1.
Intermediate-range ballistic missile
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An intermediate-range ballistic missile is a ballistic missile with a range of 3, 000–5,500 km, between a medium-range ballistic missile and an intercontinental ballistic missile. Classifying ballistic missiles by range is mostly for convenience, in principle there is very little difference between a low-performance ICBM and a high-performance IRBM. The range definition used here is used within the U. S, some other sources include an additional category, the long-range ballistic missile, to describe missiles with a range between IRBMs and true ICBMs. The more modern term theater ballistic missile encompasses MRBMs and SRBMs, IRBMs are currently operated by the Peoples Republic of China, India, Israel, and possibly North Korea. The United States, USSR, United Kingdom, and France were former operators, the A4b was the prototype for the upper stage of the A9/A10 rocket. The goal of the program was to build a capable of bombarding New York when launched in France or Spain. A4b rockets were tested a few times in December 1944 and January and February 1945, all of these rockets used liquid propellant. The A4b used an inertial system, while the A9 would have been controlled by a pilot. They started from a launch pad
2.
Strategic Missile Troops
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The Strategic Rocket Forces were created on December 17,1959 as the main Soviet force used for attacking an enemys offensive nuclear weapons, military facilities, and industrial infrastructure. They operated all Soviet nuclear ground-based intercontinental, intermediate-range ballistic missile, complementary strategic forces within Russia are the Long Range Aviation and the Russian Navys ballistic missile submarines. On October 18,1947 the brigade conducted the first launch of the remanufactured former German A-4 ballistic missile, or R-1, in the early 1950s the 77th and 90th Brigades were also formed to operate the R-1. The 54th and 56th Brigades were formed to conduct test launches of the R-2 at Kapustin Yar on June 1,1952, by 1990 all these early types of missiles had been retired from service. This was the year that the Strategic Missile Troops were officially established as a service branch of the Armed Forces under the direct control of the Defense Ministry. The date of its foundation, December 17, is celebrated as Strategic Missile Troops Day. Two rocket armies were formed in 1960, the 43rd Rocket Army and the 50th Rocket Army were formed from the previous 43rd and 50th Air Armies of the Long Range Aviation. During a test of the R-16 ICBM on October 24,1960 and this disaster, the details of which were concealed for decades, became known as the Nedelin catastrophe. He was succeeded by Marshal of the Soviet Union Kirill Moskalenko, under Marshal Вiryuzov the SRF deployed missiles to Cuba in 1962 as part of Operation Anadyr. 36 R-12 intermediate range missiles were sent to Cuba, initiating the Cuban Missile Crisis. The 43rd Guards Missile Division of 43rd Rocket Army manned the missiles while in Cuba, Marshal Nikolai Krylov then took over in March 1963 and served until February 1972. During this time French President Charles de Gaulle visited the Strategic Rocket Forces in 1966, Chief Marshal of Artillery Vladimir Fedorovich Tolubko commanded the SRF from April 12,1972 to July 10,1985. Tolubko emphasised raising the physical fitness standards within the SRF and he was succeeded by General of the Army Yury Pavlovich Maksimov, who commanded from July 10,1985 to August 19,1992. In 1989 the Strategic Rocket Forces had over 1,400 ICBMs,300 launch control centers, the SMT also operated RSD-10 intermediate-range ballistic missiles and R-12 medium-range ballistic missiles. Two-thirds of the road-mobile Soviet RSD-10 force was based in the western Soviet Union and was aimed at Western Europe, one-third of the force was located east of the Ural Mountains and was targeted primarily against China. Older R-12 missiles were deployed at fixed sites in the western Soviet Union, the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, signed in December 1987, called for the elimination of all 553 Soviet RSD-10 and R-12 missiles within three years. As of mid-1989, over 50% of RSD-10 and R-12 missiles had been eliminated, by 1990 the Soviet Union had seven types of operational ICBMs, about 50% were heavy R-36M and UR-100N ICBMs, which carried 80% of the countrys land-based ICBM warheads. By this time it was producing new mobile, and hence survivable ICBMs
3.
Aleksandr Nadiradze
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Aleksandr Davidovich Nadiradze was a Soviet inventor, designer and engineer in the fields of aircraft and missile technology. He developed various missiles, bombs, shells and is considered father of the mobile ICBMs, having created the RT-21 Temp 2S, RSD-10 Pioneer, more modern weapons such as the RT-2PM2 Topol-M and RS-24 are mostly based on Nadiradzes work as well. Born on 20 August in 1914 in the town of Gori, Georgia, initially working as an assistant in a small Georgian aerospace faculty, he made his first invention in Mai 1934. After finishing at the Transcaucasian Industrial Institute in 1936 he moved to Moscow and he was also involved in the development of the Tupolev Tu-2 and early Soviet turbo jet fighters. In 1941 he was appointed as a designer in the Moscow OKB plant 22. At the end of 1941 Nadiradze began to research rocketry, during the Great Patriotic War he developed five versions of anti-tank shells, one of which had satisfactory results. In 1953 Nadiradze then took charge over project Raven, the missile was designed to deliver instruments into the upper atmosphere. His involvement was of importance since the first Soviet meteorological rocket MR-1 Meteo which was successfully launched into orbit in 1951 was developed by Alexander Nadiradze himself. On 15 October the same year he would be tasked with the development of the so-called Tshaika radio-controlled bombs, tests were successfully completed in 1955 and the new weapon was accepted for service later that year. In late 1957 Moscow GSNII MSKHM-642 was combined with Reutov OKB-52 Chelomey, Nadiradze got appointed head of Chelomeys secret development section and in 1961 took charge over the entire OKB while remaining chief designer. By decision of the Soviet government and defence ministry a competition on designing a mobile intercontinental ballistic missile was organized and he became founder of the Soviet mobile missile forces. On 6 March 1966 the defence ministry gave order for the development of solid fuel ICBMs. The project was named Temp-20 which would become the RT-21 Temp 2S. On 14 March 1972 Air-20 was launched for tests at the state landfill RVSN in the Arkhangelsk region which were completed in December 1974, on 21 February 1976 two missile regiments consisting of Temp-20s started their combat duty in Plesetsk. Prior to that Nadiradze had already created the RSD-10 Pioneer in 1971 which was based on his works on the Temp-2S. Its flight tests went exceptionally well and ended on 9 January 1976, the mobile missile complex Pioneer then got accepted for service on 11 March the same year. His Pioneer would become the base for the later Topol missile, Nadiradzes third great achievement in Soviet missile technology was complete for which he got awarded with the title Hero of Socialist Labour and Order of Lenin. He then developed the heavily improved Pioneer-UTTH which would deliver warheads with three 5–50 kt MIRVs, the new system was adopted by the Strategic Missile Forces on 28 April 1981
4.
Votkinsk Machine Building Plant
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Votkinsk Machine Building Plant is a machine and ballistic missile production enterprise based in Votkinsk, Russia. Its production includes the RT-2UTTH Topol M intercontinental ballistic missile, Russias most recent ICBM development, construction of the plant was caused by the depletion of forests near then existing mining enterprises in the Urals. Fetching of firewood from afar increased the cost of iron industry and this situation could be resolved by the displacement of ore processing to those areas, where forests remained untouched. For the same reason, another plant was built in this region between 1760 and 1763, the area was chosen for construction of Votkinsk ironworks owing to its vicinity to the major waterway. Between 1754 and 1763, totally 42 private factories were built, in 1763, after Shuvalovs death, Votkinsk and Izhevsk ironworks passed over to the State for repayment of Shuvalovs debts, and have been state enterprises ever since. Subsequently, in XVIII-XX centuries, the plant produced anchors, railway equipment, ships, excavators, gold mining drags, for example, starting from 1773, the plant began to produce steel anchors for the domestic fleet, according to the decree of Empress Catherine II. In the first half of the XIX century, the plant made for at least 62 percent of total production in Russia. Votkinsk ironworks was one of the most progressive at the time and this high-quality tool steel was used for the manufacturing of various tools. In 1871, the plant launched the output of open hearth furnaces, in this regard, the plant was the second in Russia and the first in the Urals. Moreover, the plant produced armor steel for the needs of the domestic fleet, in the 1840s, under the supervision of Ilya Petrovich Tchaikovsky, the enterprise was reprofiled from purely metallurgical to machine-building. So, in 1847, the production of ships was started and it is particularly remarkable that the plant was situated on the shores of a small shallow river and it wasnt connected to the countrys railway network. Therefore, steamships and other vessels had to be produced prior to spring floods, for this purpose, a special dam was built on the enterprise territory in order to set up a small-scale accumulative pond. In the spring, melt waters filled the pond and flooded the shipyard area and this enabled new vessels to float to the surface. Then they opened dam gates and steamships could be run downstream the river Votka to the river Siwa, in total, the enterprise built about 400 vessels of various types. In the same way, during spring floods, steam locomotives were sent from the enterprise and they were placed on special barges running downstream the rivers Votka, Siwa and Kama up to the nearest railway station. This situation lasted until 1916, when the plant was connected to the railway system. In total, the enterprise built 631 wide gage steam locomotives of different series, at the end of the 19th century, due to construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway, the plant started the output of steelwork elements for railway bridges. In terms of length of built railway bridges, the Votkinsk plant had taken the first place in Russia by 1915
5.
