1.
Dordogne
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Dordogne is a department in southwestern France, with its prefecture in Périgueux. The department is located in the region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine between the Loire Valley and the Pyrenees, and is named after the great Dordogne river that runs through it and it roughly corresponds with the ancient county of Périgord. The county of Périgord dates back to when the area was inhabited by the Gauls and it was originally home to four tribes, the name for four tribes in the Gaulish language was Petrocore. The area eventually known as the county of Le Périgord. The Petrocores took part in the resistance against Rome, the earliest cluzeaux, artificial caves either above or below ground, can be found throughout the Dordogne. These subterranean refuges and lookout huts were large enough to shelter entire local populations, according to Julius Caesar the Gauls took refuge in these caves during the resistance. After Guienne province was transferred to the English Crown under the Plantagenets following the remarriage of Eleanor of Aquitaine in 1152, the county had been torn apart and, as a consequence, that modeled its physiognomy. During the calmer periods of the late 15th and early 16th centuries, the finest Gothic and Renaissance residences were built in Périgueux, Bergerac and Sarlat. In the countryside, the nobility had the majority of the more than 1200 chateaux, manors, at the time, Bergerac was one of the most powerful Huguenot strongholds, along with La Rochelle. and even Josephine Baker. A number of ruins have retained the memory of the tragedies took place within their walls. Several of the castles and châteaux are open to visitors and some of such as Bourdeilles and Mareuil. Saint-Léon-sur-Vézère, Connezac, Saint-Jean-de-Côle, La Roque-Gageac and many others are real jewels of architecture, as for the old quarters of Périgueux or Bergerac, restored and developed into pedestrian areas, they have regained their former charm. A number of towns, such as Brantôme, Issigeac, Eymet. A special mention should be made in respect to Sarlat. Dordogne is one of the original 83 departments created on 4 March 1790 during the French Revolution and it was included from the former province of Périgord, the county of Périgord. Its borders would continue to change over the subsequent decades, in 1793 the communes of Boisseuilh, Coubjours, Génis, Payzac, Saint-Cyr-les-Champagnes, Saint-Mesmin, Salagnac, Savignac, Saint-Trié and Teillots were transferred from Corrèze to Dordogne. In 1794 Dordogne ceded Cavarc to Lot-et-Garonne, later in 1794 Dordogne gained Parcoul from Charente-Inférieure. Following the restoration, in 1819, the commune of Bonrepos was suppressed and merged with the adjacent commune of Souillac in Lot, but at some stage the victim died, and following a trial four individuals identified as culpable were in turn condemned to die by guillotine
2.
Aquitaine
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Aquitaine, archaic Guyenne/Guienne was a traditional region of France, and was an administrative region of France until 1 January 2016. It is now part of the new region Nouvelle-Aquitaine and it is situated in the south-western part of Metropolitan France, along the Atlantic Ocean and the Pyrenees mountain range on the border with Spain. It is composed of the five departments of Dordogne, Lot-et-Garonne, Pyrénées-Atlantiques, Landes, in the Middle Ages, Aquitaine was a kingdom and a duchy, whose boundaries fluctuated considerably. This has been demonstrated by various Aquitanian names and words that were recorded by the Romans, whether this Aquitanian language was a remnant of a Vasconic language group that once extended much farther, or whether it was generally limited to the Aquitaine/Basque region is not known. The original Aquitania at the time of Caesars conquest of Gaul included the area bounded by the Garonne River, the Pyrenees, the name may stem from Latin aqua, maybe derived from the town Aquae Augustae, Aquae Tarbellicae or just Aquis or as a more general geographical feature. In 392, the Roman imperial provinces were restructured and Aquitania Prima, Aquitania Secunda, accounts of Aquitania during the Early Middle Ages are a blur, lacking precision, but there was much unrest. The Visigoths were called into Gaul as foederati, legalizing their status within the Empire, eventually they established themselves as the de facto rulers in south-west Gaul as central Roman rule collapsed. Visigoths established their capital in Toulouse, but their tenure on Aquitaine was feeble, in 507, they were expelled south to Hispania after their defeat in the Battle of Vouillé by the Franks, who became the new rulers in the area to the south of the Loire. The Roman Aquitania Tertia remained in place as Novempopulania, where a duke was appointed to hold a grip over the Basques and these dukes were quite detached from central Frankish overlordship, sometimes governing as independent rulers with strong ties to their kinsmen south of the Pyrenees. As of 660, the foundations for an independent Aquitaine/Vasconia polity were established by the duke Felix of Aquitaine, a united Basque-Aquitanian realm reached its heyday under Odo the Greats rule. Odo was required to pledge allegiance to the Frankish Charles Martel in exchange for help against the advancing Arabic forces, Basque-Aquitanian self-rule temporarily came to a halt, definitely in 768 after the assassination of Waifer. Seguin, count of Bordeaux and Duke of Vasconia, seemed to have attempted a detachment from the Frankish central authority on Charlemagnes death, the new emperor Louis the Pious reacted by removing him from his capacity, which stirred the Basques into rebellion. Before Pepins death, emperor Louis had appointed a new king in 832, his son Charles the Bald, however scarce, some Frankish population and nobles settled down in regions like Albigeois, Carcassone, Toulouse, and Provence and Lower Rhone. After the death of the king Dagobert I, the Merovingian tenure south of the Loire became largely nominal, with the power being in the hands of autonomous regional leaders. The Franks may have largely assimilated to the preponderant Gallo-Roman culture by the 8th century. Still, in the Battle of Toulouse, the Aquitanian duke Odo is said to be leading an army of Aquitanians, on the other hand, the Franks didnt mix with the Basques, keeping separate paths. Recorded evidence points to their deployment across Aquitaine in a capacity as a mainstay of the Dukes forces. Romans are cited as living in the cities of Aquitaine, as opposed to the Franks, in 1058, the Duchy of Vasconia and Aquitaine merged under the rule of William VIII, Duke of Aquitaine
3.
Second French Empire
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The Second French Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870, between the Second Republic and the Third Republic, in France. The structure of the French government during the Second Empire was little changed from the First, but Emperor Napoleon III stressed his own imperial role as the foundation of the government. He had so often, while in prison or in exile and his answer was to organize a system of government based on the principles of the Napoleonic Idea. This meant that the emperor, the elect of the people as the representative of the democracy, ruled supreme. He himself drew power and legitimacy from his role as representative of the great Napoleon I of France, the anti-parliamentary French Constitution of 1852 instituted by Napoleon III on 14 January 1852, was largely a repetition of that of 1848. All executive power was entrusted to the emperor, who, as head of state, was responsible to the people. The people of the Empire, lacking democratic rights, were to rely on the benevolence of the rather than on the benevolence of politicians. He was to nominate the members of the council of state, whose duty it was to prepare the laws, and of the senate, a body permanently established as a constituent part of the empire. One innovation was made, namely, that the Legislative Body was elected by universal suffrage and this new political change was rapidly followed by the same consequence as had attended that of Brumaire. The press was subjected to a system of cautionnements and avertissements, in order to counteract the opposition of individuals, a surveillance of suspects was instituted. In the same way public instruction was strictly supervised, the teaching of philosophy was suppressed in the lycées, for seven years France had no democratic life. The Empire governed by a series of plebiscites, up to 1857 the Opposition did not exist, from then till 1860 it was reduced to five members, Darimon, Émile Ollivier, Hénon, Jules Favre and Ernest Picard. On 2 December 1851 Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, who had been elected President of the Republic and he thus became sole ruler of France, and re-established universal suffrage, previously abolished by the Assembly. His decisions and the extension of his mandate for 10 years were popularly endorsed by a referendum later that month that attracted an implausible 92 percent support. A new constitution was enacted in January 1852 which made Louis-Napoléon president for 10 years, however, he was not content with merely being an authoritarian president. Almost as soon as he signed the new document into law, in response to officially-inspired requests for the return of the empire, the Senate scheduled a second referendum in November, which passed with 97 percent support. As with the December 1851 referendum, most of the yes votes were manufactured out of thin air, the empire was formally re-established on 2 December 1852, and the Prince-President became Napoléon III, Emperor of the French. The constitution concentrated so much power in his hands that the only changes were to replace the word president with the word emperor
4.
