1.
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn
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Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is a novel by Mark Twain, first published in the United Kingdom in December 1884 and in the United States in February 1885. Commonly named among the Great American Novels, the work is among the first in major American literature to be written throughout in vernacular English and it is told in the first person by Huckleberry Huck Finn, a friend of Tom Sawyer and narrator of two other Twain novels. It is a sequel to The Adventures of Tom Sawyer. The book is noted for its description of people and places along the Mississippi River. Perennially popular with readers, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn has also been the object of study by literary critics since its publication. In order of appearance, Huckleberry Finn is a boy about thirteen or fourteen or along there years old and he has been brought up by his father, the town drunk, and has a difficult time fitting into society. Widow Douglas is the woman who has taken Huck in after he helped save her from a violent home invasion. She tries her best to civilize Huck, believing it is her Christian duty, Miss Watson is the widows sister, a tough old spinster who also lives with them. She is fairly hard on Huck, causing him to resent her a good deal, Mark Twain may have drawn inspiration for this character from several people he knew in his life. Jim is Miss Watsons physically large but mild-mannered slave, Huck becomes very close to Jim when they reunite after Jim flees Miss Watsons household to seek refuge from slavery, and Huck and Jim become fellow travelers on the Mississippi River. Tom Sawyer is Hucks best friend and peer, the character of other Twain novels. He is the best fighter and the smartest kid in town, Pap Finn, Hucks father, a brutal alcoholic drifter. He resents Huck getting any kind of education and his only genuine interest in his son involves begging or extorting money to feed his alcohol addiction. The Grangerfords, an aristocratic Kentuckian family headed by the sexagenarian Colonel Saul Grangerford, Huck becomes close friends with the youngest male of the family, Buck Grangerford, who is Hucks age. By the time Huck meets them, the Grangerfords have been engaged in a blood feud with another local family. The Duke and the King are two otherwise unnamed con artists whom Huck and Jim take aboard their raft just before the start of their Arkansas adventures, doctor Robinson is the only man who recognizes that the King and Duke are phonies when they pretend to be British. He warns the town but they ignore him, mary Jane, Joanna, and Susan Wilks are the three young nieces of their wealthy guardian, Peter Wilks, who has recently died. The duke and the try to steal the inheritance left by Peter Wilks
2.
Boat
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A boat is a watercraft of a large range of sizes designed to float, plane, work or travel on water. Small boats are found on inland waterways or in protected coastal areas. However, boats such as the whaleboat were designed for operation from a ship in an offshore environment, in naval terms, a boat is a vessel small enough to be carried aboard another vessel. Another less restrictive definition is a vessel that can be lifted out of the water, some definitions do not make a distinction in size, as bulk freighters 1,000 feet long on the Great Lakes are called oreboats. For reasons of tradition, submarines are usually referred to as boats rather than ships, regardless of their size. Ships are generally distinguished from boats based on their size, shape. Boats have a variety of shapes, sizes and construction methods due to their intended purpose. Canoe-type boats have used since prehistoric times and various versions are used throughout the world for transportation. Fishing boats vary widely in style partly to local conditions. Pleasure boats include ski boats, pontoon boats, and sailboats, house boats may be used for vacationing or long-term housing. Small boats can provide transport or convey cargo to and from large ships, lifeboats have rescue and safety functions. Boats can be powered by power, wind power and motor power. Dugouts are the oldest type of boats found by archaeologists, the earliest boats are thought to have been logboats, and the oldest boats found by archaeological excavation date from around 7, 000–10,000 years ago. The oldest recovered boat in the world is the Pesse canoe and this canoe is exhibited in the Drents Museum in Assen, Netherlands. Other very old dugout boats have also been recovered, rafts have operated for at least 8,000 years. A7, 000-year-old seagoing reed boat has been found in Kuwait, boats were used between 4000 and 3000 BC in Sumer, ancient Egypt and in the Indian Ocean. Boats played an important role in the commerce between the Indus Valley Civilization and Mesopotamia, evidence of varying models of boats has also been discovered at various Indus Valley archaeological sites. Uru craft originate in Beypore, a village in south Calicut, Kerala and this type of mammoth wooden ship was constructed using teak, without any iron, and had a transport capacity of 400 tonnes
3.
Hull (watercraft)
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The hull is the watertight body of a ship or boat. Above the hull is the superstructure and/or deckhouse, where present, the line where the hull meets the water surface is called the waterline. The structure of the hull varies depending on the vessel type, the uppermost continuous deck may be called the upper deck, weather deck, spar deck, main deck, or simply deck. The particular name given depends on the type of ship or boat. In a typical wooden sailboat, the hull is constructed of wooden planking, supported by transverse frames and bulkheads, often but not always there is a centerline longitudinal member called a keel. In fiberglass or composite hulls, the structure may resemble wooden or steel vessels to some extent, in many cases, composite hulls are built by sandwiching thin fiber-reinforced skins over a lightweight but reasonably rigid core of foam, balsa wood, impregnated paper honeycomb or other material. The shape of the hull is entirely dependent upon the needs of the design, shapes range from a nearly perfect box in the case of scow barges, to a needle-sharp surface of revolution in the case of a racing multihull sailboat. Hulls come in varieties and can have composite shape, but are grouped primarily as follows. Examples are the flat-bottom, v-bottom, and multi-bottom hull and these types have at least one pronounced knuckle throughout all or most of their length. These hull shapes all have smooth curves, examples are the round bilge, semi-round bilge, and s-bottom hull. After this they can be categorized as, Displacement The hull is supported exclusively or predominantly by buoyancy, vessels that have this type of hull travel through the water at a limited rate that is defined by the waterline length. They are often, though not always, heavier than planing types, planing The planing hull form is configured to develop positive dynamic pressure so that its draft decreases with increasing speed. The dynamic lift reduces the surface and therefore also the drag. They are sometimes flat-bottomed, sometimes V-bottomed and more rarely, round-bilged, the most common form is to have at least one chine, which makes for more efficient planing and can throw spray down. Planing hulls are more efficient at speeds, although they still require more energy to achieve these speeds. An effective planing hull must be as light as possible with flat surfaces that are consistent with sea keeping. Sail boats that plane must also sail efficiently in displacement mode in light winds, semi-displacement, or semi-planing The hull form is capable of developing a moderate amount of dynamic lift, however, most of the vessels weight is still supported through buoyancy. At present, the most widely used form is the round bilge hull, in the inverted bell shape of the hull, with a smaller payload the waterline cross-section is less, hence the resistance is less and the speed is higher
4.
Wood
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Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees, and other woody plants. It is a material, a natural composite of cellulose fibers which are strong in tension embedded in a matrix of lignin which resists compression. Wood is sometimes defined as only the secondary xylem in the stems of trees, in a living tree it performs a support function, enabling woody plants to grow large or to stand up by themselves. It also conveys water and nutrients between the leaves, other growing tissues, and the roots, Wood may also refer to other plant materials with comparable properties, and to material engineered from wood, or wood chips or fiber. In 2005, the stock of forests worldwide was about 434 billion cubic meters. As an abundant, carbon-neutral renewable resource, woody materials have been of intense interest as a source of renewable energy, in 1991 approximately 3.5 billion cubic meters of wood were harvested. Dominant uses were for furniture and building construction, a 2011 discovery in the Canadian province of New Brunswick discovered the earliest known plants to have grown wood, approximately 395 to 400 million years ago. Wood can be dated by carbon dating and in species by dendrochronology to make inferences about when a wooden object was created. People have used wood for millennia for many purposes, primarily as a fuel or as a material for making houses, tools, weapons, furniture, packaging, artworks. Constructions using wood date back ten thousand years, buildings like the European Neolithic long house were made primarily of wood. Recent use of wood has changed by the addition of steel. The year-to-year variation in tree-ring widths and isotopic abundances gives clues to the climate at that time. This process is known as growth, it is the result of cell division in the vascular cambium, a lateral meristem. These cells then go on to form thickened secondary cell walls, composed mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose, if the distinctiveness between seasons is annual, these growth rings are referred to as annual rings. Where there is little seasonal difference growth rings are likely to be indistinct or absent, if the bark of the tree has been removed in a particular area, the rings will likely be deformed as the plant overgrows the scar. It is usually lighter in color than that near the portion of the ring. The outer portion formed later in the season is known as the latewood or summerwood. However, there are differences, depending on the kind of wood
5.
Barrel
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A barrel, cask, or tun is a hollow cylindrical container, traditionally made of wooden staves bound by wooden or metal hoops. Traditionally, the barrel was a size of measure referring to a set capacity or weight of a given commodity. For example, in the UK a barrel of beer refers to a quantity of 36 imperial gallons, wine was shipped in barrels of 119 litres. Modern barrels and casks can also be made of aluminum, stainless steel, someone who makes barrels is called a barrel maker or cooper. Barrels are only one type of cooperage, other types include, but are not limited to, buckets, tubs, butter churns, hogsheads, firkins, kegs, kilderkins, tierces, rundlets, puncheons, pipes, tuns, butts, pins, and breakers. An aging barrel is used to age wine, distilled spirits such as whiskey, brandy, or rum, beer, tabasco sauce, when a wine or spirit ages in a barrel, small amounts of oxygen are introduced as the barrel lets some air in. Oxygen enters a barrel when water or alcohol is lost due to evaporation, in an environment with 100% relative humidity, very little water evaporates and so most of the loss is alcohol, a useful trick if one has a wine with very high proof. Most beverages are topped up from other barrels to prevent significant oxidation, although others such as vin jaune, beverages aged in wooden barrels take on some of the compounds in the barrel, such as vanillin and wood tannins. The presence of these depends on many factors, including the place of origin, how the staves were cut and dried. After roughly three years, most of a barrels flavor compounds have been leached out and it is well on its way to becoming neutral, barrels used for aging are typically made of French or American oak, but chestnut and redwood are also used. Some Asian beverages use Japanese cedar, which imparts an unusual, in Peru and Chile, a grape distillate named pisco is either aged in oak or in earthenware. Some wines are fermented on barrel, as opposed to in a container like steel or wine-grade HDPE tanks. Wine can also be fermented in large tanks, which—when open to the atmosphere—are called open-tops. Other wooden cooperage for storing wine or spirits range from smaller barriques to huge casks, the tastes yielded by French and American species of oak are slightly different, with French oak being subtler, while American oak gives stronger aromas. To retain the desired measure of oak influence, a winery will replace a certain percentage of its barrels every year, some winemakers use 200% new oak, where the wine is put into new oak barrels twice during the aging process. Bulk wines are more cheaply flavored by soaking oak chips in them instead of being aged in a barrel. Sherry is stored in 600-litre casks made of North American oak, the casks, or butts, are filled five-sixths full, leaving the space of two fists empty at the top to allow flor to develop on top of the wine. NOTE, This section uses both the U. S. –Irish typical spelling whiskey and the British–Canadian typical spelling whisky, laws in several jurisdictions require that whiskey be aged in wooden barrels
6.
Float (nautical)
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Floats are airtight hollow structures, similar to pressure vessels, designed to provide buoyancy in water. Their principal applications are in watercraft hulls and aircraft floats, floating pier and pontoon bridge construction, floats make up the multipart hulls of catamarans and trimarans and provide buoyancy for floatplanes and seaplanes. They are used in bridges, floating piers, and floats anchored to the seabed for recreation or dockage. They are also used in shipbuilding and marine salvage, often deployed uninflated then pressurized to raise a sunken object, pontoons for marine industrial uses are usually fabricated from steel plate and sheet. Pontoons as parts of watercraft and aircraft are more typically molded in glass-reinforced plastic, in model building, floats can easily be carved out of solid blocks or laminated sheets of foam
7.