TNT equivalent
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TNT equivalent is a convention for expressing energy, typically used to describe the energy released in an explosion. The ton of TNT is a unit of energy defined by convention to be 4.184 gigajoules. The convention intends to compare the destructiveness of an event with that of conventional explosives, the kiloton is a unit of energy equal to 4.184 terajoules. The megaton is a unit of equal to 4.184 petajoules. The kiloton and megaton of TNT have traditionally used to describe the energy output. The TNT equivalent appears in various nuclear weapon control treaties, and has used to characterize the energy released in such other highly destructive events as an asteroid impact. A gram of TNT releases 2673–6702 J upon explosion, the energy liberated by one gram of TNT was arbitrarily defined as a matter of convention to be 4184 J, which is exactly one kilocalorie. The measured, pure heat output of a gram of TNT is only 2724 J, alternative TNT equivalency can be calculated as a function of when in the detonation the value is measured and which property is being compared. A kiloton of TNT can be visualized as a cube of TNT8.46 metres on a side, the RE factor is the relative mass of TNT to which an explosive is equivalent, the greater the RE, the more powerful the explosive. This enables engineers to determine the proper masses of different explosives when applying blasting formulas developed specifically for TNT. For example, if a timber-cutting formula calls for a charge of 1 kg of TNT, then based on octanitrocubanes RE factor of 2.38, using PETN, engineers would need 1. 0/1.66 kg to obtain the same effects as 1 kg of TNT. With ANFO or ammonium nitrate, they would require 1. 0/0.74 kg or 1. 0/0.42 kg, *, TBX or EBX, in a small, confined space, may have over twice the power of destruction. The total power of aluminized mixtures strictly depends on the condition of explosions, guide for the Use of the International System of Units. National Institute of Standards and Technology, nuclear Weapons FAQ Part 1.3 Rhodes, Richard. The Making of the Atomic Bomb, cooper, Paul W. Explosives Engineering, New York, Wiley-VCH, ISBN 0-471-18636-8 HQ Department of the Army, Field Manual 5-25, Explosives and Demolitions, Washington, D. C. Pentagon Publishing, pp. 83–84, ISBN 0-9759009-5-1 Explosives - Compositions, Alexandria, VA, thermobaric Explosives, Advanced Energetic Materials,2004. THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS, nap. edu, retrieved September 2004
6.
Multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle
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A multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle is a ballistic missile payload containing several warheads, each capable of being aimed to hit one of a group of targets. By contrast a unitary warhead is a single warhead on a single missile, an intermediate case is the multiple reentry vehicle missile which carries several warheads which are dispersed but not individually aimed. Only the United States, United Kingdom, Russia, France, the military purpose of a MIRV is fourfold, Enhance first-strike proficiency for strategic forces. Providing greater target damage for a given thermonuclear weapon payload, several small warheads cause much more target damage area than a single warhead alone. This in turn reduces the number of missiles and launch facilities required for a destruction level - much the same as the purpose of a cluster munition. With single warhead missiles, one missile must be launched for each target, by contrast with a MIRV warhead, the post-boost stage can dispense the warheads against multiple targets across a broad area. Reduces the effectiveness of a missile system that relies on intercepting individual warheads. While a MIRV attacking missile can have multiple warheads, interceptors may have only one warhead per missile, decoy reentry vehicles can be used alongside actual warheads to minimize the chances of the actual warheads being intercepted before they reach their targets. A system that destroys the missile earlier in its trajectory is not affected by this but is more difficult, MIRV land-based ICBMs were considered destabilizing because they tended to put a premium on striking first. Later on the US feared the Soviets MIRVs because Soviet missiles had a greater throw-weight, for example, the US MIRVs might have increased their warhead per missile count by a factor of 6 while the Soviets increased theirs by a factor of 10. Furthermore, the US had a smaller proportion of its nuclear arsenal in ICBMs than the Soviets. Bombers could not be outfitted with MIRVs so their capacity would not be multiplied, thus the US did not seem to have as much potential for MIRV usage as the Soviets. However, the US had a number of Submarine-launched ballistic missiles, which could be outfitted with MIRVs. It is because of their first-strike capability that land-based MIRVs were banned under the START II agreement, START II was ratified by the Russian Duma on 14 April 2000, but Russia withdrew from the treaty in 2002 after the US withdrew from the ABM treaty. In a MIRV, the rocket motor pushes a bus into a free-flight suborbital ballistic flight path. After the boost phase the bus maneuvers using small on-board rocket motors and it takes up a ballistic trajectory that will deliver a reentry vehicle containing a warhead to a target, and then releases a warhead on that trajectory. It then maneuvers to a different trajectory, releasing another warhead, the precise technical details are closely guarded military secrets, to hinder any development of enemy counter-measures. The bus on-board propellant limits the distances between targets of individual warheads to perhaps a few hundred kilometers, some warheads may use small hypersonic airfoils during the descent to gain additional cross-range distance
7.
Solid-propellant rocket
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A solid-propellant rocket or solid rocket is a rocket with a rocket engine that uses solid propellants. The earliest rockets were solid-fuel rockets powered by gunpowder, they were used in warfare by the Chinese, Indians, Mongols and Persians, all rockets used some form of solid or powdered propellant up until the 20th century, when liquid-propellant rockets offered more efficient and controllable alternatives. Solid rockets are used today in model rockets and on larger applications for their simplicity and reliability. Since solid-fuel rockets can remain in storage for periods, and then reliably launch on short notice. Solids are, however, frequently used as boosters to increase payload capacity or as spin-stabilized add-on upper stages when higher-than-normal velocities are required. Solid rockets are used as launch vehicles for low Earth orbit payloads under 2 tons or escape payloads up to 500 kilograms. A simple solid rocket motor consists of a casing, nozzle, grain, the grain behaves like a solid mass, burning in a predictable fashion and producing exhaust gases. The nozzle dimensions are calculated to maintain a design chamber pressure, once ignited, a simple solid rocket motor cannot be shut off, because it contains all the ingredients necessary for combustion within the chamber in which they are burned. More advanced solid rocket motors can not only be throttled but also be extinguished, also, pulsed rocket motors that burn in segments and that can be ignited upon command are available. Design begins with the total impulse required, which determines the fuel/oxidizer mass, grain geometry and chemistry are then chosen to satisfy the required motor characteristics. The following are chosen or solved simultaneously, the results are exact dimensions for grain, nozzle, and case geometries, The grain burns at a predictable rate, given its surface area and chamber pressure. The chamber pressure is determined by the orifice diameter and grain burn rate. Allowable chamber pressure is a function of casing design, the length of burn time is determined by the grain web thickness. The grain may or may not be bonded to the casing, case-bonded motors are more difficult to design, since the deformation of the case and the grain under flight must be compatible. Common modes of failure in rocket motors include fracture of the grain, failure of case bonding. All of these produce an increase in burn surface area and a corresponding increase in exhaust gas production rate and pressure. Another failure mode is casing seal failure, seals are required in casings that have to be opened to load the grain. Once a seal fails, hot gas will erode the escape path and this was the cause of the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster
8.
Russian language
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Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi
9.
Nuclear weapon
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A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from small amounts of matter. The first test of a bomb released the same amount of energy as approximately 20,000 tons of TNT. The first thermonuclear bomb test released the same amount of energy as approximately 10 million tons of TNT, a thermonuclear weapon weighing little more than 2,400 pounds can produce an explosive force comparable to the detonation of more than 1.2 million tons of TNT. A nuclear device no larger than traditional bombs can devastate a city by blast, fire. Nuclear weapons are considered weapons of destruction, and their use. Nuclear weapons have been used twice in nuclear warfare, both times by the United States against Japan near the end of World War II, the bombings resulted in the deaths of approximately 200,000 civilians and military personnel from acute injuries sustained from the explosions. The ethics of the bombings and their role in Japans surrender remain the subject of scholarly, since the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, nuclear weapons have been detonated on over two thousand occasions for the purposes of testing and demonstration. Only a few nations possess such weapons or are suspected of seeking them, israel is also believed to possess nuclear weapons, though in a policy of deliberate ambiguity, it does not acknowledge having them. Germany, Italy, Turkey, Belgium and the Netherlands are nuclear weapons sharing states, south Africa is the only country to have independently developed and then renounced and dismantled its nuclear weapons. Modernisation of weapons continues to occur, all existing nuclear weapons derive some of their explosive energy from nuclear fission reactions. Weapons whose explosive output is exclusively from fission reactions are commonly referred to as bombs or atom bombs. This has long noted as something of a misnomer, as their energy comes from the nucleus of the atom. The latter approach is considered more sophisticated than the former and only the approach can be used if the fissile material is plutonium. A major challenge in all nuclear weapon designs is to ensure that a significant fraction of the fuel is consumed before the weapon destroys itself. The amount of energy released by fission bombs can range from the equivalent of just under a ton to upwards of 500,000 tons of TNT, all fission reactions necessarily generate fission products, the radioactive remains of the atomic nuclei split by the fission reactions. Many fission products are highly radioactive or moderately radioactive. Fission products are the radioactive component of nuclear fallout
10.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
11.
