1.
Indigenous peoples of the Philippines
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The Philippines consist of a large number of upland ethnolinguistic nations living in the country. The highland ethnic nations have co-existed with the lowland Austronesian ethnic nations for thousands of years in the Philippine archipelago. The primary difference is that they were not absorbed by centuries of Spanish and United States colonization of the Philippines and this is mainly due to the rugged inaccessibility of the mountains, which discouraged Spanish and American colonizers from coming into contact with the highlanders. In the 1990s, there were more than 100 highland tribal groups constituting approximately 3% of the population. The upland tribal groups were a blend in ethnic origin, like those in areas of the country. Because they displayed a variety of organization, cultural expression. They showed a degree of creativity, usually employed to embellish utilitarian objects, such as bowls, baskets, clothing. The tribal groups of the Philippines are known for their carved wooden figures, baskets, weaving, pottery and weapons. These groups ranged from various Igorot tribes, a group includes the Bontoc, Ibaloi, Ifugao, Isneg, Kalinga, Kankana-ey and Tinguian. They also covered a wide spectrum in terms of their integration and acculturation with lowland Christian, native groups such as the Bukidnon in Mindanao, had intermarried with lowlanders for almost a century. Other groups such as the Kalinga in Luzon have remained isolated from lowland influence, there were several upland groups living in the Cordillera Central of Luzon in 1990. The Ifugaos of Ifugao province, the Bontocs, Kalinga, Tinguian, in the southern Philippines, upland and lowland tribal groups were concentrated on Mindanao and western Visayas, although there are several upland groups such as the Mangyan living in Mindoro. Yakan is the tribe in the hinterlands of Basilan Province. In the lowland lives the Sama Banguingui tribe while in coastal areas there leave the nomadic Luwaan, sulu lowland areas are also home of the Sama Banguingui. The Sama or the Sinama and the Jama Mapun are the tribes in the province of Tawi-Tawi. The Philippine government succeeded in establishing a number of protected reservations for tribal groups and they are also encouraged to re-establish their traditional authority structure in which, as in indigenous society were governed by chieftains known as Rajah and Datu. Contact between primitive and modern ethnic groups resulted in weakening or destroying tribal culture without assimilating the indigenous groups into modern society. It seemed doubtful that the shift of the Philippine government policy from assimilation to cultural pluralism could reverse the process
2.
Mononymous person
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A mononymous person is an individual who is known and addressed by a mononym, or single name. In some cases, that name has been selected by the individual, in other cases, it has been determined by the custom of the country or by some interested segment. In the case of historical figures, it may be the one of the individuals names that has survived and is still known today. The structure of persons names has varied across time and geography, in some societies, individuals have been mononymous, receiving only a single name. Alulim, first king of Sumer, is one of the earliest names known, Narmer, later, Biblical names were typically mononymous, as were names in the surrounding cultures of the Fertile Crescent. Mononyms in other ancient cultures include the Celtic queen Boudica and the Numidian king Jugurtha, however the historical record of eg Boudicca is scanty, and there is no evidence that she did not also have other names. Between Columbus arrival in the New World and the late 19th century, examples include Moctezuma, Anacaona, Agüeybaná, Diriangen, Urracá, Guamá, Atahualpa, Lempira, Lautaro, Tamanaco, Pocahontas, Auoindaon, Cangapol, and Tecumseh. Uniquely, the Dutch-Seneca diplomat Cornplanter received both a Seneca-language mononym from his mother and a name and surname from his father. His later descendants, such as Jesse Cornplanter, used Cornplanter as the name instead of Abeel. In the 19th century, most chiefs involved in the Apache Wars had mononym birth names, and some replaced those with mononymous nicknames, Geronimo, Victorio, Cochise, and so on. Since the medieval period, mononyms in the west have almost exclusively used to identify people who already had surnames. These nicknames were either adopted by the persons themselves or conferred by contemporaries, some French authors have shown a preference for mononyms. In the 17th century, the dramatist and actor Jean-Baptiste Poquelin took the stage name Molière. In the 18th century, François-Marie Arouet adopted the mononym Voltaire, the new name combined several features. Arouet would not have served the purpose, given that names associations with roué, in the 20th century, a fourth French writer, Sidonie-Gabrielle Colette, used her actual surname as her mononym pen name, Colette. Some French actors and singers have used their name or surname as a stage mononym. In the 17th and 18th centuries, most Italian castrato singers used mononyms as stage names, the German writer, mining engineer and philosopher, Georg Friedrich Philipp Freiherr von Hardenberg, became famous as Novalis. In 2002 Multatuli was proclaimed by the Society for Dutch Literature to have been the most important Dutch writer of all time, the Dutch writer Jan Hendrik Frederik Grönloh wrote under the pseudonym Nescio
3.
Raja
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Raja, is a title for a Monarch or princely ruler in South and Southeast Asia. The female form Rani applies equally to the wife of a Raja, usually as queen consort and occasionally as regent. The title has a history in the Indian subcontinent and South East Asia, being attested from the Rigveda, where a rājan- is a ruler, see for example the dāśarājñá. Sanskrit rājan- is cognate to Latin rēx King, Gaulish rīx, Gaelic rí, etc. originally denoting heads of petty kingdoms and it is believed to be ultimately derived from the Proto-Indo-European *h3rēǵs, a vrddhi formation to the root *h3reǵ- to straighten, to order, to rule. The Sanskrit n-stem is secondary in the title, apparently adapted from the female counterpart rājñī which also has an -n- suffix in related languages. Cognates of the word Raja in other Indo-European languages include English reign, rather common, practically equivalent variants in Rajasthani, Marathi and Hindi, used as equivalent royal style in parts of India include Rana, Rao, Raol, Rawal and rawat and Yuvraj prince heir. Maharaja, or great king, is literally a title for more significant rulers in India, hence during the British raj, precedence was rather determined by the gun salute. Raja රජ means King in Sri Lanka, Rajamanthri is the Prince lineage of Kings generation in Sri Lanka. Rajamanthri title is aristocracy of the Kandiyan Kingdom මහනුවර in Sri Lanka, badan Singh was styled Raja Mahendra and founded the city and state Bharatpur, which his dynasty ruled as Maharajas. Raja Sahib was the style in Bansda until its upgrade from c.1829 to higher counterpart Maharaja Sahib. Raja-i Rajgan was notably the royal style of, the former Rajas of Jind from * until their 1911 upgrade to Maharaja, the former Rajas of Kapurthala from 1861 until their 1911 upgrade to Maharaja. Two consecutive rulers of Patiala, the first of which was originally styled Maharaja, Raja Bahadur, and remained the rulers of Raigarh. as 1763 upgrade from the family title Raja Sar Desai in Maratha state Savantvadi. e. Third prince in line for succession, there were many more Rajas among the feudatory states, such as jagirs. In Pakistan, Raja is still used by Muslim Rajput clans as hereditary titles, Raja is also used as a given name by Hindus and Sikhs. Most notably Raja is used in Hazara division of Pakistan for the descendants of a Turkic dynasty and these Rajas ruled that part of Pakistan for decades and they still possess huge land in Hazara division of Pakistan and actively participate in the politics of the region. In Sinhalese, the title Raja means King of Sri Lanka, Rajamanthri is the Prince lineage of Kings generation especially Rajamanthri is aristocracy of the Kingdom of Kandy in Sri Lanka history. Indonesian has the word raja for king, leaders of local tribes and old Hindu kingdoms had that title before Indonesia became an independent nation. Various traditional princely states in Indonesia still style their ruler Raja, in the Malay language, the word raja also means king
4.
Rajahnate of Maynila
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It is one of the settlements mentioned by the Philippines earliest historical record, the Laguna Copperplate Inscription. Thus, it became a force in trade throughout Southeast Asia. Tondos regional prominence further culminated during the period of its associated trade, and by around 1500, the kingdom reached its peak as a thalassocratic force in the northern part of the archipelago. Following contact with the Spanish Empire beginning in 1570 and the defeat of local rulers in the Manila Bay area in 1571, Tondo was ruled from Manila. The kingdoms absorption into the Spanish Empire effectively ended its status as an independent kingdom, numerous theories on the origin of the name Tondo have been put forward. Filipino National Artist Nick Joaquin suggested that it might be a reference to high ground, french linguist Jean-Paul Potet, however, has suggested that the River Mangrove, Aegiceras corniculatum, which at the time was called tundok, is the most likely origin of the name. The bay area in which Tondo can be found was named Lusong or Lusung and this name was eventually used as the modern name of the entire island of Luzon. Rajah Alon, King of Tondo and son of Lakan Timamanukum, expanded the Kingdom of Tondo by conquering neighboring territories such as Kapampangan chiefdoms, Kumintang and he was succeeded by his grandson Rajah Gambang. The Tondo Dynasty lasted until the end of the 15th century, the first reference to Tondo occurs in the Philippines oldest historical record — the Laguna Copperplate Inscription. This legal document was written in Kawi, and dates back to Saka 822, the article mentioned that other places in the Philippines and their Rulers, Pailah, Puliran Kasumuran, Binwangan. While the document does not describe the relationship of the King of Tundun with these other rulers. The next historical reference to Ancient Tondo can be found in the Ming Shilu Annals and her rulers, based in their capital, Tondo were acknowledged not as mere chieftains, but as kings. This reference places Tondo into the context of Chinese trade with the aboriginals of the Philippine archipelago. But the earliest archeological evidence of trade between the Philippine aborigines and China takes the form of pottery and porcelain pieces dated to the Tang and Song Dynasties and it is believed that the people of Tondo kingdom were related to Malay of Malay peninsula and Sumatra. They belonged to the nobility class similar to the Timawa of the Visayan people. In modern Filipino, however, the term itself has come to mean royal nobility. The different type of culture prevalent in Luzon gave a stable and more complex social structure to the pre-colonial Tagalog barangays of Manila, Pampanga. The more complex structure of the Tagalogs was less stable during the arrival of the Spaniards because it was still in a process of differentiating
5.
