1.
Alarm clock
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An alarm clock is a clock that is designed to alert an individual or group of individuals at specified time. The primary function of these clocks is to people from their nights sleep or short naps. Most use sound, some use light or vibration, some have sensors to identify when a person is in a light stage of sleep, in order to avoid waking someone who is deeply asleep, which causes tiredness, even if the person has had adequate sleep. To stop the sound or light, a button or handle on the clock is pressed, a classic analog alarm clock has an extra hand or inset dial that is used to specify the time at which to activate the alarm. Alarm clocks are also found on mobile phones and watches, in some models, the back encasement of the clock itself acts as the bell. In an electric bell-style alarm clock, the bell is rung by a circuit and armature that turns the circuit on. Digital alarm clocks can make other noises, simple battery-powered alarm clocks make a loud buzzing or beeping sound to wake a sleeper, while novelty alarm clocks can speak, laugh, sing, or play sounds from nature. Some alarm clocks have radios that can be set to playing at specified times. Some alarm clocks can set multiple alarms, a feature for couples who have different waking up schedules. A progressive alarm clock, still new in the market, can have different alarms for different times, most modern televisions, mobile phones and digital watches have alarm clock functions to turn on or make sounds at a specific time. The late Roman senator Cassiodorus advocated in his rulebook for monastic life the water clock as an alarm for the soldiers of Christ. The Christian rhetorician Procopius described in detail prior to 529 a complex public striking clock in his home town Gaza which featured an hourly gong and figures moving mechanically day, in China, a striking clock was devised by the Buddhist monk and inventor Yi Xing. The Chinese engineers Zhang Sixun and Su Song integrated striking clock mechanisms in astronomical clocks in the 10th and 11th centuries, a striking clock outside of China was the water-powered clock tower near the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, Syria, which struck once every hour. It was constructed by the Arab engineer al-Kaysarani in 1154, the most famous original striking clock tower still standing is possibly the one in St Marks Clocktower in St Marks Square, Venice. The St Marks Clock was assembled in 1493, by the famous clockmaker Gian Carlo Rainieri from Reggio Emilia, where his father Gian Paolo Rainieri had already constructed another famous device in 1481. In 1497, Simone Campanato moulded the great bell, which was put on the top of the tower where it was beaten by the Due Mori. User-settable mechanical alarm clocks date back at least to 15th-century Europe and these early alarm clocks had a ring of holes in the clock dial and were set by placing a pin in the appropriate hole. Another mechanical alarm clock was created by Levi Hutchins, of New Hampshire in the United States and this device he made only for himself however, and it only rang at 4 AM, in order to wake him for his job
2.
Low frequency
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Low frequency or LF is the ITU designation for radio frequencies in the range of 30 kHz–300 kHz. As its wavelengths range from ten kilometres to one kilometre, respectively, LF radio waves exhibit low signal attenuation, making them suitable for long-distance communications. In Europe and areas of Northern Africa and Asia, part of the LF spectrum is used for AM broadcasting as the longwave band, in the western hemisphere, its main use is for aircraft beacon, navigation, information, and weather systems. A number of time signal broadcasts are also broadcast in this band, because of their long wavelength, low frequency radio waves can diffract over obstacles like mountain ranges and travel beyond the horizon, following the contour of the Earth. This mode of propagation, called ground wave, is the mode in the LF band. Ground waves must be polarized, so monopole antennas are used for transmitting. The attenuation of signal strength with distance by absorption in the ground is lower than at higher frequencies, low frequency ground waves can be received up to 2,000 kilometres from the transmitting antenna. Low frequency waves can also travel long distances by reflecting from the ionosphere, although this method. Reflection occurs at the ionospheric E layer or F layers, skywave signals can be detected at distances exceeding 300 kilometres from the transmitting antenna. In Europe and Japan, many low-cost consumer devices have since the late 1980s contained radio clocks with an LF receiver for these signals. Since these frequencies propagate by ground wave only, the precision of time signals is not affected by varying propagation paths between the transmitter, the ionosphere, and the receiver. In the United States, such devices became feasible for the market only after the output power of WWVB was increased in 1997 and 1999. Radio signals below 50 kHz are capable of penetrating ocean depths to approximately 200 metres, the longer the wavelength, the British, German, Indian, Russian, Swedish, United States and possibly other navies communicate with submarines on these frequencies. In addition, Royal Navy nuclear submarines carrying ballistic missiles are allegedly under standing orders to monitor the BBC Radio 4 transmission on 198 kHz in waters near the UK. In the US, the Ground Wave Emergency Network or GWEN operated between 150 and 175 kHz, until replaced by satellite systems in 1999. GWEN was a land based military radio communications system which could survive, the 2007 World Radiocommunication Conference made this band a worldwide amateur radio allocation. An international 2.1 kHz allocation, the 2200 meter band, is available to amateur operators in several countries in Europe, New Zealand, Canada. The world record distance for a contact is over 10,000 km from near Vladivostok to New Zealand
3.
Clock
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A clock is an instrument to measure, keep, and indicate time. The word clock is derived from the Celtic words clagan and clocca meaning bell, a silent instrument missing such a striking mechanism has traditionally been known as a timepiece. In general usage today a clock refers to any device for measuring and displaying the time, Watches and other timepieces that can be carried on ones person are often distinguished from clocks. The clock is one of the oldest human inventions, meeting the need to measure intervals of time shorter than the natural units, the day, the lunar month. Devices operating on several physical processes have been used over the millennia, a sundial shows the time by displaying the position of a shadow on a flat surface. There is a range of duration timers, an example being the hourglass. Water clocks, along with the sundials, are possibly the oldest time-measuring instruments, spring-driven clocks appeared during the 15th century. During the 15th and 16th centuries, clockmaking flourished, the next development in accuracy occurred after 1656 with the invention of the pendulum clock. A major stimulus to improving the accuracy and reliability of clocks was the importance of precise time-keeping for navigation, the electric clock was patented in 1840. The development of electronics in the 20th century led to clocks with no clockwork parts at all, the timekeeping element in every modern clock is a harmonic oscillator, a physical object that vibrates or oscillates at a particular frequency. This object can be a pendulum, a fork, a quartz crystal. Analog clocks usually indicate time using angles, Digital clocks display a numeric representation of time. Two numeric display formats are used on digital clocks, 24-hour notation. Most digital clocks use electronic mechanisms and LCD, LED, or VFD displays, for convenience, distance, telephony or blindness, auditory clocks present the time as sounds. There are also clocks for the blind that have displays that can be read by using the sense of touch, some of these are similar to normal analog displays, but are constructed so the hands can be felt without damaging them. The evolution of the technology of clocks continues today, the study of timekeeping is known as horology. The apparent position of the Sun in the sky moves over the course of a day, shadows cast by stationary objects move correspondingly, so their positions can be used to indicate the time of day. A sundial shows the time by displaying the position of a shadow on a flat surface, sundials can be horizontal, vertical, or in other orientations
4.
Synchronization
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Synchronization is the coordination of events to operate a system in unison. The familiar conductor of an orchestra serves to keep the orchestra in time, systems operating with all their parts in synchrony are said to be synchronous or in sync, those which are not are asynchronous. Today, synchronization can occur on a basis through the GPS-enabled timekeeping systems. The invention of a marine chronometer revolutionized marine navigation. By the end of the 19th century, time signals in the form of a gun, flag. Each line handled the problem by synchronizing all its stations to headquarters as a standard railroad time, in some territories, sharing of single railroad tracks was controlled by the timetable. The need for strict timekeeping led the companies to settle on one standard, in electrical engineering terms, for digital logic and data transfer, a synchronous circuit requires a clock signal. In a different sense, electronic systems are synchronized to make events at points far apart appear simultaneous or near-simultaneous from a certain perspective. Poincare phase oscillators are model systems that can interact and partially synchronize within random or regular networks, in the case of global synchronization of phase oscillators, an abrupt transition from unsynchronized to full synchronization takes place when the coupling strength exceeds a critical threshold. This is known as the Kuramoto model phase transition, synchronization is an emergent property that occurs in a broad range of dynamical systems, including neural signaling, the beating of the heart and the synchronization of fire-fly light waves. Synchronization of movement is defined as similar movements between two or more people which are temporally aligned and this is different to mimicry, as these movements occur after a short delay. Muscular bonding is the idea that moving in time evokes particular emotions and this sparked some of the first research into movement synchronization and its effects on human emotion. In dyads, groups of two people, synchronization has been demonstrated to increase affiliation, self-esteem, compassion and altruistic behaviour and increase rapport. During arguments, synchrony between the pair has been noted to decrease, however it is not clear whether this is due to the change in emotion or other factors. This is known as interpersonal synchrony, there has been dispute regarding the true effect of synchrony in these studies. Research in this area detailing the effects of synchrony, have attributed this to synchrony alone, however. Indeed, the Reinforcement of Cooperation Model suggests that perception of synchrony leads to reinforcement that cooperation is occurring, more research is required to separate the effect of intentionality from the beneficial effect of synchrony. Film synchronization of image and sound in sound film, synchronization is important in fields such as digital telephony, video and digital audio where streams of sampled data are manipulated
5.