GRAU
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The Main Missile and Artillery Directorate of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation is a department of the Russian Ministry of Defense. It is subordinate to the Chief of Armament and Munition of the Russian Armed Forces, the organization dates back to 1862 when it was established under the name Главное артиллерийское управление. The R from rockets was added to the title in 1960, in particular, the GRAU is responsible for assigning GRAU indices to Russian army munitions and equipment. As of March 2014, the current Chief of the GRAU is Lieutenant General Nikolay Parshin, GRAU indices are of the form <number> <letter> <number>, with the optional suffix <letter> <number>. A specially assigned codename may follow the index, for example, «2 S19 Msta-S», the 2S19 Msta self-propelled howitzer. Several common misconceptions surround the scope and originating body of these indices, the GRAU designation is not an industrial designation, nor is it assigned by the design bureau. In addition to its GRAU designation, a piece of equipment could have a design name, an industrial name. The first part of a GRAU index is a number indicating which of the main categories of equipment a given item belongs to. The second part, a Cyrillic character, indicates the subcategory, the third part, a number, indicates the specific model. The optional suffix can be used to differentiate variants of the same model. ru and it has been released under the GFDL by the copyright holder. Dictionary of GRAU designations at aviation. ru Lennox, Duncan
12.
Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty
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The INF Treaty eliminated all nuclear and conventional missiles, as well as their launchers, with ranges of 500–1,000 kilometers and 1, 000–5,500 km. The treaty did not cover sea-launched missiles, by May 1991,2,692 missiles were eliminated, followed by 10 years of on-site verification inspections. Whereas the SS-4 and SS-5 were seen as weapons, the SS-20 was seen as a potential offensive system. Leslie H. Gelb, the US Assistant Secretary of State, on 12 December 1979, following European pressure for a response to the SS-20, Western foreign and defense ministers meeting in Brussels made the NATO Double-Track Decision. The ministers argued that the Warsaw Pact had developed a large and growing capability in nuclear systems that directly threaten Western Europe, theater nuclear systems. The ministers also attributed the situation to the deployment of the Soviet Tupolev Tu-22M strategic bomber. To address these developments, the ministers adopted two policy tracks, formal talks began on 30 November 1981, with the US then led by President Ronald Reagan and the Soviet Union by Leonid Brezhnev. Additionally, the US insisted that a sufficient verification regime be in place, paul Nitze, a longtime hand at defense policy who had participated in the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks, led the US delegation after being recruited by Secretary of State Alexander Haig. Though Nitze had backed the first SALT treaty, he opposed SALT II and had resigned from the US delegation during its negotiation, Nitze was also then a member of the Committee on the Present Danger, a firmly anti-Soviet group composed of neoconservatives and conservative Republicans. Yuli Kvitsinsky, the well-respected second-ranking official at the Soviet embassy in West Germany, on 18 November 1981, shortly before the beginning of formal talks, Reagan made the Zero Option proposal. The plan called for a hold on US deployment of GLCM and Pershing II systems, reciprocated by Soviet elimination of its SS-4, SS-5, there appeared to be little chance of the Zero Option being adopted, but the gesture was well received in the European public. Opinion within the Reagan administration on the Zero Option was mixed, Richard Perle, then the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Global Strategic Affairs, was the architect of the plan. Reagan later recounted that the zero option sprang out of the realities of nuclear politics in Western Europe. The Soviet Union rejected the plan shortly after the US tabled it in February 1982, specifically, Soviet negotiators proposed that the number of INF missiles and aircraft deployed in Europe by one side be capped at 600 by 1985 and 300 by 1990. Between 1981 and 1983, US and Soviet negotiators gathered for six rounds of talks, the US delegation was composed of Nitze, General William F. Colonel Norman Clyne, a SALT participant, served as Nitzes chief of staff, there was little convergence between the two sides over these two years. Nitze later said that his and Kvitsinskys goal was to agree to certain concessions that would allow for a summit meeting meeting Brezhnev, Nitzes offer to Kvitsinsky was that the US would forego deployment of the Pershing II and continue deployment of GLCMs, but limited to 75 missile launchers. The Soviet Union, in return, would also have to limit itself to 75 intermediate-range missile launchers in Europe and 90 in Asia, while Kvitsinsky was skeptical that the plan would be well received in Moscow, Nitze was optimistic about its chances in Washington
13.
Fiberglass
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Fiberglass is a type of fiber-reinforced plastic where the reinforcement fiber is specifically glass fiber. The glass fiber may be arranged, flattened into a sheet. The plastic matrix may be a polymer matrix – most often based on thermosetting polymers such as epoxy, polyester resin. The glass fibers are made of various types of glass depending upon the fiberglass use and these glasses all contain silica or silicate, with varying amounts of oxides of calcium, magnesium, and sometimes boron. To be used in fiberglass, glass fibers have to be made very low levels of defects. Fiberglass is a lightweight material and is used for many products. Although it is not as strong and stiff as composites based on fiber, it is less brittle. Its bulk strength and weight are also better than many metals, other common names for fiberglass are glass-reinforced plastic, glass-fiber reinforced plastic or GFK. Because glass fiber itself is referred to as fiberglass, the composite is also called fiberglass reinforced plastic. This article will adopt the convention that fiberglass refers to the glass fiber reinforced composite material. A patent for this method of producing glass wool was first applied for in 1933, Owens joined with the Corning company in 1935 and the method was adapted by Owens Corning to produce its patented fibreglas in 1936. Originally, fibreglas was a wool with fibers entrapping a great deal of gas, making it useful as an insulator. A suitable resin for combining the fibreglass with a plastic to produce a material was developed in 1936 by du Pont. The first ancestor of modern polyester resins is Cyanamids resin of 1942, peroxide curing systems were used by then. With the combination of fiberglass and resin the gas content of the material was replaced by plastic and this reduced the insulation properties to values typical of the plastic, but now for the first time the composite showed great strength and promise as a structural and building material. Confusingly, many glass fiber composites continued to be called fiberglass, ray Greene of Owens Corning is credited with producing the first composite boat in 1937, but did not proceed further at the time due to the brittle nature of the plastic used. In 1939 Russia was reported to have constructed a boat of plastic materials. The first car to have a body was a 1946 prototype of the Stout Scarab
14.
RT-21 Temp 2S
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The RT-21 Temp 2S was a mobile intercontinental ballistic missile developed by the Soviet Union during the Cold War. It was assigned the NATO reporting name SS-16 Sinner and carried the industry designation 15Zh42, the RT-21 was the first mobile ICBM developed by the Soviet Union, its innovative concept and design created by Alexander Nadiradze. The RT-21M Pioner s, as well as their succeeding missile complexes would rely on the SS-16 base concept and was used by Nadiradze for many of his later projects, the program became mired in a series of treaty complications, including questions regarding its use of theatre missile launchers. Ultimately, it is unlikely that the RT-21 reached deployment, and by the mid-1980s, period of storage on launcher 5 years, preparation time for launch 40 minutes RT-2PM Topol RT-2PM2 Topol-M List of missiles Global Security, RT-21 / SS-16 SINNER
15.
MAZ-7310
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The MAZ-543/MAZ-7310 Uragan is a Soviet/Belarusian 8×8 artillery truck designed and developed by MAZ, in what is now Belarus. Designed in the 1960s, the MAZ-543 was presented on November 7,1965 during the Moscow Red Square military parade as part of SS-1с Scud B system. The vehicle is powered by a 38.9 litre D12A-525 diesel engine producing around 525 horsepower, there have been a number of variants. It served as the basis for civilian vehicles, including the AA-60-160 aerodrome fire-fighting vehicle, the AA-70-172 experimental emergency vehicle. In 1974 at the Exhibition of Achievements of the National Economy and it has been in production since 1976. The MAZ-7310 could operate together with 4WD MAZ-8385 as a road-train and it was used in Siberia for oil surveying, and also as a tractor on military airbases. It completely replaced the previous 543 model, including a dump-truck MAZ-7510, aerodrome fire-fighting vehicle AA-60-160.01, in January 1983 the carrying capacity was increased by 1 more ton with the same dead weight. In particular this model was used to transport boring rigs, lifting cranes KS-5576 and KS-6571, the MAZ-543M version was designed to carry the BM-30 Smerch Multiple rocket launcher. The MAZ-543P was used for 9K76 Temp-S system, the MAZ-547 version is a six-axle version, used as Transporter erector launcher for the SS-20 Saber. This variant is used to carry the air defense missile complex S-300PMU-2 and this variant is used mainly to transport the air search radar 64N6 BIG BIRD for the S-300PM. In 1986, Peoples Republic of China fielded its version of MAZ-543, ltd, which is in turn a subsidiary of China Aerospace Science and Industry Corporation
16.
Transporter erector launcher
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A transporter erector launcher is a missile vehicle with an integrated prime mover that can carry, elevate to firing position and launch one or more missiles. Such vehicles exist for both missiles and surface-to-surface missiles. A transporter erector launcher and radar is the same as a TEL, such vehicles have the capability of being autonomous, greatly enhancing their effectiveness. With this type of each vehicle can fight regardless of the state or presence of support vehicles. The TEL or TELAR may have a turntable that it can use to aim the missiles. The vehicle may have to turn to aim the missiles or they may fire straight up, conversely, a transporter launcher and radar is the same as a TELAR without the erector capability, because the missile in question is transported in the launch-ready position. An example is the 9K330 Tor, which mounts a Vertical Launching System-style block of SAMs, usually a number of TELs and TELARs are linked to one command post vehicle. They may utilise target information from Target acquisition, designation and guidance radar or, simply, the Patriot missile system uses the abbreviation MEL as a towed launch vehicle
17.
Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic
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To the west it bordered Poland. Within the Soviet Union, it bordered Lithuania and Latvian to the north, the Socialist Soviet Republic of Byelorussia was declared by the Bolsheviks on 1 January 1919 following the declaration of independence by the Belarusian Democratic Republic in March 1918. In 1922, the BSSR was one of the four founding members of the Soviet Union, together with the Ukrainian SSR, the Transcaucasian SFSR, Byelorussia was one of several Soviet republics occupied by Nazi Germany during World War II. This non-sovereign country of several million was a UN-founding-member, towards the final years of the Soviet Republics existence, the Supreme Soviet of Byelorussian SSR adopted the Declaration of State Sovereignty on 27 July 1990. On 15 August 1991, Stanislau Shushkevich was elected as the countrys first president, ten days later on 25 August 1991, Byelorussian SSR declared its independence and renamed to the Republic of Belarus. The Soviet Union was dissolved four months later on December 26,1991 and this asserted that the territories are all Russian and all the peoples are also Russian, in the case of the Belarusians, they were variants of the Russian people. Following the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917, the term White Russia caused some confusion as it was also the name of the force that opposed the red Bolsheviks. During the period of the Byelorussian SSR, the term Byelorussia was embraced as part of a national consciousness, in western Belarus under Polish control, Byelorussia became commonly used in the regions of Białystok and Grodno during the interwar period. Upon the establishment of the Byelorussian Socialist Soviet Republic in 1920, in 1936, with the proclamation of the 1936 Soviet Constitution, the republic was renamed to the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic transposing the second and third words. On August 25,1991 the Supreme Soviet of the Byelorussian SSR renamed the Soviet republic to the Republic of Belarus, conservative forces in the newly independent Belarus did not support the name change and opposed its inclusion in the 1991 draft of the Constitution of Belarus. Prior to the First World War, Belarusian lands were part of the Russian Empire, during the War, the Russian Western Fronts Great retreat in August/September 1915 ended with the lands of Grodno and most of Vilno guberniyas occupied by Germany. The abdication of the Tsar in light of the February Revolution in Russia in early 1917, as central authority waned, different political and ethnic groups strived for greater self-determination and even secession from the increasingly ineffective Russian Provisional Government. The momentum picked up after the incompetent actions of the 10th Army during the ill-fated Kerensky Offensive during the summer. On 26 November, the committee of workers, peasants and soldiers deputies for the Western Oblast was merged with the Western fronts executive committee. During the autumn 1917/winter of 1918, the Western Oblast was headed by Aleksandr Myasnikyan as head of the Western Oblasts Military Revolutionary Committee, Myasnikyan took over as chair of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Partys committee for Western Oblast and Moisey Kalmanovich as chair of the Obliskomzap. As a result, on 7th of December, when the first All-Belarusian congress convened, a cease-fire was quickly agreed and proper peace negotiations began in December. The German Operation Faustschlag was of immediate success and within 11 days, they were able to make a serious advance eastward, taking over Ukraine, Baltic states and this forced the Obliskomzap to evacuate to Smolensk. The Smolensk guberniya was passed to the Western Oblast, faced with the German demands, the Bolsheviks accepted their terms at the final Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which was signed on 3 March 1918
18.
Minsk Automobile Plant
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Minsk Automobile Plant is a state-run automotive manufacturer association in Belarus, one of the largest in Eastern Europe. It was built shortly after the Second World War, the first MAZ model used General Motors designed 2-stroke engines. Later on their own engines were developed and implemented in the MAZ-500 series. Not only the plant itself, but the entire living infrastructure were built in a short time, apartment buildings, shops, medical clinics, cinemas etc. were built in close proximity to the MAZ plant, providing plant workers with local necessities. On many of the construction sites German prisoners of war were working together with Belarusian construction workers, the majority of these buildings are still in service today. It manufactures heavy-duty trucks, buses, trolleybuses, road tractors and semi-trailers for semi-trailer trucks, at the end of Soviet times, MAZ was the largest manufacturer of heavy trucks in the Soviet Union, and the only one for some truck categories. After the Soviet Union dissolved, MAZ production was reduced substantially, as has happened with many enterprises in the ultra-industrialized Belarus, the previously mentioned production of public transport vehicles was a result of following diversification of the company. In 1991, a division specialising in heavy wheeled military vehicles was spun off into a separate business, among other recent products, MAZ city buses are operating throughout Belarus, as well as in Russia, Ukraine, Poland, Romania, Serbia and Estonia. In Serbia, working in cooperation with a local-based company BIK, a production of gas-powered buses named BIK-203 has been agreed and these buses have been delivered at several Serbian towns to be in use in public transportation companies. Production of truck cabs involves huge, expensive tools, making this kind of recycling an existing design attractive, while production of tractors for international trade with 4x2 and 6x4 chassis layouts was a stated goal, development of exhaust gas regulations within the EU turned this into illusion. Based on the MAZ-MAN they have produced concrete mixers, fueling vehicles, flatbed trucks, dump trucks, production of the Belarusian-German company demonstrated the advantage of technology created by combining the abilities and experience of auto makers of two countries. Compared to European models in the class and quality range. Currently 98% of MAZ-MAN comply with Euro-3, while sale to the EU would require Euro-5 at least, in 2004, the joint venture made 272 vehicles, which is 45% higher than 2003. At the same time in 2003, output in comparison with 2002 increased by 50%,28 November 2005 MAZ-MAN sold 1000 of the first MAZ-MAN tractor to customers. MAZ-543 - The MAZ-543 was also designed for the transport of medium-and long-range missiles and has the same specifications as the MAZ-537, the MAZ-543 is best known as mobile missile launch pad of Scud missiles. In addition, there are modifications of the vehicle, such as the MAZ-547 as a mobile launch pad for SS-20 missiles or the MAZ-7917 as a launch pad of Topol intercontinental missile. MAZ-7904 - The MAZ-7904 is the largest wheeled vehicle that was designed for military purposes in the USSR. The prototype was designed in 1982 as a vehicle for intercontinental ballistic missiles
19.
R-12 Dvina
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The R-12 was a theatre ballistic missile developed and deployed by the Soviet Union during the Cold War. Its GRAU designation was 8K63, and it was given the NATO reporting name of SS-4 Sandal, deployments of the R-12 missile in Cuba caused the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962. A total of 2335 missiles were produced, all were destroyed in 1993 under the Soviet, OKB-586 formed from a spin-off of portions of Sergei Korolevs OKB-1 production infrastructure under the direction of Mikhail Yangel in the early 1950s. Soon after, he started the development of a strategic missile that would outperform the R-5, SS-3 Shyster. Yangels design was based on combining the basic airframe from the R-5 with a developed from the R-11. The R-11 was a missile that used nitric acid as an oxidizer and kerosene as a fuel. Valentin Glushko had long advocated using storable propellants, and proposed developing a new engine for the project, earlier designs like the R-5 and R-7 used liquid oxygen as the oxidizer, and therefore had to be fueled immediately before launch, as the oxygen would boil off over time. He developed the RD-214 for the R-12, which consisted of four combustion chambers sharing a common turbopump assembly, the pumps were powered by decomposing the hydrogen peroxide, like earlier designs, to generate an exhaust. The new engine was too large to fit in the existing R-5 airframe, the R-5, for instance, used an inertial guidance system that had to be fine tuned by commands from ground radio stations that it passed over during its flight. Pilyugin felt that newer inertial systems would have the accuracy needed to hit targets at 2,000 km without the mid-course updates, according to the official Yuzhnoye history, Yangels design was approved on 13 February 1953 by the Council of Ministers of the USSR. However, another source reports that the approval was granted on 13 August 1955, the first test was conducted at Kapustin Yar on 22 June 1957. In September 1958, Nikita Khrushchev personally visited Kapustin Yar to witness the launch of R-12, as well as its competitor, the latter had already been accepted into deployment at the time. The R-12 launch was a success and the month, mass production of the vehicle started in Dnepropetrovsk. Test launches continued until December and demonstrated a maximum error of 2.3 km, for the work on R-12, on 1 July 1959, OKB-586 received the Order of Lenin, while the Hero of Socialist Labor was awarded to Yangel, Smirnov and Budnik. The R-12 missile was introduced into the inventory on 4 March 1959 according to Russian sources, the first public display of this system was in November 1960, and they were deployed to Cuba in the fall of 1962 during the Cuban Missile Crisis. The first five regiments with surface-based R-12 missiles were put on alert in May 1960 and their reaction time was assessed by the West at one to three hours in the normal soft-site readiness condition, and five to fifteen minutes in the normal hard-site readiness condition. The allowable hold time in an alert condition was long—many hours for soft sites. The R-12 and R-12U missiles reached their maximum operational launcher inventory of 608 in 1964–66, some soft-site phase-out began in 1968, with some hard-site phase-out beginning in 1972
20.
R-14 Chusovaya
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The R-14 Chusovaya was a single stage Intermediate-range ballistic missile developed by the Soviet Union during the Cold War. It was given the NATO reporting name SS-5 Skean and was known by GRAU index 8K65 and it was designed by Mikhail Kuzmich Yangel. Chusovaya is the name of a river in Russia, line production was undertaken by Facility No.1001 in Krasnoyarsk. R-14 tests began in September 1959, the missile was the basis of the Kosmos-3 launch vehicle family. In 1964, the R-14 was equipped with a second stage to create the 65S3 booster. It was retired from service in 2010, the missile was gradually replaced by RSD-10 Pioneers, and by the mid 1980s most had been taken out of service. The last missiles were scrapped on August 9,1989
21.