Phragmites
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Phragmites is a genus of four species of large perennial grasses found in wetlands throughout temperate and tropical regions of the world. The World Checklist of Selected Plant Families, maintained by Kew Garden in London, – Japan, Korea, Ryukyu Islands, Russian Far East Phragmites karka Trin. About 130 other synonyms have been proposed, and some have been widely used, arundo phragmites L. and Phragmites vulgaris Crép. Recent studies have characterised morphological distinctions between the introduced and native stands of Phragmites australis in North America, americanus – the North American genotype has been described as a distinct subspecies, subsp. Americanus, and Phragmites australis – the Eurasian genotype is sometimes referred to as subsp, altissimus Clayton is an accepted subspecies of P. australis. Phragmites australis var. marsillyanus Kerguélen is a variety of Phragmites australis. In North America, the status of Phragmites australis was a source of confusion and it was commonly considered an exotic species and often invasive species, introduced from Europe. However, there is evidence of the existence of Phragmites as a plant in North America long before European colonization of the continent. It is now known that the North American native forms of P. a. subsp, americanus are markedly less vigorous than European forms. The recent marked expansion of Phragmites in North America may be due to the more vigorous, Phragmites outcompetes native vegetation and lowers the local plant biodiversity. Phragmites forms dense thickets of vegetation that is unsuitable habitat for native fauna, Phragmites displaces native plants species such as wild rice, cattails, and native wetland orchids. Phragmites has a high ground biomass that blocks light to other plants allowing areas to turn into Phragmites monoculture very quickly. Decomposing Phragmites increases the rate of marsh accretion more rapidly than would occur with native marsh vegetation, australis is causing serious problems for many other North American hydrophyte wetland plants, including the native Phragmites australis subsp. Gallic acid released by Phragmites is degraded by ultraviolet light to produce acid, effectively hitting susceptible plants. Phragmites are so difficult to control one of the most effective methods of eradicating the plant is to burn it over 2-3 seasons. The roots grow so deep and strong that one burn is not enough, ongoing research suggests that goats could be effectively used to control the species. Phragmites australis, common reed, commonly forms extensive stands, which may be as much as 1 square kilometre or more in extent, where conditions are suitable it can also spread at 5 metres or more per year by horizontal runners, which put down roots at regular intervals. It can grow in damp ground, in standing water up to 1 metre or so deep, the erect stems grow to 2–6 metres tall, with the tallest plants growing in areas with hot summers and fertile growing conditions
8.
Pontoon (boat)
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A pontoon is a flotation device with buoyancy sufficient to float itself as well as a heavy load. A pontoon boat is a boat that relies on pontoons to float. Boats with three pontoons are sometimes called “tri-toons, better tube design has also allowed builders to put ever-increasing amounts of horsepower on the stern. Pontoons may be used on boats, rafts, barges, docks, airboats, hovercrafts, pontoons may support a platform, creating a raft. A raft supporting a house-like structure is a houseboat, a fixed platform can be used as a dock. Common boat designs are a catamaran with two pontoons, or a trimaran with three, pontoons may be simply constructed from sealed cylinders such as pipes or barrels, or fabricated as boxes from metal or concrete. Pontoon boat drafts may be as shallow as eight inches, which risk of running aground. The pontoon effect is when a force applied to the side capsizes a pontoon boat without much warning. Pontoon boats for boating and fishing can be low cost for their capacity. Small inflatable pontoon boats are one or two person, catamaran type boats, designed for leisure and fishing and their pontoons are made out of abrasion resistant PVC and nylon with aluminum, steel and/or plastic frames for support. They are powered with paddles, oars and often with electric trolling motors using deep cycle lead batteries, commonly they are equipped with motor mount, battery storage area, fishing rod holders, canopy, fishfinder mount, small anchor and other required fishing gear. Such boats are suitable for ponds, lakes, rivers and seas during calm weather, however, due to light weight, they are susceptible to waves and windy conditions. Nonetheless, such boats are used even for big game fishing. Pontoon boats are used as small ferries to cross rivers and lakes in many parts of the world. Pontoon ferries may be motorised, such as the Kazungula Ferry across the Zambezi River, or powered by another boat, or pulled by cables. A type of known as the cable ferry pull themselves across a river using a motor or human power applied to the cable. The flotation tubes of RIB are often referred to as pontoons, in Australia and New Zealand, the term pontoon often refers to an anchored raft-like platform used for diving from. Pontoons are located at many beaches and lake shores, but usually only during the summer months, the 1952 invention of the pontoon motorboat in the USA is credited to a farmer who lived on the Horseshoe Chain of Lakes, near Richmond, Minnesota
9.
Drum (container)
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A drum is a cylindrical container used for shipping bulk cargo. Drums can be made of steel, dense paperboard, or plastics, drums are often certified for shipment of dangerous goods. Shipped goods must be matched with the make of drum necessary to comply with applicable regulations, drums are also called barrels in common usage. It is common to hear a drum referred to as a barrel, in the United States, 25-US-gallon drums are also in common use and have the same height. This allows easy stacking of mixed pallets, barrels can be constructed of plastic, laminated paperboard or steel. The two common sub-types of drums are the top and the welded top. The latter are almost universally called barrels in preference to drums in the United States and they cannot efficaciously either dispense or be filled with powdered goods, though they might store them very well, so are not used for such goods, being reserved for liquids transport and storage. Plastic drums are manufactured using injection blow moulding technology and have either a separate lid or a welded type top with the holes molded in. Metal drums are manufactured with cold-rolled steel sheets, welded themselves into long pipe-like sections then forged on a stamping press into drum bodies, a rolled seam is then made for the drum bottom, or bottom and top both. Some drums have reinforcing rings of thickened metal or plastic, called chimes, at four places, top, bottom and this sufficiently strengthens them so that they can readily be turned on their sides and rolled when filled with heavy materials, like liquids. Over short to medium distances, drums can be tipped and rolled on the rim while being held at an angle, balanced. Tops exist with bung holes as above, and these hybrid drums with lid can be used to ship many non-volatile liquids as well as industrial powders. Many drums are used to ship and store powdered products as well as liquids, such as beads for injection moulding, extrusion. If used to transport goods across international boundaries, they may need to have UN certification. In general, drum usage is limited to distribution of bulk products. These metal drums have two openings with flanges, once the drums are filled, the plugs are screwed in the flanges using pneumatic or hand operated bung tightener. To secure the contents of the drums against theft and adulteration during shipment, cap-seals made of metal and these cap-seals sit on top of the flanges and are crimped, using a drum cap-seal crimping tool, also called a drum cap sealer. Once cap-seals are crimped, the plugs can be unscrewed only by breaking these cap-seals, pneumatic and hand-operated cap-seal crimping tools are available
10.
Polystyrene
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Polystyrene /ˌpɒliˈstaɪriːn/ is a synthetic aromatic polymer made from the monomer styrene. Polystyrene can be solid or foamed, general-purpose polystyrene is clear, hard, and rather brittle. It is an inexpensive resin per unit weight and it is a rather poor barrier to oxygen and water vapor and has a relatively low melting point. Polystyrene is one of the most widely used plastics, the scale of its production being several million tonnes per year, Polystyrene can be naturally transparent, but can be colored with colorants. Uses include protective packaging, containers, lids, bottles, trays, tumblers, as a thermoplastic polymer, polystyrene is in a solid state at room temperature but flows if heated above about 100 °C, its glass transition temperature. It becomes rigid again when cooled and this temperature behavior is exploited for extrusion and also for molding and vacuum forming, since it can be cast into molds with fine detail. Polystyrene is very slow to biodegrade and is therefore a focus of controversy among environmentalists, Polystyrene was discovered in 1839 by Eduard Simon, an apothecary from Berlin. From storax, the resin of the American sweetgum tree Liquidambar styraciflua, he distilled an oily substance, several days later, Simon found that the styrol had thickened into a jelly he dubbed styrol oxide because he presumed an oxidation. By 1845 Jamaican-born chemist John Buddle Blyth and German chemist August Wilhelm von Hofmann showed that the transformation of styrol took place in the absence of oxygen. They called the product metastyrol, analysis showed that it was identical to Simons Styroloxyd. In 1866 Marcelin Berthelot correctly identified the formation of metastyrol/Styroloxyd from styrol as a polymerization process, about 80 years later it was realized that heating of styrol starts a chain reaction that produces macromolecules, following the thesis of German organic chemist Hermann Staudinger. This eventually led to the substance receiving its present name, polystyrene, the company I. G. Farben began manufacturing polystyrene in Ludwigshafen, about 1931, hoping it would be a suitable replacement for die-cast zinc in many applications. Success was achieved when they developed a reactor vessel that extruded polystyrene through a tube and cutter. In 1941, Dow Chemical invented a Styrofoam process, before 1949, the chemical engineer Fritz Stastny developed pre-expanded PS beads by incorporating aliphatic hydrocarbons, such as pentane. These beads are the raw material for moulding parts or extruding sheets, BASF and Stastny applied for a patent that was issued in 1949. The moulding process was demonstrated at the Kunststoff Messe 1952 in Düsseldorf, the crystal structure of isotactic polystyrene was reported by Giulio Natta. In 1954, the Koppers Company in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, developed expanded polystyrene foam under the trade name Dylite, in 1960, Dart Container, the largest manufacturer of foam cups, shipped their first order. In 1988, the first U. S. ban of general polystyrene foam was enacted in Berkeley, in chemical terms, polystyrene is a long chain hydrocarbon wherein alternating carbon centers are attached to phenyl groups
11.
Superstructure
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A superstructure is an upward extension of an existing structure above a baseline. This term is applied to various kinds of structures such as buildings, bridges. The word superstructure is a combination of the Latin prefix, super with the Latin stem word, in order to improve the response during earthquakes of buildings and bridges, the superstructure might be separated from its foundation by various civil engineering mechanisms or machinery. All together, these implement the system of protection called base isolation. As stated above, superstructure consists of the parts of the ship or a boat, including sailboats, fishing boats, passenger ships, and submarines and this does not usually include its masts or any armament turrets. Note that in times, turrets do not always carry naval artillery. The size of a watercrafts superstructure can have implications in the performance of ships and boats, since these structures can alter their structural rigidity, their displacements. These can be detrimental to any vessels performance if they are taken into consideration incorrectly, the height and the weight of superstructure on board a ship or a boat also affects the amount of freeboard that such a vessel requires along its sides, down to her waterline. In broad terms, the more and heavier superstructure that a ship possesses, on a bridge, the portion of the structure that is the span and directly receives the live load is referred to as the superstructure. In contrast, the abutment, piers, and other structures are called the substructure
12.
Timber rafting
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Timber rafting is a log transportation method in which logs are tied together into rafts and drifted or pulled across a water body or down a flatter river. It is arguably the second cheapest method of transportation of timber, both methods may be referred to as timber floating. On the other hand, rafting requires wider waterflows, Timber rafts were also used as a means of transportation of people and goods, both raw materials and man-made. Theophrastus records how the Romans imported Corsican timber by way of a raft propelled by as many as fifty masts. This practice used to be common in parts of the world, especially North America. Large pines in the black forest were called „Holländer“, as they were traded to the Netherlands, large timber rafts on the Rhine were 200 to 400m in length, 40m wide and consisted of several thousand logs. The crew consisted of 400 to 500 men, including shelter, bakeries, ovens, Timber rafting infrastructure allowed for large interconnected networks all over continental Europe. The advent of the railroad, steam boat vessels and improvements in trucking and it is still of importance in Finland. Timber rafts could be of enormous proportions, sometimes up to 600 metres long,50 meters wide, such rafts would contain thousands of logs. For the comfort of the raftsmen - which could number up to 500 - logs were used to build cabins. Control of the raft was done by oars and later on by tugboats, raft construction differs depending on the watercourse. Rocky and windy rivers saw rafts of simple, yet sometimes smart, for example, the front parts of the logs were joined together by wooden bars, while the rear parts were loosely roped together. The resulting slack allowed for easy adaptation for narrow and windy waterbeds, wide and quiet rivers, like the Mississippi River, allowed huge rafts to travel in caravans and even be chained into strings. Rafting was a method of transporting timber in the southeastern United States but, except on the Mississippi River. On Georgia’s Altamaha River, for example, the width was about forty feet. Maximum length was about 250 feet, that being the longest that could navigate The Narrows, several miles of the river that were not only very narrow, each raft had two oars forty to fifty feet long, one in the bow, the other at the stern. The oars were for steering, not propelling, the raft, the minimum raft crew was two men, the pilot who usually manned the stern oar, and his bow hand. Rafts usually had a shack for shelter and a mound of dirt for a hearth to warm by
13.
