1.
Salute
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A salute is a gesture or other action used to display respect. Salutes are primarily associated with armed forces, but other organizations and civilians also use salutes, the French salute is almost identical to the British Armys. The customary salute in the Polish Armed Forces is the two-fingers salute, in the Russian military, the right hand, palm down, is brought to the right temple, almost, but not quite, touching, the head has to be covered. In the Swedish armed forces, the salute is identical to that of the U. S. armed forces, in the Hellenic Army salute the palm is facing down and the fingers point to the coat of arms. It should be noted that when outdoors, a cover is to be worn at all times when wearing Battle Dress Uniforms/Army Combat Uniforms, but is not required when wearing physical training gear. When the presence of enemy snipers is suspected, military salutes are generally forbidden, others also note that the raising of ones visor was a way to identify oneself saying This is who I am, and I am not afraid. Medieval visors were, to end, equipped with a protruding spike that allowed the visor to be raised using a saluting motion. As late as the American Revolution, a British Army soldier saluted by removing his hat, over time, it became conventionalized into something resembling our modern hand salute. During the Napoleonic Wars, British crews saluted officers by touching a clenched fist to the brow as though grasping a hat-brim between fingers and thumb, when carrying a sword, European military forces and their cultural descendants use a two-step gesture. The sword is first raised, in the hand, to the level of. The blade is inclined forward and up 30 degrees from the vertical, then the sword is slashed downward to a position with the point close to the ground in front of the right foot. The blade is inclined down and forward with the edge to the left. This gesture originated in the Crusades, the hilt of a sword formed a cross with the blade, so if a crucifix was not available, a Crusader could kiss the hilt of his sword when praying, before entering battle, for oaths and vows, and so on. The lowering of the point to the ground is an act of submission. In fencing, the fencers salute each other before putting their masks on to begin a bout. There are several methods of doing this, but the most common is to bring the sword in front of the face so that the blade is pointing up in front of the nose, the fencers also salute the referee and the audience. When armed with a rifle, two methods are available when saluting, the usual method is called present arms, the rifle is brought to the vertical, muzzle up, in front of center of the chest with the trigger away from the body. The hands hold the stock close to the positions they would have if the rifle were being fired, less formal salutes include the order arms salute and the shoulder arms salutes
2.
Spanish Civil War
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Ultimately, the Nationalists won, and Franco then ruled Spain for the next 36 years, from April 1939 until his death in November 1975. Sanjurjo was killed in an accident while attempting to return from exile in Portugal. The coup was supported by units in the Spanish protectorate in Morocco, Pamplona, Burgos, Zaragoza, Valladolid, Cádiz, Córdoba. However, rebelling units in some important cities—such as Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Bilbao, and Málaga—did not gain control, Spain was thus left militarily and politically divided. The Nationalists and the Republican government fought for control of the country, the Nationalist forces received munitions and soldiers from Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, while the Republican side received support from the Communist Soviet Union and leftist populist Mexico. Other countries, such as the United Kingdom and France, operated a policy of non-intervention. The Nationalists advanced from their strongholds in the south and west and they also besieged Madrid and the area to its south and west for much of the war. Those associated with the losing Republicans were persecuted by the victorious Nationalists, with the establishment of a dictatorship led by General Franco in the aftermath of the war, all right-wing parties were fused into the structure of the Franco regime. The war became notable for the passion and political division it inspired, organized purges occurred in territory captured by Francos forces to consolidate the future regime. A significant number of killings took place in areas controlled by the Republicans, the extent to which Republican authorities took part in killings in Republican territory varied. The 19th century was a turbulent time for Spain and those in favour of reforming Spains government vied for political power with conservatives, who tried to prevent reforms from taking place. Some liberals, in a tradition that had started with the Spanish Constitution of 1812, sought to limit the power of the monarchy of Spain, the reforms of 1812 did not last after King Ferdinand VII dissolved the Constitution and ended the Trienio Liberal government. Twelve successful coups were carried out between 1814 and 1874, until the 1850s, the economy of Spain was primarily based on agriculture. There was little development of an industrial or commercial class. The land-based oligarchy remained powerful, a number of people held large estates called latifundia as well as all the important government positions. In 1868 popular uprisings led to the overthrow of Queen Isabella II of the House of Bourbon, two distinct factors led to the uprisings, a series of urban riots and a liberal movement within the middle classes and the military concerned with the ultra-conservatism of the monarchy. In 1873 Isabellas replacement, King Amadeo I of the House of Savoy, abdicated owing to increasing pressure. After the restoration of the Bourbons in December 1874, Carlists and Anarchists emerged in opposition to the monarchy, alejandro Lerroux, Spanish politician and leader of the Radical Republican Party, helped bring republicanism to the fore in Catalonia, where poverty was particularly acute
3.