Warsaw Pact
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The Warsaw Pact was the military complement to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, the regional economic organization for the communist states of Central and Eastern Europe. While the Warsaw Pact was established as a balance of power or counterweight to NATO, instead, the conflict was fought on an ideological basis and in proxy wars. Both NATO and the Warsaw Pact led to the expansion of military forces and its largest military engagement was the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968, which, in part, resulted in Albania withdrawing from the pact less than a month later. The Pact began to unravel in its entirety with the spread of the Revolutions of 1989 through the Eastern Bloc, beginning with the Solidarity movement in Poland, East Germany and Poland withdrew from the Pact in 1990. On 25 February 1991, the Pact was declared at an end at a meeting of defence, the USSR itself was dissolved in December 1991, although most of the former Soviet republics formed the Collective Security Treaty Organization shortly thereafter. Throughout the following 20 years, the seven Warsaw Pact countries outside the USSR each joined NATO, in the Western Bloc, the Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance is often called the Warsaw Pact military alliance—abbreviated WAPA, Warpac, and WP. Therefore, although ostensibly an international collective security alliance, the USSR dominated the Warsaw Treaty armed forces, the strategy behind the formation of the Warsaw Pact was driven by the desire of the Soviet Union to dominate Central and Eastern Europe. The Soviets wanted to keep their part of Europe theirs and not let the Americans take it from them and this policy was driven by ideological and geostrategic reasons. Ideologically, the Soviet Union arrogated the right to define socialism and communism, geostrategic principles also drove the Soviet Union to prevent invasion of its territory by Western European powers. Before the creation of the Warsaw Pact, Czechoslovak leadership, fearful of a rearmed Germany, sought to create a security pact with East Germany and these states protested strongly against the re-militarization of West Germany. The Warsaw Pact was primarily put in place as a consequence of the rearming of West Germany inside NATO, Soviet leaders, like many European countries on both sides of the Iron Curtain, feared Germany being once again a military power and a direct threat. The terrible consequences of German militarism remained a fresh memory among the Soviets, previously, in March 1954, the USSR, fearing the restoration of German militarism in West Germany, requested admission to NATO. The Soviet request to join NATO arose in the aftermath of the Berlin Conference of January–February 1954. James Dunn, who met in Paris with Eden, Adenauer and Robert Schuman, affirmed that the object should be to avoid discussion with the Russians, according to John Gaddis there was little inclination in Western capitals to explore this offer from USSR. But Eden, Dulles and Bidault opposed the proposal, the Soviets then decided to make a new proposal to the governments of the USA, UK and France to accept the participation of the USA in the proposed General European Agreement. Again all proposals, including the request to join NATO, were rejected by the UK, US, emblematic was the position of British General Hastings Ismay, supporter of NATO expansion, who said that NATO must grow until the whole free world gets under one umbrella. He opposed the request to join NATO made by the USSR in 1954 saying that the Soviet request to join NATO is like an unrepentant burglar requesting to join the police force, in April 1954 Adenauer made his first visit to the USA meeting Nixon, Eisenhower and Dulles. Ratification of EDC was delaying but the US representatives made it clear to Adenauer that EDC would have to become a part of NATO, memories of the Nazi occupation were still strong, and the rearmament of Germany was feared by France too
22.
Strategic Arms Limitation Talks
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The two rounds of talks and agreements were SALT I and SALT II. Negotiations commenced in Helsinki, Finland, in November 1969, SALT I led to the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty and an interim agreement between the two countries. Although SALT II resulted in an agreement in 1979, the United States Senate chose not to ratify the treaty in response to the Soviet war in Afghanistan, the Soviet legislature also did not ratify it. The agreement expired on December 31,1985 and was not renewed, a successor to START I, New START, was proposed and was eventually ratified in February 2011. SALT I is the name for the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks Agreement signed on May 26,1972. SALT I also limited land-based ICBMs that were in range from the border of the continental United States to the northwestern border of the continental USSR. In addition to that, SALT I limited the number of SLBM capable submarines that NATO, if the United States or NATO were to increase that number, the USSR could respond with increasing their arsenal by the same amount. The strategic nuclear forces of the Soviet Union and the United States were changing in character in 1968, MIRVs carried multiple nuclear warheads, often with dummies, to confuse ABM systems, making MIRV defense by ABM systems increasingly difficult and expensive. One clause of the treaty required both countries to limit the number of sites protected by a missile system to two each. The Soviet Union had deployed such a system around Moscow in 1966, a modified two-tier Moscow ABM system is still used. The United States built only one ABM site to protect a Minuteman base in North Dakota where the Safeguard Program was deployed, due to the systems expense and limited effectiveness, the Pentagon disbanded Safeguard in 1975. Negotiations lasted from November 17,1969, until May 1972 in a series of meetings beginning in Helsinki, Smith, director of the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency. Subsequent sessions alternated between Vienna and Helsinki, after a long deadlock, the first results of SALT I came in May 1971, when an agreement was reached over ABM systems. A number of agreed statements were also made and this helped improve relations between the United States and the USSR. SALT II was a series of talks between United States and Soviet negotiators from 1972 to 1979 which sought to curtail the manufacture of nuclear weapons. It was a continuation of the SALT I talks and was led by representatives from both countries, SALT II was the first nuclear arms treaty which assumed real reductions in strategic forces to 2,250 of all categories of delivery vehicles on both sides. SALT II helped the United States to discourage the Soviets from arming their third-generation ICBMs of SS-17, SS-19, in the late 1970s the USSRs missile design bureaus had developed experimental versions of these missiles equipped with anywhere from 10 to 38 warheads each. Additionally, the Soviets secretly agreed to reduce Tu-22M production to thirty aircraft per year and it was particularly important for the United States to limit Soviet efforts in the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces rearmament area
23.
Andrei Grechko
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Andrei Antonovich Grechko was a Soviet general, Marshal of the Soviet Union and Minister of Defense. Born in a town near Rostov-on-Don on 17 October 1903, the son of Ukrainian peasants, he joined the Red Army in 1919. After the Russian Civil War, Grechko was enrolled into the 6th Cavalry College in the city of Taganrog and he joined the Communist Party in 1928, and graduated from the Frunze Military Academy in 1936. He next attended the Soviet General Staff Academy, graduating in 1941, grechko’s first command during the second world war was of the 34th Cavalry Division, which put up a valiant fight around Kremenchug in the Ukraine. On 15 January 1942, Grechko was put in command of the entire V Cavalry Corps, starting 15 April 1942 and lasting until 16 October 1943, Grechko was placed in command of 12th Army, 47th Army, 18th Army, and 56th Army. All of these units were part of the North Caucasus Front, in October 1943, Grechko was promoted to Deputy Commander-in-Chief of 1st Ukrainian Front. Then, on 14 December 1943, he was made the Commanding General of 1st Guards Army, the First Guards Army was a part of the 4th Ukrainian Front, which was led by Col. -Gen. Grechko led the 1st Guards in a number of operations, predominantly in Hungary. After the war, Grechko was the Commanding General of the Kiev Military District, between 1953 and 1957, Grechko was the Commander-in-Chief of Soviet Forces in East Germany. On 11 March 1955, Grechko, along with five other high-ranking colleagues, from 1957-1960, Grechko was the Commander-in-Chief of the Ground Forces, and from 1960–1967, he was the Commander-in-Chief of the Warsaw Pact Forces). On 12 April 1967, Grechko was made the Minister of Defense, Grechko served in this capacity until his death in 1976. During the 1970s, Grechko served as the chairman of the commission that produced the official Soviet history of the Second World War. Grechko was a member in the Communist Party, and was a member of the Politburo. As Minister of Defense, Grechko helped modernize the Soviet Army, for Grechko, nuclear weapons would be weapons of first resort in a world war, not weapons of last resort. The urn containing his ashes is buried by the Kremlin Wall Necropolis
24.
Dmitry Ustinov
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Dmitriy Feodorovich Ustinov was Minister of Defence of the Soviet Union from 1976 until his death. Dimitry Feodorovich Ustinov was born in a family in Samara. During the civil war, when hunger became intolerable, his father went to Samarkand. Shortly after that, in 1922, his father died, in 1923, he and his mother, Yevrosinya Martinovna, moved to the city of Makarev where he worked as a fitter in a paper mill. Shortly after that, in 1925, his mother died, Ustinov joined the communist party in 1927. In 1929, he started training at the Faculty of Mechanics in the Polytechnic Institute of Ivanovo-Voznesensk, afterward, Ustinov was transferred to the Moscow Bauman Higher Technical School. Then, in March 1932, he entered the Institute of Military Mechanical Engineering in Leningrad from where he graduated in 1934, afterward, he worked as a construction engineer at the Leningrad artillery Marine Research Institute. In 1937, he was transferred to the Bolshevik Arms Factory as an engineer and he later became the director of the Factory. At the time of the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, in June 1941, from this position, he supervised the massive evacuation of the defence industry from the besieged city of Leningrad to east of the Ural Mountains. Over 80 military industries were evacuated that together employed over six hundred workers, technicians. Stalin later rewarded Ustinov, whom he called the Red-head, with the Soviet Unions highest civilian honour, Hero of Socialist Labour. After the war was over, Ustinov played a role in requisitioning the German missile programme, developed during World War II, as an impetus to the Soviet missile. In 1952, Ustinov became a member of the Central Committee, in 1957, he was appointed as a Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union and became chairman of the Military-Industrial Commission. Leonid Brezhnev took power after the ousting of Khrushchev, and Ustinov returned to the defense industry, in 1965, Brezhnev made Ustinov a candidate member of the Politburo and secretary of the Central Committee with oversight of the military, the defense industry, and certain security organs. He was also placed in charge of developing the Soviet Unions strategic bomber force, Ustinov was known in the defense industry as Uncle Mitya. He was also Chelomeis stolid personal adversary and he issued a directive, in February 1970, that ordered the Chelomei design bureau to combine its Almaz space station with Sergei Korolyovs design bureau, headed by Vasili Mishin. This order was designed as an impetus towards the development of the Salyut space station, Ustinov gained power in the bureaucracy as he rose in the defense industry. In 1976, after Andrei Grechko died on April 26, Ustinov became the Defense Minister and was promoted to General of the Army on April 29
25.