Logging
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Logging is the cutting, skidding, on-site processing, and loading of trees or logs onto trucks or skeleton cars. In forestry, the logging is sometimes used in a narrow sense concerning the logistics of moving wood from the stump to somewhere outside the forest. However, in usage, the term may be used to indicate a range of forestry or silviculture activities. Illegal logging refers to what in forestry might be called timber theft by the timber mafia and it can also refer to the harvesting, transportation, purchase, or sale of timber in violation of laws. Clearcut logging is not necessarily considered a type of logging but a harvesting or silviculture method, in the forest products industry logging companies may be referred to as logging contractors, with the smaller, non-union crews referred to as gyppo loggers. Cutting trees with the highest value and leaving those with lower value and it is sometimes called selective logging, and confused with selection cutting, the practice of managing stands by harvesting a proportion of trees. Logging usually refers to above-ground forestry logging, submerged forests exist on land that has been flooded by damming to create reservoirs. Such trees are logged using underwater logging or by the lowering of the reservoirs in question, ootsa Lake and Williston Lake in British Columbia, Canada are notable examples where timber recovery has been needed to remove inundated forests. Clearcutting, or clearfelling, is a method of harvesting that removes all the standing trees in a selected area. Silviculture objectives for clearcutting, and a focus on forestry distinguish it from deforestation, other methods include shelterwood cutting, group selective, single selective, seed-tree cutting, patch cut, and retention cutting. The above operations can be carried out by different methods, of which the three are considered industrial methods, Trees are felled and then delimbed and topped at the stump. The log is then transported to the landing, where it is bucked and loaded on a truck and this leaves the slash in the cut area, where it must be further treated if wild land fires are of concern. This ability is due to the advancement in the style felling head that can be used, the trees are then delimbed, topped, and bucked at the landing. This method requires that slash be treated at the landing, in areas with access to cogeneration facilities, the slash can be chipped and used for the production of electricity or heat. Full-tree harvesting also refers to utilization of the tree including branches. Cut-to-length logging is the process of felling, delimbing, bucking, harvesters fell the tree, delimb, and buck it, and place the resulting logs in bunks to be brought to the landing by a skidder or forwarder. This method is available for trees up to 900 mm in diameter. Harvesters are employed effectively in level to steep terrain
14.
Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky
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Sergey Mikhaylovich Prokudin-Gorsky was a Russian chemist and photographer. He is best known for his work in color photography of early 20th-century Russia. Prokudin-Gorsky was born in the estate of Funikova Gora, in what is now Kirzhachsky District. His parents were of the Russian nobility, and the family had a military history. They moved to Saint Petersburg, where Prokudin-Gorsky enrolled in Saint Petersburg State Institute of Technology to study chemistry under Dmitri Mendeleev and he also studied music and painting at the Imperial Academy of Arts. In 1890, Prokudin-Gorsky married Anna Aleksandrovna Lavrova, and later the couple had two sons, Mikhail and Dmitri, and a daughter, Ekaterina, Anna was the daughter of the Russian industrialist Aleksandr Stepanovich Lavrov, an active member in the Imperial Russian Technical Society. Prokudin-Gorsky subsequently became the director of the board of Lavrovs metal works near Saint Petersburg. He also joined Russias oldest photographic society, the section of the IRTS, presenting papers. In 1901, he established a studio and laboratory in Saint Petersburg. Perhaps Prokudin-Gorskys best-known work during his lifetime was his portrait of Leo Tolstoy, which was reproduced in various publications, on postcards. The Tsar enjoyed the demonstration, and, with his blessing, Prokudin-Gorsky got the permission, in the course of ten years, he was to make a collection of 10,000 photos. Prokudin-Gorsky considered the project his lifes work and continued his journeys through Russia until after the October Revolution. He was appointed to a new professorship under the new regime, in 1920, Prokudin-Gorsky remarried and had a daughter with his assistant Maria Fedorovna née Schedrimo. The family finally settled in Paris in 1922, reuniting with his first wife, Prokudin-Gorsky set up a photo studio there together with his three adult children, naming it after his fourth child, Elka. He died in Paris on September 27,1944, a month after the Liberation of Paris and he is buried in the Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois Russian Cemetery. Only the viewers and ready-made triple photographs for use in them sold in any significant quantity, still life arrangements, unpopulated landscapes and oil paintings were the typical subject matter, but a few examples of color portraiture from life were also offered. Several Kromskop color views of the aftermath of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and fire, another very notable practitioner was Adolf Miethe, with whom Prokudin-Gorsky studied in Germany in 1902. Miethe was a photochemist who greatly improved the characteristics of the black-and-white photographic materials suitable for use with this method of color photography
15.
Ochroma
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Ochroma is a genus of flowering plants in the mallow family, Malvaceae, containing the sole species Ochroma pyramidale, commonly known as the balsa tree. It is a large, fast-growing tree that can grow up to 30 m tall, balsa wood is a very lightweight material with many uses. Balsa trees are native to southern Brazil and northern Bolivia, up to southern Mexico, a member of the mallow family, O. pyramidale is native to southern Mexico to southern Brazil, but is now found in many other countries. It is a plant, which establishes itself in clearings in forests, either man-made or where trees have fallen. It grows extremely rapidly, up to 90 ft in 10–15 years, the speed of growth accounts for the lightness of the wood, which has a lower density than cork. Trees generally do not live beyond 30 to 40 years, flowers are produced from the third year onwards, typically at the end of the rainy season when few other trees are in flower. The large flowers open in the afternoon and remain open overnight. Each may contain a pool of nectar up to 1 in deep, however most pollination occurs at night. It was once thought that the main pollinators were bats, however recent evidence suggests that two nocturnal arboreal mammals, the kinkajou and the olingo, may be the primary pollinators, ecuador supplies 95% or more of commercial balsa. In recent years, about 60% of the balsa has been plantation-grown in densely packed patches of around 1000 trees per hectare and it is evergreen or dry-season deciduous, with large weakly palmately lobed leaves. Being a deciduous angiosperm, balsa is classified as a hardwood despite the wood itself being very soft and it is the softest commercial hardwood. The trees are harvested after six to 10 years of growth, the name balsa comes from the Spanish word for raft. Balsa lumber is very soft and light, with a coarse, the density of dry balsa wood ranges from 40–340 kg/m3, with a typical density of about 160 kg/m3. The wood of the tree has large cells that are filled with water. This gives the wood a spongy texture and it also makes the wood of the living tree not much lighter than water and barely able to float. For commercial production, the wood is kiln-dried for about two weeks, leaving the hollow and empty. The large volume-to-surface ratio of the resulting thin-walled empty cells gives the wood a large strength-to-weight ratio because the cells are mostly air. Unlike naturally rotted wood, that soon disintegrates in the rainforests where balsa trees grow, however, it also is valued as a component of full-sized light wooden aeroplanes, most notably the World War II de Havilland Mosquito
16.
Polynesia
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Polynesia is a subregion of Oceania, made up of over 1,000 islands scattered over the central and southern Pacific Ocean. The indigenous people who inhabit the islands of Polynesia are termed Polynesians and they share many similar traits including the language family, culture, and beliefs. Historically, they were experienced sailors who used stars to navigate at night, the term Polynesia was first used in 1756 by French writer Charles de Brosses, and originally applied to all the islands of the Pacific. In 1831, Jules Dumont dUrville proposed a restriction on its use during a lecture to the Geographical Society of Paris, historically, these islands have also been referred to as the South Sea Islands. Polynesia is characterized by an amount of land spread over a very large portion of the mid. Most Polynesian islands and archipelagos, including the Hawaiian Islands and Samoa, are composed of volcanic islands built by hotspots, New Zealand, Norfolk Island, and Ouvéa, the Polynesian outlier near New Caledonia, are the unsubmerged portions of the largely sunken continent of Zealandia. At first, the Pacific plate was subducted under the Australian plate, the Alpine Fault that traverses the South Island is currently a transform fault while the convergent plate boundary from the North Island northwards is called the Kermadec-Tonga Subduction Zone. The volcanism associated with subduction zone is the origin of the Kermadec. Out of approximately 300,000 or 310,000 square kilometres of land, over 270,000 km2 are within New Zealand, the Zealandia continent has approximately 3,600,000 km2 of continental shelf. The oldest rocks in the region are found in New Zealand and are believed to be about 510 million years old, the oldest Polynesian rocks outside of Zealandia are to be found in the Hawaiian Emperor Seamount Chain, and are 80 million years old. Polynesia is generally defined as the islands within the Polynesian Triangle, geographically, the Polynesian Triangle is drawn by connecting the points of Hawaii, New Zealand and Easter Island. The other main island groups located within the Polynesian Triangle are Samoa, Tonga, there are also small Polynesian settlements in Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, the Caroline Islands, and in Vanuatu. An island group with strong Polynesian cultural traits outside of this triangle is Rotuma. The people of Rotuma have many common Polynesian traits but speak a non-Polynesian language, some of the Lau Islands to the southeast of Fiji have strong historic and cultural links with Tonga. However, in essence, Polynesia is a term referring to one of the three parts of Oceania. Some islands of Polynesian origin are outside the triangle that geographically defines the region. The Phoenix Islands and Line Islands, most of which are part of Kiribati, are geographically Polynesian islands, tracing Polynesian languages places their prehistoric origins in the Malay Archipelago, and ultimately, in Taiwan. Between about 3000 and 1000 BC speakers of Austronesian languages began spreading from Taiwan into Island Southeast Asia, there are three theories regarding the spread of humans across the Pacific to Polynesia
17.
Rafting
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Rafting and white water rafting are recreational outdoor activities which use an inflatable raft to navigate a river or other body of water. This is often done on whitewater or different degrees of rough water, dealing with risk and the need for teamwork is often a part of the experience. It is considered a sport, and can be fatal. The International Rafting Federation, often referred to as the IRF, is the body which oversees all aspects of the sport. Otherwise known as the International Scale of River Difficulty, below are the six grades of difficulty in white water rafting and they range from simple to very dangerous and potential death or serious injuries. Class 1, Very small rough areas, might require slight maneuvering, Class 2, Some rough water, maybe some rocks, might require some maneuvering. Class 3, Small waves, maybe a small drop, Class 6, Class 6 rapids are considered to be so dangerous that they are effectively unnavigable on a reliably safe basis. Traversing a Class 6 rapid has an increased likelihood of ending in serious injury or death compared to lesser classes. Rafts in white water are very different vehicles than canoes or kayaks and have their own techniques to maneuver through whitewater obstacles. Punching – Rafts carry great momentum, and on rivers hydraulics that are dodged by canoes and this involves the rafting crew paddling the raft to give it enough speed to push through the hydraulic without getting stopped. High siding – If a raft is caught in a hydraulic it will quickly go sideways. In this position the rafters may be able to use the draw stroke to pull the raft out of the head, low siding- more of a professional maneuver sometimes used at LOW water to slide through a channel less than the size of your craft. Dump truck – Rafts are inherently stable craft because of their size and low center of mass, in the industry, if a raft dumps some or all of its passengers but remains upright, it is said to have dump-trucked. Left over right or right over left – Rafts almost always flip side over side, If the left tube rises over the right tube, the raft is said to have flipped left over right and vice versa. Taco – If a raft is soft, or under-inflated, it may taco, Rafts are said to have tacoed if the middle of the raft buckles and the front of the raft touches or nearly touches the back of the raft. This is often a result of surfing in a hydraulic, a reverse taco is when the nose or stern of the raft is pulled down under water and buckles to touch the middle, back or nose of the raft. End over end – Occasionally rafts will flip end over end and this is usually after the raft has dump-trucked to lighten the load, allowing the water to overcome the weight of the boat, flipping it vertically before it lands upside down. Rafts will more often taco and turn sideways, making an end-over-end flip very rare in most rafts, downstream flip – A raft capsizes after encountering an obstacle, such as a rock, a feature like a hydraulic, or even another raft
18.
Inflatable boat
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An inflatable boat is a lightweight boat constructed with its sides and bow made of flexible tubes containing pressurised gas. Often the transom is rigid, providing a location and structure for mounting an outboard motor, some inflatable boats have been designed to be disassembled and packed into a small volume, so that they can be easily stored and transported to water when needed. The boat, when inflated, is kept rigid crossways by a removable thwart. This feature allows such boats to be used as liferafts for larger boats or aircraft, the most common term for inflatable boats is rubber boat although rubber is usually no longer used in their construction. Other terms used include inflatable dinghy, rubber dinghy, inflatable, inflatable rescue boat, there are ancient carved images of animal skins filled with air being used as one-man floats to cross rivers. These floats were inflated by mouth, sometimes, these images have been wrongly described as ancient scuba. The discovery of the process to vulcanize rubber was made by Charles Goodyear in 1838, in late 1843, Thomas Hancock filed for a UK patent, which was also granted in 1844, after the Goodyear patent had been granted. In 1852, while traveling in England, Charles Goodyear discovered that Thomas Hancocks company was producing vulcanized rubber, the last of the suits were settled in 1855. Vulcanization stabilized the rubber allowing it to be durable and flexible. Shortly thereafter, several people expanded on experimentation of rubber coated fabrics, in 1839 the Duke of Wellington tested the first inflatable pontoons. Lieutenant Peter Halkett, an officer in the Royal Navy designed the Halkett boat in 1845 as the first successful inflatable boat and his first design was made of rubber-impregnated Mackintosh cloth. The boat cloak served as a poncho or cloak until inflated. A special pocket held bellows for inflation, and a blade to turn a walking stick into a paddle, a special umbrella could double as a sail. Although the Admiralty saw no use to which Halketts designs could be put in general naval service, John Franklin bought one to take on the ill-fated 1845 expedition in which the entire expedition party of 129 men and two ships vanished. In his explorations along the Oregon Trail, and the tributaries and forks of the Platte River during the years 1842 and 1843, frémont recorded what may have been the first use of an inflatable rubber boat for travel down rivers and rapids in the Rocky Mountains. The sides were formed by two cylinders, eighteen inches in diameter, connected with others forming the bow and stern. By 1855 there were numerous types of rubber boats in use, some made by Goodyear in the U. S. In 1866, four men crossed the Atlantic Ocean from New York to Britain on a three-tube raft called Nonpareil, from 1900 to 1910, the development of rubber manufacturing enabled attempts at producing circular rubber inflatable boats, similar to modern coracles
19.