Symbolism (arts)
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Symbolism was a late nineteenth-century art movement of French, Russian and Belgian origin in poetry and other arts. In literature, the style originates with the 1857 publication of Charles Baudelaires Les Fleurs du mal, the works of Edgar Allan Poe, which Baudelaire admired greatly and translated into French, were a significant influence and the source of many stock tropes and images. The aesthetic was developed by Stéphane Mallarmé and Paul Verlaine during the 1860s and 1870s, in the 1880s, the aesthetic was articulated by a series of manifestos and attracted a generation of writers. The name symbolist itself was first applied by the critic Jean Moréas, distinct from, but related to, the style of literature, symbolism in art is related to the gothic component of Romanticism and Impressionism. In ancient Greece, the symbolon was a shard of pottery which was inscribed, Symbolism was a reaction in favour of spirituality, the imagination, and dreams. Some writers, such as Joris-Karl Huysmans, began as naturalists before becoming symbolists, for Huysmans, the Symbolist poets have a more complex relationship with Parnassianism, a French literary style that immediately preceded it. The Symbolists continued to admire Théophile Gautiers motto of art for arts sake, many Symbolist poets, including Stéphane Mallarmé and Paul Verlaine, published early works in Le Parnasse contemporain, the poetry anthologies that gave Parnassianism its name. One of Symbolisms most colourful promoters in Paris was art and literary critic Joséphin Péladan, a number of Symbolists were associated with the Salon. Symbolists believed that art should represent absolute truths that could only be described indirectly, thus, they wrote in a very metaphorical and suggestive manner, endowing particular images or objects with symbolic meaning. Jean Moréas published the Symbolist Manifesto in Le Figaro on 18 September 1886, the Symbolist Manifesto names Charles Baudelaire, Stéphane Mallarmé, and Paul Verlaine as the three leading poets of the movement. In a nutshell, as Mallarmé writes in a letter to his friend Cazalis, to not the thing. Symbolist poems were attempts to evoke, rather than primarily to describe, – both poets seek to identify one sense experience with another. The earlier Romanticism of poetry used symbols, but these symbols were unique, the symbolists were more extreme, investing all things, even vowels and perfumes, with potential symbolic value. The physical universe, then, is a kind of language that invites a privileged spectator to decipher it, Symbolist symbols are not allegories, intended to represent, they are instead intended to evoke particular states of mind. The nominal subject of Mallarmés Le cygne is of a trapped in a frozen lake. Significantly, in French, cygne is a homophone of signe, un cygne d’autrefois se souvient que c’est lui Magnifique mais qui sans espoir se délivre. They were also portrayed as at odds with society, having tragic lives and these traits were not hindrances but consequences of their literary gifts. Schopenhauers aesthetics represented shared concerns with the symbolist programme, they tended to consider Art as a contemplative refuge from the world of strife and will
5.
Decadent movement
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The Decadent Movement was a late 19th-century artistic and literary movement, centered in Western Europe, that followed an aesthetic ideology of excess and artificiality. Baudelaire referred to himself as decadent in his 1857 edition of Les Fleurs du Mal and he would later use the term decadence to include the subversion of traditional categories in pursuit of full, sensual expression. Though he was Belgian, Félicien Rops was instrumental in the development of early stage of the Decadent Movement. A friend of Baudelaire, he was also a frequent illustrator of Baudelaires writing, Rops delighted in breaking artistic convention and shocking the public with his combination of with gruesome, fantastical horror. He was explicitly interested in the Satanic, and he sought to portray the double-threat of Satan and Woman. At times, his goal was the portrayal of a woman hed observed debasing herself in the pursuit of her own pleasure. Their work was the worship of beauty disguised as the worship of evil, for both of them, mortality and all manner of corruptions were always on their mind. The ability of Rops to see and portray the world as they did. The concept of decadence lingered after that, but it wasnt until 1884 that Maurice Barrès referred to a group of writers as Decadents. He defined this group as those who had been influenced heavily by Baudelaire, though they were influenced by Gothic novels. Many were associated with Symbolism, others with Aestheticism, in his 1884 decadent novel À Rebours, Joris-Karl Huysmans overthrew the past, subordinated nature to the human creative will, and suggested the primacy of but inherent disillusion in pleasure. Not only did Against Nature define an ideology and a literature, the character of Des Esseintes explcitily heralded the work of Gustave Moreau, Jan Luyken, and Odilon Redon. None of these artists would have identified themselves as part of this movement and it has also been suggested that a dream vision that Des Esseintes describes is based the series of satanic encounters painted by Félicien Rops. Capitalizing on the momentum of Huysmans work, Anatole Baju founded the magazine Le Décadent in 1886, not everyone was comfortable with Baju and Le Décadent, even including some who had been published in its pages. Rival writer Jean Moréas published his Symbolist Manifesto, largely to escape association with the Decadent Movement, Moréas and Gustave Kahn, among others, formed rival publications to reinforce the distinction. Paul Verlaine embraced the label at first, applauding it as a brilliant marketing choice by Baju, far-fetched plots were acceptable if they helped generate the desired moments of salacious experience or glorification of the morbid and grotesque. Writers who embraced the sort of decadence featured in Le Décadent include Albert Aurier, Rachilde, Pierre Vareilles, Miguel Fernandez, Jean Lorrain, many of these authors did also publish symbolist works, however, and it unclear how strongly they would have identified with Baju as decadents. In France, the Decadent Movement is often said to have begun with either Joris-Karl Huysmans Against Nature or Baudelaires Les Fleur du Mal and this movement essentially gave way to Symbolism when Le Décadent closed down in 1889 and Anatole Baju turned toward politics and became associated with anarchy
6.
Victor Hugo
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Victor Marie Hugo was a French poet, novelist, and dramatist of the Romantic movement. He is considered one of the greatest and best-known French writers, outside France, his best-known works are the novels Les Misérables,1862, and The Hunchback of Notre-Dame,1831. In France, Hugo is known primarily for his collections, such as Les Contemplations. He produced more than 4,000 drawings and also campaigned for causes such as the abolition of capital punishment. He is buried in the Panthéon in Paris and his legacy has been honoured in many ways, including his portrait being placed on French currency. Victor Hugo was the son of Joseph Léopold Sigisbert Hugo and Sophie Trébuchet, his brothers were Abel Joseph Hugo. He was born in 1802 in Besançon in the region of Franche-Comté. Hugos childhood was a period of political turmoil. Napoleon was proclaimed Emperor of the French two years after Hugos birth, and the Bourbon Monarchy was restored before his 13th birthday, since Hugos father was an officer, the family moved frequently and Hugo learned much from these travels. On a childhood trip to Naples, Hugo saw the vast Alpine passes and the snowy peaks, the magnificently blue Mediterranean. Though he was five years old at the time, he remembered the six-month-long trip vividly. They stayed in Naples for a few months and then headed back to Paris, at the beginning of her marriage, Hugos mother Sophie followed her husband to posts in Italy and Spain. Thereafter she dominated Hugos education and upbringing, as a result, Hugos early work in poetry and fiction reflect her passionate devotion to both King and Faith. It was only later, during the leading up to Frances 1848 Revolution. Young Victor fell in love and, against his mothers wishes, because of his close relationship with his mother, Hugo waited until after her death to marry Adèle in 1822. Adèle and Victor Hugo had their first child, Léopold, in 1823, on 28 August 1824, the couples second child, Léopoldine was born, followed by Charles on 4 November 1826, François-Victor on 28 October 1828, and Adèle on 24 August 1830. Hugos eldest and favourite daughter, Léopoldine, died aged 19 in 1843, on 4 September, she drowned in the Seine at Villequier, pulled down by her heavy skirts when a boat overturned. Her young husband also died trying to save her, the death left her father devastated, Hugo was travelling with his mistress at the time in the south of France, and first learned about Léopoldines death from a newspaper he read in a café
7.
Sarah Bernhardt
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Sarah Bernhardt was a French stage and early film actress. She was referred to as the most famous actress the world has ever known, Bernhardt made her fame on the stages of France in the 1870s, at the beginning of the Belle Epoque period, and was soon in demand in Europe and the Americas. She developed a reputation as a dramatic actress and tragedienne. In her later career she starred in some of the earliest films ever produced, Sarah Bernhardt was born in Paris as Rosine Bernardt on October 23,1844. She was the daughter of a Dutch-Jewish courtesan, or upper-class prostitute, Judith Bernard. Four different addresses in Paris are claimed as her birthplace,125 rue du Faubourg Saint-Honoré,5 rue de lEcole-de-Medicine,22 rue de la Michodière and 265 rue Saint-Honoré. The father, whoever he was, left a sum of one hundred francs for her future dowry when she came of age. Sarah lived for months with the nurse and her husband in the tiny apartment of the concierge. While there, the child showed the first signs of tuberculosis. Sarah was discovered on the street by her aunt Rosine, who was passing by, when Sarahs mother finally returned to Paris, Sarah was taken to her apartment at 265 rue Saint-Honoré, where she lived, attended by servants, rarely ever seeing her mother. At the age of eight, Sarah could neither read or writer and her mother sent her away to a school for young ladies in Auteuil run by a Madame Fressard, where for the first time she was with other children her own age. The other children made fun of her appearance and curly hair. During the two years she attended the school, her mother came to see her only twice and she completely forgot all of her lines and fled the stage in tears. At the age of ten, by obtaining the sponsorship of the Duc de Morny, her mother sent Sarah to Grandchamp, at the convent, she was soon on the stage again, performing the part of the Archangel Raphael in the story of Tobias and the Angel. She received her first communion as a Roman Catholic in 1856, however, she never forgot her Jewish heritage. When asked years later by a reporter if she were a Christian, she replied, No, Im a Roman Catholic, Im waiting until Christians become better. At the age of fifteen, her mother withdrew her from the school and her mother summoned a family council, which also included the Duc de Morny, one of her friends. Morny proposed that Sarah should become an actress, an idea which horrified the young girl, Morny arranged for her to attend her first theater performance at the Comedie Française in a party which included her mother, the Duc de Morny, and his friend Alexandre Dumas
8.
