or modified a music event. Each box served a function, envelope generators, oscillators, filters, voltage controlled amplifiers. Utilizing the different modules, a composer could affect the pitch, timbre, amplitude, the instrument was controlled and played via an array of touch and pressure-sensitive surfaces. The instrument was named the Buchla 100 series Modular Electronic Music System, Subotnick completed his first major electronic work, Silver Apples Of The Moon, with another unit that Buchla had built and shipped to New York. This same unit was used on Buffy Sainte Maries influential 1969 album. Along with Robert Moogs Moog synthesizer, it helped revolutionize the way electronic music, the original Buchla modular synthesizer, originally commissioned by Morton Subotnick and Ramon Sender and funded by a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation. The earliest modules have no name on the front panel. Later modules were offered through the musical division of CBS. The Buchla 200 series Electric Music Box replaced the model in 1970. Almost every parameter can be controlled from a control voltage. Buchla 300,500, Touché In the mid 1970s, Don Buchla began experimenting with digital designs, the results were the 500 series and the 300 series, both of which paired the new technology with existing 200 series modules to create hybrid analog/digital systems. The Touché was also the result of research, and was also his final attempt to market a mainstream Buchla synth. Buchla tended to not refer to his instruments as synthesizers, as he felt that name gives the impression of imitating existing sounds/instruments and his intent was to make instruments that create new sounds. This goal is evident in the omission of a musical keyboard on his early instruments. He also used a different naming convention than most of the industry, for example, one of his modules is called a Multiple Arbitrary Function Generator
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Moog modular synthesizer
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A Moog modular synthesizer is a monophonic analog modular synthesizer developed by the American electronic instrument pioneer Dr. Robert Moog. Many different models were manufactured by R. A, in 1964, Robert Moog created one of the first modular voltage-controlled music synthesizers, and demonstrated it at the AES convention that year. Moog also established standards for analog synthesizer control interfacing, with a logarithmic one volt-per-octave pitch control, the first Moog system was bought by choreographer Alwin Nikolais. Lothar and the Hand People began using the modular Moog in 1965, dolenz use of the Moog on Daily Nightly highlighted the Moogs ability to add atmosphere to a recording, while Beavers use of it on Star Collector was more straightforward. It was Wendy Carlos 1968 Switched-On Bach which featured Carlos custom-built modular synthesizer as the instrument on the recording which brought widespread interest to the Moog synthesizer. Shortly after, Keith Emerson, Jan Hammer, Klaus Schulze, Tangerine Dream, The Beatles, the Moog modular system consists of a number of various modules mounted in a cabinet. Each module performs a specific signal-generating or -modifying function and these modules offered unprecedented control over creating sounds by allowing a user to modify primary sound waveforms with amplitude modulators and spectral modulators and other modifiers. Envelope generators provided further control by modulating the attack, decay, sustain and release parameters of the VCAs, VCFs, the modules are patched together with patch cords with ¼-inch mono plugs. The patch cords and module parameter knobs could be adjusted in ways to create a nearly infinite number of sounds. The final sound was heard from the system by pressing a key on a keyboard or pressing on the ribbon controller. The Moog modular synthesizer offered musicians a revolutionary new way to sound when it was released in the 1960s. It was originally intended for use in recording studios and universities and was not intended for musicians for use in live performance, the analog electronics of the system often made sound generation unreliable and unpredictable during live performances. Additionally, modular sounds could not be programmed and stored for retrieval due to the analog nature. Changing sounds on the system was a task requiring the physical re-routing of numerous patch cords. Another common problem is the Moogs incompatibility with the voltage used in most other synthesizers of the time. In spite of all its shortcomings, a few artists successfully toured with Moog modular systems, in the early and experimental days of electronic instruments, R. A Moog Co. sold made-to-order synthesizer systems composed of whatever modules the musician desired. Starting in 1967, the company manufacturing a number of pre-assembled stock modular systems that contained a predetermined number of modules. Later on, these systems were manufactured and modified based on customer specifications, produced from 1967–72, the earliest Moog modular systems were named the Moog 3, Moog 2, and Moog 1
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Confidence trick
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A confidence trick is an attempt to defraud a person or group after first gaining their confidence, used in the classical sense of trust. Confidence tricks exploit characteristics of the human psyche such as dishonesty, vanity, compassion, credulity, irresponsibility, naïveté, the perpetrator of a confidence trick is often referred to as a confidence man, con-artist, or a grifter. Samuel Thompson was the confidence man. Thompson was a swindler who asked his victims to express confidence in him by giving him money or their watch rather than gaining their confidence in a more nuanced way. A few people trusted Thompson with their money and watches, Thompson was arrested in July 1849. Reporting about this arrest, Dr. James Houston, a reporter of the New York Herald, although Thompson was an unsuccessful scammer, he gained reputation as a genius operator mostly because Houstons satirical writing wasnt understood. The National Police Gazette coined the term confidence game a few weeks after Houston first used the name, the confidence man. A confidence trick is known as a con game, a con, a scam, a grift, a hustle, a bunko, a swindle, a flimflam. The intended victims are known as marks, suckers, or gulls, when accomplices are employed, they are known as shills. A short con or small con is a fast swindle which takes just minutes and it typically aims to rob the victim of everything in his or her wallet. A long con or big con is a scam that unfolds over several days or weeks and involves a team of swindlers, as well as props, sets, extras, costumes, and scripted lines. It aims to rob the victim of huge sums of money or valuable things, often by getting him or her to empty out banking accounts, in Confessions of a Confidence Man, Edward H. Smith lists the six definite steps or stages of growth of a confidence game. He notes that some steps may be omitted, foundation Work Preparations are made in advance of the game, including the hiring of any assistants required. Build-up The victim is given an opportunity to profit from a scheme, the victims greed is encouraged, such that their rational judgment of the situation might be impaired. Pay-off or Convincer The victim receives a small payout as a demonstration of the schemes effectiveness and this may be a real amount of money, or faked in some way. In a gambling con, the victim is allowed to win small bets. In a stock market con, the victim is given fake dividends, the Hurrah A sudden crisis or change of events forces the victim to act immediately. This is the point at which the con succeeds or fails, the In-and-In A conspirator puts an amount of money into the same scheme as the victim, to add an appearance of legitimacy to the scheme