Whitewater
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The term is also loosely used to refer to less turbulent, but still agitated, flows. The term whitewater also has a meaning, applying to any river or creek itself that has a significant number of rapids. The term is used as an adjective describing boating on such rivers. Four factors, separately or in combination, can create rapids, gradient, constriction, obstruction, gradient, constriction and obstruction are streambed topography factors and are relatively consistent. Flow rate is dependent upon both seasonal variation in precipitation and snowmelt and upon release rates of upstream dams, streambed topography is the primary factor in creating rapids, and is generally consistent over time. The gradient of a river is the rate at which it loses elevation along its course and this loss determines the rivers slope, and to a large extent its rate of flow. Shallow gradients produce gentle, slow rivers while steep gradients are associated with raging torrents, constrictions can form a rapid when a rivers flow is forced into a narrower channel. This pressure causes the water to more rapidly and to react differently to riverbed events. As with hydraulics, the power of eddies increases with the flow rate, in large rivers with high flow rates next to an obstruction, eddy walls can occur. An eddy wall is formed when the height of the river is higher than the level of the water in the eddy behind the obstruction. A marked increase or decrease in flow can create a rapid, flow rate is typically measured in cubic metres per second, or in cubic feet per second, depending on the country. The most widely used grading system is the International Scale of River Difficulty, grade-VI rapids are sometimes downgraded to grade-V or V+ if they have been run successfully. Harder rapids are often portaged, a French term for carrying, a portaged rapid is where the boater lands and carries the boat around the hazard. A rapids grade is not fixed, since it may vary depending on the water depth. Although some rapids may be easier at high flows because features are covered or washed-out, high water usually makes rapids more difficult, at flood stage, even rapids which are usually easy can contain lethal and unpredictable hazards. Class 1, Very small rough areas, requires no maneuvering, Class 2, Some rough water, maybe some rocks, small drops, might require maneuvering. Class 3, Medium waves, maybe a 3–5 ft drop, Class 4, Whitewater, large waves, long rapids, rocks, maybe a considerable drop, sharp maneuvers may be needed. Class 5, Whitewater, large waves, continuous rapids, large rocks and hazards, maybe a large drop, often characterized by must make moves, i. e. failure to execute a specific maneuver at a specific point may result in serious injury or death
20.
Biology
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Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, identification and taxonomy. Modern biology is a vast and eclectic field, composed of branches and subdisciplines. However, despite the broad scope of biology, there are certain unifying concepts within it that consolidate it into single, coherent field. In general, biology recognizes the cell as the unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity. It is also understood today that all organisms survive by consuming and transforming energy and by regulating their internal environment to maintain a stable, the term biology is derived from the Greek word βίος, bios, life and the suffix -λογία, -logia, study of. The Latin-language form of the term first appeared in 1736 when Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus used biologi in his Bibliotheca botanica, the first German use, Biologie, was in a 1771 translation of Linnaeus work. In 1797, Theodor Georg August Roose used the term in the preface of a book, karl Friedrich Burdach used the term in 1800 in a more restricted sense of the study of human beings from a morphological, physiological and psychological perspective. The science that concerns itself with these objects we will indicate by the biology or the doctrine of life. Although modern biology is a recent development, sciences related to. Natural philosophy was studied as early as the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indian subcontinent, however, the origins of modern biology and its approach to the study of nature are most often traced back to ancient Greece. While the formal study of medicine back to Hippocrates, it was Aristotle who contributed most extensively to the development of biology. Especially important are his History of Animals and other works where he showed naturalist leanings, and later more empirical works that focused on biological causation and the diversity of life. Aristotles successor at the Lyceum, Theophrastus, wrote a series of books on botany that survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to the plant sciences, even into the Middle Ages. Scholars of the medieval Islamic world who wrote on biology included al-Jahiz, Al-Dīnawarī, who wrote on botany, biology began to quickly develop and grow with Anton van Leeuwenhoeks dramatic improvement of the microscope. It was then that scholars discovered spermatozoa, bacteria, infusoria, investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and helped to develop the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining. Advances in microscopy also had a impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, a number of biologists pointed to the importance of the cell. Thanks to the work of Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow, however, meanwhile, taxonomy and classification became the focus of natural historians
21.
Insular biogeography
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Insular biogeography is a field within biogeography that examines the factors that affect the species richness of isolated natural communities. The theory was developed as island biogeography, to explain species richness of actual islands. For biogeographical purposes, an environment or island is any area of habitat suitable for a specific ecosystem. The concept is applied to natural habitats surrounded by human-altered landscapes, such as expanses of grassland surrounded by highways or housing tracts. Additionally, what is an insular for one organism may not be so for others, some located on mountaintops may also be found in the valleys. The theory of insular biogeography proposes that the number of found in an undisturbed insular environment is determined by immigration and extinction. And further, that the isolated populations may follow different evolutionary routes, immigration and emigration are affected by the distance of an island from a source of colonists. Usually this source is the mainland, but it can also be other islands, Islands that are more isolated are less likely to receive immigrants than islands that are less isolated. The rate of once a species manages to colonize an island is affected by island size. Larger islands contain larger habitat areas and opportunities for different varieties of habitat. Larger habitat size reduces the probability of extinction due to chance events, habitat heterogeneity increases the number of species that will be successful after immigration. Over time, the forces of extinction and immigration result in an equilibrium level of species richness. In addition to having an effect on rates, isolation can also affect extinction rates. In addition to having an effect on extinction, island size can also affect immigration rates, species may actively target larger islands for their greater number of resources and available niches, or, larger islands may accumulate more species by chance just because they are larger. 300 million years ago, Europe and North America lay on the equator and were covered by tropical rainforests. Climate change devastated these tropical rainforests during the Carboniferous Period and as the climate grew drier, the theory of island biogeography was experimentally tested by E. O. Wilson and his student Daniel Simberloff in the mangrove islands in the Florida Keys. Species richness on several small islands were surveyed. The islands were fumigated with methyl bromide to clear their arthropod communities, following fumigation the immigration of species onto the islands was monitored
22.
Vegetation
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Vegetation is assemblages of plant species and the ground cover they provide. It is a term, without specific reference to particular taxa, life forms, structure, spatial extent. It is broader than the flora which refers to species composition. Perhaps the closest synonym is plant community, but vegetation can, primeval redwood forests, coastal mangrove stands, sphagnum bogs, desert soil crusts, roadside weed patches, wheat fields, cultivated gardens and lawns, all are encompassed by the term vegetation. The vegetation type is defined by characteristic dominant species, or an aspect of the assemblage. The contemporary use of vegetation approximates that of ecologist Frederic Clements term earth cover, Natural vegetation refers to plant life undisturbed by humans in its growth and which is controlled by the climatic conditions of that region. The distinction between vegetation and flora was first made by Jules Thurmann, prior to this, the two terms were used indiscriminately, and still are in some contexts. Augustin de Candolle also made a distinction, but he used the terms station and habitation. Later, the concept of vegetation would influence the usage of the term biome, other concepts similar to vegetation are physiognomy of vegetation and formation. Departing from Linnean taxonomy, Humboldt established a new science, dividing plant geography between taxonomists who studied plants as taxa and geographers who studied plants as vegetation. The physiognomic approach in the study of vegetation is common among biogeographers working on vegetation on a world scale, the concept vegetation type is more ambiguous. For some authors, it includes, besides physiognomy, floristic, furthermore, the phytosociological approach in the study of vegetation relies upon a fundamental unit, the plant association, which is defined upon flora. An influential, clear and simple scheme for types of vegetation was produced by Wagner & von Sydow. Like all the systems, plant communities are temporally and spatially dynamic. Dynamism in vegetation is defined primarily as changes in species composition and/or vegetation structure, temporally, a large number of processes or events can cause change, but for sake of simplicity they can be categorized roughly as either abrupt or gradual. Abrupt changes are referred to as disturbances, these include things like wildfires, high winds, landslides, floods, avalanches. Their causes are external to the community—they are natural processes occurring independently of the natural processes of the community. Such events can change vegetation structure and composition very quickly and for time periods
23.
Storm
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A storm is any disturbed state of an environment or astronomical bodys atmosphere especially affecting its surface, and strongly implying severe weather. Heavy snowfall can allow special recreational activities to take place which would not be possible otherwise, the English word comes from Proto-Germanic *sturmaz meaning noise, tumult. Storms are created when a center of low pressure develops with a system of high pressure surrounding it and this combination of opposing forces can create winds and result in the formation of storm clouds, such as the cumulonimbus. Small localized areas of low pressure can form from hot air rising off hot ground, resulting in smaller disturbances such as dust devils, There are many varieties and names for storms, Ice storm — Ice storms are one of the most dangerous forms of winter storms. When surface temperatures are below freezing, but a layer of above-freezing air remains aloft, rain can fall into the freezing layer. In general,8 millimetres of accumulation is all that is required, especially in combination with breezy conditions, Ice storms also make unheated road surfaces too slick to drive upon. Ice storms can vary in range from hours to days and can cripple small towns. Blizzard — There are varying definitions for blizzards, both time and by location. In general, a blizzard is accompanied by winds, heavy snow. Snow storms, especially ones with a liquid equivalent and breezy conditions, can down tree limbs, cut off power. Ocean Storm — Storm conditions out at sea are defined as having sustained winds of 48 knots or greater, usually just referred to as a storm, these systems can sink vessels of all types and sizes. Firestorm — Firestorms are conflagrations which attain such intensity that they create and it is most commonly a natural phenomenon, created during some of the largest bushfires, forest fires, and wildfires. The Peshtigo Fire is one example of a firestorm, Firestorms can also be deliberate effects of targeted explosives such as occurred as a result of the aerial bombings of Dresden. Nuclear detonations generate firestorms if high winds are not present, dust devil — a small, localized updraft of rising air. Wind storm— A storm marked by high wind with little or no precipitation, windstorm damage often opens the door for massive amounts of water and debris to cause further damage to a structure. European windstorms and derechos are two type of windstorms, high wind is also the cause of sandstorms in dry climates. Squall — sudden onset of wind increase of at least 16 knots or greater sustained for at least one minute, gale — An extratropical storm with sustained winds between 34-48 knots. Thunderstorm — A thunderstorm is a type of storm that generates lightning and it is normally accompanied by heavy precipitation
24.
Tsunami
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A tsunami or tidal wave, also known as a seismic sea wave, is a series of waves in a water body caused by the displacement of a large volume of water, generally in an ocean or a large lake. Unlike normal ocean waves which are generated by wind, or tides which are generated by the pull of the Moon and Sun. Tsunami waves do not resemble normal undersea currents or sea waves, Tsunamis generally consist of a series of waves with periods ranging from minutes to hours, arriving in a so-called internal wave train. Wave heights of tens of metres can be generated by large events, numerous terms are used in the English language to describe waves created in a body of water by the displacement of water, however, none of the terms in frequent use are entirely accurate. The term tsunami, meaning harbour wave in literal translation, comes from the Japanese 津波, while not entirely accurate, as tsunami are not restricted to harbours, tsunami is currently the term most widely accepted by geologists and oceanographers. Tsunami are sometimes referred to as tidal waves and this once-popular term derives from the most common appearance of tsunami, which is that of an extraordinarily high tidal bore. Although the meanings of tidal include resembling or having the form or character of the tides, use of the tidal wave is discouraged by geologists. The term seismic sea wave also is used to refer to the phenomenon, prior to the rise of the use of the term tsunami in English-speaking countries, scientists generally encouraged the use of the term seismic sea wave rather than tidal wave. The Sumatran region is not unused to tsunamis either, with earthquakes of varying magnitudes regularly occurring off the coast of the island, Tsunamis are an often underestimated hazard in the Mediterranean Sea and parts of Europe. The tsunami claimed more than 123,000 lives in Sicily, the Storegga Slide in the Norwegian sea and some examples of tsunamis affecting the British Isles refer to landslide and meteotsunamis predominantly and less to earthquake-induced waves. The cause, in my opinion, of this phenomenon must be sought in the earthquake, at the point where its shock has been the most violent the sea is driven back, and suddenly recoiling with redoubled force, causes the inundation. Without an earthquake I do not see how such an accident could happen, the principal generation mechanism of a tsunami is the displacement of a substantial volume of water or perturbation of the sea. This displacement of water is attributed to either earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions, glacier calvings or more rarely by meteorites. The waves formed in this way are then sustained by gravity, tides do not play any part in the generation of tsunamis. Tsunami can be generated when the sea floor abruptly deforms and vertically displaces the overlying water and they grow in height when they reach shallower water, in a wave shoaling process described below. A tsunami can occur in any state and even at low tide can still inundate coastal areas. On April 1,1946, the 8.6 Mw Aleutian Islands earthquake occurred with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VI and it generated a tsunami which inundated Hilo on the island of Hawaii with a 14-metre high surge. Between 165 and 173 were killed, the area where the earthquake occurred is where the Pacific Ocean floor is subducting under Alaska
25.