Malate, Manila
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Malate is a district of Manila, Philippines. Together with the district of Ermita, it serves as Manilas center for commerce, the word Malate is believed to have stemmed from the corruption of the Tagalog word maalat. Tradition notes that the tidewaters from Manila Bay flowed far inland, Malate during the Spanish colonial period was an open space with a small fishing village. During the Spanish period, the center of activity was the Malate Church, devotion to the image was especially popular among pregnant women having a difficult pregnancy. American expatriates and some of the old Spanish mestizo families populated the district in high rise apartments. Despite extensive damage after the Second World War, many homes, the displaced wealthy families who evacuated their homes during the war returned and re-built their private villas and kept the whole district exclusively residential until the 1970s. During the presidency of Ferdinand Marcos, visual and performing artists found a haven in Malate during the 1980s and it became a bohemian enclave and safe haven. Malate is continuously transforming itself as the center of recreation and entertainment for Manila with more restaurants, boutiques, bars, discos and novelty stores opening for business. The block bounded by the streets, Maria Orosa, Julio Nakpil, Adriatico and Remedios have become synonymous to street parties, al fresco dining, street dancing and concerts. The western side of Malate across Taft Avenue remains a quiet area with several apartment rows converted into dormitories for students enrolled at nearby schools. The district can be accessed by the main roads like the Roxas Boulevard, Quirino Avenue. The Light Rail Transit follows Taft Avenue and stops at three stations located in Malate, Vito Cruz Station, Quirino Station and Pedro Gil Station, the Bureau of Plant Industry is also headquartered in the area. In the 1990s, Malate and the district of Ermita had been cleaned-up and big businesses. Harrison Plaza, Manilas first enclosed mall, is located in the Malate district. There is one hospital, the Ospital ng Maynila Medical Center, located at the corner of Roxas Boulevard, the district is also home to the Philippines first sports stadium, the Rizal Memorial Sports Complex and the countrys premiere zoological park, the Manila Zoological and Botanical Garden. Promenades and parks by the Manila Bay have been more convenient and safe with the opening of the Manila Baywalk area. A portion of the Cultural Center of the Philippines Complex also lies within the district, education in Malate is mostly provided by private schools. Paul University Manila and St. Scholasticas College Manila, prominent secondary schools in Malate are the Jesus Reigns Christian Academy, Jose Abad Santos Memorial School and the Malate Catholic School
6.
Pasay
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Pasay is one of the cities in Metro Manila, the National Capital Region of the Philippines. It is bordered to the north by the City of Manila, Makati to the northeast, Taguig to the east, due to its location just south of the City of Manila, Pasay quickly became an urban town during the American Colonial Period. The Namayan was a confederation of barangays which reached its zenith c and its ruler, whose capital was at Sapa, controlled territory stretching from Manila Bay to Laguna de Bay. Dayang-dayang Pasay, presumably a royal or noble of the realm, is noted as having inherited lands in what is now Culi-culi, Pasay, the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan arrived in what is now the Philippines on March 16,1521. On May 19,1571, Miguel López de Legaspi took formal possession of the Kingdom of Maynila, for 250 years, the Islands were governed by the Viceroy of Mexico, but in practise Catholic clergymen governed local politics. Of the many orders that came, it was the Augustinian Order who would figure predominantly in the evangelisation of Pasay. The parish of Pasay was governed from the old Namayan capital, ana de Sapa, which was under the jurisdiction of the Franciscans. Most of Pasay went to friar hands either via donation or by purchase, in 1727, the Augustinians formally took over Pasay and attached it to the Parish of Nuestra Señora de los Remedios in Malate. In that year, Pasay was renamed Pineda in honour of Don Cornelio Pineda, in 1862, a number of prominent citizens of Pasay sent a petition to the civil and ecclesiastical authorities asking that they be allowed to manage their own political and religious affairs. On December 2,1863, Pasay became a pueblo upon the recommendation of the Archbishop of Manila, the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 led many more Spaniards to this part of the world. The new arrivals carried with them ideas and ideals that led to the political and social reforms, times were good and Filipinos were delighted but the Spaniards and friars considered the liberal learnings as seeds of heresy. Democratic reforms ended with the collapse of the regime in Madrid. Pasay produced numerous heroes during the Philippines-Spanish War, the Katipunan, the organisation founded by Andrés Bonifacio that spearheaded the revolution, had a chapter in Pineda organized by Pascual Villanueva, Jacinto Ignacio, and Valentin Ignacio. Several women also fought for the cause of the Katipunan including Marcela Marcelo, the execution of José Rizal, who authored the novels Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo on December 30,1896, fanned the flames of the Revolution. War between the United States and Spain was declared on April 25, and Dewey steamed into Manila Bay on the night of April 30, with a few well-directed shots, the American squadron destroyed the Spanish flotilla without any deaths. General Emilio Aguinaldo meanwhile declared the independence of the First Philippine Republic on June 12,1898, with this, Don Catalino became Pasays first Presidente municipal. Thinking Americans were allies, Noriel left Pineda on July 29, when Intramuros was finally captured, the Filipinos were denied entry to the walled city. Since then, tension simmered between Filipino and American troops, with both sides assigned respective zones but neither observed boundary lines
7.
Islam in the Philippines
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Islam is the oldest recorded monotheistic religion in the Philippines. The Muslim population of the Philippines has been reported as about 5% of the population as of a census in 2000. According to a 2015 report of Philippine Statistics Authority,5. 6% of Filipinos are Muslims, while the majority of the population are Roman Catholic, some ethnic groups are Protestant, Hindu, Buddhist, Animist, Sikh, or non-religious. Islam was first brought over by Arab traders in the late 13th and early 14th centuries and these Muslim merchants originally came from present-day Malaysia and Indonesia to the southernmost points in the Philippines, namely the Sulu islands and Mindanao. At the time, the inhabitants there were Hindus and Buddhist, the Arab newcomers preached Islam to the indigenous population and build the first mosque in the Philippines at town of Simunul in the mid-14th century. The Muslim conquest reached as far as the Kingdom of Tondo which was supplanted by Bruneis vassal-state the Kingdom of Maynila, in 1380 Karim ul Makhdum the first Arabian trader reached the Sulu Archipelago and Jolo in the Philippines and through trade throughout the island established Islam in the country. In 1390 the Minangkabaus Prince Rajah Baguinda and his followers preached Islam on the islands, the Sheik Karimal Makdum Mosque was the first mosque established in the Philippines on Simunul in Mindanao in the 14th century. Subsequent settlements by Arab missionaries traveling to Malaysia and Indonesia helped strengthen Islam in the Philippines and each settlement was governed by a Datu, Rajah, Islam was introduced by Chinese Muslims, Indian Muslims, and Persians. Islamic provinces founded in the Philippines included the Sultanate of Maguindanao, Sultanate of Sulu, Sultanate of Lanao, when the Spanish fleet led by Miguel López de Legazpi arrived in the Philippines in 1565, they were met by local datus as they traveled in the islands. Arriving in the Kingdom of Maynila, a vassal-state of the Sultanate of Brunei, however, the Visayas was largely dominated by Hindu-Buddhist societies led by rajahs and datus who strongly resisted Islam. One reason could be due to the economic and political disasters prehispanic Muslim pirates from the Mindanao region bring during raids. These frequent attacks gave way to naming present-day Cebu as then-Sugbo or scorched earth which was a technique implemented by the Visayans so the pirates have nothing much to loot. The Muslim conquest reached as far as the Kingdom of Tondo which was supplanted by Bruneis vassal-state the Kingdom of Maynila, the Muslim Bruneian Empire under the rule of Sultan Bolkiah, who is an ancestor of the current Sultan of Brunei. He subjugated the Kingdom of Tondo which is ruled by Rajah Sukwu during 1500, a new dynasty under the a local Lumad leader who accepted Islam and became Rajah Salalila or Rajah Sulayman I. He also started to established a trading challenge the already rich House of Rajah Lakandula in Tondo, Islam was further strengthened by the arrival of Muslim traders and from Jolo, Mindanao, Malaysia and Indonesia. Note, Rajah is a Hindu title and Sultan is an Islamic title for that era, Chinese mariner Zheng He is credited to have settled Chinese Muslim communities in Palembang and along the shores of Java, the Malay Peninsula, and the Philippines during Chinas early Ming dynasty. These Muslims allegedly followed the Hanafi school in the Chinese language and this Chinese Muslim community was led by Hajji Yan Ying Yu, who urged his followers to assimilate and take local names. Rajah Sulayman was the Muslim Rajah of Maynila, a kingdom at the mouth of the Pasig River where it meets Manila Bay, Moro is the appellation inherited from the Spaniards, for Filipino Muslims of Mindanao
8.