Radio
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When radio waves strike an electrical conductor, the oscillating fields induce an alternating current in the conductor. The information in the waves can be extracted and transformed back into its original form, Radio systems need a transmitter to modulate some property of the energy produced to impress a signal on it, for example using amplitude modulation or angle modulation. Radio systems also need an antenna to convert electric currents into radio waves, an antenna can be used for both transmitting and receiving. The electrical resonance of tuned circuits in radios allow individual stations to be selected, the electromagnetic wave is intercepted by a tuned receiving antenna. Radio frequencies occupy the range from a 3 kHz to 300 GHz, a radio communication system sends signals by radio. The term radio is derived from the Latin word radius, meaning spoke of a wheel, beam of light, however, this invention would not be widely adopted. The switch to radio in place of wireless took place slowly and unevenly in the English-speaking world, the United States Navy would also play a role. Although its translation of the 1906 Berlin Convention used the terms wireless telegraph and wireless telegram, the term started to become preferred by the general public in the 1920s with the introduction of broadcasting. Radio systems used for communication have the following elements, with more than 100 years of development, each process is implemented by a wide range of methods, specialised for different communications purposes. Each system contains a transmitter, This consists of a source of electrical energy, the transmitter contains a system to modulate some property of the energy produced to impress a signal on it. This modulation might be as simple as turning the energy on and off, or altering more subtle such as amplitude, frequency, phase. Amplitude modulation of a carrier wave works by varying the strength of the signal in proportion to the information being sent. For example, changes in the strength can be used to reflect the sounds to be reproduced by a speaker. It was the used for the first audio radio transmissions. Frequency modulation varies the frequency of the carrier, the instantaneous frequency of the carrier is directly proportional to the instantaneous value of the input signal. FM has the capture effect whereby a receiver only receives the strongest signal, Digital data can be sent by shifting the carriers frequency among a set of discrete values, a technique known as frequency-shift keying. FM is commonly used at Very high frequency radio frequencies for high-fidelity broadcasts of music, analog TV sound is also broadcast using FM. Angle modulation alters the phase of the carrier wave to transmit a signal
6.
Time standard
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A time standard is a specification for measuring time, either the rate at which time passes, or points in time, or both. In modern times, several time specifications have been recognized as standards. An example of a kind of time standard can be a time scale, a standard for civil time can specify both time intervals and time-of-day. Standardized time measurements are made using a clock to count periods of some cyclic change, historically, time standards were often based on the Earths rotational period. From the late 17th century to the 19th century it was assumed that the Earths daily rotational rate was constant. Time standards based on Earth rotation were replaced for use from 1952 onwards by an ephemeris time standard based on the Earths orbital period. Various types of second and day are used as the time interval for most time scales. Other intervals of time are usually defined in terms of these two, apparent solar time is based on the solar day, which is the period between one solar noon and the next. A solar day is approximately 24 hours of mean time, as the variation accumulates over a few weeks, there are differences as large as 16 minutes between apparent solar time and mean solar time. However, these cancel out over a year. There are also other perturbations such as Earths wobble, but these are less than a second per year, sidereal time is time by the stars. A sidereal rotation is the time it takes the Earth to make one revolution with respect to the stars and it is well known that observations of the Sun pose substantial obstacles to the achievement of accuracy in measurement. Mean solar time was originally apparent solar time corrected by the equation of time, Greenwich Mean Time was originally mean time deduced from meridian observations made at the Royal Greenwich Observatory. The principal meridian of that observatory was chosen in 1884 by the International Meridian Conference to be the Prime Meridian. GMT either by name or as mean time at Greenwich used to be an international time standard. The more current refined version of UT, UT1, is still in reality mean time at Greenwich, Greenwich Mean Time is still the legal time in the UK. But Coordinated Universal Time is in actual use in the UK. Universal Time is mean solar time at 0° longitude, some implementations are UT0 is the time of a particular place of observation
7.
Atomic clock
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The principle of operation of an atomic clock is not based on nuclear physics, but rather on atomic physics, it uses the microwave signal that electrons in atoms emit when they change energy levels. Early atomic clocks were based on masers at room temperature, currently, the most accurate atomic clocks first cool the atoms to near absolute zero temperature by slowing them with lasers and probing them in atomic fountains in a microwave-filled cavity. An example of this is the NIST-F1 atomic clock, one of the primary time. The accuracy of an atomic clock depends on two factors, the first factor is temperature of the sample atoms—colder atoms move much more slowly, allowing longer probe times. The second factor is the frequency and intrinsic width of the electronic transition, higher frequencies and narrow lines increase the precision. National standards agencies in many countries maintain a network of atomic clocks which are intercompared and these clocks collectively define a continuous and stable time scale, International Atomic Time. For civil time, another time scale is disseminated, Coordinated Universal Time, UTC is derived from TAI, but approximately synchronised, by using leap seconds, to UT1, which is based on actual rotation of the Earth with respect to the solar time. The idea of using atomic transitions to measure time was suggested by Lord Kelvin in 1879, magnetic resonance, developed in the 1930s by Isidor Rabi, became the practical method for doing this. In 1945, Rabi first publicly suggested that atomic beam magnetic resonance might be used as the basis of a clock, the first atomic clock was an ammonia maser device built in 1949 at the U. S. National Bureau of Standards. It was less accurate than existing quartz clocks, but served to demonstrate the concept, calibration of the caesium standard atomic clock was carried out by the use of the astronomical time scale ephemeris time. This led to the agreed definition of the latest SI second being based on atomic time. Equality of the ET second with the SI second has been verified to within 1 part in 1010, the SI second thus inherits the effect of decisions by the original designers of the ephemeris time scale, determining the length of the ET second. Since the beginning of development in the 1950s, atomic clocks have been based on the transitions in hydrogen-1, caesium-133. The first commercial atomic clock was the Atomichron, manufactured by the National Company, more than 50 were sold between 1956 and 1960. This bulky and expensive instrument was replaced by much smaller rack-mountable devices, such as the Hewlett-Packard model 5060 caesium frequency standard. In August 2004, NIST scientists demonstrated a chip-scale atomic clock, according to the researchers, the clock was believed to be one-hundredth the size of any other. It requires no more than 125 mW, making it suitable for battery-driven applications and this technology became available commercially in 2011. Ion trap experimental optical clocks are more precise than the current caesium standard, in March 2017, NASA plans to deploy the Deep Space Atomic Clock, a miniaturized, ultra-precise mercury-ion atomic clock, into outer space
8.
Global Positioning System
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The Global Positioning System is a space-based radionavigation system owned by the United States government and operated by the United States Air Force. The GPS system operates independently of any telephonic or internet reception, the GPS system provides critical positioning capabilities to military, civil, and commercial users around the world. The United States government created the system, maintains it, however, the US government can selectively deny access to the system, as happened to the Indian military in 1999 during the Kargil War. The U. S. Department of Defense developed the system and it became fully operational in 1995. Roger L. Easton of the Naval Research Laboratory, Ivan A, getting of The Aerospace Corporation, and Bradford Parkinson of the Applied Physics Laboratory are credited with inventing it. Announcements from Vice President Al Gore and the White House in 1998 initiated these changes, in 2000, the U. S. Congress authorized the modernization effort, GPS III. In addition to GPS, other systems are in use or under development, mainly because of a denial of access. The Russian Global Navigation Satellite System was developed contemporaneously with GPS, GLONASS can be added to GPS devices, making more satellites available and enabling positions to be fixed more quickly and accurately, to within two meters. There are also the European Union Galileo positioning system and Chinas BeiDou Navigation Satellite System, special and general relativity predict that the clocks on the GPS satellites would be seen by the Earths observers to run 38 microseconds faster per day than the clocks on the Earth. The GPS calculated positions would quickly drift into error, accumulating to 10 kilometers per day, the relativistic time effect of the GPS clocks running faster than the clocks on earth was corrected for in the design of GPS. The Soviet Union launched the first man-made satellite, Sputnik 1, two American physicists, William Guier and George Weiffenbach, at Johns Hopkinss Applied Physics Laboratory, decided to monitor Sputniks radio transmissions. Within hours they realized that, because of the Doppler effect, the Director of the APL gave them access to their UNIVAC to do the heavy calculations required. The next spring, Frank McClure, the deputy director of the APL, asked Guier and Weiffenbach to investigate the inverse problem — pinpointing the users location and this led them and APL to develop the TRANSIT system. In 1959, ARPA also played a role in TRANSIT, the first satellite navigation system, TRANSIT, used by the United States Navy, was first successfully tested in 1960. It used a constellation of five satellites and could provide a navigational fix approximately once per hour, in 1967, the U. S. Navy developed the Timation satellite, which proved the feasibility of placing accurate clocks in space, a technology required by GPS. In the 1970s, the ground-based OMEGA navigation system, based on comparison of signal transmission from pairs of stations. Limitations of these systems drove the need for a more universal navigation solution with greater accuracy, during the Cold War arms race, the nuclear threat to the existence of the United States was the one need that did justify this cost in the view of the United States Congress. This deterrent effect is why GPS was funded and it is also the reason for the ultra secrecy at that time
9.