Tide
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Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth. Some shorelines experience a semi-diurnal tide—two nearly equal high and low tides each day, other locations experience a diurnal tide—only one high and low tide each day. A mixed tide—two uneven tides a day, or one high, Tides vary on timescales ranging from hours to years due to a number of factors. To make accurate records, tide gauges at fixed stations measure water level over time, gauges ignore variations caused by waves with periods shorter than minutes. These data are compared to the level usually called mean sea level. Tidal phenomena are not limited to the oceans, but can occur in other systems whenever a gravitational field varies in time. For example, the part of the Earth is affected by tides. Tide changes proceed via the following stages, Sea level rises over several hours, covering the intertidal zone, the water rises to its highest level, reaching high tide. Sea level falls over several hours, revealing the intertidal zone, the water stops falling, reaching low tide. Oscillating currents produced by tides are known as tidal streams, the moment that the tidal current ceases is called slack water or slack tide. The tide then reverses direction and is said to be turning, slack water usually occurs near high water and low water. But there are locations where the moments of slack tide differ significantly from those of high, Tides are commonly semi-diurnal, or diurnal. The two high waters on a day are typically not the same height, these are the higher high water. Similarly, the two low waters each day are the low water and the lower low water. The daily inequality is not consistent and is small when the Moon is over the equator. From the highest level to the lowest, Highest Astronomical Tide – The highest tide which can be predicted to occur, note that meteorological conditions may add extra height to the HAT. Mean High Water Springs – The average of the two high tides on the days of spring tides, mean High Water Neaps – The average of the two high tides on the days of neap tides. Mean Sea Level – This is the sea level
26.
Earthquake
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An earthquake is the shaking of the surface of the Earth, resulting from the sudden release of energy in the Earths lithosphere that creates seismic waves. Earthquakes can range in size from those that are so weak that they cannot be felt to those violent enough to people around. The seismicity or seismic activity of an area refers to the frequency, type, Earthquakes are measured using measurements from seismometers. The moment magnitude is the most common scale on which earthquakes larger than approximately 5 are reported for the entire globe and these two scales are numerically similar over their range of validity. Magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes are mostly imperceptible or weak and magnitude 7 and over potentially cause damage over larger areas. The largest earthquakes in historic times have been of magnitude slightly over 9, intensity of shaking is measured on the modified Mercalli scale. The shallower an earthquake, the damage to structures it causes. At the Earths surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking and sometimes displacement of the ground, when the epicenter of a large earthquake is located offshore, the seabed may be displaced sufficiently to cause a tsunami. Earthquakes can also trigger landslides, and occasionally volcanic activity, in its most general sense, the word earthquake is used to describe any seismic event — whether natural or caused by humans — that generates seismic waves. Earthquakes are caused mostly by rupture of faults, but also by other events such as volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts. An earthquakes point of rupture is called its focus or hypocenter. The epicenter is the point at ground level directly above the hypocenter, tectonic earthquakes occur anywhere in the earth where there is sufficient stored elastic strain energy to drive fracture propagation along a fault plane. The sides of a fault move past each other smoothly and aseismically only if there are no irregularities or asperities along the surface that increase the frictional resistance. Most fault surfaces do have such asperities and this leads to a form of stick-slip behavior, once the fault has locked, continued relative motion between the plates leads to increasing stress and therefore, stored strain energy in the volume around the fault surface. This continues until the stress has risen sufficiently to break through the asperity, suddenly allowing sliding over the portion of the fault. This energy is released as a combination of radiated elastic strain seismic waves, frictional heating of the fault surface and this process of gradual build-up of strain and stress punctuated by occasional sudden earthquake failure is referred to as the elastic-rebound theory. It is estimated that only 10 percent or less of a total energy is radiated as seismic energy. Most of the energy is used to power the earthquake fracture growth or is converted into heat generated by friction
27.
Buoyancy
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In science, buoyancy or upthrust, is an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of an immersed object. In a column of fluid, pressure increases with depth as a result of the weight of the overlying fluid, thus the pressure at the bottom of a column of fluid is greater than at the top of the column. Similarly, the pressure at the bottom of an object submerged in a fluid is greater than at the top of the object and this pressure difference results in a net upwards force on the object. For this reason, an object whose density is greater than that of the fluid in which it is submerged tends to sink, If the object is either less dense than the liquid or is shaped appropriately, the force can keep the object afloat. This can occur only in a reference frame, which either has a gravitational field or is accelerating due to a force other than gravity defining a downward direction. In a situation of fluid statics, the net upward force is equal to the magnitude of the weight of fluid displaced by the body. The center of buoyancy of an object is the centroid of the volume of fluid. Archimedes principle is named after Archimedes of Syracuse, who first discovered this law in 212 B. C, more tersely, Buoyancy = weight of displaced fluid. The weight of the fluid is directly proportional to the volume of the displaced fluid. Thus, among completely submerged objects with equal masses, objects with greater volume have greater buoyancy and this is also known as upthrust. Suppose a rocks weight is measured as 10 newtons when suspended by a string in a vacuum with gravity acting upon it, suppose that when the rock is lowered into water, it displaces water of weight 3 newtons. The force it exerts on the string from which it hangs would be 10 newtons minus the 3 newtons of buoyancy force,10 −3 =7 newtons. Buoyancy reduces the apparent weight of objects that have sunk completely to the sea floor and it is generally easier to lift an object up through the water than it is to pull it out of the water. The density of the object relative to the density of the fluid can easily be calculated without measuring any volumes. Density of object density of fluid = weight weight − apparent immersed weight Example, If you drop wood into water, Example, A helium balloon in a moving car. During a period of increasing speed, the air mass inside the car moves in the direction opposite to the cars acceleration, the balloon is also pulled this way. However, because the balloon is buoyant relative to the air, it ends up being pushed out of the way, If the car slows down, the same balloon will begin to drift backward. For the same reason, as the car goes round a curve and this is the equation to calculate the pressure inside a fluid in equilibrium
28.
Wave
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In physics, a wave is an oscillation accompanied by a transfer of energy that travels through a medium. Frequency refers to the addition of time, wave motion transfers energy from one point to another, which displace particles of the transmission medium–that is, with little or no associated mass transport. Waves consist, instead, of oscillations or vibrations, around almost fixed locations, there are two main types of waves. Mechanical waves propagate through a medium, and the substance of this medium is deformed, restoring forces then reverse the deformation. For example, sound waves propagate via air molecules colliding with their neighbors, when the molecules collide, they also bounce away from each other. This keeps the molecules from continuing to travel in the direction of the wave, the second main type, electromagnetic waves, do not require a medium. Instead, they consist of periodic oscillations of electrical and magnetic fields generated by charged particles. These types vary in wavelength, and include radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, waves are described by a wave equation which sets out how the disturbance proceeds over time. The mathematical form of this varies depending on the type of wave. Further, the behavior of particles in quantum mechanics are described by waves, in addition, gravitational waves also travel through space, which are a result of a vibration or movement in gravitational fields. While mechanical waves can be transverse and longitudinal, all electromagnetic waves are transverse in free space. A single, all-encompassing definition for the wave is not straightforward. A vibration can be defined as a back-and-forth motion around a reference value, however, a vibration is not necessarily a wave. An attempt to define the necessary and sufficient characteristics that qualify a phenomenon as a results in a blurred line. The term wave is often understood as referring to a transport of spatial disturbances that are generally not accompanied by a motion of the medium occupying this space as a whole. In a wave, the energy of a vibration is moving away from the source in the form of a disturbance within the surrounding medium and it may appear that the description of waves is closely related to their physical origin for each specific instance of a wave process. For example, acoustics is distinguished from optics in that sound waves are related to a rather than an electromagnetic wave transfer caused by vibration. Concepts such as mass, momentum, inertia, or elasticity and this difference in origin introduces certain wave characteristics particular to the properties of the medium involved
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Decomposition
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Decomposition is the process by which organic substances are broken down into simpler matter. The process is a part of nutrient cycle and is essential for recycling the matter that occupies physical space in the biosphere. Bodies of living organisms begin to decompose shortly after death, animals, such as worms, also help decompose the organic materials. Organisms that do this are known as decomposers, although no two organisms decompose in the same way, they all undergo the same sequential stages of decomposition. The science which studies decomposition is referred to as taphonomy from the Greek word τάφος taphos. One can differentiate abiotic from biotic decomposition, the former means degradation of a substance by chemical or physical processes, e. g. hydrolysis. The latter means the metabolic breakdown of materials into simpler components by living organisms and these processes release gases, such as cadaverine and putrescine, that are the chief source of the unmistakably putrid odor of decaying animal tissue. Prime decomposers are bacteria or fungi, though larger scavengers also play an important role in decomposition if the body is accessible to insects, mites and other animals. The most important arthropods that are involved in the process include carrion beetles, mites, the most important non-insect animals that are typically involved in the process include mammal and bird scavengers, such as coyotes, dogs, wolves, foxes, rats, crows and vultures. Some of these scavengers also remove and scatter bones, which they ingest at a later time, aquatic and marine environments have break-down agents that include bacteria, fish, crustaceans, Diptera larvae and other carrion scavengers. Five general stages are used to describe the process of decomposition in vertebrate animals, fresh, bloat, active and advanced decay, the general stages of decomposition are coupled with two stages of chemical decomposition, autolysis and putrefaction. These two stages contribute to the process of decomposition, which breaks down the main components of the body. The fresh stage begins immediately after the heart stops beating, from the moment of death, the body begins cooling or warming to match the temperature of the ambient environment, during a stage called algor mortis. Shortly after death, within three to six hours, the tissues become rigid and incapable of relaxing, during a stage called rigor mortis. Once the heart stops, the blood can no longer supply oxygen or remove carbon dioxide from the tissues and this process is known as autolysis. Visible changes caused by decomposition are limited during the fresh stage and these multiply, consuming the bodys carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins, to produce a variety of substances including propionic acid, lactic acid, methane, hydrogen sulfide, and ammonia. The process of microbial proliferation within a body is referred to as putrefaction and leads to the stage of decomposition. Blowflies and flesh flies are the first carrion insects to arrive, the bloat stage provides the first clear visual sign that microbial proliferation is underway
30.