Roman salute
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The Roman salute is a gesture in which the arm is held out forward straight, with palm down, and fingers touching. In some versions, the arm is raised upward at an angle, in others, in contemporary times, the former is widely considered a symbol of fascism that is commonly perceived to be based on a custom in ancient Rome. However, no Roman text gives this description, and the Roman works of art that display salutational gestures bear little resemblance to the modern Roman salute, jacques-Louis Davids painting The Oath of the Horatii provided the starting point for the gesture that became later known as the Roman salute. The gesture and its identification with Roman culture were developed in other neoclassic artworks. This was further elaborated upon in popular culture during the late 19th and early 20th centuries in plays and these included a 1914 Italian film called Cabiria based upon a screenplay by the nationalist poet Gabriele dAnnunzio. In 1919, dAnnunzio adopted the cinematographically depicted salute as a ritual when he led the occupation of Fiume. Through dAnnunzios influence, the gesture soon became part of the rising Italian Fascist movements symbolic repertoire, in 1923 the salute was gradually adopted by the Italian Fascist regime. It was then adopted and made compulsory within the Nazi party in 1926 and it was also adopted by other fascist movements. Since World War II, the Nazi variant has been an offence in Germany. Legal restrictions on its use in Italy are more nuanced, the gesture and its variations continue to be used in neo-fascist contexts. According to common perceptions, this salute was based on an ancient Roman custom, however, this description is unknown in Roman literature and is never mentioned by ancient historians of Rome. Not a single Roman work of art, be it sculpture, coinage, or painting, the right hand was commonly used in antiquity as a symbol of pledging trust, friendship or loyalty. He swore his oath with the words, so may I achieve the honours of my father, and at the same time he stretched out his right hand in the direction of his statue. Sculptures commemorating military victories such as those on the Arch of Titus, however these monuments do not display a single clear image of the Roman salute. For example, three such scenes have been analyzed on Trajans Column, on plate 99, six onlookers have their hand raised to Trajan, half extended straight, half bent at the elbow. On the ones with straight arms, only one palm is open, the fingers of the three with bent arms are pointed downward. On Plate 167, three Dacians extend their right arms toward the emperor, their hands held vertically and their fingers spread. None of the Romans are returning their gesture, on plates 122–123, the emperor on horseback is greeted by a unit of legionaries
4.
Logo
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A logo is a graphic mark, emblem, or symbol commonly used by commercial enterprises, organizations, and even individuals to aid and promote instant public recognition. There are purely graphic emblems, symbols, icons and logos, in the days of hot metal typesetting, a logotype was one word cast as a single piece of type. By extension, the term was used for a uniquely set. At the level of communication and in common usage, a companys logo is today often synonymous with its trademark or brand. The arts were expanding in purpose—from expression and decoration of an artistic, storytelling nature, to a differentiation of brands, consultancies and trades-groups in the commercial arts were growing and organizing, by 1890, the US had 700 lithographic printing firms employing more than 8,000 people. Artistic credit tended to be assigned to the company, as opposed to the individual artists who usually performed less important jobs. Playful children’s books, authoritative newspapers, and conversational periodicals developed their own visual and editorial styles for unique, as printing costs decreased, literacy rates increased, and visual styles changed, the Victorian decorative arts led to an expansion of typographic styles and methods of representing businesses. A renewal of interest in craftsmanship and quality also provided the artists and companies with a greater interest in credit, leading to the creation of unique logos and marks. By the 1950s, Modernism had shed its roots as an artistic movement in Europe to become an international, commercialized movement with adherents in the United States. Modernist-inspired logos proved successful in the era of mass visual communication ushered in by television, improvements in printing technology, the current era of logo design began in the 1870s with the first abstract logo, the Bass red triangle. As of 2014, many corporations, products, brands, services, agencies, as a result, only a few of the thousands of ideograms in circulation are recognizable without a name. Ideograms and symbols may be effective than written names, especially for logos translated into many alphabets in increasingly globalized markets. For instance, a written in Arabic script might have little resonance in most European markets. By contrast, ideograms keep the general nature of a product in both markets. In non-profit areas, the Red Cross exemplifies a well-known emblem that does not need an accompanying name, the red cross and red crescent are among the best-recognized symbols in the world. National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies and their Federation as well as the International Committee of the Red Cross include these symbols in their logos, branding can aim to facilitate cross-language marketing. Consumers and potential consumers can identify the Coca-Cola name written in different alphabets because of the standard color, the text was written in Spencerian Script, which was a popular writing style when the Coca Cola Logo was being designed. Since a logo is the visual entity signifying an organization, logo design is an important area of graphic design, a logo is the central element of a complex identification system that must be functionally extended to all communications of an organization
5.