Longwave
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In radio, longwave, also written as long wave or long-wave, and commonly abbreviated LW, refers to parts of the radio spectrum with relatively long wavelengths. The term is an one, dating from the early 20th century, when the radio spectrum was considered to consist of long, medium. Most modern radio systems and devices use wavelengths which would then have been considered ultra-short, in contemporary usage, the term longwave is not defined precisely, and its meaning varies across the world. Sometimes, part of the frequency band is included. The International Telecommunication Union Region 1 longwave broadcast band falls wholly within the low band of the radio spectrum. Broader definitions of longwave may extend below and/or above it, in the US, the Longwave Club of America is interested in frequencies below the AM broadcast band, i. e. all frequencies below 535 kHz. Because of their wavelength, radio waves in this frequency range can diffract over obstacles like mountain ranges and travel beyond the horizon. This mode of propagation, called ground wave, is the mode in the longwave band. The attenuation of signal strength with distance by absorption in the ground is lower than at higher frequencies, Low frequency ground waves can be received up to 2,000 kilometres from the transmitting antenna. Low frequency waves can also travel long distances by reflecting from the ionosphere, although this method. Reflection occurs at the ionospheric E layer or F layers, skywave signals can be detected at distances exceeding 300 kilometres from the transmitting antenna. Non-directional beacons transmit continuously for the benefit of radio direction finders in marine and they identify themselves by a callsign in Morse code. They can occupy any frequency in the range 190–1750 kHz, in North America, they occupy 190–535 kHz. In ITU Region 1 the lower limit is 280 kHz, there are government broadcast stations in the range 40–80 kHz that transmit coded time signals to radio clocks. Radio controlled clocks receive their time calibration signals with built-in long-wave receivers, long-waves travel by groundwaves that hug the surface of the earth, unlike medium-waves and short-waves. Those higher-frequency signals do not follow the surface of the Earth beyond a few kilometers and these different propagation paths can make the time lag different for every signal received. The military of the United Kingdom, Russian Federation, United States, Germany, in North America during the 1970s, the frequencies 167,179 and 191 kHz were assigned to the short-lived Public Emergency Radio of the United States. Nowadays, in the United States, Part 15 of FCC regulations allow unlicensed use of 136 kHz and this is called Low Frequency Experimental Radio
10.
Shortwave radio
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Shortwave radio is radio transmission using shortwave frequencies, generally 1. 6–30 MHz, just above the medium wave AM broadcast band. Radio waves in this band can be reflected or refracted from a layer of charged atoms in the atmosphere called the ionosphere. Therefore, short waves directed at an angle into the sky can be reflected back to Earth at great distances and this is called skywave or skip propagation. Shortwave radio is used for broadcasting of voice and music to listeners over very large areas. It is also used for military radar, diplomatic communication. The widest popular definition of the frequency interval is the ITU Region 1 definition, and is the span 1. 6–30 MHz, just above the medium wave band. In reality, the definition of the frequency band is a mess. The broadcast medium wave band now extends above the 200 m/1500 kHz limit, early radio telegraphy had used long wave transmissions. The drawbacks to this included a very limited spectrum available for long distance communication. It was also difficult to beam the radio wave directionally with long wave, prior to the 1920s, the shortwave frequencies above 1.5 MHz were regarded as useless for long distance communication and were designated in many countries for amateur use. Franklin rigged up an antenna at Poldhu Wireless Station, Cornwall. In June and July 1923, wireless transmissions were completed during nights on 97 meters from Poldhu to Marconis yacht Elettra in the Cape Verde Islands, in September 1924, Marconi transmitted daytime and nighttime on 32 meters from Poldhu to his yacht in Beirut. Franklin went on to refine the directional transmission, by inventing the curtain array aerial system, the UK-to-Canada shortwave Beam Wireless Service went into commercial operation on 25 October 1926. Beam Wireless Services from the UK to Australia, South Africa, Shortwave communications began to grow rapidly in the 1920s, similar to the internet in the late 20th century. Shortwave also ended the need for investments in massive longwave wireless stations. The cable companies began to lose large sums of money in 1927, the British government convened the Imperial Wireless and Cable Conference in 1928 to examine the situation that had arisen as a result of the competition of Beam Wireless with the Cable Services. The name of the company was changed to Cable and Wireless Ltd. in 1934, long-distance cables had a resurgence beginning in 1956 with the laying of TAT-1 across the Atlantic Ocean, the first voice frequency cable on this route. This provided 36 high quality telephone channels and was followed by even higher capacity cables all around the world
11.
Time signal
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A time signal is a visible, audible, mechanical, or electronic signal used as a reference to determine the time of day. Church bells or voices announcing hours of prayer gave way to automatically operated chimes on public clocks, however, busy ports used a visual signal, the dropping of a ball, to allow mariners to check the chronometers used for navigation. The advent of electrical telegraphs allowed widespread and precise distribution of time signals from central observatories, Railways were among the first customers for time signals, which allowed synchronization of their operations over wide geographic areas. Special purpose radio time signal stations transmit a signal that allows automatic synchronization of clocks, today, GPS navigation radio signals are used to precisely distribute time signals over much of the world. There are many commercially available radio controlled clocks available to indicate the local time. Computers often set their time from an atomic clock source. Where this is not available, a locally connected GPS receiver can set the time using a software application. There are several such applications available to download from the internet, One sort of public time signal is a striking clock. These clocks are only as good as the clockwork that activates them, until modern times, a public clock such as Big Ben was the only time standard the general public needed. When more accurate time signals were required in navigation, a number of traditional audible or visible time signals were established so navigators could check their marine chronometers and these public time signals were formerly established in many seaport cities. In Vancouver, British Columbia, a 9 OClock Gun is still shot every night at 9 pm, the 9,00 pm firing was later established as a time signal for the general population. Until a time gun was installed, the nearby Brockton Point lighthouse keeper detonated a stick of dynamite, elsewhere in Canada, a Noon Gun is fired daily from the citadels in Halifax and Quebec City. In the same manner, a gun has been fired in Cape Town, South Africa. The gun is fired daily from the Lion Battery at Signal Hill, a cannon was fired at one oclock every weekday at Liverpool, England, at the Castle in Edinburgh, Scotland, and also at Perth in Australia to establish the time. The Edinburgh One OClock Gun is still in operation, a cannon located at the top of Santa Lucia Hill, in Santiago, Chile, is shot every noon. In Rome, on the Janiculum, a hill west of the Tiber since 1904 a cannon is fired daily at noon towards the river as a time signal and this was introduced in 1847 by Pope Pius IX to synchronise all the church bells of Rome. It was situated in Castel SantAngelo until 1903 when it was moved to Monte Mario for a few months until it was placed in its current position. The cannon was silenced from the start of WWII for about twenty years until 21 April 1959, the 2712th anniversary of Romes founding, and has been in use since then
12.
Belarus
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Its capital and most populous city is Minsk. Over 40% of its 207,600 square kilometres is forested and its strongest economic sectors are service industries and manufacturing. In the aftermath of the 1917 Russian Revolution, Belarus declared independence as the Belarusian Peoples Republic, the Socialist Soviet Republic of Byelorussia became a founding constituent republic of the Soviet Union in 1922 and was renamed as the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. Belarus lost almost half of its territory to Poland after the Polish–Soviet War of 1919–1921, during WWII, military operations devastated Belarus, which lost about a third of its population and more than half of its economic resources. The republic was redeveloped in the post-war years, in 1945 the Byelorussian SSR became a founding member of the United Nations, along with the Soviet Union and the Ukrainian SSR. The parliament of the declared the sovereignty of Belarus on 27 July 1990. Alexander Lukashenko has served as the president since 1994. Belarus has been labeled Europes last dictatorship by some Western journalists, Lukashenko continued a number of Soviet-era policies, such as state ownership of large sections of the economy. Though not directly espousing communism like the five remaining communist countries of China, Cuba, Laos, Vietnam and North Korea, in 2000 Belarus and Russia signed a treaty for greater cooperation, with some hints of forming a Union State. Over 70% of Belaruss population of 9.49 million resides in urban areas, more than 80% of the population is ethnic Belarusian, with sizable minorities of Russians, Poles and Ukrainians. Since a referendum in 1995, the country has had two official languages, Belarusian and Russian, the Constitution of Belarus does not declare any official religion, although the primary religion in the country is Eastern Orthodox Christianity. Belarus is the only European country to retain capital punishment in both law and practice, the name Belarus is closely related with the term Belaya Rus, i. e. White Rus. There are several claims to the origin of the name White Rus, an alternate explanation for the name comments on the white clothing worn by the local Slavic population. A third theory suggests that the old Rus lands that were not conquered by the Tatars had been referred to as white, other sources claim that, before 1267, the land not conquered by the Mongols was considered White Rus. The name Rus is often conflated with its Latin forms Russia and Ruthenia, in some languages, including German and Dutch, the country is generally called White Russia to this day. The Latin term Alba Russia was used again by Pope Pius VI in 1783 to recognize the Society of Jesus there, exclaiming Approbo Societatem Jesu in Alba Russia degentem, approbo, approbo. The first known use of White Russia to refer to Belarus was in the century by Englishman Sir Jerome Horsey. During the 17th century, the Russian tsars used White Rus to describe the lands added from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
13.
Vileyka
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Vileyka is a town in Belarus and the administrative center of the Vileyka Raion in the Minsk Region. It is located on the River Viliya,100 km northwest of Minsk, the first documentary record dates from 16 November 1460. Population of Vileyka district in 2009,55 thousand people, international phone code, +3751771 xxxxx. The 43rd Russian Navys long-haul communications center is located near Vileyka and it provides VLF communication between Russian Navys headquarters and atomic submarines in the Atlantic, Indian and parts of the Pacific Ocean. In the 10th–13th centuries, the territory was under the Principality of Polotsk, the town was first mentioned in 1460 as a borough center of the Vileyka Starostwo of the Ashmyany county in Grand Duchy of Lithuania. 1635 - Władysław IV Vasa bestowed Vileyka upon Aleksander Korwin Gosiewski for exclusive service to the state,1765 - Vileyka has 30 houses,165 inhabitants, and became a county center. 1793 - during the Second Partition of Poland the town is ceded to the Russian Empire,1795 - under the decree of Catherine II of Russia the town receives the status of a city and becomes a center of Vileyka uyezd in Minsk Governorate, then Vilna Governorate. 1810, May 24 - almost the entire city is destroyed by the fire,1861 -2931 inhabitants,1880 –3450, by the end of 19th century - more than 3500 inhabitants. 1907 - the city acquires a branch of Warsaw – Saint Petersburg Railway,1915, September 14 - occupied by the German Army, but several days later recovered by the Russian Army during the Sventiany Offensive. Over 15,000 civilians massacred including 6,972 Polish Jews,1941, July 12 and 30 - German SS forces murder the remaining Jewish citizens in Vileyka. 1944, July 2 - Vileyka recaptured by troops of the 3rd Belorussian Front of the Red Army during the Minsk Offensive, the town’s population numbers 30,000 people. There is a station of the Molodechno-Polotsk line in the town. The roads to Maladzechna, Smarhoń, Myadzel, Dokshytsy, Pleshchanitsy run through the town, the town’s industry is represented by the Zenit plant, wood processing enterprises, a motor repair plant, building materials plants, light and food enterprises. Vileyka also houses the Museum of Regional Studies, the territory of the Vileyka district is 2400 km². Forests account for 41% of the territory, the main part of the district is situated within the borders of Narach-Vileyka lowland. Unofficial reference and information site of Vileyka
14.
Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
15.
Arkhangelsk
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Arkhangelsk, also known in English as Archangel and Archangelsk, is a city and the administrative center of Arkhangelsk Oblast, in the north of European Russia. It lies on both banks of the Northern Dvina River near its exit into the White Sea, the city spreads for over 40 kilometers along the banks of the river and numerous islands of its delta. Arkhangelsk was the seaport of medieval and early modern Russia until 1703. A1, 133-kilometer-long railway runs from Arkhangelsk to Moscow via Vologda and Yaroslavl, and air travel is served by the Talagi Airport and a smaller Vaskovo Airport. As of the 2010 Census, the population was 348,783, down from 356,051 recorded in the 2002 Census. The arms of the city display the Archangel Michael in the act of slaying the Devil, legend states that this victory took place near where the city stands, hence its name, and that Michael still stands watch over the city to prevent the Devils return. Vikings knew the area around Arkhangelsk as Bjarmaland, ohthere of Hålogaland told circa 890 of his travels in an area by a river and the White Sea with many buildings. This was probably the later known as Arkhangelsk. According to Snorri Sturluson, Vikings led by Thorir Hund raided this area in 1027, in 1989, an unusually impressive silver treasure was found by the mouth of Dvina, right next to present-day Arkhangelsk. It was probably buried in the beginning of the 12th century, most of the findings comprised a total of 1.6 kilograms of silver, largely in the form of coins. Jewelry and pieces of jewelry come from Russia or neighboring areas, the majority of the coins were German, but the hoard also included a smaller number of Kufan, English, Bohemian, Hungarian, Danish, Swedish and Norwegian coins. It is hard to place this find historically until further research is completed, there are at least two possible interpretations. It may be a treasure belonging to the society outlined by the Norse source material, generally such finds, whether from Scandinavia, the Baltic area, or Russia, are closely tied to well-established agricultural societies with considerable trade activity. Alternatively, like the Russian scientists who published the find in 1992, in the 12th century, the Novgorodians established the Archangel Michael Monastery in the estuary of the Northern Dvina River. Written sources indicate that Kholmogory existed early in the 12th century and it is not known whether the origin of this settlement was Russian, or if it goes back to pre-Russian times. In the center of the town that is there today is a large mound of building remains and river sand. The area of Arkhangelsk came to be important in the rivalry between Norwegian and Russian interests in the northern areas, from Novgorod, the spectrum of Russian interest was extended far north to the Kola Peninsula in the 12th century. However, here Norway enforced taxes and rights to the fur trade, a compromise agreement entered in 1251 was soon broken
16.
Nizhny Novgorod
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Nizhny Novgorod, colloquially shortened to Nizhny, is a city in the administrative center of Nizhny Novgorod Oblast and Volga Federal District in Russia. From 1932 to 1990, it was known as Gorky, after the writer Maxim Gorky, the city is an important economic, transportation, scientific, educational and cultural center in Russia and the vast Volga-Vyatka economic region, and is the main center of river tourism in Russia. In the historical part of the city there are a number of universities, theaters, museums. Nizhny Novgorod is located about 400 km east of Moscow, where the Oka empties into the Volga, the city was founded in 1221 by Prince Yuri II of Vladimir. In 1612 Kuzma Minin and Prince Dmitry Pozharsky organized an army for the liberation of Moscow from the Poles, in 1817 Nizhny Novgorod became a great trade center of the Russian Empire. In 1896 at a fair, an All-Russia Exhibition was organized, during the Soviet period, the city turned into an important industrial center. In particular, the Gorky Automobile Plant was constructed in this period, then the city was given the nickname Russian Detroit. During the World War II Gorky became the biggest provider of equipment to the front. Due to this, the Luftwaffe constantly bombed the city from the air, the majority of the German bombs fell in the area of the Gorky Automobile Plant. Although almost all the sites of plant were completely destroyed. After the war, Gorky became a city and remained one until after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1990. At that time the city was renamed Nizhny Novgorod once again, in 1985 the metro was opened. In 2016 Vladimir Putin opened the new 70th Anniversary of Victory Plant which is part of the Almaz-Antey Air, the Kremlin – the main center of the city – contains the main government agencies of the city and the Volga Federal District. Originally the name was just Novgorod, but to distinguish it from the other, older and well-known Novgorod to the west and this land was named lower because it is situated downstream, especially from the point of view of other Russian cities such as Moscow, Vladimir and Murom. Later it was transformed into the name of the city that literally means Lower Newtown. Later a major stronghold for border protection, Nizhny Novgorod fortress took advantage of a moat formed by the two rivers. With the agreement of the Mongol Khan, Nizhny Novgorod was incorporated into the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality in 1264, after 86 years its importance further increased when the seat of the powerful Suzdal Principality was moved here from Gorodets in 1350. Grand Duke Dmitry Konstantinovich sought to make his capital a rival worthy of Moscow, he built a stone citadel, the earliest extant manuscript of the Russian Primary Chronicle, the Laurentian Codex, was written for him by the local monk Laurentius in 1377
17.
Kyrgyzstan
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Kyrgyzstan, officially the Kyrgyz Republic, is a country in Central Asia. Landlocked and mountainous, Kyrgyzstan is bordered by Kazakhstan to the north, Uzbekistan to the west and southwest, Tajikistan to the southwest and its capital and largest city is Bishkek. Kyrgyzstans recorded history spans over 2,000 years, encompassing a variety of cultures and empires, ethnic Kyrgyz make up the majority of the countrys 5.7 million people, followed by significant minorities of Uzbeks and Russians. Kyrgyz is closely related to other Turkic languages, although Russian remains widely spoken and is the official language, the majority of the population are non-denominational Muslims. In addition to its Turkic origins, Kyrgyz culture bears elements of Persian, Mongolian and Russian influence. Kyrgyz is believed to have derived from the Turkic word for forty, in reference to the forty clans of Manas. Literally, Kyrgyz means We are forty, at the time, in the early 9th century AD, the Uyghurs dominated much of Central Asia, Mongolia, and parts of Russia and China. King, Scythians were early settlers in present-day Kyrgyzstan, the Kyrgyz state reached its greatest expansion after defeating the Uyghur Khaganate in 840 A. D. From the 10th century the Kyrgyz migrated as far as the Tian Shan range, in the twelfth century the Kyrgyz dominion had shrunk to the Altay Range and Sayan Mountains as a result of the Mongol expansion. With the rise of the Mongol Empire in the thirteenth century, the Kyrgyz peacefully became a part of the Mongol Empire in 1207. The descent of the Kyrgyz from the autochthonous Siberian population is confirmed on the hand by the recent genetic studies. Issyk Kul Lake was a stopover on the Silk Road, a route for traders, merchants. Kyrgyz tribes were overrun in the 17th century by the Mongols, in the century by the Manchurian Qing Dynasty. In the late century, the majority part of what is today Kyrgyzstan was ceded to Russia through two treaties between China and Russia. The territory, then known in Russian as Kirghizia, was incorporated into the Russian Empire in 1876. The Russian takeover was met with numerous revolts against Tsarist authority, in addition, the suppression of the 1916 rebellion against Russian rule in Central Asia caused many Kyrgyz later to migrate to China. Soviet power was established in the region in 1919. On 5 December 1936, the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic was established as a republic of the Soviet Union
18.
Bishkek
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Bishkek, formerly Pishpek and Frunze, is the capital and largest city of the Kyrgyz Republic. Bishkek is also the center of the Chuy Region. The province surrounds the city, although the city itself is not part of the province, but rather a province-level unit of Kyrgyzstan. According to post-Soviet research, the name is thought to derive from a Kyrgyz word for a used to make fermented mares milk. The city was founded in 1825 as the Khokand fortress of Pishpek in order to control local caravan routes, on 4 September 1860, the fortress was destroyed by Russian forces led by colonel Zimmermann, with the approval of the Kyrgyz. In 1868 a Russian settlement was founded on the spot, under its original name. It lay within the General Governorship of Russian Turkestan and its Semirechye Oblast, in 1925, the Kara-Kirghiz Autonomous Oblast was created in Russian Turkestan, promoting Pishpek to its capital. In 1926, the city was given the name Frunze, after the Bolshevik military leader Mikhail Frunze, in 1936, the city of Frunze became the capital of the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic, during the final stages of the national delimitation in the Soviet Union. In 1991, the Kyrgyz parliament changed the name to Bishkek. Bishkek is situated at an altitude of about 800 meters, just off the northern fringe of the Kyrgyz Ala-Too range and these mountains rise to a height of 4,855 meters and provide a spectacular backdrop to the city. North of the city, a fertile and gently undulating steppe extends far north into neighboring Kazakhstan, the Chui River drains most of the area. Bishkek is connected to the Turkestan-Siberia Railway by a spur line, Bishkek is a city of wide boulevards and marble-faced public buildings combined with numerous Soviet-style apartment blocks surrounding interior courtyards. Mostly outside the city center, there are thousands of smaller privately built houses. It is laid out on a pattern, with most streets flanked on both sides by narrow irrigation channels that water the innumerable trees that provide shade in the hot summers. Originally a caravan rest stop on one of the branches of the Silk Road through the Tian Shan range, in the last years of Kokhand rule, the fortress was led by Atabek, the Datka. In 1860, the fort was conquered and razed by the forces of Colonel Zimmermann when Tsarist Russia annexed the area. Colonel Zimmermann rebuilt the town over the fort and put field Poruchik Titov as head of a new Russian garrison. The site was redeveloped from 1877 onward by the Russian government, in June 1990, a state of emergency was declared following severe ethnic riots in southern Kyrgyzstan that threatened to spread to the capital
19.