Sanskrit
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Sanskrit is the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, a philosophical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and a literary language and lingua franca of ancient and medieval South Asia. As a result of transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast Asia and parts of Central Asia, as one of the oldest Indo-European languages for which substantial written documentation exists, Sanskrit holds a prominent position in Indo-European studies. The body of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as scientific, technical, philosophical, the compositions of Sanskrit were orally transmitted for much of its early history by methods of memorization of exceptional complexity, rigor, and fidelity. Thereafter, variants and derivatives of the Brahmi script came to be used, Sanskrit is today one of the 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which mandates the Indian government to develop the language. It continues to be used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the form of hymns. The Sanskrit verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- may be translated as refined, elaborated, as a term for refined or elaborated speech, the adjective appears only in Epic and Classical Sanskrit in the Manusmṛti and the Mahabharata. The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, with the language of the Rigveda being the oldest and most archaic stage preserved, Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini, around the fourth century BCE. Sanskrit, as defined by Pāṇini, evolved out of the earlier Vedic form, the present form of Vedic Sanskrit can be traced back to as early as the second millennium BCE. Scholars often distinguish Vedic Sanskrit and Classical or Pāṇinian Sanskrit as separate dialects, although they are quite similar, they differ in a number of essential points of phonology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax. Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, a collection of hymns, incantations and theological and religio-philosophical discussions in the Brahmanas. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the Rigveda Samhita to be the earliest, for nearly 2000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across South Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent East Asia. A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of Indian epic poetry—the Ramayana, the deviations from Pāṇini in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from Prakrits, or innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian. Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ārṣa, meaning of the ṛṣis, in some contexts, there are also more prakritisms than in Classical Sanskrit proper. There were four principal dialects of classical Sanskrit, paścimottarī, madhyadeśī, pūrvi, the predecessors of the first three dialects are attested in Vedic Brāhmaṇas, of which the first one was regarded as the purest. In the 2001 Census of India,14,035 Indians reported Sanskrit to be their first language, in India, Sanskrit is among the 14 original languages of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. The state of Uttarakhand in India has ruled Sanskrit as its official language. In October 2012 social activist Hemant Goswami filed a petition in the Punjab. More than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been composed since Indias independence in 1947, much of this work has been judged of high quality, in comparison to both classical Sanskrit literature and modern literature in other Indian languages
9.
Baybayin
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Baybayin, known in Visayan as badlit, and known in Ilocano as kur-itan/kurditan, is an ancient Philippine script derived from Brahmic scripts of India and first recorded in the 16th century. It continued to be used during the Spanish colonization of the Philippines up until the late 19th century, the alphabet is well known because it was carefully documented by Catholic clergy living in the Philippines during the colonial era. The term baybay literally means to spell in Tagalog, Baybayin was extensively documented by the Spanish. Some have incorrectly attributed the name Alibata to it, but that term was coined by Paul Rodríguez Verzosa after the arrangement of letters of the Arabic alphabet, other Brahmic scripts used currently among different ethnic groups in the Philippines are Buhid, Hanunóo, Kulitan and Tagbanwa. Many of these writing systems descended from ancient alphabets used in India over 2000 years ago, although Baybayin does share some, there is no evidence that it is this old nor is there evidence that it is recent. The Archives of the University of Santo Tomas in Manila, one of the largest archives in the Philippines, currently possesses the biggest collection of extant ancient Baybayin alphabets in the world. A Baybayin bill, House Bill no.4395 and Senate Bill 1899 and it was refiled in the 17th Congress of the Philippines through Senate Bill 433 in 2016. It aims to declare Baybayin, wrongfully known as Alibata, as the script of the Philippines. The bill mandates to put a Baybayin translation under all business, the writing system being pursued by the bill is a modernized version of the Baybayin which incorporates the common segments of numerous indigenous writing forms throughout the country. The system is a nationalistic approach due to its comprehensive range. Baybayin was noted by the Spanish priest Pedro Chirino in 1604 and Antonio de Morga in 1609, to be known by most Filipinos, and was generally used for personal writings, poetry, etc. According to William Henry Scott, there were some datus from the 1590s who could not sign affidavits or oaths, there is no data on when this level of literacy was first achieved, and no history of the writing system itself. There are at least six theories about the origins of Baybayin, the Kawi script originated in Java, and was used across much of Maritime Southeast Asia. It is a document, and has inscribed on it a date of Saka era 822. One hypothesis therefore reasons that, since Kawi is the earliest attestation of writing on the Philippines, a second example of Kawi script can be seen on the Butuan Ivory Seal, though it has not been dated. An earthenware burial jar, called the Calatagan Pot, found in Batangas is inscribed with characters similar to Baybayin. However, its authenticity has not yet been proven, many of the writing systems of Southeast Asia descended from ancient scripts used in India over 2000 years ago. The shapes of the characters bear a slight resemblance to the ancient Kavi script of Java, Indonesia
10.
Filipino orthography
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Filipino orthography specifies the correct use of the writing system of the Filipino language, the national and co-official language of the Philippines. During the Pre-Hispanic Era, most of the languages of the Philippines were written in abugida, a controversial and debatable script of the Philippines is the Eskayan script. Baybayin script began to decline in the 17th century and became obsolete in the 18th century, the scripts that are still in use today by the indigenous Mangyan groups of the Philippines are the Buhid and the Hanunóo script. When the Spaniards arrived in 1521 and began to colonize the islands of the Philippines in 1565, when most of the Philippine languages were first written in the Latin script, they used the Spanish alphabet. This alphabet was called the Abecedario, the alphabet of the Catholicized Filipinos. Until the first half of the 20th century, most Philippine languages were written in a variety of ways based on Spanish orthography. Virtually unutilized from the Abecedario were the letters K and W, relics of this Abecedario alphabet can still be seen in the way Castilianized indigenous and Chinese-origin surnames are written. Some examples of indigenous Philippine surnames are Macasáquit, Guintô, Bañaga, Guipit, Abucajo, Abueg, Bangachon, Dagohoy, Valarao, some examples of Chinese-origin surnames are Guanzón, Cojuangco, Siapuatco, Yapchulay, Locsín, Quisumbing, Tuazon and Yuchengco. Many indigenous place names are written using Spanish orthography, often either coexisting or competing with their indigenized forms if they exist. Parañaque would be written in the system as Paranyake, but the latter spelling is so far unaccepted. Quite notable are proper nouns wherein the letter Y is written before consonants and is pronounced I, iloilo and Ilocos were spelled archaically as Yloylo or Yloílo and Ylocos. Surnames in the Philippines such as Ybañez, Ysagan, Ybarra, Yldefonso, Ylang Ylang, a native Philippine tree valued for its perfume, is another example. The use of the letter Y at the beginning of words, however, archaic use of the letter X in the Old Spanish writing system that is pronounced in a guttural way is evident in surnames such as Roxas. The letter H was utilized in most of the words of the Philippine languages instead of the letter J in Spanish. Spanish loanwords like Jesús, Justicia, or Jardín, however, No literature could be found that pertained to the rules that governed the usage of this letter or that explained its disappearance. Today, these two words are usually just simply written as ng and mga, originally, there was a large tilde that spanned both n and g when a vowel follows the Ng digraph. This tilde indicates that the n͠g and the vowel should be pronounced as one syllable, such as n͠ga in the three-syllable word pan͠galan – syllabicated as, the use of the tilde over the two letters is now virtually non-existent. Due to technical constraints, machine-printed variants of n͠ga emerged, which included ñga, ng̃a, the Ng digraph letter is similar to, but not the same as, the prepositional word ng, originally spelled ng̃ with a tilde over the g only
11.