Mercure de France
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The gazette was published from 1672 to 1724 under the title Mercure galant and Nouveau Mercure galant. The title was changed to Mercure de France in 1724, the gazette was briefly suppressed from 1811 to 1815 and ceased publication in 1825. The name was revived in 1890 for both a review and a publishing house initially linked with the symbolist movement. Since 1995 Mercure de France has been part of the Éditions Gallimard publishing group, Mercure de France should not be confused with another literary magazine, the Mercure du XIXe siècle. The Mercure galant was founded by the writer Jean Donneau de Visé in 1672. The name refers to the god Mercury, the messenger of the gods, publication stopped in 1674, but began again as a monthly with the name Nouveau Mercure galant in 1677. This article is the earliest known reference to peg solitaire, the gazette was frequently denigrated by authors of the period. The name Mercure galant was used by the playwright Edmé Boursault for one of his plays critical of social pretensions, Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle and the Mercure galant joined the Moderns. Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux was pushed into the role of champion of the Anciens, the periodical eventually became a financial success and it brought Donneau de Visé comfortable revenues. The Mercure de France became the arbiter of French arts and humanities. Thomas Corneille was a frequent contributor to the gazette, the Mercure continued to be published after Donneau de Visés death in 1710. In 1724 its title was changed to Mercure de France and it developed a character with a governmentally appointed editor. Jean-François de la Harpe was the editor in chief for 20 years, other significant editors and contributors include, Marmontel, Raynal, Chamfort and Voltaire. Right before the revolution, management was handed over to Charles-Joseph Panckoucke, during the revolutionary era, the title was changed briefly to Le Mercure français. Napoleon stopped its publication in 1811, but the review was resurrected in 1815, the review was last published in 1825. At the end of the 19th century, the name Mercure de France was revived by Alfred Vallette, the first edition of the review appeared on January 1,1890. Over the next decade, the review achieved critical success, and poets such as Stéphane Mallarmé, the review became bimonthly in 1905. In 1889, Alfred Vallette married the novelist Rachilde whose novel Monsieur Vénus was condemned on moral grounds, Rachilde was a member of the editorial committee of the review until 1924 and her personality and works did much to publicize the review
9.
Alfred Jarry
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Alfred Jarry was a French symbolist writer who is best known for his play Ubu Roi. He also coined the term and philosophical concept of pataphysics, Jarry was born in Laval, Mayenne, France, and his mother was from Brittany. He was associated with the Symbolist movement and his play Ubu Roi is often cited as a forerunner of Dada, and to the Surrealist and Futurist movements of the 1920s and 1930. Jarry wrote in a variety of genres and styles, prefiguring the postmodern. He wrote plays, novels, poetry, essays and speculative journalism and his texts present us with pioneering work in the fields of absurdist literature and postmodern philosophy. At the lycée in Rennes when he was 15, he led a group of boys who enjoyed poking fun at their well-meaning, but obese and incompetent physics teacher, a man named Hébert. Jarry and his classmate, Henri Morin, wrote a play they called Les Polonais, the main character, Père Heb, was a blunderer with a huge belly, three teeth, a single, retractable ear and a misshapen body. In Jarrys later work Ubu Roi, Père Heb would develop into Ubu, one of the most monstrous, at 17 Jarry passed his baccalauréat and moved to Paris to prepare for admission to the École Normale Supérieure. Though he was not admitted, he gained attention for his original poems and prose-poems. A collection of his work, Les minutes de sable mémorial, was published in 1893 and that same year, both his parents died, leaving him a small inheritance which he quickly spent. Jarry had meantime discovered the pleasures of alcohol, which he called my sacred herb or, when referring to absinthe, a story is told that he once painted his face green and rode through town on his bicycle in its honour. When he was drafted into the army in 1894, his gift for turning notions upside down defeated attempts to instill military discipline, eventually the army discharged him for medical reasons. His military experience inspired his novel Days and Nights. Jarry returned to Paris and applied himself to writing, drinking, symbolism as an art movement was in full swing at this time, and LYmagier provided a nexus for many of its key contributors. Jarrys play Caesar Antichrist drew on this movement for material and this is a work that bridges the gap between serious symbolic meaning and the type of critical absurdity with which Jarry would soon become associated. The character Ubu Roi first appears in this play, the spring of 1896 saw the publication, in Paul Forts review Le Livre dart, of Jarrys 5-act play Ubu Roi, the rewritten and expanded Les Polonais of his school days. Ubu Rois savage humor and monstrous absurdity, unlike anything thus far performed in French theater, however, impetuous theater director Aurélien-Marie Lugné-Poe took the risk, producing the play at his Théâtre de lŒuvre. On opening night, with traditionalists and the avant-garde in the audience, King Ubu stepped forward and intoned the opening word, Merdre
10.
Oscar Wilde
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Oscar Fingal OFlahertie Wills Wilde was an Irish playwright, novelist, essayist, and poet. After writing in different forms throughout the 1880s, he one of Londons most popular playwrights in the early 1890s. He is remembered for his epigrams, his novel The Picture of Dorian Gray, his plays, as well as the circumstances of his imprisonment, Wildes parents were successful Anglo-Irish, Dublin intellectuals. Their son became fluent in French and German early in life, at university, Wilde read Greats, he proved himself to be an outstanding classicist, first at Dublin, then at Oxford. He became known for his involvement in the philosophy of aestheticism. After university, Wilde moved to London into fashionable cultural and social circles, known for his biting wit, flamboyant dress and glittering conversation, Wilde became one of the best-known personalities of his day. The opportunity to construct aesthetic details precisely, and combine them with social themes. He wrote Salome in French in Paris but it was refused a licence for England due to the prohibition of Biblical subjects on the English stage. Unperturbed, Wilde produced four society comedies in the early 1890s, at the height of his fame and success, while The Importance of Being Earnest, was still being performed in London, Wilde had the Marquess of Queensberry prosecuted for criminal libel. The Marquess was the father of Wildes lover, Lord Alfred Douglas, the charge carried a penalty of up to two years in prison. The trial unearthed evidence that caused Wilde to drop his charges and led to his own arrest, after two more trials he was convicted and imprisoned for two years hard labour. Upon his release he left immediately for France, never to return to Ireland or Britain, there he wrote his last work, The Ballad of Reading Gaol, a long poem commemorating the harsh rhythms of prison life. He died destitute in Paris at the age of 46, Oscar Wilde was born at 21 Westland Row, Dublin, the second of three children born to Sir William Wilde and Jane Wilde, two years behind William. Wildes mother was of Italian descent, and under the pseudonym Speranza and she read the Young Irelanders poetry to Oscar and Willie, inculcating a love of these poets in her sons. Lady Wildes interest in the neo-classical revival showed in the paintings and busts of ancient Greece, William Wilde was Irelands leading oto-ophthalmologic surgeon and was knighted in 1864 for his services as medical adviser and assistant commissioner to the censuses of Ireland. He also wrote books about Irish archaeology and peasant folklore, a renowned philanthropist, his dispensary for the care of the citys poor at the rear of Trinity College, Dublin, was the forerunner of the Dublin Eye and Ear Hospital, now located at Adelaide Road. On his fathers side Wilde was descended from a Dutchman, Colonel de Wilde, on his mothers side Wildes ancestors included a bricklayer from County Durham who emigrated to Ireland sometime in the 1770s. Wilde was baptised as an infant in St, marks Church, Dublin, the local Church of Ireland church
11.
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
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Toulouse-Lautrec is among the best-known painters of the Post-Impressionist period, with Cézanne, Van Gogh and Gauguin. In a 2005 auction at Christies auction house, La Blanchisseuse, his painting of a young laundress, sold for US$22.4 million. The last part of his name means he was a member of an aristocratic family and his younger brother was born in 1867, but died the following year. After the death of his brother, Henris parents separated and a nanny ended up taking care of him, at the age of eight, Henri went to live with his mother in Paris where he drew sketches and caricatures in his exercise workbooks. The family quickly realised that Henris talents lay in drawing and painting, a friend of his father, René Princeteau, visited sometimes to give informal lessons. Some of Henris early paintings are of horses, a speciality of Princeteau, in 1875, Toulouse-Lautrec returned to Albi because his mother had concerns about his health. He took thermal baths at Amélie-les-Bains and his mother consulted doctors in the hope of finding a way to improve her sons growth, Toulouse-Lautrecs parents, the Comte and Comtesse, were first cousins, and he suffered from congenital health conditions sometimes attributed to a family history of inbreeding. At age 13, Toulouse-Lautrec fractured his right femur, at age 14, he fractured his left. The breaks did not heal properly, modern physicians attribute this to an unknown genetic disorder, possibly pycnodysostosis, or a variant disorder along the lines of osteopetrosis, achondroplasia, or osteogenesis imperfecta. Rickets aggravated by praecox virilism has also been suggested, afterwards, his legs ceased to grow, so that as an adult he was extremely short. He developed an adult-sized torso, while retaining his child-sized legs, additionally, he is reported to have had hypertrophied genitals. Physically unable to participate in many activities enjoyed by males his age and he became an important Post-Impressionist painter, art nouveau illustrator, and lithographer, and, through his works, recorded many details of the late-19th-century bohemian lifestyle in Paris. Toulouse-Lautrec contributed a number of illustrations to the magazine Le Rire during the mid-1890s, after initially failing college entrance exams, he passed his second attempt and completed his studies. Toulouse-Lautrecs mother had high ambitions and, with the aim of her son becoming a fashionable and respected painter and he was drawn to Montmartre, the area of Paris famous for its bohemian lifestyle and the haunt of artists, writers, and philosophers. Studying with Bonnat placed Toulouse-Lautrec in the heart of Montmartre, an area he rarely left over the next 20 years. After Bonnat took a new job, Toulouse-Lautrec moved to the studio of Fernand Cormon in 1882 and studied for a five years. At this time he met Émile Bernard and Vincent van Gogh, Cormon, whose instruction was more relaxed than Bonnats, allowed his pupils to roam Paris, looking for subjects to paint. During this period, Toulouse-Lautrec had his first encounter with a prostitute, which led him to paint his first painting of a prostitute in Montmartre, a woman rumoured to be Marie-Charlet
12.