JJY
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JJY is the call sign of a low frequency time signal radio station located in Japan. The station broadcasts from two sites, one on Mount Otakadoya, near Fukushima, and the other on Mount Hagane, the Mount Otakadoya site is located at an elevation of 790 meters. It broadcasts a 50 kW signal on 40 kHz from an umbrella top-loading antenna situated 250 meters above the ground, as of March 2011 it has been powered down and evacuated due to the Fukushima I nuclear accidents. As of April 21 it is broadcasting again but is unattended by staff and it went off air again temporarily on April 25 due to lightning, but has ever since been on air. The Mount Hagane site is located at an elevation of 900 meters and it broadcasts a 50 kW signal on 60 kHz to avoid interfering with the Otakadoya site as their signals overlap. The antenna for the Hagane site is also a top loading antenna and is situated 200 meters above the ground. This site does not have a redundant 40 kHz transmitter, so cannot act as a fallback for the Mount Otakadoya site, both carrier signals contain an identical pulse-width modulated time code and are transmitted 24 hours a day. Low frequency transmissions are used to enhance accuracy and reduce the possibility of atmospheric interference, the calculated accuracy of JJYs signal is 1×10−11. Japan Standard Time is set by an atomic clock in Tokyo. This information is sent to the stations and is used to set a caesium atomic clock at each station. These clocks are housed in a controlled and electromagnetically shielded room to prevent outside interference with the clocks. The time code format is similar to that of WWVB in the United States. Similarly to WWVB or MSF the signal of JJY is used to synchronize consumer radio-controlled clocks sold throughout Japan, each station has an identical setup of equipment. A dual set of transmitters, a primary and a backup, however, it is not possible given the current design configuration for one site to act as a lower power alternate frequency backup for the other. The backups are set to take over in the event that the primary transmission system has a failure. The Time Signal Control Room generates the standard LF signal and time code that is broadcast, the Impedance Matching Room has a matching transformer to perform impedance matching between the transmitter and the antenna. Due to the power of radio frequency signals that pass through the room. On January 30,1940, the Communications Research Laboratory, began operations of JJY as a station, broadcasting at 4,7,9
20.
Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
21.
Fukushima Prefecture
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Fukushima Prefecture is a prefecture of Japan located in the Tōhoku region on the island of Honshu. The capital is the city of Fukushima, until the Meiji Restoration, the area of Fukushima prefecture was part of what was known as Mutsu Province. The Shirakawa Barrier and the Nakoso Barrier were built around the 5th century to protect civilized Japan from the barbarians to the north, Fukushima became a Province of Mutsu after the Taika Reforms were established in 646. In 718, the provinces of Iwase and Iwaki were created, the province of Fukushima was conquered by Prince Subaru in 1293. This region of Japan is also known as Michinoku and Ōshū, the Fukushima Incident took place in the prefecture after Mishima Michitsune was appointed governor in 1882. The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami and the resulting Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster caused significant damage to the prefecture, primarily, on Friday, March 11,2011,14,46 JST, a magnitude 9.0 earthquake occurred off the coast of Miyagi Prefecture. Fukushima City, located in Naka-dōri and the capital of Fukushima Prefecture, following the earthquake there were isolated reports of major damage to structures, including the failure of Fujinuma Dam as well as damage from landslides. The earthquake also triggered a tsunami that hit the eastern coast of the prefecture and caused widespread destruction. In the two following the earthquake,1,817 residents of Fukushima Prefecture had either been confirmed dead or were missing as a result of the earthquake. Many residents were evacuated to nearby localities due to the development of an evacuation zone around the plant. Radiation levels near the plant peaked at 400 mSv/h after the earthquake and tsunami and this resulted in increased recorded radiation levels across Japan. On April 11,2011, officials upgraded the disaster to a level 7 out of a possible 7, Fukushima is both the southernmost prefecture of Tōhoku region and the prefecture of Tōhoku region that is closest to Tokyo. It is divided by mountain ranges into three regions called Aizu, Nakadōri, and Hamadōri, the mountainous Aizu region has scenic lakes, lush forests, and snowy winters. Thanks to Fukushimas climate, various fruits are grown throughout the year and these include pears, peaches, cherries, grapes, and apples. As of March 2011, the prefecture produced 20. 6% of Japans peaches and 8. 7% of cucumbers, Fukushima also produces rice, that combined with pure water from mountain run-offs, is used to make sake. Some sakes from the region are considered so tasteful that they are served to visiting royalty, lacquerware is another popular product from Fukushima. Dating back over four hundred years, the process of making lacquerware involves carving an object out of wood, then putting a lacquer on it, objects made are usually dishes, vases and writing utensils. Legend has it that an ogress, Adachigahara, once roamed the plain after whom it was named, the Adachigahara plain lies close to the city of Fukushima
22.
T-antenna
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A T-antenna, T-aerial, flat-top antenna, or top-hat antenna is a vertically polarized simple wire radio antenna used in the VLF, LF, MF and shortwave bands. T-antennas are widely used as transmitting antennas for radio stations, long wave. They are also used as receiving antennas for shortwave listening, the antenna consists of one or more horizontal wires suspended between two supporting radio masts or buildings and insulated from them at the ends. A vertical wire is connected to the center of the wires and hangs down close to the ground. Combined, the two form a T shape, hence the name. The transmitter power is applied, or the receiver is connected, the T-antenna functions as a monopole antenna with capacitive top-loading, other antennas in this category include the inverted-L, umbrella, delta, and triatic antennas. It was invented during the first decades of radio, in the wireless telegraphy era, instead it serves to add capacitance to the top of the antenna. The top load wire can increase radiated power by 2 to 4 times for a given base current, however, the antenna is still typically not as efficient as a full-height λ/4 vertical monopole, and has a higher Q and thus a narrower bandwidth. 1λ or less. Since the radiation resistance and efficiency increases with height, the antenna should be suspended as high as possible, the antenna has a base impedance with a capacitive component that must be tuned out with an added inductor. To increase the capacitance, several parallel horizontal wires are often used, connected together at the center where the vertical wire attaches. The capacitance does not increase proportionally with the number of wires, however, since the vertical wire is the actual radiating element, the antenna radiates vertically polarized radio waves in an omnidirectional radiation pattern, with equal power in all azimuthal directions. The axis of the horizontal wire makes little difference, the power is maximum in a horizontal direction or at a shallow elevation angle, decreasing to zero at the zenith. The effect of ground conductivity is generally to tilt the pattern up. Since it is shorter than λ/4 the T antenna has a capacitive reactance. To operate over a frequency range the loading coil often must be adjustable. The high Q also causes a voltage on the antenna. The insulators at the ends must be designed to withstand these voltages, in high power transmitters the output power is often limited by the onset of corona discharge on the wires. At low frequencies the resistance is very low, often less than an ohm
23.
Fukushima, Fukushima
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Fukushima is the capital city of Fukushima Prefecture, Japan. It is located in the part of Nakadōri, the central region of the prefecture. The present-day city of Fukushima partially consists of most of the former Shinobu and Date Districts, the city is located in the Fukushima Basins southwest area and nearby mountains. There are many onsen on the outskirts of the city, including the areas of Iizaka Onsen, Takayu Onsen. Fukushima is also the location of the Fukushima Race Course, the only Japan Racing Association horse racing track in the Tōhoku region of Japan, as of May 2011, the city has an estimated population of 290,064 and a population density of 390 persons per km². The total area is 746.43 km², during the times of ancient Japan, the area now known as the city of Fukushima was called Minekoshi. The mountain in the middle of the city, present-day Mt. Shinobu, was formerly called Mt. Minekoshi. During the Jōmon period, for around 2,000 years there was a settlement on the eastern bank of the Abukuma River. This site has since been excavated and named the Miyahata Remains and it is said that in the 5th century AD, Kumano Atai was appointed by the Yamato court to be the Shinobu Kuni no miyatsuko, giving him control over the Fukushima Basin. Under the Nara periods Ritsuryō system, stations were established along the Seven Circuits so that officials could change horses, one of the stations, the Tōsandō, passed through the area of present-day Fukushima, and Minekoshi Station was established on the route. Minekoshi Station was located south of the Surikami River and north of the Matsukawa River, the area south of the Matsukawa River was then, as it still is now, known as Suginome. Thus it is believed that the station was located north of the area around the present-day prefectural office, the implementation of the Ritsuryō system also resulted in administrative changes, with the area of present-day Fukushima and Date being combined to form the district of Shinobu. This was the northernmost point of the Mutsu Province and held responsibility for preventing the expansion of the Emishi. After 718 and the influence of the Yamato Imperial Court. However, by 724 Mutsu Province was unable to deal on its own with the costs of holding back the Emishi, so Iwaki. In the first half of the 10th century, the Date district was separated from the Shinobu district. As a reform to the tax on rice, labor. This was accomplished both through administrative changes and forced population relocations, with Mutsu Province viewed as reclaimed land by the Imperial Court, the area saw a significant amount of reorganization
24.