Tagalog people
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The Tagalog people is a major ethnolingustic group in the Philippines. They have a developed society due to the cultural heartland, Manila. The commonly accepted origin for the endonym Tagalog is the term tagá-ilog, an alternative theory states that the name is derived from tagá-alog, which means people from the ford. In 1821, American diplomat Edmund Roberts called the Tagalog Tagalor in his memoirs about his trips to the Philippines. The earliest written record of the Tagalog is a 9th-century document known as the Laguna Copperplate Inscription which is about a remission of debt on behalf of the ruler of Tondo. Inscribed on it is year 822 of the Saka Era, the month of Waisaka, and the day of the waning moon. Some contend it is between Old Tagalog and Old Javanese, the document states that it releases its bearers, the children of Namwaran, from a debt in gold amounting to 1 kati and 8 suwarnas. Pires exploration led him to discover that in their own country, the Luções had foodstuffs, wax, honey, inferior grade gold, had no king, and were governed instead by a group of elders. Contact with the rest of Southeast Asia led to the creation Baybayin later used in the book Doctrina Cristiana which is written by the 16th century Spanish colonizers, on May 19,1571, Miguel López de Legazpi gave the title city to the colony of Manila. The title was certified on June 19,1572, under Spain, Manila became the colonial entrepot in the Far East. The Philippines was a Spanish colony administered under the Viceroyalty of New Spain, the first substantial dictionary of Tagalog language was written by the Czech Jesuit missionary Pablo Clain in the beginning of the 18th century. The indigenous poet Francisco Baltazar is regarded as the foremost Tagalog writer, the ship set sail from Macau and landed in Morro Bay in what is now the California coast on October 17 of 1587, as part of the Galleon Trade between the Spanish East Indies and New Spain. More Filipino sailors arrived along the California coast when both places were part of the Spanish Empire, by 1763, Manila men or Tagalas had established a settlement called St. Malo on the outskirts of New Orleans, Louisiana. The Tagalog played a role during the 1896 Philippine Revolution. The Katipunan once intended to name the Philippines as Katagalugan or the Tagalog Republic, Miguel de Unamuno described revolutionary leader José Rizal as the Tagalog Hamlet and said of him “a soul that dreads the revolution although deep down desires it. He pivots between fear and hope, between faith and despair. ”In 1902, Macario Sakay formed his own Republika ng Katagalugan in the mountains of Morong, Tagalog was declared the official language by the first constitution in the Philippines, the Constitution of Biak-na-Bato in 1897. In 1939, President Quezon renamed the proposed Tagalog-based national language as wikang pambansâ, in 1959, the language was further renamed as Pilipino. The 1987 constitution designated Filipino as the national language mandating that as it evolves, it shall be developed and enriched on the basis of existing Philippine
12.
Tondo (historical polity)
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It is one of the settlements mentioned by the Philippines earliest historical record, the Laguna Copperplate Inscription. Thus, it became a force in trade throughout Southeast Asia. Tondos regional prominence further culminated during the period of its associated trade, and by around 1500, the kingdom reached its peak as a thalassocratic force in the northern part of the archipelago. Following contact with the Spanish Empire beginning in 1570 and the defeat of local rulers in the Manila Bay area in 1571, Tondo was ruled from Manila. The kingdoms absorption into the Spanish Empire effectively ended its status as an independent kingdom, numerous theories on the origin of the name Tondo have been put forward. Filipino National Artist Nick Joaquin suggested that it might be a reference to high ground, french linguist Jean-Paul Potet, however, has suggested that the River Mangrove, Aegiceras corniculatum, which at the time was called tundok, is the most likely origin of the name. The bay area in which Tondo can be found was named Lusong or Lusung and this name was eventually used as the modern name of the entire island of Luzon. Rajah Alon, King of Tondo and son of Lakan Timamanukum, expanded the Kingdom of Tondo by conquering neighboring territories such as Kapampangan chiefdoms, Kumintang and he was succeeded by his grandson Rajah Gambang. The Tondo Dynasty lasted until the end of the 15th century, the first reference to Tondo occurs in the Philippines oldest historical record — the Laguna Copperplate Inscription. This legal document was written in Kawi, and dates back to Saka 822, the article mentioned that other places in the Philippines and their Rulers, Pailah, Puliran Kasumuran, Binwangan. While the document does not describe the relationship of the King of Tundun with these other rulers. The next historical reference to Ancient Tondo can be found in the Ming Shilu Annals and her rulers, based in their capital, Tondo were acknowledged not as mere chieftains, but as kings. This reference places Tondo into the context of Chinese trade with the aboriginals of the Philippine archipelago. But the earliest archeological evidence of trade between the Philippine aborigines and China takes the form of pottery and porcelain pieces dated to the Tang and Song Dynasties and it is believed that the people of Tondo kingdom were related to Malay of Malay peninsula and Sumatra. They belonged to the nobility class similar to the Timawa of the Visayan people. In modern Filipino, however, the term itself has come to mean royal nobility. The different type of culture prevalent in Luzon gave a stable and more complex social structure to the pre-colonial Tagalog barangays of Manila, Pampanga. The more complex structure of the Tagalogs was less stable during the arrival of the Spaniards because it was still in a process of differentiating
13.
Spanish Empire
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The Spanish Empire was one of the largest empires in history. The Spanish Empire became the foremost global power of its time and was the first to be called the empire on which the sun never sets, the Spanish Empire originated during the Age of Discovery after the voyages of Christopher Columbus. Following the Spanish–American War of 1898, Spain ceded its last colonies in the Caribbean and its last African colonies were granted independence or abandoned during Decolonisation of Africa finishing in 1976. The unity did not mean uniformity, nevertheless, some historians assert that Portugal was part of the Spanish monarchy at the time, while others draw a clear distinction between the Portuguese and Spanish empires. During the 15th century, Castile and Portugal became territorial and commercial rivals in the western Atlantic. The conquest was completed with the campaigns of the armies of the Crown of Castile between 1478 and 1496, when the islands of Gran Canaria, La Palma, and Tenerife were subjugated. The Portuguese tried in vain to keep secret their discovery of the Gold Coast in the Gulf of Guinea, chronicler Pulgar wrote that the fame of the treasures of Guinea spread around the ports of Andalusia in such way that everybody tried to go there. Worthless trinkets, Moorish textiles, and above all, shells from the Canary and Cape Verde islands were exchanged for gold, slaves, ivory and Guinea pepper. The Crown officially organized this trade with Guinea, every caravel had to get a government license, the treaty delimited the spheres of influence of the two countries, establishing the principle of the Mare clausum. It was confirmed in 1481 by the Pope Sixtus IV, in the papal bull Æterni regis, thus, the limitations imposed by the Alcáçovas treaty were overcome and a new and more balanced worlds division would be reached at Tordesillas between both emerging maritime powers. Seven months before the treaty of Alcaçovas, King John II of Aragon died, Ferdinand and Isabella drove the last Moorish king out of Granada in 1492 after a ten-year war. The Catholic Monarchs then negotiated with Christopher Columbus, a Genoese sailor attempting to reach Cipangu by sailing west, Castile was already engaged in a race of exploration with Portugal to reach the Far East by sea when Columbus made his bold proposal to Isabella. Columbus discoveries inaugurated the Spanish colonization of the Americas and these actions gave Spain exclusive rights to establish colonies in all of the New World from north to south, as well as the easternmost parts of Asia. The treaty of Tordesillas was confirmed by Pope Julius II in the bull Ea quae pro bono pacis on 24 January 1506, Spains expansion and colonization was driven by economic influences, a yearning to improve national prestige, and a desire to spread Catholicism into the New World. The Catholic Monarchs had developed a strategy of marriages for their children in order to isolate their long-time enemy, the Spanish princes married the heirs of Portugal, England and the House of Habsburg. Following the same strategy, the Catholic Monarchs decided to support the Catalan-Aragonese house of Naples against Charles VIII of France in the Italian Wars beginning in 1494. As King of Aragon, Ferdinand had been involved in the struggle against France and Venice for control of Italy, these conflicts became the center of Ferdinands foreign policy as king. Only a year later, Ferdinand became part of the Holy League against France and this war was less of a success than the war against Venice, and in 1516, France agreed to a truce that left Milan in its control and recognized Spanish control of Upper Navarre
14.