Paul Gauguin
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Eugène Henri Paul Gauguin was a French post-Impressionist artist. Underappreciated until after his death, Gauguin is now recognized for his use of color. His work was influential to the French avant-garde and many artists, such as Pablo Picasso. Many of his paintings were in the possession of Russian collector Sergei Shchukin and he was an important figure in the Symbolist movement as a painter, sculptor, printmaker, ceramist, and writer. He was also a proponent of wood engraving and woodcuts as art forms. Gauguin was born in Paris, France to Clovis Gauguin and Alina Maria Chazal on June 7,1848 and his birth coincided with revolutionary upheavals throughout Europe that year. His father, a 34-year-old liberal journalist, came from a family of petit-bourgeoisie entrepreneurs residing in Orléans and he was compelled to flee France when the newspaper for which he wrote was suppressed by French authorities. Gauguins mother, the 22-year-old Aline Marie Chazal, was the daughter of Andre Chazal, an engraver, and Flora Tristan and their union ended when Andre assaulted his wife Flora and was sentenced to prison for attempted murder. Paul Gauguins maternal grandmother, Flora Tristan, was the daughter of Thérèse Laisnay. Details of Thérèses family background are not known, her father, Don Mariano, was a Spanish nobleman, members of the wealthy Tristan Moscoso family held powerful positions in Peru. Nonetheless, Don Marianos unexpected death plunged his mistress and daughter Flora into poverty, when Floras marriage with Andre failed, she petitioned for and obtained a small monetary settlement from her fathers Peruvian relatives. She sailed to Peru in hopes of enlarging her share of the Tristan Moscoso family fortune and this never materialized, but she successfully published a popular travelogue of her experiences in Peru which launched her literary career in 1838. An active supporter of early socialist societies, Gauguins maternal grandmother helped to lay the foundations for the 1848 revolutionary movements, placed under surveillance by French police and suffering from overwork, she died in 1844. Her grandson Paul idolized his grandmother, and kept copies of her books with him to the end of his life. In 1850, Clovis Gauguin departed for Peru with his wife Alina and he died of a heart attack en route, and Alina arrived in Peru a widow with the 18-month-old Paul and his 2 ½ year-old sister, Marie. Gauguins mother was welcomed by her granduncle, whose son-in-law would shortly assume the presidency of Peru. To the age of six, Paul enjoyed an upbringing, attended by nursemaids. He retained a vivid memory of period of his childhood which instilled indelible impressions of Peru that haunted him the rest of his life
13.
Maurice Ravel
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Joseph Maurice Ravel was a French composer, pianist and conductor. He is often associated with impressionism along with his elder contemporary Claude Debussy, in the 1920s and 1930s Ravel was internationally regarded as Frances greatest living composer. After leaving the conservatoire Ravel found his own way as a composer, developing a style of great clarity, incorporating elements of baroque, neoclassicism and, in his later works, jazz. He liked to experiment with form, as in his best-known work, Boléro. He made some arrangements of other composers music, of which his 1922 version of Mussorgskys Pictures at an Exhibition is the best known. As a slow and painstaking worker, Ravel composed fewer pieces than many of his contemporaries. Among his works to enter the repertoire are pieces for piano, chamber music, many of his works exist in two versions, a first, piano score and a later orchestration. Some of his music, such as Gaspard de la nuit, is exceptionally difficult to play. Ravel was among the first composers to recognise the potential of recording to bring their music to a wider public, from the 1920s, despite limited technique as a pianist or conductor, he took part in recordings of several of his works, others were made under his supervision. Ravel was born in the Basque town of Ciboure, France and his father, Pierre-Joseph Ravel, was an educated and successful engineer, inventor and manufacturer, born in Versoix near the Franco-Swiss border. His mother, Marie, née Delouart, was Basque but had grown up in Madrid, in 19th-century terms, Joseph had married beneath his status – Marie was illegitimate and barely literate – but the marriage was a happy one. Both Ravels parents were Roman Catholics, Marie was also something of a free-thinker, a trait inherited by her elder son and he was baptised in the Ciboure parish church six days after he was born. The family moved to Paris three months later, and there a younger son, Édouard, was born and he was close to his father, whom he eventually followed into the engineering profession. Maurice was particularly devoted to their mother, her Basque-Spanish heritage was an influence on his life. Among his earliest memories were folk songs she sang to him, the household was not rich, but the family was comfortable, and the two boys had happy childhoods. Ravel senior delighted in taking his sons to factories to see the latest mechanical devices, in later life, Ravel recalled, Throughout my childhood I was sensitive to music. My father, much better educated in art than most amateurs are, knew how to develop my taste. There is no record that Ravel received any formal schooling in his early years
14.
Paul Fort
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Paul Fort was a French poet associated with the Symbolist movement. At the age of 18, reacting against the Naturalistic theatre, Fort is notable for his enormous volume of poetry, having published more than thirty volumes of ballads and, according to Amy Lowell for creating the polyphonic prose form in his Ballades francaises. Born in Reims, Marne département, France, he became an important part of the community of Montparnasse. While a student at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand in Paris, he founded the Théâtre d Art in 1890, many new artists were promoted there, including Paul Verlaine, Paul Gauguin, and Maurice Maeterlinck. By 1912 his accomplishments and influence were such that Verlaine gave him the title Prince of the Poets, one of his famous works was La Ronde. This poem is famous worldwide because it is a plea for world friendship and he died on 20 April 1960 in France and is buried in the Cimetière de Montlhéry, in Montlhéry, Essonne département, in the Île-de-France, Region of France. Willing to offer a scene to Maurice Maeterlinck, who he admired in drama, he created in 1889, with Lugné-Poe, the theater reveals the Nordic drama of Henrik Ibsen and August Strindberg. The theatrical adventure he had achieved, he dedicated his life to poetry and he gave his first poems to the Mercure de France in 1896. Those poems consisted the debut of the Ballades françaises and he begins to publish into the Le Livre dart magazine in 1892 where it was relaunched in 1896 with Maurice Dumont. With the latter, he edited the LÉpreuve, Journal-Album dart in 1894 and he organized as soon as 1903, where he held poetic lectures every Tuesday at the Closerie des Lilas. In 1905, he started the Vers et prose magazine with Moréas and Salmon and he directed it with Paul Valéry. Given the title de la Légion dhonneur, he helped to give the quartier du Montparnasse in Paris his artistic reputation. He was called the Prince of Poets in 1912 following a poll consist of 5 journals, Gil Blas, Comoedia, La Phalange, Les Loups,350 authors voted for Paul Fort, who succeeded Verlaine, Mallarmé and Léon Dierx. In August 1913, he led his sixteen years old daughter, Jeanne and this event appealed to Guillaume Apollinaire and Marinetti, the authors of Manifeste du Futurisme. ”Paul Fort was a leading member of the Prix Jeunesse that was created in 1934. He was the first one to be listed banning of publication by the CNE at the end of war and it officially came back to Reims, in 1954, introduced to an exhibit that was dedicated to him at the Carnegie Library. In 1956, Paul married Germaine Pouget and his nephew married to the daughter of Alfred Vallette, director of Mercure de France and Marguerite Eymery, women of letters known as Rachilde. Fort is mentioned by Hemingway as a customer of Closerie des Lilas, in A Moveable Feast
15.
Bluestocking
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In the following generation came Hester Lynch Piozzi, Hannah More, and Frances Burney. Until the late 18th century, the term had referred to learned people of both sexes and it subsequently was applied primarily to intellectual women, and the French equivalent bas bleu had a similar connotation. The term later developed negative implications, and in instances such women were stereotyped as being frumpy. The reference to blue stockings may arise from the time when woollen worsted stockings were informal dress, in contrast to formal, fashionable black silk stockings. Curiously, the most frequent such reference is to a man, Benjamin Stillingfleet and that reference, though, comes from Keatinges 1896 translation and is not present in Comeniuss original Latin text. The Blue Stockings Society was a society led by Elizabeth Montagu. Elizabeth Montagu was an anomaly in this society because she took possession of her husbands property when he died and this allowed her to have impact in her world. M. P. an 1811 comic opera by Thomas Moore and it contained a character Lady Bab Blue who was a parody of bluestockings. William Hazlitt said, The bluestocking is the most odious character in society. she sinks wherever she is placed, like the yolk of an egg, to the bottom, and carries the filth with her. The Bluestocking is the name of the yearbook of Mary Baldwin College, in Japan, a literary magazine Seitō was launched in 1911 under the leadership of Raichō Hiratsuka. It ran until 1916, providing an outlet and political platform for Japanese feminists even while it faced public outcry. Burns, William E. Bluestockings 18th and 19th centuries in Readers Guide to British History, the World of Hannah More Eger, Elizabeth. Bluestockings, women of reason from Enlightenment to Romanticism, the Bluestocking Circle, Women, Friendship and the Life of the Mind in Eighteenth-Century England Robinson, Jane. Bluestockings, The Remarkable Story of the First Women to Fight for an Education Tinker, the salon and English letters, chapters on the interrelations of literature and society in the age of Johnson
16.