Irkutsk
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Irkutsk is a city and the administrative center of Irkutsk Oblast, Russia, and one of the largest cities in Siberia. In 1652, Ivan Pokhabov built a zimovyo near the site of Irkutsk for gold trading, in 1661, Yakov Pokhabov built an ostrog or small fort nearby. The ostrog gained official town rights from the government in 1686, the first road connection between Moscow and Irkutsk, the Siberian Road, was built in 1760, and benefited the town economy. Many new products, often imported from China via Kyakhta, became available in Irkutsk for the first time, including gold, diamonds, fur, wood, silk. In 1821, as part of the Speransky reforms, Siberia was administratively divided at the Yenisei River, in the early 19th century, many Russian artists, officers, and nobles were sent into exile in Siberia for their part in the Decembrist revolt against Tsar Nicholas I. By the end of the 19th century, there was one exiled man for every two locals, people of varying backgrounds, from members of the Decembrist uprising to Bolsheviks, had been in Irkutsk for many years and had greatly influenced the culture and development of the city. As a result, Irkutsk eventually became a cultural and educational center in Eastern Siberia. Three-quarters of the city was destroyed, including approximately 4,000 houses, however, the city quickly rebounded, with electricity arriving in 1896, the first theater being built in 1897 and a major train station opened in 1898. The first train arrived in Irkutsk on August 16 of that year, by 1900, the city had earned the nickname of The Paris of Siberia. During the Russian Civil War, which broke out after the October Revolution, Irkutsk became the site of many furious, in 1920, Aleksandr Kolchak, the once-feared commander of the largest contingent of anti-Bolshevik forces, was executed in Irkutsk, which effectively destroyed the anti-Bolshevik resistance. Irkutsk was the center of the short-lived East Siberian Oblast. The city subsequently became the center of Irkutsk Oblast after East Siberian Oblast was divided into Chita Oblast. During the Communist years, the industrialization of Irkutsk and Siberia in general was heavily encouraged, the large Irkutsk Reservoir was built on the Angara River between 1950 and 1959 in order to facilitate industrial development. The Epiphany Cathedral, the palace, a school of medicine, a museum, a military hospital. The Aleksandr Kolchak monument, designed by Vyacheslav Klykov, was unveiled in 2004, on July 27,2004, the Irkutsk Synagogue was gutted by a conflagration. In December 2016,62 people in Irkutsk died in a mass methanol poisoning, the city proper lies on the Angara River, a tributary of the Yenisei,72 kilometers below its outflow from Lake Baikal and on the bank opposite the suburb of Glaskovsk. The river, 580-meter wide, is crossed by the Irkutsk Hydroelectric Dam, the Irkut River, from which the town takes its name, is a smaller river that joins the Angara directly opposite the city. The main portion of the city is separated from several landmarks—the monastery, the fort and the port, as well as its suburbs—by another tributary, the Ida River
25.
Kyushu
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Kyushu is the third biggest island of Japan and most southwesterly of its four main islands. Its alternative ancient names include Kyūkoku, Chinzei, and Tsukushi-no-shima, the historical regional name Saikaidō referred to Kyushu and its surrounding islands. In the 8th century Taihō Code reforms, Dazaifu was established as an administrative term for the region. As of 2016, Kyushu has a population of 12,970,479, the island is mountainous, and Japans most active volcano, Mt Aso at 1,591 metres, is on Kyushu. There are many signs of tectonic activity, including numerous areas of hot springs. The most famous of these are in Beppu, on the east shore, the island is separated from Honshu by the Kanmon Straits. The name Kyūshū comes from the nine ancient provinces of Saikaidō situated on the island, Chikuzen, Chikugo, Hizen, Higo, Buzen, Bungo, Hyūga, Osumi, excepting Oita and Miyazaki cities, the eastern seaboard shows a general decline in population. Designated cities Fukuoka Kitakyushu Kumamoto Core cities Kagoshima Ōita Nagasaki Miyazaki Naha Kurume Parts of Kyushu have a climate, particularly Miyazaki. Major agricultural products are rice, tea, tobacco, sweet potatoes, the island is noted for various types of porcelain, including Arita, Imari, Satsuma, and Karatsu. Heavy industry is concentrated in the north around Fukuoka, Kitakyushu, Nagasaki, and Oita and includes chemicals, automobiles, semiconductors, in 2010, the graduate employment rate in the region was the lowest nationwide, at 88. 9%. Besides the volcanic area of the south, there are significant mud hot springs in the part of the island, around Beppu. These springs are the site of occurrence of certain extremophile micro-organisms, the Kanmon Bridge also connects the island with Honshu. Railways on the island are operated by the Kyushu Railway Company, and Nishitetsu Railway
26.
WWVB
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WWVB is a time signal radio station near Fort Collins, Colorado and is operated by the National Institute of Standards and Technology. Most radio-controlled clocks in North America use WWVBs transmissions to set the correct time. A single complete frame of time begins at the start of each minute, lasts one minute, and conveys the year, day of year, hour, minute. WWVB is co-located with WWV, an older time signal station that broadcasts on multiple short wave frequencies. While most time signals encode the time of the broadcasting nation. Radio-controlled clocks can then apply time zone and daylight saving time offsets as needed to local time. The time used in the broadcast is set by the NIST Time Scale and this time scale is the calculated average time of an ensemble of master clocks, themselves calibrated by the NIST-F1 and NIST-F2 cesium fountain atomic clocks. In 2011, NIST estimated the number of clocks and wristwatches equipped with a WWVB receiver at over 50 million. LF and VLF broadcasts have long used to distribute time. As early as 1904, the United States Naval Observatory was broadcasting time signals from the city of Boston as an aid to navigation and this experiment and others like it made it evident that LF and VLF signals could cover a large area using a relatively small amount of power. By 1923, NIST radio station WWV had begun broadcasting standard carrier signals to the public on frequencies ranging from 75 to 2,000 kHz and these signals were used to calibrate radio equipment, which became increasingly important as more and more stations became operational. Over the years, many radio navigation systems were designed using stable time, the most well-known of these navigation systems is LORAN-C, which allows ships and planes to navigate via reception of 100 kHz signals broadcast from multiple transmitters. What is now WWVB began as radio station KK2XEI in July 1956, the transmitter was located in Boulder, Colorado, and the effective radiated power was just 1.4 watts. Even so, the signal was able to be monitored at Harvard University in Massachusetts, the purpose of this experimental transmission was to show that the radio path was stable and the frequency error was small at low frequencies. In 1962, NIST began building a new facility at a site near Fort Collins and this site became the home of WWVB and WWVL, a 20 kHz transmitter that was moved from the mountains west of Boulder. The site was attractive for several reasons, one being its exceptionally high ground conductivity, which was due to the high alkalinity of the soil. It was also close to Boulder, which made it easy to staff and manage, but much farther away from the mountains. WWVB went on the air on July 5,1963, broadcasting a 5 kW ERP signal on 60 kHz
27.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
28.
Fort Collins, Colorado
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Fort Collins is the Home Rule Municipality that is the county seat and the most populous municipality of Larimer County, Colorado, United States. Situated on the Cache La Poudre River along the Colorado Front Range, with a 2016 estimated population of 161,000, it is the fourth most populous city in Colorado after Denver, Colorado Springs, and Aurora. Fort Collins is a college city, home to Colorado State University. Fort Collins was founded as a military outpost of the United States Army in 1864 and it succeeded a previous encampment, known as Camp Collins, on the Cache La Poudre River, near what is known today as Laporte. Camp Collins was erected during the Indian wars of the mid-1860s to protect the Overland mail route that had recently relocated through the region. Travelers crossing the county on the Overland Trail would camp there, the post was manned originally by two companies of the 11th Ohio Volunteer Cavalry and never had walls. Settlers began arriving in the vicinity of the fort nearly immediately, the fort was decommissioned in 1867. The original fort site is now adjacent to the present historic Old Town portion of the city, the first school and church opened in 1866, and the town was platted in 1867. The civilian population of Fort Collins, led by local businessman Joseph Mason, led an effort to relocate the county seat to Fort Collins from LaPorte, the citys first population boom came in 1872, with the establishment of an agricultural colony. Hundreds of settlers arrived, developing lots just south of the original Old Town, tension between new settlers and earlier inhabitants led to political divisions in the new town, which was incorporated in 1873. Although the Colorado Agricultural College was founded in 1870, the first classes were held in 1879, the 1880s saw the construction of a number of elegant homes and commercial buildings and the growth of a distinctive identity for Fort Collins. Stone quarrying, sugar-beet farming, and the slaughter of sheep were among the areas earliest industries, in 1901 the Great Western sugar processing plant was built in the neighboring city of Loveland. Although the city was affected by the Great Depression and simultaneous drought, it nevertheless experienced slow, during the decade following World War II, the population doubled and an era of economic prosperity occurred. Old buildings were razed to make way for new, modern structures, along with revitalization came many changes, including the closing of the Great Western sugar factory in 1955, and a new city charter, adopting a council-manager form of government in 1954. Similarly, Colorado State Universitys enrollment doubled during the 1960s, making it the primary economic force by the end of the century. During that same period, civil activism and anti-war disturbances heightened tensions in the city. During the late 20th century, Fort Collins expanded rapidly to the south, adding new development, management of city growth patterns became a political priority during the 1980s, as well as the revitalization of Fort Collins Old Town with the creation of a Downtown Development Authority. In late July 1997, the city experienced a flood after
29.