Industrial Workers of the World
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The Industrial Workers of the World, members of which are commonly termed Wobblies, is an international labor union that was founded in 1905 in Chicago, Illinois in the United States of America. The union combines general unionism with industrial unionism, as it is a union whose members are further organized within the industry of their employment. The philosophy and tactics of the IWW are described as industrial unionism. At their peak in August 1917, IWW membership was more than 150,000, Membership declined dramatically in the 1920s due to several factors. Membership also declined due to government crackdowns on radical, anarchist and socialist groups during the First Red Scare after WWI. The most decisive factor in the decline in IWW membership and influence, however, was a 1924 schism in the organization, from which the IWW never fully recovered. The IWW promotes the concept of One Big Union, and contends that all workers should be united as a class to supplant capitalism. They are known for the Wobbly Shop model of democracy, in which workers elect their managers. IWW membership does not require that one work in a represented workplace, in 2012, the IWW moved its General Headquarters offices to 2036 West Montrose, Chicago. The origin of the nickname Wobblies is uncertain, the convention, which took place on June 24,1905, was referred to as the Industrial Congress or the Industrial Union Convention—it would later be known as the First Annual Convention of the IWW. In its time, it was considered one of the most important events in the history of industrial unionism. There can be no peace so long as hunger and want are found among millions of the people and the few. We find that the centering of the management of industries into fewer and fewer hands makes the trade unions unable to cope with the growing power of the employing class. The trade unions foster a state of affairs which allows one set of workers to be pitted against another set of workers in the same industry, thereby helping defeat one another in wage wars. Moreover, the trade unions aid the employing class to mislead the workers into the belief that the class have interests in common with their employers. Instead of the motto, A fair days wage for a fair days work, we must inscribe on our banner the revolutionary watchword. It is the mission of the working class to do away with capitalism. The army of production must be organized, not only for everyday struggle with capitalists, by organizing industrially we are forming the structure of the new society within the shell of the old
6.
Anti-fascism
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Anti-fascism is opposition to fascist ideologies, groups and individuals. The anti-fascist movement began in a few European countries in the 1920s, with the development and spread of Italian Fascism, i. e. original fascism, the National Fascist Partys ideology was met with increasingly militant opposition by Italian communists and socialists. Organizations such as the Arditi del Popolo and the Italian Anarchist Union were born in the period 1919–1921 to combat the nationalist and fascist surge of the post-World War I period, thus as soon as Fascism coalesced into a coherent ideology, a militant leftist opposition sprouted in response. Furthermore, in the words of historian Eric Hobsbawm, as Fascism developed and spread, after the outbreak of World War II, the Albanian, Serbian, and Polish resistances were instrumental in antifascist action and underground resistance. This combination of irreconcilable nationalisms and leftist partisans constitute the earliest roots of European antifascism, the historian Norman Davies argues in his book Europe at War 1939–1945, No Simple Victory that anti-fascism does not offer a coherent political ideology, but rather that it is an empty vessel. The motive would be to lend legitimacy to the dictatorship of the proletariat and was done at the time the USSR was pursuing a policy of collective security, in Italy, Benito Mussolinis Fascist regime used the term anti-fascist to describe its opponents. Mussolinis secret police was officially known as Organizzazione per la Vigilanza e la Repressione dellAntifascismo, Italian for Organization for Vigilance, in Italy in the 1920s, anti-fascists—many from the labour movement—fought against the violent Blackshirts and against the rise of fascist leader Benito Mussolini. The General Confederation of Labour and the PSI refused to recognize the anti-fascist militia. The PCI organized some militant groups, but their actions were relatively minor, the Italian anarchist Severino Di Giovanni, who exiled himself to Argentina following the 1922 March on Rome, organized several bombings against the Italian fascist community. Italian liberal anti-fascist Benedetto Croce wrote Manifesto of the Anti-Fascist Intellectuals, another notable Italian liberal anti-fascist around that time was Piero Gobetti. Between 1920 and 1943, several anti-fascist movements were active among the Slovenes and Croats in the annexed to Italy after World War I. The most influential was the militant insurgent organization TIGR, which carried out numerous sabotages, as well as attacks on representatives of the Fascist Party and the military. During World War II, many members of the Italian resistance left their houses and went to live in the mountainside, fighting against Italian fascists, many cities in Italy, including Turin, Naples and Milan, were freed by anti-fascist uprisings. In Italy, the first anti-fascist resistance emerged within the Slovene minority in Italy, not only in multi-ethnic areas, but also in the areas where the population was exclusively Slovene, the use of Slovene language in public places, including churches, was forbidden. Children, if they spoke Slovene, were punished by Italian teachers who were brought by the Fascist State from Southern Italy, the Slovene teachers, writers, and clergy were sent to the other side of Italy. The first anti-fascist organization, called TIGR, was formed in 1927 in order to fight Fascist violence and its guerrilla fight continued into the late 1920s and 1930s when by the mid-1930s, already 70.000 Slovenes fled Italy mostly to Slovenia and South America. The Slovene anti-fascist resistance in Yugoslavia during World War II was led by Liberation Front of the Slovenian People, soviet revolutionary Leon Trotsky wrote, ighting squads must be created. Nothing increases the insolence of the fascists so much as flabby pacifism on the part of the workers organisations, political cowardice without organised combat detachments, the most heroic masses will be smashed bit by bit by fascist gangs
7.