Oceanic dispersal
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Oceanic dispersal is a type of biological dispersal that occurs when terrestrial organisms transfer from one land mass to another by way of a sea crossing. Often this occurs via large rafts of floating vegetation such as are seen floating down major rivers in the tropics and washing out to sea. Dispersal via such a raft is sometimes referred to as a rafting event, colonization of land masses by plants can also occur via long-distance oceanic dispersal of floating seeds. Both land masses, for example, appear to have received their primates by this mechanism, according to genetic evidence, the common ancestor of the lemurs of Madagascar appears to have crossed the Mozambique Channel by rafting between 50 and 60 Ma ago. Likewise, the New World monkeys are thought to have originated in Africa and rafted to South America by the Oligocene, Madagascar also appears to have received its tenrecs, nesomyid rodents and euplerid carnivorans by this route and South America its caviomorph rodents. Simian primates and hystricognath rodents are believed to have rafted from Asia to Africa about 40 Ma ago. Among reptiles, several species in the South Pacific have been hypothesized to be descended from iguanas that rafted 10,000 kilometres from Central or South America. Similarly, a number of clades of American geckos seem to have rafted over from Africa during both the Paleogene and Neogene. Skinks of the related genera Mabuya and Trachylepis also apparently both floated across the Atlantic from Africa to South America and Fernando de Noronha, respectively, skinks from the same group have also rafted from Africa to Cape Verde, Madagascar, the Seychelles, the Comoros and Socotra. Surprisingly, even burrowing amphisbaenians and blind snakes appear to have rafted from Africa to South America, an example of a bird that is thought to have reached its present location by rafting is the weak-flying South American hoatzin, whose ancestors apparently floated over from Africa. Colonization of groups of islands can occur by an iterative rafting process sometimes called island hopping, such a process appears to have played a role, for example, in the colonization of the Caribbean by mammals of South American origin. A remarkable example of iterative rafting has been proposed for spiders of the genus Amaurobioides, members of this genus inhabit coastal sites and build silken cells which they seal at high tide, however, they do not balloon. However, oceanic dispersal of species may not always take the form of rafting, in some cases. South American tortoises then went on to colonize the West Indies, the dispersal of anthracotheres from Asia to Africa about 40 Ma ago, and the much more recent dispersal of hippos from Africa to Madagascar may have occurred by floating or swimming. The first documented example of colonization of a mass by rafting occurred in the aftermath of hurricanes Luis. A raft of uprooted trees carrying fifteen or more green iguanas was observed by fishermen landing on the east side of Anguilla – an island where they had never before been recorded. The iguanas had apparently caught on the trees and rafted two hundred miles across the ocean from Guadeloupe, where they are indigenous. Examination of the patterns and ocean currents indicated that they had probably spent three weeks at sea before landfall
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Mammal
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Mammals are any vertebrates within the class Mammalia, a clade of endothermic amniotes distinguished from reptiles by the possession of a neocortex, hair, three middle ear bones and mammary glands. All female mammals nurse their young with milk, secreted from the mammary glands, Mammals include the largest animals on the planet, the great whales. The basic body type is a quadruped, but some mammals are adapted for life at sea, in the air, in trees. The largest group of mammals, the placentals, have a placenta, Mammals range in size from the 30–40 mm bumblebee bat to the 30-meter blue whale. With the exception of the five species of monotreme, all modern mammals give birth to live young, most mammals, including the six most species-rich orders, belong to the placental group. The largest orders are the rodents, bats and Soricomorpha, the next three biggest orders, depending on the biological classification scheme used, are the Primates, the Cetartiodactyla, and the Carnivora. Living mammals are divided into the Yinotheria and Theriiformes There are around 5450 species of mammal, in some classifications, extant mammals are divided into two subclasses, the Prototheria, that is, the order Monotremata, and the Theria, or the infraclasses Metatheria and Eutheria. The marsupials constitute the group of the Metatheria, and include all living metatherians as well as many extinct ones. Much of the changes reflect the advances of cladistic analysis and molecular genetics, findings from molecular genetics, for example, have prompted adopting new groups, such as the Afrotheria, and abandoning traditional groups, such as the Insectivora. The mammals represent the only living Synapsida, which together with the Sauropsida form the Amniota clade, the early synapsid mammalian ancestors were sphenacodont pelycosaurs, a group that produced the non-mammalian Dimetrodon. At the end of the Carboniferous period, this group diverged from the line that led to todays reptiles. Some mammals are intelligent, with some possessing large brains, self-awareness, Mammals can communicate and vocalize in several different ways, including the production of ultrasound, scent-marking, alarm signals, singing, and echolocation. Mammals can organize themselves into fission-fusion societies, harems, and hierarchies, most mammals are polygynous, but some can be monogamous or polyandrous. They provided, and continue to provide, power for transport and agriculture, as well as commodities such as meat, dairy products, wool. Mammals are hunted or raced for sport, and are used as model organisms in science, Mammals have been depicted in art since Palaeolithic times, and appear in literature, film, mythology, and religion. Defaunation of mammals is primarily driven by anthropogenic factors, such as poaching and habitat destruction, Mammal classification has been through several iterations since Carl Linnaeus initially defined the class. No classification system is accepted, McKenna & Bell and Wilson & Reader provide useful recent compendiums. Though field work gradually made Simpsons classification outdated, it remains the closest thing to a classification of mammals
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Amphibian
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Amphibians are ectothermic, tetrapod vertebrates of the class Amphibia. They inhabit a variety of habitats, with most species living within terrestrial, fossorial, arboreal or freshwater aquatic ecosystems. Thus amphibians typically start out as larvae living in water, the young generally undergo metamorphosis from larva with gills to an adult air-breathing form with lungs. Amphibians use their skin as a respiratory surface and some small terrestrial salamanders and frogs lack lungs. They are superficially similar to lizards but, along with mammals and birds, reptiles are amniotes, the earliest amphibians evolved in the Devonian period from sarcopterygian fish with lungs and bony-limbed fins, features that were helpful in adapting to dry land. They diversified and became dominant during the Carboniferous and Permian periods, over time, amphibians shrank in size and decreased in diversity, leaving only the modern subclass Lissamphibia. The three modern orders of amphibians are Anura, Urodela, and Apoda, the number of known amphibian species is approximately 7,000, of which nearly 90% are frogs. The smallest amphibian in the world is a frog from New Guinea with a length of just 7.7 mm. The largest living amphibian is the 1.8 m Chinese giant salamander, the study of amphibians is called batrachology, while the study of both reptiles and amphibians is called herpetology. The word amphibian is derived from the Ancient Greek term ἀμφίβιος, the term was initially used as a general adjective for animals that could live on land or in water, including seals and otters. Traditionally, the class Amphibia includes all tetrapod vertebrates that are not amniotes, the numbers of species cited above follows Frost and the total number of known amphibian species is over 7,000, of which nearly 90% are frogs. With the phylogenetic classification, the taxon Labyrinthodontia has been discarded as it is a group without unique defining features apart from shared primitive characteristics. Classification varies according to the phylogeny of the author and whether they use a stem-based or a node-based classification. The phylogeny of Paleozoic amphibians is uncertain, and Lissamphibia may possibly fall within groups, like the Temnospondyli or the Lepospondyli. If the common ancestor of amphibians and amniotes is included in Amphibia, all modern amphibians are included in the subclass Lissamphibia, which is usually considered a clade, a group of species that have evolved from a common ancestor. The three modern orders are Anura, Caudata, and Gymnophiona, although the fossils of several older proto-frogs with primitive characteristics are known, the oldest true frog is Prosalirus bitis, from the Early Jurassic Kayenta Formation of Arizona. It is anatomically similar to modern frogs. The oldest known caecilian is another Early Jurassic species, Eocaecilia micropodia, the earliest salamander is Beiyanerpeton jianpingensis from the Late Jurassic of northeastern China
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Reptile
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Reptiles are tetrapod animals in the class Reptilia, comprising todays turtles, crocodilians, snakes, amphisbaenians, lizards, tuatara, and their extinct relatives. The study of these traditional reptile orders, historically combined with that of amphibians, is called herpetology. Because some reptiles are more related to birds than they are to other reptiles. For this reason, many scientists prefer to consider the birds part of Reptilia as well. Some early examples include the lizard-like Hylonomus and Casineria, in addition to the living reptiles, there are many diverse groups that are now extinct, in some cases due to mass extinction events. In particular, the K–Pg extinction wiped out the pterosaurs, plesiosaurs, ornithischians, and sauropods, as well as species of theropods, crocodyliforms. Modern non-avian reptiles inhabit every continent with the exception of Antarctica, several living subgroups are recognized, Testudines, approximately 400 species, Sphenodontia,1 species, Squamata, over 9,600 species, Crocodilia,25 species, and Aves,10,000 species. Reptiles are tetrapod vertebrates, creatures that either have four limbs or, unlike amphibians, reptiles do not have an aquatic larval stage. As amniotes, reptile eggs are surrounded by membranes for protection and transport, many of the viviparous species feed their fetuses through various forms of placenta analogous to those of mammals, with some providing initial care for their hatchlings. In the 18th century, the reptiles were, from the outset of classification, the terms reptile and amphibian were largely interchangeable, reptile being preferred by the French. Josephus Nicolaus Laurenti was the first to use the term Reptilia for an expanded selection of reptiles. Today, the two groups are commonly treated under the same heading as herptiles. He subsequently proposed the names of Sauropsida and Ichthyopsida for the two groups. In 1866, Haeckel demonstrated that vertebrates could be divided based on their strategies, and that reptiles, birds. The terms Sauropsida and Theropsida were used again in 1916 by E. S, Goodrich to distinguish between lizards, birds, and their relatives on the one hand and mammals and their extinct relatives on the other. Goodrich supported this division by the nature of the hearts and blood vessels in each group, according to Goodrich, both lineages evolved from an earlier stem group, Protosauria in which he included some animals today considered reptile-like amphibians, as well as early reptiles. Watson observed that the first two groups diverged very early in history, so he divided Goodrichs Protosauria between them. He also reinterpreted Sauropsida and Theropsida to exclude birds and mammals, thus his Sauropsida included Procolophonia, Eosuchia, Millerosauria, Chelonia, Squamata, Rhynchocephalia, Crocodilia, thecodonts, non-avian dinosaurs, pterosaurs, ichthyosaurs, and sauropterygians
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Invertebrate
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Invertebrates are animals that neither possess nor develop a vertebral column, derived from the notochord. This includes all animals apart from the subphylum Vertebrata, familiar examples of invertebrates include insects, crabs, lobsters and their kin, snails, clams, octopuses and their kin, starfish, sea-urchins and their kin, jellyfish, and worms. The majority of species are invertebrates, one estimate puts the figure at 97%. Many invertebrate taxa have a number and variety of species than the entire subphylum of Vertebrata. Some of the invertebrates, such as the Tunicata and Cephalochordata are more closely related to the vertebrates than to other invertebrates. This makes the term invertebrate paraphyletic and hence almost meaningless for taxonomic purposes, the word invertebrate comes from the form of the Latin word vertebra, which means a joint in general, and sometimes specifically a joint from the spinal column of a vertebrate. In turn the jointed aspect of vertebra derived from the concept of turning, coupled with the prefix in-, meaning not or without. The term invertebrates is not always precise among non-biologists since it does not accurately describe a taxon in the way that Arthropoda. Each of these describes an valid taxon, phylum, subphylum or family. Invertebrata is a term of convenience, not a taxon, it has very little circumscriptional significance except within the Chordata, the Vertebrata as a subphylum comprises such a small proportion of the Metazoa that to speak of the kingdom Animalia in terms of Vertebrata and Invertebrata has limited practicality. That would at least circumscribe the Chordata, however, even the notochord would be a less fundamental criterion than aspects of embryological development and symmetry or perhaps bauplan. The following text reflects earlier scientific understanding of the term and of animals which have constituted it. According to this understanding, invertebrates do not possess a skeleton of bone and they include hugely varied body plans. Many have fluid-filled, hydrostatic skeletons, like jellyfish or worms, others have hard exoskeletons, outer shells like those of insects and crustaceans. The most familiar invertebrates include the Protozoa, Porifera, Coelenterata, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida, Echinodermata, Mollusca, Arthropoda include insects, crustaceans and arachnids. By far the largest number of described species are insects. The following table lists the number of described extant species for major invertebrate groups as estimated in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species,2014.3. The IUCN estimates that 66,178 extant vertebrate species have been described, the trait that is common to all invertebrates is the absence of a vertebral column, this creates a distinction between invertebrates and vertebrates
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Ocean