Luzon
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Luzon (/luːˈzɒn/, Tagalog pronunciation, is the largest and most populous island in the Philippines. It is ranked 15th largest in the world, with a population of 52.99 million as of 2015, it is the fourth most populous island in the world, containing about 53% of the countrys total population. Luzon may also refer to one of the three island groups in the country. The name Luzon is thought to derive from the Tagalog word lusong, from just before the first millennium, the Tagalog and Kapampangan peoples of south and central Luzon had established several Indianized kingdoms, notably among them those of Tundok and Namayan. The Laguna Copperplate Inscription, the first Philippine document written in 900AD, names places in and these kingdoms were based on leases between village rulers and landlords or Rajahs, to whom tributes and taxes were levied. These kingdoms were coastal thalassocracies based on trade with neighboring Asian political entities at that time, some parts of Luzon were Islamized when the Sultanate of Brunei expanded its realms from Borneo to the Philippines and set up the Kingdom of Maynila as its puppet-state. In addition, other kingdoms like the Wangdom of Pangasinan had become tributary states to China and were largely Sinified kingdoms, certain kilns were renowned over others and prices depended on the reputation of the kiln. Of this flourishing trade, the Burnay jars of Ilocos are the large clay jar manufactured in Luzon today with origins from this time. The Yongle Emperor instituted a Chinese Governor on Luzon during Zheng Hes voyages, China also had vassals among the leaders in the archipelago. China attained ascendancy in trade with the area in Yongles reign, in the 1500s, people from Luzon were called Lucoes and were actively employed in trading, seafaring and military campaigns across Southeast Asia. The Portuguese were the first European explorers who recorded it in their charts as Luçonia or Luçon, edmund Roberts, who visited Luzon in the early 19th century, wrote that Luzon was discovered in 1521. Many people from Luzon had active-employment in Portuguese Malacca and his father and wife carried on his maritime trading business after his death. Another important Malacca trader was Curia de Raja who also hailed from Luzon, the surname of de Raja or diraja could indicate that Regimo and Curia, and their families, were of noble or royal descent as the term is an abbreviation of Sanskrit adiraja. Pinto noted that there were a number of Lucoes in the Islamic fleets that went to battle with the Portuguese in the Philippines during the 16th century, the Sultan of Aceh gave one of them the task of holding Aru in 1540. Pinto also says one was named leader of the Malays remaining in the Moluccas Islands after the Portuguese conquest in 1511, pigafetta notes that one of them was in command of the Brunei fleet in 1521. However, the Luções did not only fight on the side of the Muslims, pinto says they were also apparently among the natives of the Philippines who fought the Muslims in 1538. On Mainland Southeast Asia, Lusung/Lucoes warriors aided the Burmese king in his invasion of Siam in 1547 AD, at the same time, Lusung warriors fought alongside the Siamese king and faced the same elephant army of the Burmese king in the defence of the Siamese capital at Ayuthaya. Scholars have thus suggested that they could be valued by all sides
15.
Heir apparent
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An heir apparent or heiress apparent is a person who is first in line of succession and cannot be displaced from inheriting by the birth of another person. An heir presumptive, by contrast, is someone who is first in line to inherit a title, today these terms most commonly describe heirs to hereditary titles, particularly monarchies. They are also used metaphorically to indicate an anointed successor to any position of power, in France the title was le Dauphin. See crown prince for more examples and this article primarily describes the term heir apparent in a hereditary system regulated by laws of primogeniture—as opposed to cases where a monarch has a say in naming the heir. An heir presumptive, by contrast, can always be bumped down in the succession by the birth of more closely related in a legal sense to the current title-holder. The clearest example occurs in the case of a title-holder with no children, if at any time he or she were to produce children, they rank ahead of whatever more distant relative had been heir presumptive. Many legal systems assume childbirth is always possible regardless of age or health, in such circumstances a person may be, in a practical sense, the heir apparent but still, legally speaking, heir presumptive. Adelaide was 44 at the time, so pregnancy was even if unlikely. Daughters may inherit titles that descend according to male-preference primogeniture, thus, normally, even an only daughter will not be heir apparent, since at any time a brother might be born who, though younger, would assume that position. Hence, she is an heir presumptive, for example, Queen Elizabeth II was heir presumptive during the reign of her father, King George VI, because at any stage up to his death, George could have fathered a legitimate son. In a system of absolute primogeniture that disregards gender, female heirs apparent occur, several European monarchies that have adopted such systems in the last few decades furnish practical examples. Princess Ingrid Alexandra of Norway is heir apparent to her father, Victoria was not heir apparent from birth, but gained the status in 1980 following a change in the Swedish Act of Succession. Her younger brother Carl Philip was thus heir apparent for a few months, then, as the representative of her fathers line she would assume a place ahead of any more distant relatives. Such a situation has not to date occurred with the English or British throne, several times an heir apparent has died, however, there have been several female heirs apparent to British peerages. In one special case, however, England and Scotland had an heir apparent. William, by contrast, was to reign for life only, thus, although after Marys death William continued to reign, he had no power to beget direct heirs, and Anne became the heir apparent for the remainder of Williams reign. She eventually succeeded him as Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland, the position of an heir apparent is normally unshakable, it can be assumed they will inherit. Sometimes, however, extraordinary events—such as the death or the deposition of the parent—intervene
16.
Hinduism in the Philippines
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At present, however, it is limited primarily to the immigrant Indian community, though traditional religious beliefs in most parts of the country have strong Hindu and Buddhist influences. The archipelagoes of Southeast Asia were under the influence of Hindu Tamil, Gujarati, Indian religions, possibly an amalgamated version of Hindu-Buddhist arrived in Philippines archipelago in the 1st millennium, through the Indonesian kingdom of Srivijaya followed by Majapahit. The statue now sits in the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago, a study of this image was made by Dr. F. D. K. It probably had some connection with the Javanese miners who are known to have been mining gold in the Agusan-Surigao area in the middle or late 14th century, the image is apparently that of a Sivaite goddess, and fits in well with the name Butuan. The Rajahnate of Butuan, in present-day Agusan del Norte and Butuan City, a Hindu Tamil King of the Rajahnate of Cebu was also recorded. Another gold artifact, from the Tabon Caves in the island of Palawan, is an image of Garuda, the discovery of sophisticated Hindu imagery and gold artifacts in Tabon Caves has been linked to those found from Oc Eo, in the Mekong Delta in Southern Vietnam. These archaeological evidence suggests a trade of many specialized goods. Golden jewelry found so far include rings, some surmounted by images of Nandi - the sacred bull, linked chains, inscribed gold sheets, gold plaques decorated with repoussé images of Hindu deities. In 1989, a laborer working in a mine at the mouth of Lumbang River near Laguna de Bay found a copper plate in Barangay Wawa. This discovery, is now known as the Laguna Copperplate Inscription by scholars and it is the earliest known written document found in the Philippines, dated to be from the 9th century AD, and was deciphered in 1992 by Dutch anthropologist Antoon Postma. Hinduism in the country declined when Islam was introduced by traders from Arabia which was followed by Christianity from Spain. This is an area of research as little is known about the scale and depth of Philippine history from the 1st millennium. There is some growth in the religion as of late, although most temples cater to the same communities, actual adherents of Hinduism are mostly limited to communities that include indigenous and native peoples, expatriate communities, as well as new converts. There are various Hare Krishna groups and popular Hindu personalities and groups such as Sai Baba, Hindu based practises like Yoga and meditation are also popular. Many fables and stories in Filipino Culture are linked to Indian arts, such as the story of monkey and the turtle, similarly, the major epics and folk literature of Philippines show common themes, plots, climax and ideas expressed in the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. According to Indologists Juan R. Francisco and Josephine Acosta Pasricha, Hindu influences, the Maranao version is the Maharadia Lawana. Lam-Ang is the version of the Ilocanos and Sarimanok is the bird of the Maranao culture. In addition, many verses from the Hud-Hud of the Ifugao are derived from the Indian Hindu epics Ramayana, with the advent of Spanish colonialism in the 16th century, the Philippines became a closed colony and cultural contacts with other Southeast Asian countries were limited, if not closed
17.
Greater India
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In Central Asia transmission of ideas were predominantly of religious nature. By the early centuries of the common era most of the principalities of maritime and continental Southeast Asia had effectively absorbed defining aspects of Hindu culture and these Indianized Kingdoms, a term coined by George Cœdès were characterized by surprising resilience, political integrity and administrative stability. To the north, Indian religious ideas dissipated into the cosmology of Himalayan peoples, most profoundly in Tibet, Buddhist monasticism extended into Afghanistan, Uzbekistan and other parts of Central Asia and Buddhist texts and ideas successfully reached China and Japan in the east. Unlike Southeast Asia cultural and technological stimulation in East Asia always went in both directions, to the west, Indian culture converges with Greater Persia via the Hindukush and the Pamir Mountains. The concept of the Three Indias was in common circulation In pre-industrial Europe, Greater India was the southern part of South Asia, Lesser India was the northern part of South Asia, and Middle India was the region near the Middle East. The Portuguese form was used at least since the mid-15th century, however, in some accounts of European nautical voyages, Greater India extended from the Malabar Coast to India extra Gangem and India Minor, from Malabar to Sind. Farther India was sometimes used to all of modern Southeast Asia. German atlases distinguished Vorder-Indien as the South Asian peninsula and Hinter-Indien as Southeast Asia, the Greater India Basin hypothesis Greater India, or Greater India Basin signifies the Indian Plate plus a postulated northern extension, the product of the Indian–Asia collision. Although its usage in geology pre-dates Plate tectonic theory, the term has seen increased usage since the 1970s, the hypothesis is legitimate as long as the controversy of the location and time of the India-Asia convergence exists. How and where the India–Asia convergence was accommodated, after the collision, at or before 52 Million years ago. Since the plates have converged up to 3,600 km ±35 km, yet the upper crustal shortening documented from the record of Asia. The Greater India Society The use of Greater India refers here to a popularization by a network of Bengali scholars in the 1920s who were all members of the Calcutta-based Greater India Society, the movements early leaders included the historian R. C. Majumdar, the philologists Suniti Kumar Chatterji and P. C, bagchi and the historians Phanindranath Bose and Kalidas Nag. The term Greater India and the notion of an explicit Hindu expansion of ancient Southeast Asia have been linked to both Indian nationalism and Hindu nationalism, iron age trade expansion caused regional geostrategic remodeling. Southeast Asia was now situated in the area of convergence of the Indian and the East Asian maritime trade routes. The earliest Hindu kingdoms emerged in Sumatra and Java, followed by mainland polities such as Funan, selective adoption of Indian civilization elements and individual suitable adaption stimulated the emergence of centralized states and development of highly organized societies. Ambitious local leaders realized the benefits of Hindu worship, rule in accord with universal moral principles represented in the concept of the devaraja was more appealing than the Chinese concept of intermediaries. The exact nature, process and extent of Indian influence upon the civilizations of the region is still debated by contemporary scholars
18.