Georges de Peyrebrune
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Mathilde-Marie Georgina Élisabeth de Peyrebrune was a key French proto-feminist Belle Époque writer of popular novels. She was one of the most widely read women in France, born in Pierrebrune, a hamlet of Sainte-Orse, Dordogne in 1841, she transformed Pierrebrune to Peyrebrune, making it her family name. She was the daughter of Françoise Thérèse Céline Judicis and Georges Johnston and she went to Paris after the war of 1870, and she made her literary debut in the magazine Revue des deux Mondes, where many of her novels were serialised. In Paris, she met Arsène Houssaye, who, after having read her Marco manuscript interceded on her behalf with the magazine editor François Buloz, Peyrebrune wrote for several womens magazines and she also published a number of novels. Intellectually she had interests in scientific, philosophical and masonic ideas. She opposed capital punishment and her feminism was characterized as undeniable, Peyrebrune published fourteen works in the 1880s with the firms Calmann-Lévy, Charpentier, Dentu, Ollendorff, and Plon. For many years, she served as on the all female jury for the Prix Fémina literary prize, in 1909, she was one of the 40 members elected by the readers of Fémina to represent A Female Academy. Peyrebrunes nom de plume started with Georges, after George Sand because Peyrebrune held her work in high regard, the writers Camille Delaville and Rachilde were her friends. Peyrebrune married Paul Adrien Numa Eimery, from Chancelade, signing the marriage license G. Johnston de Peyrebrune, it was an unhappy marriage and she died in poverty and oblivion in Paris in 1917. This article incorporates text from Frank Leslies Popular Monthly, by Frank Leslie, works by or about Georges de Peyrebrune at Internet Archive
17.
Colette
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Colette was a French novelist nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1948. Her best known work, the novella Gigi, was the basis for the film and Lerner and she was also a mime, an actress and a journalist. They chart the coming of age of their heroine, Claudine, the story they tell is semi-autobiographical, but not entirely—most strikingly, Claudine, unlike Colette, is motherless. It was he who chose the titillating subject-matter of the Claudine novels, Colette later said that she would never have become a writer if not for Willy. Colette and Willy separated in 1906, although it was not until 1910 that the divorce became final and this period of her life is recalled in La Vagabonde, which deals with womens independence in a male society, a theme to which she would regularly return in future works. During these years she embarked on a series of relationships with women, notably with Mathilde de Morny, Marquise de Belbeuf. In 1912 she married Henry de Jouvenel, the editor of Le Matin, a daughter, Colette de Jouvenel, nicknamed Bel-Gazou, was born in 1913. During the war she devoted herself to journalism, but marriage allowed her to devote her time to writing, in 1920 Colette published Chéri, portraying love between an older woman and a much younger man. The marriage to Jouvenel ended in divorce in 1924, partly due to Jouvenels infidelities and partly to Colettes own affair with her sixteen-year-old stepson, in 1925 she met Maurice Goudeket, who became her final husband. Already an established writer, the decades of the 1920s and 1930s were Colettes most productive and innovative period, set mostly in Burgundy or Paris during the Belle Époque, her work treated married life, sexuality, and the problems of a womans struggle for independence. La Naissance du Jour is her explicit criticism of the lives of women, expressed in a meditation on age. By this period Colette was frequently acclaimed as Frances greatest woman writer and it. has no plot, and yet tells of three lives all that should be known, wrote Janet Flanner of Sido. Once again, and at greater length than usual, she has been hailed for her genius, humanities, lifted nothing at all in her direction except the finger of scorn. Colette was 67 years old at the fall of France, and remained in Paris, during the Occupation she produced two volumes of memoirs, Journal à rebours and De ma fenêtre. In 1944 she published what became perhaps her most famous work, Gigi, born into a family of demimondaines, Gigi is being trained as a courtesan to captivate a wealthy lover, but breaks with tradition by marrying him instead. In the postwar years, she became a public figure, crippled by arthritis and cared for by Goudeket who supervised the preparation of her collected works. She continued to write during these years, bringing out LEtoile vesper and Le fanal bleu, Colette was elected to the Belgian Royal Academy, the Académie Goncourt, and a Chevalier and Grand Officer of the Légion dhonneur. Initially considered a limited if talented novelist, she has been recognised as an important voice in womens writing
18.
Natalie Clifford Barney
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Natalie Clifford Barney was an American playwright, poet and novelist who lived as an expatriate in Paris. She was openly lesbian and began publishing love poems to women under her own name as early as 1900, in her writings she supported feminism and pacifism. Barney was born in 1876 in Dayton, Ohio, to Albert Clifford Barney and her father was the son of a wealthy manufacturer of railway cars and of English descent, and her mother was of French, Dutch and German ancestry. Her maternal grandfathers father was Jewish, when Barney was five years old her family spent the summer at New Yorks Long Beach Hotel where Oscar Wilde happened to be speaking on his American lecture tour. Wilde scooped her up as she ran past him fleeing a group of boys, held her out of their reach then sat her down on his knee. She later studied under Carolus-Duran and James McNeill Whistler, many of Alice Pike Barneys paintings are now in the Smithsonian American Art Museum. Like many girls of her time, Barney had a haphazard education and her interest in the French language began with a governess who read Jules Verne stories aloud to her so she would have to learn quickly to understand them. Later she and her younger sister Laura Clifford Barney attended Les Ruches, as an adult she spoke French fluently without an accent and made her home in Paris. Nearly all her works were written in French. When she was ten her family moved from Ohio to Washington, D. C. spending summers in Bar Harbor, as the rebellious and unconventional daughter of one of the wealthiest families in town, she was often mentioned in Washington newspapers. In her early twenties she made headlines by galloping through Bar Harbor while driving a horse on a lead ahead of her. Barney later said she knew by age 12 she was lesbian and was determined to live openly, without hiding anything. In 1899 after seeing the courtesan Liane de Pougy at a hall in Paris, Barney presented herself at de Pougys residence in a page costume. Although de Pougy was one of the most famous women in France, constantly sought after by wealthy and titled men and their brief affair became the subject of de Pougys tell-all roman à clef, Idylle Saphique. Published in 1901, this became the talk of Paris. Barney was soon known as the model for one of the characters. By this time, however, the two had broken up after quarreling repeatedly over Barneys desire to rescue de Pougy from her life as a courtesan. Barney herself contributed a chapter to Idylle Saphique in which she described reclining at de Pougys feet in a box at the theater
19.
Salon (France)
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The salons of Early Modern Revolutionary France played an integral role in the cultural and intellectual development of France. The salons were seen by contemporary writers as a hub, responsible for the dissemination of good manners. In contrast to other Early Modern institutions, women played an important, the extent of this role is, however, heavily contested by some historians. The historiography of the salons is far from straightforward, the salons have been studied in depth by a mixture of feminist, Marxist, cultural, social and intellectual historians. Each of these methodologies focuses on different aspects of the salons, and thus there are varying analyses of the importance in terms of French history. Major historiographical debates focus around the relationship between the salons and the sphere, as well as the role of women within the salons. Breaking down the salons into a historical periods is complicated due to the various historiographical debates that surround them, most studies stretch from the early sixteenth century up until around the end of eighteenth century. Goodman is typical in ending her study at The French Revolution where, she writes, Steven Kale is relatively alone in his recent attempts to extend the period of the salon up until Revolution of 1848. This world did not disappear in 1789, the content and form of the salon must be studied in order to understand the character and historical importance of the salon. Contemporary literature about the salons is dominated by idealistic notions of politesse, civilité and honnête, older texts on the salons tend to paint an idealistic picture of the salons, where reasoned debate takes precedence and salons are egalitarian spheres of polite conversation. Today, however, this view is considered an adequate analysis of the salon. The period in which salons were dominant has been labeled the age of conversation, the topics of conversation within the salons - that is, what was and was not polite to talk about - are thus vital when trying to determine the form of the salons. There is no agreement among historians as to what was and was not appropriate conversation. Marcel Proust insisted that politics was scrupulously avoided, others suggested that little other than government was ever discussed. The disagreements that surround the content of discussion partly explain why the relationship with the public sphere is so heavily contested. Recent historiography of the salons has been dominated by Jürgen Habermas work, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, the theory itself, meanwhile, has been criticised for a fatal misunderstanding of the nature of salons. The main criticism of Habermas’ interpretation of the salons, however, is that the salons were not part of a public sphere. Erica Harth concurs, pointing to the fact that the state ‘appropriated the informal academy, others, such as Steven Kale, compromise by declaring that the public and private spheres overlapped in the salons
20.