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An ocean is a body of saline water that composes much of a planets hydrosphere. On Earth, an ocean is one of the major divisions of the World Ocean. These are, in descending order by area, the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern, the word sea is often used interchangeably with ocean in American English but, strictly speaking, a sea is a body of saline water partly or fully enclosed by land. The ocean contains 97% of Earths water, and oceanographers have stated that less than 5% of the World Ocean has been explored, the total volume is approximately 1.35 billion cubic kilometers with an average depth of nearly 3,700 meters. As the world ocean is the component of Earths hydrosphere, it is integral to all known life, forms part of the carbon cycle. The world ocean is the habitat of 230,000 known species, but because much of it is unexplored, the origin of Earths oceans remains unknown, oceans are thought to have formed in the Hadean period and may have been the impetus for the emergence of life. Extraterrestrial oceans may be composed of water or other elements and compounds, the only confirmed large stable bodies of extraterrestrial surface liquids are the lakes of Titan, although there is evidence for the existence of oceans elsewhere in the Solar System. Early in their histories, Mars and Venus are theorized to have had large water oceans. The Mars ocean hypothesis suggests that nearly a third of the surface of Mars was once covered by water, compounds such as salts and ammonia dissolved in water lower its freezing point so that water might exist in large quantities in extraterrestrial environments as brine or convecting ice. Unconfirmed oceans are speculated beneath the surface of many planets and natural satellites, notably. The Solar Systems giant planets are thought to have liquid atmospheric layers of yet to be confirmed compositions. Oceans may also exist on exoplanets and exomoons, including surface oceans of water within a circumstellar habitable zone. Ocean planets are a type of planet with a surface completely covered with liquid. The concept of Ōkeanós has an Indo-European connection, Greek Ōkeanós has been compared to the Vedic epithet ā-śáyāna-, predicated of the dragon Vṛtra-, who captured the cows/rivers. Related to this notion, the Okeanos is represented with a dragon-tail on some early Greek vases, though generally described as several separate oceans, these waters comprise one global, interconnected body of salt water sometimes referred to as the World Ocean or global ocean. This concept of a body of water with relatively free interchange among its parts is of fundamental importance to oceanography. The major oceanic divisions – listed below in descending order of area and volume – are defined in part by the continents, various archipelagos, Oceans are fringed by smaller, adjoining bodies of water such as seas, gulfs, bays, bights, and straits. The Mid-Oceanic Ridge of the World are connected and form the Ocean Ridge, the continuous mountain range is 65,000 km long, and the total length of the oceanic ridge system is 80,000 km long
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Island
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An island or isle is any piece of sub-continental land that is surrounded by water. Very small islands such as emergent land features on atolls can be called islets, skerries, an island in a river or a lake island may be called an eyot or ait, and a small island off the coast may be called a holm. A grouping of geographically or geologically related islands is called an archipelago, an island may be described as such, despite the presence of an artificial land bridge. Example, Singapore and its causeway, or the various Dutch delta islands, there are two main types of islands in the sea, continental and oceanic. The word island derives from Middle English iland, from Old English igland, Old English ieg is actually a cognate of Swedish ö and German Aue, and related to Latin aqua. There is a difference between islands and continents in terms of geology, continents sit on continental lithosphere which is part of tectonic plates floating high on Earths mantle. Oceanic crust is also part of tectonic plates, but it is denser than continental lithosphere, Islands are either extensions of the oceanic crust or geologically they are part of some continent sitting on continental lithosphere. This holds true for Australia, which sits on its own continental lithosphere, continental islands are bodies of land that lie on the continental shelf of a continent. A special type of island is the microcontinental island, which is created when a continent is rifted. Examples are Madagascar and Socotra off Africa, the Kerguelen Islands, New Caledonia, New Zealand, another subtype is an island or bar formed by deposition of tiny rocks where water current loses some of its carrying capacity. While some are transitory and may disappear if the volume or speed of the current changes, others are stable, oceanic islands are islands that do not sit on continental shelves. The vast majority are volcanic in origin, such as Saint Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean, the few oceanic islands that are not volcanic are tectonic in origin and arise where plate movements have lifted up the ocean floor above the surface. Examples are Saint Peter and Paul Rocks in the Atlantic Ocean, one type of volcanic oceanic island is found in a volcanic island arc. These islands arise from volcanoes where the subduction of one plate under another is occurring, examples are the Aleutian Islands, the Mariana Islands, and most of Tonga in the Pacific Ocean. The only examples in the Atlantic Ocean are some of the Lesser Antilles, another type of volcanic oceanic island occurs where an oceanic rift reaches the surface. There are two examples, Iceland, which is the second largest volcanic island, and Jan Mayen. A third type of oceanic island is formed over volcanic hotspots. A hotspot is more or less stationary relative to the tectonic plate above it
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Human
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Modern humans are the only extant members of Hominina tribe, a branch of the tribe Hominini belonging to the family of great apes. Several of these hominins used fire, occupied much of Eurasia and they began to exhibit evidence of behavioral modernity around 50,000 years ago. In several waves of migration, anatomically modern humans ventured out of Africa, the spread of humans and their large and increasing population has had a profound impact on large areas of the environment and millions of native species worldwide. Humans are uniquely adept at utilizing systems of communication for self-expression and the exchange of ideas. Humans create complex structures composed of many cooperating and competing groups, from families. Social interactions between humans have established a wide variety of values, social norms, and rituals. These human societies subsequently expanded in size, establishing various forms of government, religion, today the global human population is estimated by the United Nations to be near 7.5 billion. In common usage, the word generally refers to the only extant species of the genus Homo—anatomically and behaviorally modern Homo sapiens. In scientific terms, the meanings of hominid and hominin have changed during the recent decades with advances in the discovery, there is also a distinction between anatomically modern humans and Archaic Homo sapiens, the earliest fossil members of the species. The English adjective human is a Middle English loanword from Old French humain, ultimately from Latin hūmānus, the words use as a noun dates to the 16th century. The native English term man can refer to the species generally, the species binomial Homo sapiens was coined by Carl Linnaeus in his 18th century work Systema Naturae. The generic name Homo is a learned 18th century derivation from Latin homō man, the species-name sapiens means wise or sapient. Note that the Latin word homo refers to humans of either gender, the genus Homo evolved and diverged from other hominins in Africa, after the human clade split from the chimpanzee lineage of the hominids branch of the primates. The closest living relatives of humans are chimpanzees and gorillas, with the sequencing of both the human and chimpanzee genome, current estimates of similarity between human and chimpanzee DNA sequences range between 95% and 99%. The gibbons and orangutans were the first groups to split from the leading to the humans. The splitting date between human and chimpanzee lineages is placed around 4–8 million years ago during the late Miocene epoch, during this split, chromosome 2 was formed from two other chromosomes, leaving humans with only 23 pairs of chromosomes, compared to 24 for the other apes. There is little evidence for the divergence of the gorilla, chimpanzee. Each of these species has been argued to be an ancestor of later hominins
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Mode of transport
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Mode of transport is a term used to distinguish substantially different ways to perform. The most dominant modes of transport are air, water, and land transport, other modes also exist, including pipelines, cable transport, and space transport. Human-powered transport and animal-powered transport are sometimes regarded as their own mode, in general, transportation is used for the movement of people, animals, and other things. Each mode of transport has a different technological solution. Each mode has its own infrastructure, vehicles, and operations, each mode also has separate subsystems. A fixed-wing aircraft, typically airplane, is a flight vehicle. Fixed-wing aircraft ranges from small trainers and recreational aircraft to large airliners, for short distances or in places without runways, helicopters can be practical. Air transport is the second fastest method of transport, after space travel and this celerity comes with higher cost and energy use, and aviations impacts to the environment and particularly the global climate require consideration when comparing modes of transportation. U. S. airlines alone burned about 16.2 billion gallons of fuel during the months between October 2013 and September 2014. WHO estimates that globally as many as 500,000 people at a time are on planes, land transport covers all land-based transportation systems that provide for the movement of people, goods and services. Land transport plays a role in linking communities to each other. The rails are anchored perpendicular to railroad train consists of one or more connected vehicles that run on the rails, propulsion is commonly provided by a locomotive, that hauls a series of unpowered cars, that can carry passengers or freight. The locomotive can be powered by steam, diesel or by electricity supplied by trackside systems, alternatively, some or all the cars can be powered, known as a multiple unit. Also, a train can be powered by horses, cables, gravity, pneumatics, railed vehicles move with much less friction than rubber tires on paved roads, making trains more energy efficient, though not as efficient as ships. Intercity trains are long-haul services connecting cities, modern high-speed rail is capable of speeds up to 430 km/h, Freight trains traditionally used box cars, requiring manual loading and unloading of the cargo. Since the 1960s, container trains have become the dominant solution for general freight, a road is an identifiable route of travel, usually surfaced with gravel, asphalt or concrete, and supporting land passage by foot or by a number of vehicles. The most common vehicle in the developed world is the automobile. As of 2002, there were 591 million automobiles worldwide, other users of roads include motorcars, motorcycles, buses, trucks, bicycles and pedestrians, and special provisions are sometimes made for each of these
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Pine Creek (Pennsylvania)
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Pine Creek is a tributary of the West Branch Susquehanna River in Potter, Tioga, Lycoming, and Clinton counties in Pennsylvania in the United States. The creek is 87.2 miles long, within Tioga County,23.25 miles of Pine Creek are designated as a Pennsylvania Scenic River. Pine Creek is the largest tributary of the West Branch Susquehanna River and has the largest watershed of all the West Branch’s tributaries, Pine Creek is named for the many pine trees that lined much of its banks. The Iroquois called Pine Creek Tiadaghton, which according to Owlett, Pine Creek is the largest creek in the United States. Pine Creeks source is in Potter County,5 miles southeast of Ulysses and it flows southeast 16 miles to Galeton, where it receives its first major tributary, the West Branch Pine Creek. It then flows east 12 miles to Tioga County and the village of Ansonia, here it receives its second major tributary, Marsh Creek, and turns south again for 16 miles. This stretch is the start of the Pine Creek Gorge, which is about 1,000 feet deep in places, at the village of Blackwell, Pine Creek receives its third major tributary, Babb Creek. It continues southwest 14 miles and enters Lycoming County, where it turns southeast for 28 miles to its mouth, at Waterville it receives its fourth major tributary, Little Pine Creek. Pine Creek continues south and forms part of the border between Lycoming and Clinton counties and its confluence with the West Branch Susquehanna River is at this border, between the boroughs of Avis and Jersey Shore. The elevation at the source of Pine Creek is 2,420 feet, the difference in elevation—1,900 feet —divided by the length of the creek—86.5 miles —gives an average drop or relief ratio of 22.0 ft/mi. The meander ratio is 1.08, so the creek is fairly straight in its bed, Pine Creeks watershed covers 979 square miles, the largest watershed of all tributaries of the West Branch Susquehanna River. Pine Creek and Pine Creek Gorge are an outdoor recreation destination. The West Rim Trail is a 30-mile-long hiking trail along the west rim of the Pine Creek Gorge, the Pine Creek Rail Trail runs beside the creek through the gorge from Ansonia to Jersey Shore. Conrail took over the line in 1976, and the last train ran through the gorge on October 7,1988. The Fair Play Men were illegal settlers who established their own system of self-rule from 1773 to 1785 in the West Branch Susquehanna River valley of Pennsylvania in what is now the United States. Because they settled in territory claimed by Native Americans, they had no recourse to the Pennsylvania colonial government, accordingly, they established what was known as the Fair Play System, with three elected commissioners who ruled on land claims and other issues for the group. In a remarkable coincidence, the Fair Play Men made their own declaration of independence from Britain on July 4,1776, beneath the Tiadaghton Elm on the west bank of Pine Creek, the Bridge in Porter Township was built in 1889. The Bridge in Brown Township was built in 1890, the English Center Suspension Bridge was built in 1891
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Brixham
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Brixham /ˈbrɪksəm/ is a small fishing town and civil parish in the district of Torbay in the county of Devon, in the south-west of England. Brixham is at the end of Torbay, across the bay from Torquay. At the time of the 2011 census it had a population of 16,693 and it is thought that the name Brixham came from Briocs village. Brioc was an old English or Brythonic personal name and -ham is an ancient term for home derived from Old English, the town is hilly and built around the harbour which remains in use as a dock for fishing trawlers. It has a focal tourist attraction in the replica of Sir Francis Drakes ship Golden Hind that is moored there. In summer the Cowtown carnival is held, a reminder of when Brixham was two communities with only a marshy lane to connect them. Cowtown was the area on top of the hill where the farmers lived, while a mile away in the harbour was Fishtown where the seamen lived. Cowtown, the St Marys Square area, is on the road leaving Brixham to the south west, in the direction of Kingswear, the town holds a yearly pirate event which competes for the title of most pirates in one place and this draws visitors from far and wide. Although there is evidence of Ice age inhabitants here, and probable trading in the Bronze Age and it is possible that Saxon settlement originated by sea from Hampshire in the 6th century, or overland around the year 800. Brixham was called Briseham in the Domesday Book, Brixham was part of the former Haytor Hundred. The population was 3,671 in 1801 and 8,092 in 1901, in 1334, the towns value was assessed at one pound, twelve shillings and eightpence, by 1524, the valuation had risen to £24 and sixteen shillings. It is recorded as a borough from 1536, and a market is recorded from 1822, William de Whithurst, a distinguished Crown official and judge in Ireland, became parish priest of Brixham in 1350. Many local people still have Dutch surnames, being descendants of soldiers in that army. A road leading from the harbour up a hill, to where the Dutch made their camp, is still called Overgang. The coffin house reflects Brixham humour, it is coffin-shaped and when a father was asked for the hand in marriage of his daughter, he said he would see her in a coffin, amazed by this, the father gave his blessing. The street names reflect the towns history, pump Street is where the village pump stood. Monksbridge was a built by the monks of Totnes Priory. Lichfield Drive was the route that the dead were taken for burial at St Mary’s churchyard, salutation Mews, near the church, dates from when England was Catholic, and the salutation was to the Virgin Mary
41.