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Symphony
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A symphony is an extended musical composition in Western classical music, most often written by composers for orchestra. Symphonies are scored for string, brass, woodwind, and percussion instruments which altogether number about 30–100 musicians, Symphonies are notated in a musical score, which contains all the instrument parts. Orchestral musicians play from parts which contain just the music for their instrument. A small number of symphonies also contain vocal parts, the word symphony is derived from the Greek word συμφωνία, meaning agreement or concord of sound, concert of vocal or instrumental music, from σύμφωνος, harmonious. The word referred to a variety of different things, before ultimately settling on its current meaning designating a musical form. In late Greek and medieval theory, the word was used for consonance, as opposed to διαφωνία, in the Middle Ages and later, the Latin form symphonia was used to describe various instruments, especially those capable of producing more than one sound simultaneously. Isidore of Seville was the first to use the word symphonia as the name of a two-headed drum, in late medieval England, symphony was used in both of these senses, whereas by the 16th century it was equated with the dulcimer. In German, Symphonie was a term for spinets and virginals from the late 16th century to the 18th century. 16, published in 1607, Lodovico Grossi da Viadanas Sinfonie musicali,18, published in 1610, and Heinrich Schützs Symphoniae sacrae, op. 6, and Symphoniarum sacrarum secunda pars, op,10, published in 1629 and 1647, respectively. Except for Viadanas collection, which contained purely instrumental and secular music, the opera sinfonia, or Italian overture had, by the 18th century, a standard structure of three contrasting movements, fast, slow, fast and dance-like. It is this form that is considered as the direct forerunner of the orchestral symphony. The terms overture, symphony and sinfonia were widely regarded as interchangeable for much of the 18th century, when composers from the 17th century wrote pieces, they expected that these works would be performed by whatever group of musicians were available. A performance of the piece might be done with a basso continuo group as small as a single cello, during the 18th century, the symphony was cultivated with extraordinary intensity. It played a role in areas of public life, including church services. Since the normal size of the orchestra at the time was quite small, laRue, Bonds, Walsh, and Wilson trace the gradual expansion of the symphonic orchestra through the 18th century. At first, symphonies were string symphonies, written in just four parts, first violin, second violin, viola, occasionally the early symphonists even dispensed with the viola part, thus creating three-part symphonies. A basso continuo part including a bassoon together with a harpsichord or other chording instrument was also possible, the first additions to this simple ensemble were a pair of horns, occasionally a pair of oboes, and then both horns and oboes together
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Trade union
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The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members and negotiates labour contracts with employers. The most common purpose of these associations or unions is maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment and this may include the negotiation of wages, work rules, complaint procedures, rules governing hiring, firing and promotion of workers, benefits, workplace safety and policies. Unions may organize a section of skilled workers, a cross-section of workers from various trades. The agreements negotiated by a union are binding on the rank and file members, originating in Great Britain, trade unions became popular in many countries during the Industrial Revolution. Trade unions may be composed of workers, professionals, past workers, students. Trade union density, or the percentage of workers belonging to a union, is highest in the Nordic countries. The trade unions aim at nothing less than to prevent the reduction of wages below the level that is maintained in the various branches of industry. That is to say, they wish to prevent the price of labour-power from falling below its value, yet historian R. A. the other the aggressive-expansionist drive to unite all labouring men and women for a different order of things. The 18th century economist Adam Smith noted the imbalance in the rights of workers in regards to owners. In The Wealth of Nations, Book I, chapter 8, Smith wrote, We rarely hear, it has said, of the combination of masters. But whoever imagines, upon this account, that masters rarely combine, is as ignorant of the world as of the subject. Masters are always and everywhere in a sort of tacit, but constant and uniform combination, not to raise the wages of labor above their actual rate When workers combine, masters. As Smith noted, unions were illegal for many years in most countries, there were severe penalties for attempting to organize unions, up to and including execution. This pool of unskilled and semi-skilled labour spontaneously organized in fits and starts throughout its beginnings, Trade unions and collective bargaining were outlawed from no later than the middle of the 14th century when the Ordinance of Labourers was enacted in the Kingdom of England. In 1799, the Combination Act was passed, which banned trade unions, although the unions were subject to often severe repression until 1824, they were already widespread in cities such as London. Sympathy for the plight of the workers brought repeal of the acts in 1824, by the 1810s, the first labour organizations to bring together workers of divergent occupations were formed. Possibly the first such union was the General Union of Trades, also known as the Philanthropic Society, the latter name was to hide the organizations real purpose in a time when trade unions were still illegal. The Association quickly enrolled approximately 150 unions, consisting mostly of textile related unions, but also including mechanics, blacksmiths, and various others
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