Battle of Bud Bagsak
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The Battle of Bud Bagsak was a battle during the Moro Rebellion phase of the Philippine–American War fought between June 11 and June 15,1913. The defending Moro resistance fighters were fortified at the top of Mount Bagsak on the island of Jolo, the attacking Americans were led by General John Black Jack Pershing. The Moros were entirely annihilated, including their leader, Datu Amil, in March 1913, Datu Amil and 1,500 warriors negotiated with the Sultan of Sulu and other Moros allied with the Americans, pledging to surrender their weapons. Two months later, having retreated to Bud Bagsak with his entire population of 6, 000-10,000 in the Lati Ward, he told the Americans to come on and fight. At the same time, Pershing secretly landed his force at the town of Bun Bun. Pershings force consisted of the 51st and 52nd Companies of Moro Scouts from Basilan and Siasi, besides the Philippine Scouts from Jolo and fifty troopers from the 8th Cavalry Regiment. In many other battles in the Morolands, the U. S. Army Colt.45 caliber pistol was tested and perfected as an effective man stopper against the Moro fighters, who often fought with berserker tendencies. But the use of the.45 Colt Automatic in Bud Bagsak is still subject to debate since the first shipment of the, the real man stopper used against the juramentados or berserker Moros may very well have been the Winchester Model 1897 shotgun. This was issued to soldiers in Bud Bagsak, Pershing also sent Capt. George Charlton and his 51st Moros to attack Matunkup while Capt. Taylor Nichols Philippine Scouts attacked Puyacabao. By 12,20 PM, Matunkup was in American hands and that ended the first day of fighting,11 June. Early on the morning of 12 June, the American artillery fired on Puhagan while marksmen fired on its interior, Pershing then ordered Capt. Patrick Moylan to attack Bunga with the 24th and 31st Scouts, taking it by 1,30 PM. Pershing, James Lawton Collins, and a ten-man escort scouted Bagsak, the attack began in Sunday morning fog,15 June, with mountain howitzers and Charltons Moros advancing at 9 AM. When the assault stalled, Pershing joined other American officers in the forefront of danger, the final assault on the cotta occurred at 5 PM and Bagsak was captured after three and a half hours. General Pershing in a letter to his wife, he wrote and they are absolutely fearless, and once committed to combat they count death as a mere incident. First Battle of Bud Dajo The New York Times PHILIPPINE HONOR ROLL, officer and Six Enlisted Men Likely to Get Merit Certificate Bud Bagsak, Battle of, in Spanish-American & Philippine-American Wars, Jerry Keenan, ed. pp52–53
19.
Sultanate of Sulu
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The Sultanate of Sulu was a Muslim state that ruled the islands in the Sulu Archipelago, parts of Mindanao, certain portions of Palawan and north-eastern Borneo. The sultanate was founded on 17 November 1405, by a Johore-born explorer and religious scholar Sharif ul-Hashim. Paduka Mahasari Maulana al Sultan Sharif ul-Hashim became his full regnal name, after the marriage of Abu Bakr and a local dayang-dayang Paramisuli, he founded the sultanate. The Sultanate gained its independence from the Bruneian Empire in 1578, at its peak, it stretched over the islands that bordered the western peninsula of Mindanao in the east to Palawan in the north. It also covers the area in northeastern side of Borneo, stretching from Marudu Bay, while another source stated the area stretching from Kimanis Bay which also overlaps with the boundaries of the Bruneian Sultanate. In 1962, Philippine Government under the leadership of President Diosdado Macapagal officially recognised the existence of the Sultanate of Sulu. On 24 May 1974, Sultan Mohammad Mahakuttah Kiram, was the last officially recognized Sulu Sultan in the Philippines, the present area of the Sultanate of Sulu was once under the influence of the Bruneian Empire before it gained its own independence in 1578. Later, the earliest known settlement in this soon to be occupied by the sultanate who was in Maimbung. During these times, Sulu was called Lupah Sug, the Principality of Maimbung, populated by Buranun people, was first ruled by a certain rajah who assumed the title Rajah Sipad the Older. According to Majul, the origins of the title rajah sipad originated from the Hindu sri pada, the Principality was instituted and governed using the system of rajahs. Sipad the Older was succeeded by Sipad the Younger, during the reign of Sipad the Younger, a mystic named Tuan Mashā′ikha arrived in Jolo in 1280 AD. Other reports, however, insisted that Tuan Mashā′ikha together with his parents, Jamiyun Kulisa, however, Saleeby dismisses this claim by concluding that Jamiyun Kulisa and Indra Suga were mythical names. According to tarsila, during the coming of Tuan Mashā′ikha, the people of Maimbung worshipped tombs, after he preached Islam in the area, he married Sipad the Youngers daughter, Idda Indira Suga and bore three children, Tuan Hakim, Tuan Pam and Aisha. Tuan Hakim, in turn, begot five children, from the genealogy of Tuan Mashā′ikha, another titular system of aristocracy called tuanship started in Sulu. Apart from the Idda Indira Suga, Tuan Mashā′ikha also married into another unidentified woman, Tuan Mashā′ikha died in 710 A. H. and was buried in Bud Dato near Jolo, with an inscription of Tuan Maqbālū. A descendant of Tuan Mashā′ikha named Tuan May also begot a son named Datu Tka, the descendants of Tuan May did not assume the title tuan, instead, they started to use datu. It is the first time datu was used as a political institution, during the coming of Tuan Mashā′ikha, the Tagimaha people coming from Basilan and several places in Mindanao, also arrived and settled in Buansa. After the Tagimaha came the Baklaya people, believed to be originated from Sulawesi, after these came the Bajau people from Johor
20.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
21.
Visayans
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The Visayans is an umbrella term for the Philippine ethnolinguistic groups native to the whole Visayas, to the southernmost islands of Luzon and to most parts of Mindanao. They are speakers of one or more Visayan languages, the most widely spoken being Cebuano and Hiligaynon, many have, at some point in their lives, migrated to Metro Manila out of economic necessity brought about by centralization around it. They comprise the largest grouping in the division of the country. Filipino author and artist John Kingsley Pangan categorized the Visayans into two groups called the Madja-as Visayans and the Sugbu Visayans. Madja-as Visayans are the group from the islands of Panay, Guimaras, Romblon and Negros Occidental. The term comes from the confederacy of the islands called Kedatuan of Madja-as. They originated also from the Austronesian aborigines and the Srivijayan empire, the colonizers also described these Visayans also as white people, who have among them some blacks—the ancient inhabitants of the island and not described as tattooed. They originated from both the Austronesian aborigines and the Tamils through the Chola dynasty, who in turn first settled in Sugbu. ”Kabisay-an refers both to the Visayan people collectively and the lands they have inhabited since prehistory. The Anglicized term Visayas is commonly used to refer to the latter and these should not, however, be confused as dialects, given the lack of mutual intelligibility. Grabiel Ribera, captain of the Spanish royal infantry in the Philippine Islands, the earliest settlements in the Visayan islands were from valley-dwelling Austronesians and highland-dwelling Negrito dated around 30,000 BC. These early settlers were mostly Animist tribes, in the 12th century, Hindu-Buddhist descendants from the late Śrīvijayan maṇḍala, Majapahit and Brunei, settled the islands. By the 14th century, Arab traders and their followers who ventured into Maritime Southeast Asia, Visayans practiced a mixture of Islamic, Hindu and Buddhist beliefs although there were also groups that were varied, some groups exclusively practiced Islam or Hinduism or Buddhism. There is also evidence of trade and immigration between other Asian peoples in the area as early as the 9th century, One of this Westerners account says that the adventures of this ancient hero of Panay was recalled during weddings and in songs. It was said that they originated from an area within the Śrīvijayan maṇḍala during the early 13th century. In an attempt to escape the rule of a Rajah Makatunaw and the subsequent dissolution of the maṇḍala. The island at time was ruled by an Ati chief Marikudo who was later given a golden sadok. It was said that the name for the inhabitants, Bisaya, was derived from their polity of origin, the Visayans first encountered Western Civilization when Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan reached the island of Cebu in 1521. The Visayas became part of the Spanish colony of the Philippines, the 16th century marks the beginning of the Christianization of the Visayan people, with the baptism of Rajah Humabon and about 800 native Cebuanos
22.