NATO
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The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party, three NATO members are permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and are officially nuclear-weapon states. NATOs headquarters are located in Haren, Brussels, Belgium, while the headquarters of Allied Command Operations is near Mons. NATO is an Alliance that consists of 28 independent member countries across North America and Europe, an additional 22 countries participate in NATOs Partnership for Peace program, with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programmes. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% of the global total, Members defence spending is supposed to amount to 2% of GDP. The course of the Cold War led to a rivalry with nations of the Warsaw Pact, politically, the organization sought better relations with former Warsaw Pact countries, several of which joined the alliance in 1999 and 2004. N. The Treaty of Brussels, signed on 17 March 1948 by Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, the treaty and the Soviet Berlin Blockade led to the creation of the Western European Unions Defence Organization in September 1948. However, participation of the United States was thought necessary both to counter the power of the USSR and to prevent the revival of nationalist militarism. He got a hearing, especially considering American anxiety over Italy. In 1948 European leaders met with U. S. defense, military and diplomatic officials at the Pentagon, marshalls orders, exploring a framework for a new and unprecedented association. Talks for a new military alliance resulted in the North Atlantic Treaty and it included the five Treaty of Brussels states plus the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland. The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, stated in 1949 that the goal was to keep the Russians out, the Americans in. Popular support for the Treaty was not unanimous, and some Icelanders participated in a pro-neutrality, the creation of NATO can be seen as the primary institutional consequence of a school of thought called Atlanticism which stressed the importance of trans-Atlantic cooperation. The members agreed that an attack against any one of them in Europe or North America would be considered an attack against them all. The treaty does not require members to respond with military action against an aggressor, although obliged to respond, they maintain the freedom to choose the method by which they do so. This differs from Article IV of the Treaty of Brussels, which states that the response will be military in nature. It is nonetheless assumed that NATO members will aid the attacked member militarily, the treaty was later clarified to include both the members territory and their vessels, forces or aircraft above the Tropic of Cancer, including some Overseas departments of France. The creation of NATO brought about some standardization of allied military terminology, procedures, and technology, the roughly 1300 Standardization Agreements codified many of the common practices that NATO has achieved
26.
Tactical nuclear weapon
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Tactical nuclear weapons were a large part of the peak nuclear weapons stockpile levels during the Cold War. Tactical nuclear weapons include gravity bombs, short-range missiles, artillery shells, land mines, depth charges, also in this category are nuclear armed ground-based or shipborne surface-to-air missiles and air-to-air missiles. In wartime, such explosives could be used for demolishing choke-points to enemy offensives, such as at tunnels, narrow mountain passes, there is no precise definition of the tactical category, neither considering range nor yield of the nuclear weapon. Modern tactical nuclear warheads have yields up to the tens of kilotons, or potentially hundreds, several times that of the used in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima. Use of tactical nuclear weapons against similarly-armed opponents carries a significant danger of escalating the conflict beyond anticipated boundaries. For example, firing a nuclear artillery shell similar to the W48 at the enemy invites retaliation. It may provoke the enemy into responding with several artillery shells similar to the W79. By using tactical nuclear weapons there is a risk of escalating the conflict until it reaches a tipping point which provokes the use of strategic nuclear weapons such as ICBMs. Additionally, the nuclear weapons most likely to be used first have usually been under less stringent political control at times of military combat crises than strategic weapons. Early Permissive Action Links could be as simple as a combination lock. For these reasons, stockpiles of nuclear warheads in most countries arsenals have been dramatically reduced c. 2010, and the smallest types have been completely eliminated, some variable yield nuclear warheads such as the B61 nuclear bomb have been produced in both tactical and strategic versions. This concept was formalized when Putin took power in Russia in the following year, ten NATO member countries have advanced a confidence-building plan for NATO and Russia that could lead to treaties to reduce the tactical nuclear weapons in Europe
27.
Pershing II
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The U. S. Army replaced the Pershing 1a with the Pershing II Weapon System in 1983 while the German Air Force retained Pershing 1a until all Pershings were eliminated in 1991. The U. S. Army Missile Command managed the development and improvements while the Field Artillery Branch deployed the systems, development began in 1973 for an updated Pershing. The Pershing 1a 400 kt warhead was greatly over-powered for the quick reaction alert mission, the contract went to Martin Marietta in 1975 with the first development launches in 1977. Pershing II was to use the new W85 warhead with a five to 50 kt variable yield or an earth-penetrator W86 warhead, the warhead was packaged in a maneuverable reentry vehicle with active radar guidance and would use the existing rocket motors. Requests from Israel to buy the new Pershing II were rejected in 1975, the Soviet Union began deployment of the SS-20 Saber in 1976. The Pershing II with the motors was initially referred to as Pershing II Extended Range. Both the hard target capability and W86 nuclear warhead were canceled in 1980, a concept warhead using kinetic energy penetrators for counter-airfield operations never materialized. Because of SALT II agreements, no new launchers could be built, the warhead and radar sections were carried as an assembly on a pallet that rotated to mate with the main missile. There were two prime movers for the launcher, both with a used for missile assembly and a generator to provide power for the launcher. The U. S units used the M983 HEMTT with a Hiab 8001 crane, tactical units in Germany used the M1001 MAN tractor with an Atlas Maschinen GmbH AK4300 M5 crane and a 30 KW generator. Since the new system was self-orienting, the launcher could be emplaced on any surveyed site. The new rocket motors were built by Hercules, To minimize airframe weight, the reentry vehicle was structurally and functionally divided into three sections, the radar section, the warhead section, and the guidance and control/adapter section. The G&C/A section consisted of two portions, the G&C and the adapter connected by a manufactured splice. At the forward end of the G&C there was a quick access splice for attachment to the warhead section, at the aft end, the adapter was grooved to accept the V-band that spliced the propulsion section to the G&C section. The RV separation system consisted of a shaped charge ring assembly bolted to the G&C section so that separation occurred just forward of the G&C manufactured splice. A protective collar on the surface of the adapter, mounted over the linear shaped charge. The G&C portion contained two guidance systems, the primary guidance system was a Goodyear Aerospace active radar guidance system. Using radar maps of the area, the Pershing II had an accuracy of 30 metres circular error probable
28.
BGM-109G Ground Launched Cruise Missile
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The Ground Launched Cruise Missile, or GLCM, was a ground-launched cruise missile developed by the United States Air Force in the last decade of the Cold War. The BGM-109G was developed as a counter to the mobile medium-, GLCM is also a generic term for any ground-launched cruise missile. Since the U. S. deployed only one cruise missile in the tactical role. The GLCM was built by General Dynamics, a conventionally configured cruise missile, the BGM-109 was essentially a small, pilotless flying machine, powered by a turbofan engine. Also, it flies at lower altitudes than a ballistic missile. The trade-off for this low-observability flight is strike time, cruise missiles travel far more slowly than a weapon. The W84 warhead was a 0. 2-150kt variable-yield weapon and this yield contrasts with the yield of the W80 warhead found on other versions of the Tomahawk and on the ALCM from which the W84 was derived, which had a selectable yield of 5 or 150 kt. The Pentagon credited the GLCM with a range of 2000–2500 kilometers, like other U. S. cruise missiles of this period, accuracy after more than 2000 km of flight was within half the width of an American football field or 100 ft. The missile was entirely subsonic, powered by an engine with a rocket booster assisting at launch. Militarily, the GLCM was targeted against fixed targets—at the outer edge of its range, the missiles were launched from an elevated launcher, with the missile ejected from its canister for about 13 seconds of solid rocket booster flight. The fins extended at 4 seconds, the air inlet and wings deployed at 10 seconds, flying at low level, the missile was guided by TERCOM to the target. 3 This contrasted strongly with Pershing II, which had a time of 10–15 minutes. BGM-109G personnel were trained at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona, on 1 October 1985, the squadron became part of the 868th Tactical Missile Training Group. The group and squadron were inactivated on 31 May 1990, an area near Fort Huachuca, Arizona was used for field training for GLCM flights. GLCM testing was conducted at the Dugway Proving Ground in Utah, BGM-109G missiles would be based at six locations throughout Europe, in the United Kingdom, Belgium, Netherlands, Germany, and Comiso Air Station in Italy. Each location had its own problems, but all required extensive construction by the USAF. Initial operating capability occurred in 1983, normal basing was in blast shelters at military installations. Each TMS consisted of flights, made up of 69 people and 22 vehicles
29.