Mexico
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Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a federal republic in the southern half of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States, to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean, to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea, and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometers, Mexico is the sixth largest country in the Americas by total area, Mexico is a federation comprising 31 states and a federal district that is also its capital and most populous city. Other metropolises include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, pre-Columbian Mexico was home to many advanced Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec before first contact with Europeans. In 1521, the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Three centuries later, this territory became Mexico following recognition in 1821 after the colonys Mexican War of Independence. The tumultuous post-independence period was characterized by instability and many political changes. The Mexican–American War led to the cession of the extensive northern borderlands, one-third of its territory. The Pastry War, the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, the dictatorship was overthrown in the Mexican Revolution of 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the countrys current political system. Mexico has the fifteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity, the Mexican economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement partners, especially the United States. Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and it is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank and a newly industrialized country by several analysts. By 2050, Mexico could become the fifth or seventh largest economy. The country is considered both a power and middle power, and is often identified as an emerging global power. Due to its culture and history, Mexico ranks first in the Americas. Mexico is a country, ranking fourth in the world by biodiversity. In 2015 it was the 9th most visited country in the world, Mexico is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8+5, the G20, the Uniting for Consensus and the Pacific Alliance. Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely, the Valley of Mexico, and its people, the Mexica and this became the future State of Mexico as a division of New Spain prior to independence. It is generally considered to be a toponym for the valley became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result. After New Spain won independence from Spain, representatives decided to name the new country after its capital and this was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan
8.
Black Power movement
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The Black Power movement was a political movement to achieve a form of Black Power and the many philosophies it contains. The movement saw various forms of some violent and some peaceful. The Black Power movement also represented socialist movements, all with the motivation of improving the standing of black people in society. Originated during the Civil Rights Movement, some doubted the philosophy of the movement begging for more radical action, the cornerstone of the movement was the Black Panther Party, a Black Power organization dedicated to socialism and the use of violence to achieve it. The Black Power movement developed in the criticisms of the Civil Rights Movement in the early 1960s, and over time and into the 1970s, after years of violence, many left the movement and the police began arresting violent actors in the movement. The Black Power movement also spilled out into the Caribbean creating the Black Power Revolution, on June 16,1966, in a speech in Greenwood, Mississippi after the assassination attempt on James Meredith by Aubrey James Norvell during the March Against Fear, Stokely Carmichael used the term. By the late 1960s Black Power came to represent the demand for more violent action to counter American white supremacy. Most of these ideas were influenced by Malcolm Xs criticism of Martin Luther King, the 1965 assassination of Malcolm X coupled with the urban uprisings of 1964 and 1965 ignited the Black Power movement. By 1968 Black Power was a movement with a growing force of people who sympathize. New organizations began to form such as the Black Panther Party each supporting Black Power philosophies ranging from socialism to black nationalism, the organization Nation of Islam began developing a black nationalist movement in the 1930s, inspiring later black nationalist groups. The Nation of Islam continues to function to this day, in the early 1960s the Almighty Black P. Stone Nation gang developed into a Black Power group supporting black nationalism. Malcolm X rose rapidly to become the minister and national spokesperson for the Nation of Islam, highly influenced by Malcolm Xs membership, the Nation claimed a membership of 30,000. In April 1964, one later, Malcolm X founded Muslim Mosque Inc. stating. It was they who conspired with Captain Joseph here in New York to pressure me out of the Nation, Malcolm X would later be assassinated in February 1965. They argued instead that blacks needed to power of their own rather than seek accommodations from the power structure in place. The organization continued its militancy later on and established ties with groups such as the Students for a Democratic Society. In late October 1966, Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale founded the Black Panther Party, in formulating a new politics, they drew on their experiences working with a variety of Black Power organizations. The initial tactic of the Black Panther Party utilized contemporary open-carry gun laws to protect Party members when policing the police and this act was done in order to record incidents of police brutality by distantly following police cars around neighborhoods
9.