Time from NPL
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The Time from NPL is a radio signal broadcast from the Anthorn Radio Station near Anthorn, Cumbria, which serves as the United Kingdoms national time reference. The time signal is derived from three atomic clocks installed at the site, and is based on time standards maintained by the UKs National Physical Laboratory in Teddington. The service is provided by Babcock International under licence from the NPL and is funded by the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills. The signal, also known as the MSF signal, is broadcast at an accurate frequency of 60 kHz and can be received throughout the UK. The signal’s carrier frequency is maintained at 60 kHz to within 2 parts in 1012, a radio station at Rugby was first operated by the Post Office from 1926, with the call-sign GBR. From 19 December 1927, it broadcast a 15.8 kHz time signal from the Royal Observatory which could be received worldwide. It consisted of 306 pulses in the five minutes up to and including 10,00 and 18,00 GMT, frequency-shift keying was added in 1967, making the signal harder to use as a frequency reference. The time signals, preceded by the callsign GBR GBR TIME in morse code, were transmitted during the 5 minutes preceding 03,00,09,00,15,00 and 21,00. Transmitter GBZ on 19.6 kHz was used as a reserve, eventually, time signals from GBR were terminated in November 1986 and it is no longer used as a frequency reference. The MSF signals started in 1950, following the pattern described below. They were originally intended to provide frequency references at 2.5,5 and 10 MHz, at first, there were announcements every fifteen minutes, beginning with the Morse code representation of MSF MSF MSF, followed by speech This is MSF, Rugby, England, transmitting. From May 1953, the signal was broadcast 24 hours a day, the 60 kHz signal finally became an uninterrupted 24-hour service in 1966, and the frequency references were discontinued in February 1988. On 27 February 2007 the NPL started tests of the new time signal transmissions from Anthorn and this station is operated by VT Communications. The formal inauguration of the facility took place on 1 April 2007, when the name of the service became The Time from NPL. The change in location and consequent change in strength can make some equipment designed to use the MSF signal fail to continue doing so. This is found more in domestic equipment not designed for optimum sensitivity, from the time signals inauguration in 1950 until 1 April 2007 it was transmitted from Rugby Radio Station near Rugby, Warwickshire. The transmitters original location meant that the clock was referred to as the Rugby clock, following its relocation in 2007 to Cumbria, the NPL now formally calls the signal The Time from NPL. The Rugby transmitters callsign was MSF, where M is one of the ITU prefixes allocated to the United Kingdom, and this resulted in the common terminology the MSF signal, which is still used by the NPL
30.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
31.
Rugby Radio Station
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Its large very low frequency transmitter came into service on 1 January 1926 and was originally used to transmit telegraph messages to the Commonwealth as part of the Imperial Wireless Chain. Criggion radio station acted as a reserve, the GBR transmitter was shut down on 1 April 2003 and was replaced by a new one at the Skelton transmitting station. In 1927, a transmitter was installed to initiate the first transatlantic commercial telephone service, linking New York. This transmitter was decommissioned in 1956 and became the signal transmitter MSF. This new function developed from the decision, in 1951, to use the station to transmit modulated standard frequencies for scientific reference purposes, in 1972 these transmissions were consolidated onto the present frequency of 60 kHz and a further reference, that of a time signal, was added. The aerial system at the VLF transmitter existed between 1926 and 2004 and consisted of twelve 250 metre high, guyed masts insulated against ground. This wire was destroyed by heavy iceloads in the winter of 1940. After the shutdown of GBR, the facility was used for transmitting the MSF time signal. Therefore, eight of the masts were obsolete and demolished on the night of 19 June 2004 to 20 June 2004. The remaining four tall masts were demolished on 2 August 2007
32.
Taldom
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Taldom is a town and the administrative center of Taldomsky District in Moscow Oblast, Russia, located 110 kilometers north of Moscow, on a suburban railway connecting Moscow to Savyolovo. In 1918, it was granted town status and renamed Leninsk—the first town to be renamed after Vladimir Lenin, in 1929, the original name was restored. Within the framework of administrative divisions, Taldom serves as the center of Taldomsky District. As an administrative division, it is, together with five rural localities, as a municipal division, the Town of Taldom is incorporated within Taldomsky Municipal District as Taldom Urban Settlement. Taldom transmitter, the most powerful broadcasting station in the world, is located in the vicinity of Taldom, Постановление №123-ПГ от28 сентября2010 г. «Об учётных данных административно-территориальных и территориальных единиц Московской области», в ред, Постановления №252-ПГ от26 июня2015 г. «О внесении изменения в учётные данные административно-территориальных и территориальных единиц Московской области», Опубликован, Информационный вестник Правительства МО, №10,30 октября2010 г. Закон №42/2005-ОЗ от15 февраля2005 г, Закона №167/2011-ОЗ от21 октября2011 г. Вступил в силу со дня официального опубликования, Подмосковье, №35,26 февраля2005 г
33.
Moscow
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Moscow is the capital and most populous city of Russia, with 13.2 million residents within the city limits and 17.8 million within the urban area. Moscow has the status of a Russian federal city, Moscow is a major political, economic, cultural, and scientific center of Russia and Eastern Europe, as well as the largest city entirely on the European continent. Moscow is the northernmost and coldest megacity and metropolis on Earth and it is home to the Ostankino Tower, the tallest free standing structure in Europe, the Federation Tower, the tallest skyscraper in Europe, and the Moscow International Business Center. Moscow is situated on the Moskva River in the Central Federal District of European Russia, the city is well known for its architecture, particularly its historic buildings such as Saint Basils Cathedral with its brightly colored domes. Moscow is the seat of power of the Government of Russia, being the site of the Moscow Kremlin, the Moscow Kremlin and Red Square are also one of several World Heritage Sites in the city. Both chambers of the Russian parliament also sit in the city and it is recognized as one of the citys landmarks due to the rich architecture of its 200 stations. In old Russian the word also meant a church administrative district. The demonym for a Moscow resident is москвич for male or москвичка for female, the name of the city is thought to be derived from the name of the Moskva River. There have been proposed several theories of the origin of the name of the river and its cognates include Russian, музга, muzga pool, puddle, Lithuanian, mazgoti and Latvian, mazgāt to wash, Sanskrit, majjati to drown, Latin, mergō to dip, immerse. There exist as well similar place names in Poland like Mozgawa, the original Old Russian form of the name is reconstructed as *Москы, *Mosky, hence it was one of a few Slavic ū-stem nouns. From the latter forms came the modern Russian name Москва, Moskva, in a similar manner the Latin name Moscovia has been formed, later it became a colloquial name for Russia used in Western Europe in the 16th–17th centuries. From it as well came English Muscovy, various other theories, having little or no scientific ground, are now largely rejected by contemporary linguists. The surface similarity of the name Russia with Rosh, an obscure biblical tribe or country, the oldest evidence of humans on the territory of Moscow dates from the Neolithic. Within the modern bounds of the city other late evidence was discovered, on the territory of the Kremlin, Sparrow Hills, Setun River and Kuntsevskiy forest park, etc. The earliest East Slavic tribes recorded as having expanded to the upper Volga in the 9th to 10th centuries are the Vyatichi and Krivichi, the Moskva River was incorporated as part of Rostov-Suzdal into the Kievan Rus in the 11th century. By AD1100, a settlement had appeared on the mouth of the Neglinnaya River. The first known reference to Moscow dates from 1147 as a place of Yuri Dolgoruky. At the time it was a town on the western border of Vladimir-Suzdal Principality
34.
China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
35.
Shangqiu
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Shangqiu, formerly romanized as Shangkiu, is a city in eastern Henan province, Central China. It borders Kaifeng to the northwest, Zhoukou to the southwest, an ancient city with a rich history, Shangqiu was also the first capital of the Shang dynasty. Its population was 7,362,975 inhabitants at the 2010 census whom 1,536,392 lived in the area made up of Liangyuan. Once merely a village, Shangqiu has grown significantly in recent years. It is important geographically because it lies at a junction of major railways. The history of Shangqiu is closely related to the beginning of Chinese history. Tradition dates back to the Three August Ones and Five Emperors periods, the son of Emperor Ku, Qi, who helped Yu the Great to control floods, was enfeoffed the area of Shang, who also became the ancestor of the ancient nationality of Shang. It is said that the Shang people first started trading with neighboring countries by shipping the goods with ox wagons, since then, people doing business are called Shang people, which is still the case now, although people are not likely to know the origin of the words. Shangqiu was also one of the capitals defended by the Xia emperor Xiang. The thirteenth generation grandson of Qi, Tang overthrew the ruling Xia Dynasty and founded the Shang Dynasty, around the 11th century BC, the Shang Dynasty was replaced by the Zhou Dynasty. The royal descendants of Shang Dynasty were enfeoffed the area of Shangqiu, the city was the southern capital of the Northern Song dynasty under the name Nanjing. The Song court had retreated south to the city from their capital in Kaifeng. The court moved to Shangqiu because of its importance to Emperor Taizu of Song, the founder of the dynasty. The symbolism of the city was meant to secure the legitimacy of the new Emperor Gaozong. The capital was moved in 1128 to Yangzhou, and finally to Hangzhou in 1129. Under the Republic, Shangqiu was considered a key city in eastern Henan owing to its position along the Lunghai Railway between the port of Haizhou on the East China Sea and Lanzhou in central China. It was known at the time as Kweiteh, Kwei-teh, or Kuei-te and had both a Catholic diocese and an Anglican mission, the later of which ran St Pauls Hospital and it changed hands frequently during the fighting among the Chinese warlords in 1927. Shangqiu is the easternmost prefecture of Henan province and its administrative area ranges in longitude from 114 °49′ E to 116° 39′ E and in latitude from 33° 43′ N to 34° 52′ N, covering 10,704 square kilometres
36.