Dandy
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A dandy could be a self-made who strove to imitate an aristocratic lifestyle despite coming from a middle-class background, especially in late 18th- and early 19th-century Britain. Previous manifestations of the petit-maître and the Muscadin have been noted by John C, prevost, but the modern practice of dandyism first appeared in the revolutionary 1790s, both in London and in Paris. The dandy cultivated cynical reserve, yet to such extremes that novelist George Meredith, himself no dandy, some took a more benign view, Thomas Carlyle wrote in Sartor Resartus that a dandy was no more than a clothes-wearing man. Dandyism is a form of Romanticism, contrary to what many thoughtless people seem to believe, dandyism is not even an excessive delight in clothes and material elegance. For the perfect dandy, these things are no more than the symbol of the superiority of mind. The linkage of clothing with political protest had become a particularly English characteristic during the 18th century, nigel Rodgers in The Dandy, Peacock or Enigma. Questions Wildes status as a dandy, seeing him as someone who only assumed a dandified stance in passing. The origin of the word is uncertain, a slightly later Scottish border ballad, circa 1780, also features the word, but probably without all the contextual aspects of its more recent meaning. The original, full form of dandy may have been jack-a-dandy and it was a vogue word during the Napoleonic Wars. In that contemporary slang, a dandy was differentiated from a fop in that the dress was more refined. The model dandy in British society was George Bryan Beau Brummell, in his days, an undergraduate student at Oriel College, Oxford and later. Brummell was not from a background, indeed, his greatness was based on nothing at all. From the mid-1790s, Beau Brummell was the incarnation of the celebrity. In 1799, upon coming of age, Beau Brummell inherited from his father a fortune of thirty pounds, which he spent mostly on costume, gambling. In 1816 he suffered bankruptcy, the dandys stereotyped fate, he fled his creditors to France, quietly dying in 1840, in an asylum in Caen. In that spirit, he had his portrait painted in Albanian costume, another prominent dandy of the period was Alfred Guillaume Gabriel dOrsay, the Count dOrsay, who had been friends with Byron and who moved in the highest social circles of London. In 1836 Thomas Carlyle wrote, A Dandy is a clothes-wearing Man, a Man whose trade, office and existence consists in the wearing of Clothes. Every faculty of his soul, spirit, purse, and person is heroically consecrated to one object
21.
Jules Barbey d'Aurevilly
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Jules-Amédée Barbey dAurevilly was a French novelist and short story writer. He specialised in mystery tales that explored hidden motivation and hinted at evil without being concerned with anything supernatural. He had a influence on writers such as Auguste Villiers de lIsle-Adam, Henry James. Jules-Amédée Barbey — the dAurevilly was an inheritance from a childless uncle — was born at Saint-Sauveur-le-Vicomte. In 1827 he went to the Collège Stanislas de Paris, after getting his baccalauréat in 1829, he went to Caen University to study law, taking his degree three years later. As a young man, he was a liberal and an atheist, in the early 1840s, however, he began to frequent the Catholic and legitimist salon of Baroness Amaury de Maistre, niece of Joseph de Maistre. In 1846 he converted to Roman Catholicism, paul Bourget describes Barbey as an idealist, who sought and found in his work a refuge from the uncongenial ordinary world. Jules Lemaître, a sympathetic critic, thought the extraordinary crimes of his heroes and heroines, his reactionary opinions, his dandyism. Beloved of fin-de-siècle decadents, Barbey dAurevilly remains an example of the extremes of late romanticism, Barbey dAurevilly held extreme Catholic opinions, yet wrote about risqué subjects, a contradiction apparently more disturbing to the English than to the French themselves. Inspired by the character and ambience of Valognes, he set his works in the society of Normand aristocracy, although he himself did not use the Norman patois, his example encouraged the revival of vernacular literature in his home region. Jules-Amédée Barbey dAurevilly died in Paris and was buried in the cimetière de Montparnasse, during 1926 his remains were transferred to the churchyard in Saint-Sauveur-le-Vicomte. His complete works are published in two volumes of the Bibliothèque de la Pléiade, next to the wound, what women make best is the bandage. The mortal envelope of the Middle Age has disappeared, but the essential remains, because the temporal disguise has fallen, the dupes of history and of its dates say that the Middle Age is dead. Does one die for changing his shirt, in France everybody is an aristocrat, for everybody aims to be distinguished from everybody. The red cap of the Jacobins is the red heel of the aristocrats at the other extremity, only, as they hated each other, Jacobinism placed on its head what aristocracy placed under its foot. In the matter of form it is the thing poured in the vase which makes the beauty of the vase, otherwise there is nothing more than a vessel. Books must be set against books, as poisons against poisons, when superior men are mistaken they are superior in that as in all else. They see more falsely than small or mediocre minds, the Orient and Greece recall to my mind the saying, so colored and melancholic, of Richter, Blue is the color of mourning in the Orient
22.
Jean Lorrain
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Jean Lorrain, born Paul Alexandre Martin Duval, was a French poet and novelist of the Symbolist school. Lorrain was openly gay and a disciple of dandyism. He contributed to the satirical weekly Le Courrier français, and wrote a number of collections of verse, including La forêt bleue and he also wrote the libretto to Pierre de Brévilles opera Éros vainqueur. During his life, Marcel Proust never openly admitted to his homosexuality, though his family, in 1897, he even fought a duel with Lorrain, who had publicly questioned the nature of Prousts relationship with Lucien Daudet
23.
Lord Alfred Douglas
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Lord Alfred Bruce Douglas, nicknamed Bosie, was a British author, poet, translator, and political commentator, better known as the friend and lover of Oscar Wilde. Much of his poetry was Uranian in theme, though he tended, later in life. Politically he would describe himself as a strong Conservative of the Diehard variety, Douglas was born at Ham Hill House in Powick, Worcestershire, the third son of John Douglas, 9th Marquess of Queensberry and his first wife Sibyl Montgomery. He was his mothers child, she called him Bosie. His mother successfully sued for divorce in 1887 on the grounds of his fathers adultery, the Marquess married Ethel Weeden in 1893 but the marriage was annulled the following year. Douglas was educated at Wixenford School, Winchester College and Magdalen College, Oxford, at Oxford, he edited an undergraduate journal, The Spirit Lamp, an activity that intensified the constant conflict between him and his father. Their relationship had always been a one and during the Queensberry-Wilde feud, Douglas sided with Wilde. In 1893, Douglas had an affair with George Ives. In 1858, before Douglass birth, his grandfather, the 8th Marquess of Queensberry, had died in what was reported as a shooting accident, in 1862, his widowed grandmother, Lady Queensberry, converted to Roman Catholicism and took her children to live in Paris. One of his uncles, Lord James Douglas, was attached to his twin sister Florrie and was heartbroken when she married. In 1885, he tried to abduct a young girl, in 1888, Lord James married, but this proved disastrous. Separated from Florrie, James drank himself into a deep depression, another of his uncles, Lord Francis Douglas had died in a climbing accident on the Matterhorn. His uncle Lord Archibald Edward Douglas, on the other hand, Alfred Douglass aunt, Lord Jamess twin Lady Florence Douglas, was an author, war correspondent for the Morning Post during the First Boer War, and a feminist. In 1890, she published a novel, Gloriana, or the Revolution of 1900, the character DEstrange is clearly based on Oscar Wilde. In 1891, Douglas met Oscar Wilde, although the playwright was married two sons, they soon began an affair. In 1894, the Robert Hichens novel The Green Carnation was published, said to be a roman à clef based on the relationship of Wilde and Douglas, it would be one of the texts used against Wilde during his trials in 1895. Douglas has been described as spoiled, reckless, insolent and extravagant and he would spend money on boys and gambling and expected Wilde to contribute to his tastes. They often argued and broke up, but would also always reconcile, Douglas had praised Wildes play Salome in the Oxford magazine, The Spirit Lamp, of which he was editor
24.
Charles Baudelaire
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Charles Pierre Baudelaire was a French poet who also produced notable work as an essayist, art critic, and pioneering translator of Edgar Allan Poe. His most famous work, Les Fleurs du mal, expresses the nature of beauty in modern. Baudelaires highly original style of prose-poetry influenced a generation of poets including Paul Verlaine, Arthur Rimbaud. He is credited with coining the term modernity to designate the fleeting, ephemeral experience of life in a metropolis. This obsessive idea is all a child of giant cities. Baudelaire is one of the innovators in French literature. He made Paris the subject of modern poetry and he would bring the citys details to life in the eyes and hearts of his readers. Baudelaire was born in Paris, France, on April 9,1821 and his father, François Baudelaire, a senior civil servant and amateur artist, was 34 years older than Baudelaires mother, Caroline. François died during Baudelaires childhood, in 1827, the following year, Caroline married Lieutenant Colonel Jacques Aupick, who later became a French ambassador to various noble courts. He stated in a letter to her that, There was in my childhood a period of passionate love for you, Baudelaire regularly begged his mother for money throughout his career, often promising that a lucrative publishing contract or journalistic commission was just around the corner. Baudelaire was educated in Lyon, where he boarded, Baudelaire was erratic in his studies, at times diligent, at other times prone to idleness. Later, he attended the Lycée Louis-le-Grand in Paris, studying law and he began to frequent prostitutes and may have contracted gonorrhea and syphilis during this period. He also began to run up debts, mostly for clothes, upon gaining his degree in 1839, he told his brother I dont feel I have a vocation for anything. His stepfather had in mind a career in law or diplomacy and his mother later recalled, Oh, what grief. If Charles had let himself be guided by his stepfather, his career would have very different. He would not have left a name in literature, it is true and his stepfather sent him on a voyage to Calcutta, India, in 1841 in the hope of ending his dissolute habits. The trip provided strong impressions of the sea, sailing, and exotic ports, on returning to the taverns of Paris, he began to compose some of the poems of Les Fleurs du Mal. At 21, he received an inheritance but squandered much of it within a few years
25.