May 1968 events in France
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The volatile period of civil unrest in France during May 1968 was punctuated by demonstrations and massive general strikes as well as the occupation of universities and factories across France. At the height of its fervor, it brought the economy of France to a virtual halt. May 68 had a impact on French society that would be felt for decades to come. It is considered to this day as a cultural, social and moral turning point in the history of the country, as Alain Geismar—one of the leaders of the time—later pointed out, the movement succeeded as a social revolution, not as a political one. The unrest began with a series of student occupation protests against capitalism, consumerism and traditional institutions, values and it then spread to factories with strikes involving 11 million workers, more than 22% of the total population of France at the time, for two continuous weeks. It was the largest general strike ever attempted in France, the student occupations and wildcat general strikes initiated across France were met with forceful confrontation by university administrators and police. De Gaulle went to a French military base in Germany, and after returning dissolved the National Assembly, Violence evaporated almost as quickly as it arose. Workers went back to their jobs, and when the elections were held in June. In February 1968, the French Communists and French Socialists formed an electoral alliance, the universitys administration called the police, who surrounded the university. After the publication of their wishes, the left the building without any trouble. After this first record some leaders of what was named the Movement of 22 March were called together by the committee of the university. Following months of conflicts between students and authorities at the Paris University at Nanterre, the shut down the university on May 2,1968. Students at the Sorbonne University in Paris met on May 3 to protest against the closure and the threatened expulsion of several students at Nanterre. More than 20,000 students, teachers and supporters marched towards the Sorbonne, still sealed off by the police, who charged, wielding their batons, as soon as the marchers approached. While the crowd dispersed, some began to create out of whatever was at hand, while others threw paving stones. The police then responded with tear gas and charged the crowd again, high school student unions spoke in support of the riots on 6 May. Negotiations broke down, and students returned to their campuses after a report that the government had agreed to reopen them. The students now had a near revolutionary fervor, on Friday,10 May, another huge crowd congregated on the Rive Gauche
10.
Separatism
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A common definition of separatism is that it is the advocacy of a state of cultural, ethnic, tribal, religious, racial, governmental or gender separation from the larger group. While it often refers to political secession, separatist groups may seek nothing more than greater autonomy. There is some debate about this definition, and in particular how it relates to secessionism. Separatist groups practice a form of identity politics, political activity, such groups believe attempts at integration with dominant groups compromise their identity and ability to pursue greater self-determination. However, economic and political factors usually are critical in creating strong separatist movements as opposed to less ambitious identity movements, groups may have one or more motivations for separation, including, emotional resentment and hatred of rival communities. Protection from ethnic cleansing and genocide, resistance by victims of oppression, including denigration of their language, culture or religion. Propaganda by those who hope to gain politically from intergroup conflict, Economic and political dominance of one group that does not share power and privilege in an egalitarian fashion. Economic motivations, seeking to end exploitation by more powerful group or, conversely. Preservation of threatened religious, language or other cultural tradition, destabilization from one separatist movement giving rise to others. Geopolitical power vacuum from breakup of larger states or empires, continuing fragmentation as more and more states break up. Feeling that the nation was added to the larger state by illegitimate means. The perception that the state can no longer support ones own group or has betrayed their interests, governments may respond in a number of ways, some of which are mutually exclusive. Settle for a confederation or a relationship where there are only limited ties among states. Some governments suppress any separatist movement in their own country, Ethnic separatism is based more on cultural and linguistic differences than religious or racial differences, which also may exist. Chechen separatism in the Caucasus, currently the Republic of Chechnya is part of the Russian Federation, serb separatism in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo. Albanian separatism in Kosovo and R. Macedonia Turkish separatism in Cyprus, South Ossetian and Abkhazian separatism in Georgia. Armenian separatists of Nagorno-Karabakh in Azerbaijan, azeri separatists in Iran want to unite the provinces of East Azerbaijan, West Azerbaijan, Zanjan and Ardabil with Azerbaijan. Kurdish separatism in Turkey, Syria, Iraq, and Iran, silesian separatism in Poland and Czech Republic
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