Kansk
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Kansk is a town in Krasnoyarsk Krai, Russia, located on the left bank of the Kan River. Founded in 1628 as a Russian fort, it was transferred to its current location in 1636, the town is a center of the Kansk-Achinsk lignite basin, which in the early 1980s was developed into one of the largest coal areas of the Soviet Union. It also has cotton, timber, hydrolysis, and food industries, within the framework of administrative divisions, Kansk serves as the administrative center of Kansky District, even though it is not a part of it. As an administrative division, it is incorporated separately as the town of Kansk—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the town of Kansk is incorporated as Kansk Urban Okrug. The town is home to the Kansk air base and is crossed by the Trans-Siberian Railway, pyotr Slovtsov, tenor Законодательное собрание Красноярского края. Закон №10-4765 от10 июня2010 г, «О перечне административно-территориальных единиц и территориальных единиц Красноярского края», в ред. Закона №7-3007 от16 декабря2014 г, Вступил в силу1 июля2010 г. Опубликован, Ведомости высших органов государственной власти Красноярского края, №33,5 июля2010 г, Закон №12-2372 от22 октября2004 г. «О наделении муниципального образования город Канск статусом городского округа», Вступил в силу через десять дней после официального опубликования. Опубликован, Ведомости высших органов государственной власти Красноярского края, №30,14 ноября2004 г, Закон №13-3015 от18 февраля2005 г. «Об установлении границ и наделении соответствующим статусом муниципального образования Канский район и находящихся в его границах иных муниципальных образований», Закона №8-3158 от23 апреля2009 г. «О внесении изменений в Закон края «Об установлении границ и наделении соответствующим статусом муниципального образования Канский район и находящихся в его границах иных муниципальных образований»», Вступил в силу через десять дней после официального опубликования. Опубликован, Ведомости высших органов государственной власти Красноярского края, №9,4 марта2005 г
30.
Krasnoyarsk Krai
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Krasnoyarsk Krai is a federal subject of Russia, with its administrative center in the city of Krasnoyarsk—the third-largest city in Siberia. Krasnoyarsk Krai is the largest krai in the Russian Federation, the second largest federal subject, and the third largest subnational governing body by area in the world. It borders the Sakha Republic, Irkutsk, the Tuva Republic, the Republic of Khakassia, and Kemerovo, Tomsk, and Tyumen Oblasts, and the Kara Sea and Laptev Sea of the Arctic Ocean in the north. The krai is located in the basin of the Arctic Ocean, the main rivers of the krai are the Yenisei, and its tributaries, the Kan, the Angara, the Podkamennaya Tunguska, and the Nizhnyaya Tunguska. There are also several lakes in the krai. The largest lakes include Beloye, Belyo, Glubokoye, Itat, Khantayskoye, Labas, Lama, Pyasina, Taymyr, the rivers and lakes are rich with fish. The climate is continental with large temperature variations during the year. For the central and southern regions where most of the population lives, long winters and short. The territory of Krasnoyarsk Krai experiences conditions of three belts, Arctic, Subarctic, and moderate. In the north there are less than 40 days with temperature above 10 °C, the average temperature in January is −36 °C in the north and −18 °C in the south. The average temperature in July is +10 °C in the north, the annual precipitation is 316 millimeters. Snow covers the regions of the krai from early November until late March. The peaks of the Sayan Mountains higher than 2, 400–2,600 m, permafrost is widespread, especially in the north. The highest point of the krai is Grandiozny Peak in the East Sayan Mountains at an elevation of 2,922 meters, according to archaeologists, the territory of Siberia was settled around 40,000 BCE. The grave-mounds and monuments of the Scythian culture in Krasnoyarsk Krai belong to the 7th century BCE and are ones of the oldest in Eurasia, a princes grave, the Kurgan Arshan, discovered in 2001, is also located in the krai. Russian settlement of the began in the 17th century. After the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway the Russian colonization of the strongly increased. During both the Tsarist and the Bolsheviks regimes the territory of Krasnoyarsk Krai was used as a place of exile of political enemies, the first leaders of the Soviet state, Vladimir Lenin and Joseph Stalin were exiled to what is now the krai in 1897–1900 and 1903, respectively
31.
Ukraine
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Ukraine is currently in territorial dispute with Russia over the Crimean Peninsula which Russia annexed in 2014 but which Ukraine and most of the international community recognise as Ukrainian. Including Crimea, Ukraine has an area of 603,628 km2, making it the largest country entirely within Europe and it has a population of about 42.5 million, making it the 32nd most populous country in the world. The territory of modern Ukraine has been inhabited since 32,000 BC, during the Middle Ages, the area was a key centre of East Slavic culture, with the powerful state of Kievan Rus forming the basis of Ukrainian identity. Following its fragmentation in the 13th century, the territory was contested, ruled and divided by a variety of powers, including Lithuania, Poland, the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. A Cossack republic emerged and prospered during the 17th and 18th centuries, two brief periods of independence occurred during the 20th century, once near the end of World War I and another during World War II. Before its independence, Ukraine was typically referred to in English as The Ukraine, following independence, Ukraine declared itself a neutral state. Nonetheless it formed a limited partnership with the Russian Federation and other CIS countries. In the 2000s, the government began leaning towards NATO, and it was later agreed that the question of joining NATO should be answered by a national referendum at some point in the future. Former President Viktor Yanukovych considered the current level of co-operation between Ukraine and NATO sufficient, and was against Ukraine joining NATO and these events formed the background for the annexation of Crimea by Russia in March 2014, and the War in Donbass in April 2014. On 1 January 2016, Ukraine applied the economic part of the Deep, Ukraine has long been a global breadbasket because of its extensive, fertile farmlands and is one of the worlds largest grain exporters. The diversified economy of Ukraine includes a heavy industry sector, particularly in aerospace. Ukraine is a republic under a semi-presidential system with separate powers, legislative, executive. Its capital and largest city is Kiev, taking into account reserves and paramilitary personnel, Ukraine maintains the second-largest military in Europe after that of Russia. Ukrainian is the language and its alphabet is Cyrillic. The dominant religion in the country is Eastern Orthodoxy, which has strongly influenced Ukrainian architecture, literature, there are different hypotheses as to the etymology of the name Ukraine. According to the older and most widespread hypothesis, it means borderland, while more recently some studies claim a different meaning, homeland or region. The Ukraine now implies disregard for the sovereignty, according to U. S. ambassador William Taylor. Neanderthal settlement in Ukraine is seen in the Molodova archaeological sites include a mammoth bone dwelling
32.
Vinnytsia
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Vinnytsia is a city in west-central Ukraine, located on the banks of the Southern Bug. It is the center of Vinnytsia Oblast and the largest city in the historic region of Podillia. Administratively, it is incorporated as a town of oblast significance and it also serves as an administrative center of Vinnytsia Raion, one of the 27 districts of Vinnytsia Oblast, though it is not a part of the district. Population,372, 484 A historic city known since Middle Ages, the name of Vinnytsia appeared for the first time in 1363. It is assumed that the name is derived from the old Slavic word Vino and this name can be explained by the fact that the Vinnytsia and surrounding land were captured by Lithuanian Duke Algirdas in XIV century, and then, they were given as a gift to his nephews. Vinnytsia is located about 260 km southwest of the Ukrainian capital, Kyiv,429 km north-northwest of the Black Sea port city of Odessa and it is the administrative center of the Vinnytsia Oblast, as well as the administrative center of the surrounding Vinnytsia Raion within the oblast. The city itself is directly subordinated to the oblast, a long lasting warm summer with a sufficient quantity of moisture and a comparatively short winter is characteristic of Vinnytsia. The average temperature in January is −5.8 °C and 18.3 °C in July, the average annual precipitation is 638 mm. Over the course of a year there are around 6–9 days when snowstorms occur, 37–60 days when mists occur during the cold period, the original settlement was built and populated by Aleksander Hrehorovicz Jelec, hetman under Lithuanian Prince Švitrigaila. He built the fort, which he commanded as starosta afterwards, in the 15th century, Polish King Alexander Jagiellon granted Winnica Magdeburg city rights. In 1566, it part of the Bracław Voivodeship. Between 1569 and 1793 the town was a part of Poland and in this period, during period of Polish rule, Winnica was a Polish royal city. On March 18,1783, Antoni Protazy Potocki opened in Winnica the Trade Company Poland, after Second Partition of Poland in 1793 the Russian Empire annexed the city and the region. Russia moved to expunge the Roman Catholic religion – Catholic churches in the city were converted to Russian Orthodox churches, according to the Russian census of 1897, Vinnytsia with a population of 30,563 was the third largest city of Podolia after Kamianets-Podilskyi and Uman. It was occupied by German troops on 19 July 1941 during World War II, in 1943, the invading Germans exhumed almost 10,000 people, mostly male Ukrainians, from mass graves in Vinnytsia. The majority of the executions happened during the Stalinist Great Purge between 1937–1938 in the Vinnytsia massacre, adolf Hitler sited his easternmost headquarters Führerhauptquartier Werwolf near the town and spent a number of weeks there in 1942 and early 1943. Nazi atrocities were committed in and near Vinnytsia by Einsatzgruppe C, estimates of the number of victims run as high as 28,000. This included the extinction of the towns large Jewish population
33.