Les Fleurs du mal
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Les Fleurs du mal is a volume of French poetry by Charles Baudelaire. First published in 1857, it was important in the symbolist and modernist movements, the poems deal with themes relating to decadence and eroticism. This section contains 18 poems, most of which were written during Haussmanns renovation of Paris, together, the poems in Tableaux Parisiens act as 24-hour cycle of Paris, starting with the second poem Le Soleil and ending with the second to last poem Le Crépuscule du Matin. The poems featured in cycle of Paris all deal with the feelings of anonymity. These characters whom Baudelaire once praised as the backbone of Paris are now eulogized in his nostalgic poems. For Baudelaire, the city has transformed into an anthill of identical bourgeois that reflect the new identical structures that litter a Paris he once called home. The author and the publisher were prosecuted under the regime of the Second Empire as an outrage aux bonnes mœurs, as a consequence of this prosecution, Baudelaire was fined 300 francs. Six poems from the work were suppressed and the ban on their publication was not lifted in France until 1949 and these poems were Lesbos, Femmes damnées, Le Léthé, À celle qui est trop gaie, Les Bijoux, and Les Métamorphoses du Vampire. These were later published in Brussels in a volume entitled Les Épaves. On the other hand, upon reading The Swan from Les Fleurs du mal, in the wake of the prosecution, a second edition was issued in 1861 which added 35 new poems, removed the six suppressed poems, and added a new section entitled Tableaux Parisiens. A posthumous third edition, with a preface by Théophile Gautier, alban Bergs Der Wein is a concert aria setting Stefan Georges translation of three poems from Le Vin. In 1969, American composer Ruth White released the album Flowers of Evil and it features electroacoustic composition with Baudelaires poetry recited over it. The album was published by Limelight Records, henri Dutilleuxs Tout un monde lointain. for cello and orchestra is strongly influenced by Les Fleurs du Mal. Each of its five movements is prefaced by a quotation from the volume and it befriends another computer which has disguised itself as Leaves of Grass by Walt Whitman. Flor De Mal is a song in the 1985 eponymous album by the Cruzados, rock band Buck-Tick named their 1990 album Aku no Hana, as well as its title track, after Les Fleurs du mal. The movie Immortal, In the scene on the Eiffel Tower and she recites the third stanza from the poem XLIX. An episode of the television show The Batman was named Fleurs du Mal in homage to the poem, in addition to this, a florists shop in the episode is named Baudelaires, in honor of the author. The 2009 manga Aku no Hana was based on Les Fleurs du mal set in modern Japanese society, the main character, Takao Kasuga, steals the gym clothes of his crush, Nanako Saeki, after being inspired by an excerpt from the aforementioned work
26.
Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve
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Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve was a literary critic of French literature. He was born in Boulogne, educated there, and studied medicine at the Collège Charlemagne in Paris, in 1828, he served in the St Louis Hospital. Sainte-Beuve became friendly with Hugo after publishing a review of the authors work but later had an affair with Hugos wife. His articles and essays were collected the volumes Port-Royal and Portraits littéraires, during the rebellions of 1848 in Europe, he lectured at Liège on Chateaubriand and his literary circle. He returned to Paris in 1849 and began his series of columns, Causeries du lundi in the newspaper. When Louis Napoleon became Emperor, he made Sainte-Beuve professor of Latin poetry at the Collège de France, but anti-Imperialist students hissed him, and he resigned. After several books of poetry and a couple of failed novels, Sainte-Beuve began to do literary research and he continued to contribute to La Revue contemporaine. Port-Royal, probably Sainte-Beuves masterpiece, is an history of the Jansenist abbey of Port-Royal-des-Champs. It not only influenced the historiography of religious belief, i. e. the method of research, but also the philosophy of history. He was made Senator in 1865, in which capacity he distinguished himself by his pleas for freedom of speech, according to Jules Amédée Barbey dAurevilly, Sainte-Beuve was a clever man with the temper of a turkey. In his last years, he was a sufferer and lived much in retirement. One of Sainte-Beuves critical contentions was that, in order to understand an artist and his work, marcel Proust took issue with this notion and refuted it in a set of essays, Contre Sainte-Beuve. Proust developed the ideas first voiced in those essays in À la recherche du temps perdu, friedrich Nietzsche, actually an avowed opponent of Sainte-Beuve, prompted in 1880 the wife of his friend Franz Overbeck, Ida Overbeck, to translate the Causeries du lundi into German. Until then, Sainte-Beuve was never published in German despite his great importance in France, since it was considered representative of a French way of thinking detested in Germany, Ida Overbecks translation appeared in 1880 under the title Die Menschen des XVIII. Nietzsche wrote to Ida Overbeck on August 18,1880, An hour ago I received the Die Menschen des XVIII, jahrhunderts, It is just a marvellous book. Ida Overbecks translation is an important document of the transfer between Germany and France in a period of strong tension, but it was largely ignored. It was not until 2014 that a critical and annotated edition of this appeared in print. Non-fiction Tableau Historique et Critique de la Poésie Française et du Théâtre Français au XVIe Siècle, poetry Vie, Poésies et Pensées de Joseph Delorme
27.
Marquis de Custine
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Astolphe-Louis-Léonor, Marquis de Custine was a French aristocrat and writer who is best known for his travel writing, in particular his account of his visit to Russia La Russie en 1839. This work documents not only Custines travels through the Russian empire, but also the fabric, economy. Astolphe de Custine was born in Niderviller, Lorraine, of French nobility and his fathers family had possessed the title marquis since the early 18th century and owned famous porcelain works. His mother, Delphine de Sabran, Marquise de Custine, also came from a family and was noted for her intelligence. Custines father and grandfather both sympathized with the French Revolution but were both guillotined, Custines mother barely escaped the same fate in prison. Subsequent to the overthrow of Robespierre and the end of the Reign of Terror, under direction of his strong-willed mother, Custine was raised in an unsettled social atmosphere among the scattered and exiled surviving aristocracy of France. This brought him into frequent contact with noted emigres, such as his mothers ardent admirer François-René de Chateaubriand and she died at Bex, in Vaud, Switzerland, July 13,1826. Custine was given an excellent education and seemed to be headed towards a life in society. An income of 60,000 francs a year enabled him to live as he pleased, including at Saint-Gratien, his estate outside Paris, Custine spent time in the diplomatic service, attending the Congress of Vienna, and even accepted a military commission. In 1821 Custine married Léontine de Saint-Simon de Courtomer, an arrangement made by his mother. The Marquis, later to admit his homosexuality and to live openly with a lover, was genuinely fond of his wife, who was of constant good humour. During the marriage Custine met and established a relationship with an Englishman, Edward Saint-Barbe, who moved into the house with the couple. In 1823, while in the stages of a second pregnancy, Léontine fell ill. On 28 October 1824, Custines life was irrevocably changed and that night, his unconscious body was found in the mud outside of Paris, stripped to the waist, beaten, and robbed. The attack had carried out by a group of soldiers with one of whom Custine allegedly had attempted to have a sexual encounter. The exact reason for the attack was never proven, even though the literary salons, as opposed to the society salons, remained open to Custine, many people who were friendly with him sneered at him behind his back. His diplomatic career was cut short by this incident. That same year,1826, several friends would die, Custines young son Enguerrand, by his late wife
28.
Paul Verlaine
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Paul-Marie Verlaine was a French poet associated with the Decadent movement. He is considered one of the greatest representatives of the fin de siècle in international, born in Metz, Verlaine was educated at the Lycée Impérial Bonaparte in Paris and then took up a post in the civil service. He began writing poetry at an age, and was initially influenced by the Parnassien movement and its leader. Verlaines first published poem was published in 1863 in La Revue du progrès, Verlaines first published collection, Poèmes saturniens, though adversely commented upon by Sainte-Beuve, established him as a poet of promise and originality. Verlaines private life spills over into his work, beginning with his love for Mathilde Mauté de Fleurville, Mathilde became Verlaines wife in 1870. At the proclamation of the Third Republic in the year, Verlaine joined the 160th battalion of the Garde nationale. He became head of the bureau of the Central Committee of the Paris Commune. Verlaine escaped the deadly street fighting known as the Bloody Week, or Semaine Sanglante, Verlaine returned to Paris in August 1871, and, in September, he received the first letter from Arthur Rimbaud. By 1872, he had lost interest in Mathilde, and effectively abandoned her and their son, Rimbaud and Verlaines stormy affair took them to London in 1872. In Brussels in July 1873 in a drunken, jealous rage, romances sans paroles was published while Verlaine was imprisoned. From there he went to teach in Boston, before moving to Bournemouth, while in England he produced another successful collection, Sagesse. He returned to France in 1877 and, while teaching English at a school in Rethel, fell in love one of his pupils, Lucien Létinois. Verlaine was devastated when Létinois died of typhus in 1883, Verlaines last years saw his descent into drug addiction, alcoholism, and poverty. He lived in slums and public hospitals, and spent his days drinking absinthe in Paris cafes and his poetry was admired and recognized as ground-breaking, and served as a source of inspiration to composers. Gabriel Fauré composed many mélodies, such as the song cycles Cinq mélodies de Venise and La bonne chanson, claude Debussy set to music Clair de lune and six of the Fêtes galantes poems, forming part of the mélodie collection known as the Recueil Vasnier. Reynaldo Hahn set several of Verlaines poems as did the Belgian-British composer Poldowski and his drug dependence and alcoholism caught up with him and took a toll on his life. Paul Verlaine died in Paris at the age of 51 on 8 January 1896, much of the French poetry produced during the fin de siècle was characterized as decadent for its lurid content or moral vision. But with the publication of Jean Moréas Symbolist Manifesto in 1886, along with Verlaine, Mallarmé, Rimbaud, Paul Valéry, Albert Samain and many others began to be referred to as Symbolists
29.