Sama-Bajau
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The Sama-Bajau refers to several Austronesian ethnic groups of Maritime Southeast Asia with their origins from the southern Philippines. The name collectively refers to related people who call themselves the Sama or Samah, or are known by the exonyms Bajau. They usually live a lifestyle, and use small wooden sailing vessels such as the perahu, djenging, balutu, lepa, pilang. Some Sama-Bajau groups native to Sabah are also known for their horse culture. In the Philippines, they are grouped together with the religiously-similar Moro people, within the last 50 years, many of the Filipino Sama-Bajau have migrated to neighbouring Malaysia and the northern islands of the Philippines, due to the conflict in Mindanao. As of 2010, they were the second-largest ethnic group in the Malaysian state of Sabah, the modern outward spread of the Sama-Bajau from older inhabited areas seems to have been associated with the development of sea trade in sea cucumber. Like the term Kadazan-Dusun, Sama-Bajau is a term, used to describe several closely related indigenous people who consider themselves a single distinct bangsa. It is generally accepted that these groups of people can be termed Sama or Bajau, instead, they call themselves with the names of their tribes, usually the place they live or place of origin. For example, the sea-going Sama-Bajau prefer to call themselves the Sama Dilaut or Sama Mandilaut in the Philippines, while in Malaysia, even these distinctions are fading as the majority of Sama-Bajau have long since abandoned boat living, most for Sama–style piling houses in the coastal shallows. Sama is believed to have originated from the Austronesian root word sama meaning together, same, the exact origin of the exonym Bajau is unclear. Some authors have proposed that it is derived from a corruption of the Malay word berjauh, other possible origins include the Brunei Malay word bajaul, which means to fish. The term Bajau has pejorative connotations in the Philippines, indicating poverty in comparison to the term Sama, especially since it is used most commonly to refer to poverty-stricken Sama-Bajau who make a living through begging. British administrators in Sabah classified the Sama-Bajau as Bajau and labelled them as such in their birth certificates, thus the Sama-Bajau in Malaysia may sometimes self-identify as Bajau or even Malay, for political reasons. This is due to the government recognition of the Sama-Bajau as legally Bumiputera under the name Bajau and this ensures easy access to the special privileges granted to ethnic Malays. This is especially true for recent Moro Filipino migrants, the indigenous Sama-Bajau in Malaysia have also started labelling themselves as their ancestors called themselves, such as Simunul. For most of their history, the Sama-Bajau have been a nomadic, seafaring people, living off the sea by trading, the boat-dwelling Sama-Bajau see themselves as non-aggressive people. They kept close to the shore by erecting houses on stilts, after she is lost by either being swept away to the sea or being taken captive by a neighbouring kingdom, they were then supposedly ordered to find her. After failing to do so they decided to remain nomadic for fear of facing the wrath of the king
23.
Iranun people
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The Iranun are a Moro ethnic group native to Mindanao, Philippines, and the west coast of Sabah, Malaysia. For centuries, the Iranun were involved in pirate-related occupations in the Malay world, originally from the Sultanate of Maguindanao, in southern Mindanao, Illanun colonies spread to throughout Mindanao, the Sulu Archipelago and the north and east coast of Borneo. Their language is part of the Austronesian family, and is most closely related to Maranao of the Philippines and its ISO code is ISO 639-3 ill. Historically, the Iranun were given the exonym Illanun during the British colonial era, the Malay term Lanun or pirate originated from the exonym. Iranun as a nation inhabited mainly the Crab Gulf and its villages were established and concentrated in the Iranun Bay. The origin was attributed to the people of the Uranen Kingdom of the primitive past who inhabited in Tbok, Iranuns were the first people who entered into a marriage affinity with Shariff Aulia and Shariff Kabunsuan. Bai sa Pandan and Bai Angintabu respectively and their wedlocks where Sultan Kudarat who directly got his line of descent from them. Iranun was a nation between the Karibang-Karingke Line of descent and last wave of Malay migrants. From this marriage affinity sprang the Iranun nation whose first leader was Rajah Urangguwan, the name of their place was Uranen. During the advent of the Shariffs, union took its place in the kingdom through uninterrupted inter-marriages among the royals, the language of the Maranao and Maguindanao in the Philippines is strongly rooted in the Iranun tongue. The Iranun may perhaps be the language and the rest are just a mere dialects. For several centuries, the Iranuns in the Philippines formed part of the Maguindanao sultanate, in the past, the seat of the Maguindanao sultanate was situated at Lamitan and Malabang. Both of which were the strongholds of the Iranun society, Iranuns fought the western invaders under the flag of the Maguindanao sultanate. The Iranun were excellent in maritime activity and they used to ply the route connecting the Sulu sea, Moro gulf to Celebes sea, and raided the Spanish held territories along the way
24.
Maguindanao people
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The Maguindanao are part of the wider Moro ethnic group, who constitute the sixth largest Filipino ethnic group. Their name means “people of the plains”, in Buayan, the transition to Islam took a longer time. Spanish chronicles was told that Buayan, and not Cotabato, was the most important settlement in Mindanao at that time, in 1579, an expedition sent by Governor Francisco de Sande failed to conquer the Maguindanao. In 1596, the Spanish government gave Captain Estevan Rodriguez de Figueroa the sole right to colonize Mindanao and he met defeat in Buayan, and later, was killed in an ambush by a Buhahayen named Ubal. His forces retreated to an anchorage near Zamboanga, the rise of the Maguindanao-Cotabato power came after the defeat of Datu Sirongan of Buayan in 1606. From 1607 to 1635, new alliances were formed, this time with Cotabato. By the 1630s, Cotabato had become a coastal power, several expeditions sent by the Spanish authorities suffered defeat. In 1635, Captain Juan de Chaves occupied Zamboanga and erected a fort and this led to the defeat of Kudarats feared admiral, Datu Tagal, who had raided pueblos in the Visayas. In 1637, Governor General Hurtado de Corcuera personally led an expedition against Kudarat, Spanish presence was withdrawn in 1663, providing an opportunity for Kudarat to re consolidate his forces. From 1663 to 1718, Maguindanao influence extended as far as Zamboanga in the west, Cagayan de Oro in the north, Sarangani in the south, in 1719, the Spaniards reestablished control with the building of the strategic Fort Pilar in Zamboanga. The 1730s saw the weakening of the Maguindanao sultanate, as it struggled with civil war, Spanish help was sought by the besieged rajah mudah, further destroying the prestige of the sultanate. Thus, Cotabato power became increasingly dependent on Spanish support and this deepening compromise with Spain led Cotabato to its downfall. Fearing Buayans reemerging power, Sultan Kudarat II finally ceded Cotabato to Spain in return for a pension of 1,000 pesos for him. Buayan, under Datu Uto, had, by the 1860s, in 1887, General Emilio Terrero led an expedition against Uto, although, he was able to destroy the kota in Cotabato, he was unable to enforce Spanish sovereignty. In 1891, Governor General Valeriano Weyler personally led a campaign against the Maguindanao and Maranao, in the next few months, Weyler erected a fort in Parang-Parang, between Pulangi and the Ilanun coast. This effectively stopped the shipment of arms to Uto, who died a man in 1902. During the Philippine-American War, the Americans adopted a policy of noninterference in the Muslim areas, as spelled out in the Bates Agreement of 1899 signed by Brig, General John C. Bates and Sultan Jamalul Kiram II of Jolo. However, the Muslims did not know that the Treaty of Paris, after the Philippine-American War, the Americans established direct rule over the newly formed Moro Province, which then consisted of five district—Zamboanga, Lanao, Cotabato, Davao, and Sulu
25.