Smithsonian Institution
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The Smithsonian Institution, established in 1846 for the increase and diffusion of knowledge, is a group of museums and research centers administered by the Government of the United States. Originally organized as the United States National Museum, that ceased to exist as an administrative entity in 1967. Additional facilities are located in Arizona, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York City, Texas, Virginia, more than 200 institutions and museums in 45 states, Puerto Rico, and Panama are Smithsonian Affiliates. The Institutions thirty million annual visitors are admitted without charge and its annual budget is around $1.2 billion with 2/3 coming from annual federal appropriations. Other funding comes from the Institutions endowment, private and corporate contributions, membership dues, and earned retail, concession, Institution publications include Smithsonian and Air & Space magazines. The British scientist James Smithson left most of his wealth to his nephew Henry James Hungerford, Congress officially accepted the legacy bequeathed to the nation, and pledged the faith of the United States to the charitable trust on July 1,1836. The American diplomat Richard Rush was dispatched to England by President Andrew Jackson to collect the bequest, Rush returned in August 1838 with 105 sacks containing 104,960 gold sovereigns. Once the money was in hand, eight years of Congressional haggling ensued over how to interpret Smithsons rather vague mandate for the increase, unfortunately, the money was invested by the US Treasury in bonds issued by the state of Arkansas which soon defaulted. The United States Exploring Expedition by the U. S. Navy circumnavigated the globe between 1838 and 1842, in 1846, the regents developed a plan for weather observation, in 1847, money was appropriated for meteorological research. The Institution became a magnet for young scientists from 1857 to 1866, the Smithsonian played a critical role as the U. S. partner institution in early bilateral scientific exchanges with the Academy of Sciences of Cuba. The Smithsonian Institution Building began construction in 1849, designed by architect James Renwick Jr. its interiors were completed by general contract Gilbert Cameron and the building opened in 1855. The Smithsonians first expansion came with construction of the Arts and Industries Building in 1881, Congress had promised to build a new structure for the museum if the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition generated enough income. It did, and the building was designed by architects Adolf Cluss and Paul Schulze, meigs of the United States Army Corps of Engineers. The National Zoological Park opened in 1889 to accommodate the Smithsonians Department of Living Animals and this structure was designed by the D. C. architectural firm of Hornblower & Marshall. More than 40 years would pass before the museum, the Museum of History. It was designed by the firm of McKim, Mead & White. That same year, the Smithsonian signed an agreement to take over the Cooper Union Museum for the Arts of Decoration, the National Portrait Gallery and the Smithsonian American Art Museum opened in the Old Patent Office Building on October 7,1968. The first new building to open since the National Museum of Natural History was the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden
34.
National Air and Space Museum
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The National Air and Space Museum of the Smithsonian Institution, also called the NASM, is a museum in Washington, D. C. It holds the largest collection of aircraft and spacecraft in the world. It was established in 1946 as the National Air Museum and opened its building on the National Mall near LEnfant Plaza in 1976. In 2014, the museum saw approximately 6.7 million visitors, the museum contains the Apollo 11 module, the Friendship 7 capsule which was flown by John Glenn, the Bell X-1 which broke the sound barrier, and the Wright brothers plane near the entrance. The National Air and Space Museum is a center for research into the history and science of aviation and spaceflight, as well as science and terrestrial geology. Almost all space and aircraft on display are originals or the original backup craft and it operates an annex, the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center, at Dulles International Airport, which opened in 2003 and itself encompasses 760,000 square feet. The museum currently conducts restoration of its collection at the Paul E. St, the mass of the museum is similar to the National Gallery of Art across the National Mall, and uses the same pink Tennessee marble as the National Gallery. Built by Gilbane Building Company, the museum was completed in 1976, the west glass wall of the building is used for the installation of airplanes, functioning as a giant door. The Air and Space Museum was originally called the National Air Museum when formed on August 12,1946 by an act of Congress and signed into law by President Harry S. Truman. The String fellow steam engine intended for aircraft was added to the collection in 1889, some pieces were on display in the Arts and Industries Building, some were stored in the Aircraft Building, a large temporary metal shed in the Smithsonian Castles south yard. Larger missiles and rockets were displayed outdoors in what was known as Rocket Row, the shed housed a large Martin bomber, a LePere fighter-bomber, and an Aeromarine 39B floatplane. Still, much of the collection remained in storage due to a lack of display space, the current Garber Facility was ceded to the Smithsonian by the Maryland-National Capital Park and Planning Commission in 1952 after the curator Paul E. Garber spotted the wooded area from the air. Bulldozers from Fort Belvoir and prefabricated buildings from the United States Navy kept the initial costs low, the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center opened in 2003, funded by a private donation. The museum also holds the mirror for the Hubble which. The Smithsonian has also promised the International Cometary Explorer, which is currently in a solar orbit that occasionally brings it back to Earth. The Air and Space Museum announced a renovation of its main entrance hall. The renovation to the hall was funded by a $30 million donation from Boeing. The gift, which will be paid over seven years, is the largest corporate donation ever received by the Air, Boeing had previously given donations totaling $58 million
35.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
36.
North Korea
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North Korea, officially the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea, is a country in East Asia, constituting the northern part of the Korean Peninsula. Pyongyang is both the capital as well as its largest city. To the north and northwest the country is bordered by China and by Russia along the Amnok, the country is bordered to the south by South Korea, with the heavily fortified Korean Demilitarized Zone separating the two. Negotiations on reunification failed, and in 1948 two separate governments were formed, the communist Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea in the north, an invasion initiated by North Korea led to the Korean War. The Korean Armistice Agreement brought about a ceasefire, and no peace treaty was ever signed. North Korea officially describes itself as a self-reliant socialist state and formally holds elections, critics regard it as a totalitarian dictatorship. Various outlets have called it Stalinist, particularly noting the elaborate cult of personality around Kim Il-sung, International organizations have assessed human rights violations in North Korea as belonging to a category of their own, with no parallel in the contemporary world. Over time, North Korea has gradually distanced itself from the world communist movement, Juche, an ideology of national self-reliance, was introduced into the constitution as a creative application of Marxism–Leninism in 1972. The means of production are owned by the state through state-run enterprises, most services such as healthcare, education, housing and food production are subsidized or state-funded. From 1994 to 1998, North Korea suffered from a famine that resulted in the deaths of between 0.24 and 3.5 million people, and the continues to struggle with food production. North Korea follows Songun, or military-first policy and it is the country with the highest number of military and paramilitary personnel, with a total of 9,495,000 active, reserve, and paramilitary personnel. Its active duty army of 1.21 million is the fourth largest in the world, after China, North Korea is an atheist state with no official religion and where public religion is discouraged. The name Korea derives from the name Goryeo, the name Goryeo itself was first used by the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo in the 5th century as a shortened form of its name. The 10th-century kingdom of Goryeo succeeded Goguryeo, and thus inherited its name, the modern spelling of Korea first appeared in the late 17th century in the travel writings of the Dutch East India Companys Hendrick Hamel. After the division of the country into North and South Korea, the two sides used different terms to refer to Korea, Chosun or Joseon in North Korea, in 1948, North Korea adopted Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea as its new legal name. After the First Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War, Korea was occupied by Japan, Japan tried to suppress Korean traditions and culture and ran the economy primarily for its own benefit. Korean resistance groups known as Dongnipgun operated along the Sino-Korean border, some of them took part in allied action in China and parts of South East Asia. One of the leaders was the communist Kim Il-sung, who later became the leader of North Korea
37.
Hwasong-10
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The Hwasong-10, also known by the names BM-25 and Musudan, is a mobile intermediate-range ballistic missile developed by North Korea. Hwasong-10 resembles the shape of the Soviet Unions R-27 Zyb submarine-launched missile, in the mid-1990s, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, North Korea invited the Makeyev Design Bureaus ballistic missile designers and engineers to develop this missile, based on the R-27 Zyb. Additionally, the warhead was reduced from a three-warhead MIRV to a single warhead, the actual rocket design is a liquid fuel rocket, generally believed to use a hypergolic combination of unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine as fuel, and nitrogen tetroxide as oxidizer. Once the fuel/oxidizer combination are fed into the missile, it could maintain a ready to launch condition for several days, or even weeks, like the R-27 SLBM, in moderate ambient temperatures. A fueled Hwasong-10 would not have the strength to be safely land transported. It was originally believed that the motors of Hwasong-10 is made up the second stage of the Taepodong-2. However analysis of the Unha-3 launch, believed to be based on the Taepodong-2, showed that the stage did not use the same fuel as the R-27. Currently, North Korea is also working on land based nuclear deterrents that are of Intercontinental range, such as KN-08 and it is also working a sea-based nuclear deterrent, such as KN-11 SLBM. 16 were seen at once during the October 10,2010 Military Parade, although experts contacted by the Washington Post believed these were mock-ups of the missile. Section 25 of this leaked cable says, Russia said that during its presentations in Moscow and its comments thus far during the current talks, the U. S. has discussed the BM-25 as an existing system. Russia questioned the basis for this assumption and asked for any facts the U. S. had to provide its existence such as launches, photos, for Russia, the BM-25 is a mysterious missile. North Korea has not conducted any tests of this missile, and it is hard for Russia to follow the logic trail on this. Since Russia has not seen any evidence of this missile being developed or tested, Russia does not understand how a deal would be made for an untested missile. References to the missiles existence are more in the domain of literature than technical fact. In short, for Russia, there is a question about the existence of this system, given that Iran did not publicly display this missile system, there might be a chance that such transfer from North Korea did not happen at all. R-27 Zyb Pukkuksong-1 JL-1 KN-08 Missile Threat CSIS - Musudan R-27, astronautix. com R-27, Globalsecurity. org
38.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
Soviet Union
Ukraine