Pirate's Lair on Tom Sawyer Island
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Tom Sawyer Island is an artificial island surrounded by the Rivers of America at Disneyland, Magic Kingdom and Tokyo Disneyland. It contains structures and caves with references to Mark Twain characters from the novel The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, and provides interactive, climbing, and scenic opportunities. At Disneyland in 2007, the attraction was rethemed and expanded as Pirates Lair on Tom Sawyer Island, the area opened in 1956, one year after the opening of Disneyland Park. Prior to the debut of Fantasmic. in 1992, when the end of the Island was re-built to facilitate the nighttime show. The Island received major upgrades, new elements, and a complete re-theming in 2007 when it re-opened as Pirates Lair on Tom Sawyer Island. The re-theming eradicated much of the previous Tom Sawyer theme in favor of characters and elements from, Pirates Lair on Tom Sawyer Islands opening coincided with the theatrical release of Pirates of the Caribbean, At Worlds End. On January 11,2016, Pirates Lair on Tom Sawyer Island, along with the attractions and shows along the Rivers of America. The attraction is scheduled to reopen in summer 2017, Guests visit the island, surrounded by the Rivers of America, by traveling on a motorized raft which is piloted by a Disneyland cast member. While aboard the Sailing Ship Columbia or Mark Twain Riverboat, Disneyland guests travel clockwise around the island, looking to starboard, they can see the many areas and adventure opportunities of the island. To port, they see Disneyland itself and from time to time will see a Disneyland Railroad train passing by. At the northern end of the island, inaccessible to guests, is the Burning Settlers Cabin, despite guest complaints, the park no longer ignites the roof of the cabin with propane each time a watercraft passes by. The Walt Disney World version lasted until 2006, where the pipes were damaged by age, over the years, there have been theme changes to the cabin itself, originally, it was said to have been set afire by a hostile native tribe. In 2007, the appearance of the house was cleaned up and all fire damage was removed. Currently, narration indicates that it is the home of Mike Fink, keelboater, the most prominent structure on the island, viewable from Frontierland, Adventureland and New Orleans Square, is Lafittes Tavern, which was formerly Harpers Mill. The Landing on the island consists of a dock in which the Rafts to Tom Sawyer Island travel to from the mainland. Guests exit the raft here, and then guests waiting in the docks small switchback queue enter the raft to travel back to the mainland, Lafittes Tavern is the former Harpers Mill which has been part of Tom Sawyer Island since its inception. The outside walls and porch of Lafittes Tavern features various swords, despite the Explorers Maps lively description of the place, Guests cannot actually enter the Tavern. There was small pirate stunt show that place on the stage area in front of the Tavern
42.
Disneyland
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Disneyland Park, originally Disneyland, is the first of two theme parks built at the Disneyland Resort in Anaheim, California, opened on July 17,1955. It is the theme park designed and built under the direct supervision of Walt Disney. It was originally the attraction on the property, its name was changed to Disneyland Park to distinguish it from the expanding complex in the 1990s. Walt Disney came up with the concept of Disneyland after visiting various amusement parks with his daughters in the 1930s and 1940s. He initially envisioned building a tourist attraction adjacent to his studios in Burbank to entertain fans who wished to visit, however, after hiring a consultant to help him determine an appropriate site for his project, Disney bought a 160-acre site near Anaheim in 1953. Construction began in 1954 and the park was unveiled during a televised press event on the ABC Television Network on July 17,1955. Opened in 2001, Disney California Adventure Park was built on the site of Disneylands original parking lot, Disneyland has a larger cumulative attendance than any other theme park in the world, with over 650 million guests since it opened. In 2013, the park hosted approximately 16.2 million guests, according to a March 2005 Disney report,65,700 jobs are supported by the Disneyland Resort, including about 20,000 direct Disney employees and 3,800 third-party employees. To all who come to this place, Welcome. Here age relives fond memories of the past, and here youth may savor the challenge and promise of the future. Disneyland is dedicated to the ideals, the dreams, and the facts that have created America, with the hope that it will be a source of joy. The concept for Disneyland began when Walt Disney was visiting Griffith Park in Los Angeles with his daughters Diane and Sharon. While watching them ride the merry-go-round, he came up with the idea of a place where adults and their children could go and have fun together and he may have also been influenced by his fathers memories of the Worlds Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago. Another likely influence was Benton Harbor, Michigans nationally famous House of Davids Eden Springs Park, Disney visited the park and ultimately bought one of the older miniature trains originally used there, the colony had the largest miniature railway setup in the world at the time. His ideas evolved to a play park with a boat ride. The initial concept, the Mickey Mouse Park, started with an 8-acre plot across Riverside Drive and his designers began working on concepts, though the project grew much larger than the land could hold. Disney hired Harrison Price from Stanford Research Institute to gauge the proper area to locate the theme based on the areas potential growth. Based on Prices analysis, Disney acquired 160 acres of groves and walnut trees in Anaheim
43.
Citarum River
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Citarum is the longest and largest river in West Java, Indonesia It is also the third longest river in Java after Bengawan Solo and Brantas. It has an important role in the life of the people of West Java, as it supports agriculture, water supply, fishery, industry, sewerage, electricity, etc. In Indonesian history the Citarum is linked with the 4th century Tarumanagara kingdom, as the kingdom, the earlier 4th century BCE prehistoric Buni clay pottery-making culture flourished near the rivers mouth. There are three hydroelectric powerplant dams installed along the Citarum, Saguling, Cirata, and Ir. H. Djuanda, all supplying the electricity for the Bandung and Greater Jakarta areas. The waters from these dams are used to irrigate vast rice paddies in Karawang and Bekasi area. The Jatiluhur Dam with a 3 billion cubic meter storage capacity has the largest reservoir in Indonesia, the river makes up around 80 percent of the surface water available to the people who use it. Pollution has affected agriculture so much that farmers have sold their rice paddies for half their normal price, the river is heavily polluted by human activity, about five million people live in its basin. Textile factories in Bandung and Cimahi were major toxic waste contributors, more than 2,000 industries contaminate 5,020 sq miles of the river with lead, mercury, arsenic and other toxins. On December 5,2008, the Asian Development Bank approved a $500 million loan for cleaning up the river, in November 2011, the river revitalization began, with an expected cost of Rp35 trillion over 15 years. The revitalization is occurring from Mount Wayang through 8 regencies and 3 cities for a distance of 180 kilometers, the target for the first 3 years is to pick up 10.5 million cubic meters of sedimentation. Remote Sensing data application for Citarum River Integrated Management, the 15 most toxic places to live via Mother Nature Network Sea of Garbage — pictures of Citarum River pollution The Dirtiest River In The World — The Dirtiest River In The World, Photos. All materials can be downloaded from the site
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Dunajec
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The Dunajec is a river running through southern Poland. It is a tributary of the Vistula River. It begins in Nowy Targ at the junction of two mountain rivers, Czarny Dunajec and Biały Dunajec. Dunajec forms a border between Poland and Slovakia for 27 kilometers in the Pieniny Środkowe range, east of the Czorsztyn reservoir and it is the only river taking waters from the Slovak territory to the Baltic Sea. The Dunajec is 274 kilometers long, running through southern Poland for 247 kilometers and it has a basin area of 6,804 square kilometres. Below the two source streams Dunajec flows through a valley called Nowotarska Basin. It then supplies the waters of the dam in Niedzica and the dam in Sromowce Wyżne, further down it turns to the north into the Western Beskid Mountains, and Sądecka Basin. It flows across a valley of the Beskid Foothills and falls down across Rożnów Foothills and finally, it leads into the Sandomierz Basin. Dunajec flows into the Vistula River in the vicinity of Opatowiec
45.
Pieniny
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The Pieniny is a mountain range in the south of Poland and the north of Slovakia. The Pieniny mountain range is divided into three parts – Pieniny Spiskie and Pieniny Właściwe in Poland, and, Małe Pieniny in Poland, the Pieniny mountains consist mainly of the limestone and dolomite rock strata. The most famous peak, Trzy Korony, is 982 metres high and it is also the summit of the Three Crowns Massif. Pieniny’s highest peak – Wysoka, Vysoké Skalky – reaches 1,050 metres above sea level, Pieniny mountains formed at the bottom of the sea in several geological epochs. They were folded and raised in Upper Cretaceous, at the beginning of the Paleogene geologic period a second wave of tectonic movements took place causing a further shift. The third wave of movements during the Paleogene and Neogene resulted in a complex tectonic structure. At the same time resulted in stripping of the outer mantle rocks. Peaks were built from weather resistant Jurassic rocks, mainly limestone, valleys and passes were created from softer and more susceptible to weathering rocks of Cretaceous and Paleogene periods. Caves are few and rather small, by contrast, rivers and streams are often deeply indented in the rock, creating approximately 15 ravines and gorges. The most famous gorges of the Pieniny mountains are the Dunajec River Gorge in Pieniny National Park, hills along the northern border of Pieniny are of volcanic origin
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Steamboat
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A steamboat is a boat that is propelled primarily by steam power, typically driving propellers or paddlewheels. Steamboats sometimes use the prefix designation SS, S. S. or S/S or PS, the term steamboat is used to refer to smaller, insular, steam-powered boats working on lakes and rivers, particularly riverboats. As using steam became more reliable, steam power became applied to larger, Early attempts at powering a boat by steam were made by the French inventor Denis Papin and the English inventor Thomas Newcomen. Papin invented the steam digester and experimented with closed cylinders and pistons pushed in by atmospheric pressure, Papin proposed applying this steam pump to the operation of a paddlewheel boat and tried to market his idea in Britain. He was unable to convert the piston motion into rotary motion. Newcomens design did solve the first problem, but remained shackled to the inherent limitations of the engines of the time, a steamboat was described and patented by English physician John Allen in 1729. In 1736, Jonathan Hulls was granted a patent in England for a Newcomen engine-powered steamboat, William Henry of Lancaster, Pennsylvania, having learned of Watts engine on a visit to England, made his own engine. In 1763 he put it in a boat, the boat sank, and while Henry made an improved model, he did not appear to have much success, though he may have inspired others. At its first demonstration on 15 July 1783, Pyroscaphe travelled upstream on the river Saône for some fifteen minutes before the engine failed, presumably this was easily repaired as the boat is said to have made several such journeys. Following this, De Jouffroy attempted to get the government interested in his work, De Jouffroy did not have the funds for this, and, following the events of the French revolution, work on the project was discontinued after he left the country. Similar boats were made in 1785 by John Fitch in Philadelphia and William Symington in Dumfries and this boat could typically make 7 to 8 miles per hour and traveled more than 2,000 miles during its short length of service. The Fitch steamboat was not a success, as this travel route was adequately covered by relatively good wagon roads. The following year, a boat made 30-mile excursions, and in 1790. Miller sent King Gustav III of Sweden an actual version,100 feet long. Miller then engaged engineer William Symington to build his patent steam engine drove a stern-mounted paddle wheel in a boat in 1785. The boat was successfully tried out on Dalswinton Loch in 1788 and was followed by a steamboat the next year. The boat was built by Alexander Hart at Grangemouth to Symingtons design with a cylinder engine. Trials on the River Carron in June 1801 were successful and included towing sloops from the river Forth up the Carron and thence along the Forth, in 1801, Symington patented a horizontal steam engine directly linked to a crank
47.
Huasco
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Huasco is a Chilean city and commune, in the Huasco Province, Atacama Region. The port city of Huasco is located 50 km west of Vallenar and close to the town of Huasco Bajo, the coastal route between Huasco Bajo and Carrizal Bajo provides one of the two accesses to Llanos de Challe National Park. The port was used between 1851 and 1873 to ship copper ore, copper regulus, alpaca wool and hides round Cape Horn to Swansea, Glamorgan, according to the 2002 census of the National Statistics Institute, Huasco had 7,945 inhabitants. Of these,6,445 lived in areas and 1,500 in rural areas. The population grew by 5. 7% between the 1992 and 2002 censuses, as a commune, Huasco is a third-level administrative division of Chile administered by a municipal council, headed by an alcalde who is directly elected every four years. The 2008-2012 alcalde is Rodrigo Loyola Morenilla, within the electoral divisions of Chile, Huasco is represented in the Chamber of Deputies by Mr. Alberto Robles and Mr. Giovanni Calderón as part of the 6th electoral district. The commune is represented in the Senate by Isabel Allende Bussi and Baldo Prokurica Prokurica as part of the 3rd senatorial constituency