International Standard Serial Number
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An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial
30.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
31.
Project Gutenberg
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Project Gutenberg is a volunteer effort to digitize and archive cultural works, to encourage the creation and distribution of eBooks. It was founded in 1971 by Michael S. Hart and is the oldest digital library, most of the items in its collection are the full texts of public domain books. The project tries to make these as free as possible, in long-lasting, as of 3 October 2015, Project Gutenberg reached 50,000 items in its collection. The releases are available in plain text but, wherever possible, other formats are included, such as HTML, PDF, EPUB, MOBI, most releases are in the English language, but many non-English works are also available. There are multiple affiliated projects that are providing additional content, including regional, Project Gutenberg is also closely affiliated with Distributed Proofreaders, an Internet-based community for proofreading scanned texts. Project Gutenberg was started by Michael Hart in 1971 with the digitization of the United States Declaration of Independence, Hart, a student at the University of Illinois, obtained access to a Xerox Sigma V mainframe computer in the universitys Materials Research Lab. Through friendly operators, he received an account with an unlimited amount of computer time. Hart has said he wanted to back this gift by doing something that could be considered to be of great value. His initial goal was to make the 10,000 most consulted books available to the public at little or no charge and this particular computer was one of the 15 nodes on ARPANET, the computer network that would become the Internet. Hart believed that computers would one day be accessible to the general public and he used a copy of the United States Declaration of Independence in his backpack, and this became the first Project Gutenberg e-text. He named the project after Johannes Gutenberg, the fifteenth century German printer who propelled the movable type printing press revolution, by the mid-1990s, Hart was running Project Gutenberg from Illinois Benedictine College. More volunteers had joined the effort, all of the text was entered manually until 1989 when image scanners and optical character recognition software improved and became more widely available, which made book scanning more feasible. Hart later came to an arrangement with Carnegie Mellon University, which agreed to administer Project Gutenbergs finances, as the volume of e-texts increased, volunteers began to take over the projects day-to-day operations that Hart had run. Starting in 2004, an online catalog made Project Gutenberg content easier to browse, access. Project Gutenberg is now hosted by ibiblio at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Italian volunteer Pietro Di Miceli developed and administered the first Project Gutenberg website and started the development of the Project online Catalog. In his ten years in this role, the Project web pages won a number of awards, often being featured in best of the Web listings, Hart died on 6 September 2011 at his home in Urbana, Illinois at the age of 64. In 2000, a corporation, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Long-time Project Gutenberg volunteer Gregory Newby became the foundations first CEO, also in 2000, Charles Franks founded Distributed Proofreaders, which allowed the proofreading of scanned texts to be distributed among many volunteers over the Internet
32.
Internet Archive
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The Internet Archive is a San Francisco–based nonprofit digital library with the stated mission of universal access to all knowledge. As of October 2016, its collection topped 15 petabytes, in addition to its archiving function, the Archive is an activist organization, advocating for a free and open Internet. Its web archive, the Wayback Machine, contains over 150 billion web captures, the Archive also oversees one of the worlds largest book digitization projects. Founded by Brewster Kahle in May 1996, the Archive is a 501 nonprofit operating in the United States. It has a budget of $10 million, derived from a variety of sources, revenue from its Web crawling services, various partnerships, grants, donations. Its headquarters are in San Francisco, California, where about 30 of its 200 employees work, Most of its staff work in its book-scanning centers. The Archive has data centers in three Californian cities, San Francisco, Redwood City, and Richmond, the Archive is a member of the International Internet Preservation Consortium and was officially designated as a library by the State of California in 2007. Brewster Kahle founded the Archive in 1996 at around the time that he began the for-profit web crawling company Alexa Internet. In October 1996, the Internet Archive had begun to archive and preserve the World Wide Web in large quantities, the archived content wasnt available to the general public until 2001, when it developed the Wayback Machine. In late 1999, the Archive expanded its collections beyond the Web archive, Now the Internet Archive includes texts, audio, moving images, and software. It hosts a number of projects, the NASA Images Archive, the contract crawling service Archive-It. According to its web site, Most societies place importance on preserving artifacts of their culture, without such artifacts, civilization has no memory and no mechanism to learn from its successes and failures. Our culture now produces more and more artifacts in digital form, the Archives mission is to help preserve those artifacts and create an Internet library for researchers, historians, and scholars. In August 2012, the Archive announced that it has added BitTorrent to its file download options for over 1.3 million existing files, on November 6,2013, the Internet Archives headquarters in San Franciscos Richmond District caught fire, destroying equipment and damaging some nearby apartments. The nonprofit Archive sought donations to cover the estimated $600,000 in damage, in November 2016, Kahle announced that the Internet Archive was building the Internet Archive of Canada, a copy of the archive to be based somewhere in the country of Canada. The announcement received widespread coverage due to the implication that the decision to build an archive in a foreign country was because of the upcoming presidency of Donald Trump. Kahle was quoted as saying that on November 9th in America and it was a firm reminder that institutions like ours, built for the long-term, need to design for change. For us, it means keeping our cultural materials safe, private and it means preparing for a Web that may face greater restrictions
33.
Bibsys
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BIBSYS is an administrative agency set up and organized by the Ministry of Education and Research in Norway. They are a provider, focusing on the exchange, storage and retrieval of data pertaining to research. BIBSYS are collaborating with all Norwegian universities and university colleges as well as research institutions, Bibsys is formally organized as a unit at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, located in Trondheim, Norway. The board of directors is appointed by Norwegian Ministry of Education, BIBSYS offer researchers, students and others an easy access to library resources by providing the unified search service Oria. no and other library services. They also deliver integrated products for the operation for research. As a DataCite member BIBSYS act as a national DataCite representative in Norway and thereby allow all of Norways higher education, all their products and services are developed in cooperation with their member institutions. The purpose of the project was to automate internal library routines, since 1972 Bibsys has evolved from a library system supplier for two libraries in Trondheim, to developing and operating a national library system for Norwegian research and special libraries. The target group has expanded to include the customers of research and special libraries. BIBSYS is an administrative agency answerable to the Ministry of Education and Research. In addition to BIBSYS Library System, the product consists of BISBYS Ask, BIBSYS Brage, BIBSYS Galleri. All operation of applications and databases is performed centrally by BIBSYS, BIBSYS also offer a range of services, both in connection with their products and separate services independent of the products they supply
34.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
35.
National Diet Library
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The National Diet Library is the only national library in Japan. It was established in 1948 for the purpose of assisting members of the National Diet of Japan in researching matters of public policy, the library is similar in purpose and scope to the United States Library of Congress. The National Diet Library consists of two facilities in Tokyo and Kyoto, and several other branch libraries throughout Japan. The Diets power in prewar Japan was limited, and its need for information was correspondingly small, the original Diet libraries never developed either the collections or the services which might have made them vital adjuncts of genuinely responsible legislative activity. Until Japans defeat, moreover, the executive had controlled all political documents, depriving the people and the Diet of access to vital information. The U. S. occupation forces under General Douglas MacArthur deemed reform of the Diet library system to be an important part of the democratization of Japan after its defeat in World War II. In 1946, each house of the Diet formed its own National Diet Library Standing Committee, hani Gorō, a Marxist historian who had been imprisoned during the war for thought crimes and had been elected to the House of Councillors after the war, spearheaded the reform efforts. Hani envisioned the new body as both a citadel of popular sovereignty, and the means of realizing a peaceful revolution, the National Diet Library opened in June 1948 in the present-day State Guest-House with an initial collection of 100,000 volumes. The first Librarian of the Diet Library was the politician Tokujirō Kanamori, the philosopher Masakazu Nakai served as the first Vice Librarian. In 1949, the NDL merged with the National Library and became the national library in Japan. At this time the collection gained a million volumes previously housed in the former National Library in Ueno. In 1961, the NDL opened at its present location in Nagatachō, in 1986, the NDLs Annex was completed to accommodate a combined total of 12 million books and periodicals. The Kansai-kan, which opened in October 2002 in the Kansai Science City, has a collection of 6 million items, in May 2002, the NDL opened a new branch, the International Library of Childrens Literature, in the former building of the Imperial Library in Ueno. This branch contains some 400,000 items of literature from around the world. Though the NDLs original mandate was to be a library for the National Diet. In the fiscal year ending March 2004, for example, the library reported more than 250,000 reference inquiries, in contrast, as Japans national library, the NDL collects copies of all publications published in Japan. The NDL has an extensive collection of some 30 million pages of documents relating to the Occupation of Japan after World War II. This collection include the documents prepared by General Headquarters and the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers, the Far Eastern Commission, the NDL maintains a collection of some 530,000 books and booklets and 2 million microform titles relating to the sciences
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