Henan
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Henan is a province of the Peoples Republic of China, located in the central part of the country. Its one-character abbreviation is 豫, named after Yuzhou, a Han Dynasty state that parts of Henan. Although the name of the province south of the river, approximately a quarter of the province lies north of the Yellow River. Henan is often referred to as Zhongyuan or Zhongzhou which literally means central plain land or midland, although the name is also applied to the entirety of China proper. Henan is the birthplace of Chinese civilization with over 3,000 years of recorded history, and remained Chinas cultural, economical, numerous heritages have been left behind including the ruins of Shang Dynasty capital city Yin and the Shaolin Temple. Four of the Eight Great Ancient Capitals of China, Luoyang, Anyang, Kaifeng, with an area of 167,000 km2, Henan covers a large part of the fertile and densely populated North China Plain. Its neighbouring provinces are Shaanxi, Shanxi, Hebei, Shandong, Anhui, Henan is Chinas third most populous province with a population of over 94 million. If it were a country by itself, Henan would be the 12th most populous country in the world, behind Mexico, Henan is the 5th largest provincial economy of China and the largest among inland provinces. However, per capita GDP is low compared to eastern and central provinces. The economy continues to depend on its dwindling aluminum and coal reserves, as well as agriculture, heavy industry, tourism, high-tech industry and service sector is underdeveloped and is concentrated around Zhengzhou and Luoyang. Widely regarded as the Cradle of Chinese civilization along with Shanxi and Shaanxi provinces, Henan is known for its historical prosperity, the economic prosperity resulted from its extensive fertile plains and its location at the heart of the country. However, its location also means that it has suffered from nearly all of the major wars in China. In addition, the floods of the Yellow River have caused significant damage from time to time. Kaifeng, in particular, has been buried by the Yellow Rivers silt seven times due to flooding, archaeological sites reveal that prehistoric cultures such as the Yangshao Culture and Longshan Culture were active in what is now northern Henan since the Neolithic Era. The more recent Erlitou culture has been identified with the Xia Dynasty. Virtually the entire kingdom existed within what is now north and central Henan, the Xia Dynasty collapsed around the 16th century BC following the invasion of Shang, a neighboring vassal state centered around todays Shangqiu in eastern Henan. The Shang Dynasty was the first literate dynasty of China and its many capitals are located at the modern cities of Shangqiu, Yanshi, and Zhengzhou. Their last and most important capital, Yin, located in modern Anyang, is where the first Chinese writing was created, in the 11th century BC, the Zhou Dynasty of Shaanxi arrived from the west and overthrew the Shang Dynasty
37.
HBG (time signal)
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HBG was a low frequency time signal transmitter for the Swiss time reference system. It transmitted on 75 kHz with 20 kW power, and was located in Prangins, HBG transmission ceased at 2012-01-0107,00,13.2 UTC. On 6 September 2012 at 12,02,00 UTC both antenna towers were demolished by controlled explosives, the HBG transmission format was very similar to DCF77. At the beginning of second, the carrier signal was interrupted for a period of 0.1 s or 0.2 s. The transmission of the minute, hour, calendar date, day of the week, month, like DCF77, the carrier was not interrupted during the last second of each minute. Differences from the DCF77 time code, The carrier frequency, amplitude modulation was done by disabling the transmitter rather than reducing it to 15% amplitude as DCF77 does. Announcement bits warning of impending time zone changes or leap seconds were sent 12 hours in advance, the first pulse of each minute was not a standard 0 bit as DCF77 sends. Instead, it was a pulse, two 0.1 s interruptions separated by 0.1 s of carrier. A triple pulse signalled the start of a new hour, and it is understood that this frequency is now available in Europe, as well as any other part of the world, for time signal dissemination
38.
Switzerland
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Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a federal republic in Europe. It consists of 26 cantons, and the city of Bern is the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western-Central Europe, and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2. The establishment of the Old Swiss Confederacy dates to the medieval period, resulting from a series of military successes against Austria. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The country has a history of armed neutrality going back to the Reformation, it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815, nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross, Switzerland is home to international organisations. On the European level, it is a member of the European Free Trade Association. However, it participates in the Schengen Area and the European Single Market through bilateral treaties, spanning the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe, Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions, German, French, Italian and Romansh. Due to its diversity, Switzerland is known by a variety of native names, Schweiz, Suisse, Svizzera. On coins and stamps, Latin is used instead of the four living languages, Switzerland is one of the most developed countries in the world, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product according to the IMF. Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities in the world in terms of quality of life, with the former ranked second globally, according to Mercer. The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer, a term for the Swiss. The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse, also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer, in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, the Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for Confederates, Eidgenossen, used since the 14th century. The data code for Switzerland, CH, is derived from Latin Confoederatio Helvetica. The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes, ultimately related to swedan ‘to burn’
39.
Prangins
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Prangins is a municipality in the district of Nyon in the canton of Vaud in Switzerland. It is located on Lake Geneva, Prangins is first mentioned around 1135-85 as Prengins. Prangins has an area, as of 2009, of 6 square kilometers, of this area,3.3 km2 or 54. 7% is used for agricultural purposes, while 0.79 km2 or 13. 1% is forested. Of the rest of the land,1.89 km2 or 31. 3% is settled,0.04 km2 or 0. 7% is either rivers or lakes and 0.01 km2 or 0. 2% is unproductive land. Of the built up area, industrial buildings made up 1. 5% of the area while housing and buildings made up 18. 2%. While parks, green belts and sports made up 3. 5%. Out of the land,10. 9% of the total land area is heavily forested and 2. 2% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land,42. 6% is used for growing crops and 5. 1% is pastures, of the water in the municipality,0. 5% is in lakes and 0. 2% is in rivers and streams. The municipality was part of the Nyon District until it was dissolved on 31 August 2006, the municipality is located on a terrace on the north shore of the Petit-Lac portion of Lake Geneva. It consists of the village of Prangins and the hamlets of Bénex, the blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Azure, a Tower roofed Argent, in base three Hands of the same shaking issuant from dexter, sinister and base. Prangins has a population of 4,029, as of 2008,26. 7% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years the population has changed at a rate of 28. 6% and it has changed at a rate of 19. 7% due to migration and at a rate of 8. 9% due to births and deaths. Most of the population speaks French, with German being second most common, There are 65 people who speak Italian and 4 people who speak Romansh. The age distribution, as of 2009, in Prangins is,511 children or 13. 4% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 515 teenagers or 13. 5% are between 10 and 19. Of the adult population,371 people or 9. 7% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old. 529 people or 13. 8% are between 30 and 39,672 people or 17. 6% are between 40 and 49, and 506 people or 13. 2% are between 50 and 59. As of 2000, there were 1,300 people who were single, There were 1,589 married individuals,85 widows or widowers and 159 individuals who are divorced. As of 2000, there were 1,259 private households in the municipality, There were 352 households that consist of only one person and 77 households with five or more people
40.
DCF77
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DCF77 is a German longwave time signal and standard-frequency radio station. It started service as a station on 1 January 1959. In June 1973 date and time information was added and its primary and backup transmitter are located at 50°0′56″N 9°00′39″E in Mainflingen, about 25 km south-east of Frankfurt am Main, Germany. The transmitter generates a power of 50 kW, of which about 30 to 35 kW can be radiated via a T-antenna. DCF77 is controlled by the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt, Germanys national physics laboratory and it is operated by Media Broadcast GmbH, on behalf of the PTB. With Media Broadcast GmbH, a temporal transmission availability of at least 99. 7% per year or under 26.28 hours of annual downtime has been agreed upon, most service interruptions are short-term disconnections of under two minutes. Longer lasting transmission service interruptions are generally caused by strong winds and this manifests itself in electrical detuning of the antenna resonance circuit and hence a measurable phase modulation of the received signal. When the maladjustment is too large, the transmitter is temporarily out of service. In the year 2002 almost 99. 95% availability or just over 4.38 hours of downtime was realized, the timestamp sent is either in Coordinated Universal Time +1 or UTC+2 depending on daylight saving time. The highly accurate 77.5 kHz carrier signal is generated from local atomic clocks that are linked with the German master clocks at the PTB in Braunschweig, the DCF77 time signal is used for the dissemination of the German national legal time to the public. Radio clocks and watches have been popular in Europe since the late 1980s and, in mainland Europe. The DCF77 station signal carries an amplitude-modulated, pulse-width coded 1-bit/s data signal, the same data signal is also phase modulated onto the carrier using a 512-bit long pseudorandom sequence. The transmitted data signal is repeated every minute, since 2003,14 previously unused bits of the time code have been used for civil defence emergency signals. This is a service, aimed to one day replace the German network of civil defence sirens. Since 22 November 2006 the DCF77 transmitter uses bits 1–14 to transmit warning messages, under responsibility of the German Federal Office of Civil Protection and Disaster Assistance, warnings to the population can be transmitted using these 14 bits. As a further extension of the information content transmitted by DCF77, the forecast data is provided by and under responsibility of the Swiss company Meteo Time GmbH and is transferred in a proprietary transfer protocol. The same 14 bits are employed in a way that ensures compatibility with the protocols of the warning messages. For decoding the weather forecast data a license is required, since the bits previously reserved for the PTB are used, older radio clocks should not be affected by the weather data signal
41.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
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