Srivijaya
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Srivijaya was a dominant thalassocratic city-state based on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia, which influenced much of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was an important centre for the expansion of Buddhism from the 8th to the 12th century, Srivijaya was the first unified kingdom to dominate much of Malay archipelago. In Sanskrit, śrī means fortunate, prosperous, or happy, the earliest reference to it dates from the 7th century. A Tang Chinese monk, Yijing, wrote that he visited Srivijaya in 671 CE for six months, the earliest known inscription in which the name Srivijaya appears also dates from the 7th century in the Kedukan Bukit inscription found near Palembang, Sumatra, dated 16 June 682 CE. Between the late 7th and early 11th century, Srivijaya rose to become a hegemon in Southeast Asia and it was involved in close interactions, often rivalries, with the neighbouring Java, Kambuja and Champa. Srivijayas main foreign interest was nurturing lucrative trade agreements with China which lasted from the Tang to the Song dynasty, Srivijaya had religious, cultural and trade links with the Buddhist Pala of Bengal, as well as with the Islamic Caliphate in the Middle East. The kingdom ceased to exist in the 13th century by various factors, including the expansion of the rival Javanese Singhasari, after Srivijaya fell, it was largely forgotten. It was not until 1918 that French historian George Cœdès, of École française dExtrême-Orient, little physical evidence of Srivijaya remains. There had been no continuous knowledge of the history of Srivijaya even in Indonesia, Cœdès noted that the Chinese references to Sanfoqi, previously read as Sribhoja, and the inscriptions in Old Malay refer to the same empire. The Buddhist pilgrim Yijings account is important on describing Srivijaya. The 7th-century siddhayatra inscriptions discovered in Palembang and Bangka island are also vital primary historical sources, also, regional accounts that some might be almost tales and legends, such as the Legend of the Maharaja of Javaka and the Khmer King also provides a glimpse of the kingdom. Besides, some Indian and Arabic accounts also describes vaguely about the riches, Srivijaya had become a symbol of early Sumatran importance as a great empire to balance Javas Majapahit in the east. Srivijaya, and by extension Sumatra, had been known by different names to different peoples, the Chinese called it Sanfoqi or Che-li-fo-che, and there was an even older kingdom of Kantoli, which could be considered the predecessor of Srivijaya. Sanskrit and Pali texts referred to it as Yavades and Javadeh, the Arabs called it Zabag or Sribuza and the Khmers called it Melayu. While the Javanese called them Suvarnabhumi, Suvarnadvipa or Malayu and this is another reason why the discovery of Srivijaya was so difficult. While some of names are strongly reminiscent of the name of Java. According to the Kedukan Bukit inscription, dated 605 Saka, Srivijaya was first established in the vicinity of todays Palembang and it mentions that Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa came from Minanga Tamwan. The exact location of Minanga Tamwan is still a subject of discussion, the Palembang theory as the place where Srivijaya was first established was presented by Cœdes and supported by Pierre-Yves Manguin
26.
Majapahit
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The Majapahit Empire was a vast thalassocracy based on the island of Java from 1293 to around 1500. Majapahit reached its peak of glory during the era of Hayam Wuruk and his achievement is also credited to his prime minister, Gajah Mada. Its influence extended beyond the territory of Indonesia and has been the subject of many studies. The name Majapahit derives from local Javanese, meaning bitter maja, german orientalist Berthold Laufer suggested that maja came from the Javanese name of Aegle marmelos, an Indonesian tree. The name originally referred to the area in and around Trowulan, the cradle of Majapahit and it was said that the workers clearing the Tarik timberland encountered some bael trees and consumed its bitter-tasting fruit that subsequently become the villages name. In ancient Java it is common to refer the kingdom with its capitals name, Majapahit is also known by other names, Wilwatikta, although sometimes the natives refer to their kingdom as Bhumi Jawa or Mandala Jawa instead. Little physical evidence of Majapahit remains, and some details of the history are rather abstract, nevertheless, local Javanese people did not forget Majapahit completely, as Mojopait is mentioned vaguely in Babad Tanah Jawi, a Javanese chronicle composed in the 18th century. Majapahit did produce physical evidence, the ruins dating from the Majapahit period are clustered in the Trowulan area. The Trowulan archaeological site was discovered in the 19th century by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles and he reported the existence of ruins of temples. Scattered about the country for miles, and referred to Trowulan as this pride of Java. By the early 20th century, Dutch colonial historians began to study old Javanese and Balinese literature to explore the past of their colony, two primary sources were available to them, the Pararaton manuscript was written in the Kawi language c. 1600, and Nagarakretagama was composed in Old Javanese in 1365, Pararaton focuses on Ken Arok, the founder of Singhasari, but includes a number of shorter narrative fragments about the formation of Majapahit. The Nagarakretagama is an old Javanese epic poem written during the Majapahit golden age under the reign of Hayam Wuruk, the Dutch acquired the manuscript in 1894 during their military expedition against the Cakranegara royal house of Lombok. There are also inscriptions in Old Javanese and Chinese. The Javanese sources incorporate some poetic mythological elements, and scholars such as C. C, berg, an Indonesia-born Dutch naturalist, have considered the entire historical record to be not a record of the past, but a supernatural means by which the future can be determined. Most scholars do not accept this view, as the record corresponds with Chinese materials that could not have had similar intention. The list of rulers and details of the structure show no sign of being invented. The Chinese historical sources on Majapahit, mainly owed to Zheng Hes account — a Ming Dynasty admiral reports during his visit to Majapahit, Zheng Hes translator Ma Huan wrote a detailed description of Majapahit and where the king of Java lived
27.
Cebu
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Cebu is a 1st provincial income class island province of the Philippines located in the Central Visayas region, and consisting of the main island itself and 167 surrounding islands and islets. Its capital is Cebu City, the oldest city and first capital of the Philippines, Cebu City forms part of the Cebu Metropolitan Area together with four neighboring cities and eight other local government units. Mactan-Cebu International Airport, located in Mactan Island, is the second busiest airport in the Philippines, Cebu is one of the most developed provinces in the Philippines, with Cebu City as the main center of commerce, trade, education and industry in the Visayas. In a decade it has transformed into a hub for shipping, furniture-making, tourism, business processing services. The name Cebu came from the old Cebuano word sibu or sibo and it was originally applied to the harbors of the town of Sugbu, the ancient name for Cebu City. Alternate renditions of the name by traders between the 13th to 16th centuries include Sebu, Sibuy, Zubu, or Zebu, among others, Sugbu, in turn, was derived from the Old Cebuano term for scorched earth or great fire. The Rajahnate of Cebu was a native kingdom which existed in Cebu prior to the arrival of the Spaniards. It was founded by Sri Lumay otherwise known as Rajamuda Lumaya and he was sent by the Maharajah to establish a base for expeditionary forces to subdue the local kingdoms, but he rebelled and established his own independent Rajahnate instead. The arrival of Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan in 1521 established a period of Spanish exploration and colonization, losing favor for his plan of reaching the Spice Islands from king Manuel I of Portugal, by sailing west from Europe, Magellan offered his services to king Charles I of Spain. On 20 September 1519, Magellan led five ships with a crew of 250 people from the Spanish fort of Sanlúcar de Barrameda en route to southeast Asia via the Americas and they reached the Philippines on 16 March 1521. Rajah Kolambu the king of Mazaua told them to sail for Cebu, arriving in Cebu City, Magellan, with Enrique of Malacca as translator, befriended Rajah Humabon the Rajah or King of Cebu and persuaded the natives of allegiance to Charles I of Spain. Humabon and his wife were given Christian names and baptized as Carlos, the Santo Niño was presented to the native queen of Cebu, as a symbol of peace and friendship between the Spaniards and the Cebuanos. On 14 April Magellan erected a wooden cross on the shores of Cebu. Afterwards, about 700 islanders were baptized, Magellan soon heard of datu Lapu-Lapu, a native king in nearby Mactan Island, a rival of the Rajahs of Cebu. It was thought that Humabon and Lapu–Lapu had been fighting for control of the trade in the area. On 27 April the Battle of Mactan occurred where the Spaniards were defeated, according to Italian historian and chronicler, Antonio Pigafetta, Magellans body was never recovered despite efforts to trade for it with spice and jewels. Magellans second-in-command, Juan Sebastián Elcano took his place as captain of the expedition and sailed their fleet back to Spain, survivors of the Magellan expedition brought tales of a savage island in the East Indies with them when they returned to Spain. Consequently, several Spanish expeditions were sent to the islands but all ended in failure, in 1564, Spanish explorers led by Miguel López de Legazpi, sailing from Mexico, arrived in 1565, and established a colony
28.
Panay
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Panay Island, is the sixth largest and fourth most populous island in the Philippines. With a total area of 12,011 Sq. km. Iloilo City, is the largest city on the island, with a population of 447,992. It is an island, located in the western part of the Visayas. It is about 160 kilometres across, it is divided into four provinces, Aklan, Antique, Capiz and Iloilo and it is located southeast of the island of Mindoro and northwest of Negros, separated by the Guimaras Strait. Between Panay and Negros lie the island-province of Guimaras, to the north and northeast is the Sibuyan Sea and the islands of Romblon, to the west and southwest is the Sulu Sea and to the south is Panay Gulf. Panay River, is the longest river in the island, Mount Madja-as in Antique, is the second highest peak on the island with an elevation of 2,117 m above sea level. Mount Nangtud, is the highest mountain in Panay, standing at 7,234 ft. above sea level, Located on the border of Barbaza, Antique and Jamindan, before 1212, Panay was called Simsiman. The community is located at the shores of the Ulian river and was linked by a creek, the creek provided salt to the Ati people as well as animals which lick the salt out of the salty water. Coming from the root word simsim, simsimin means to something to eat or to drink. During the time of Datu Pulpulan, father of the Ati chief Marikudo, the island was called Aninipay from words ani to harvest and nipay, the hair of this grass though short is very sharp and easily prick the skin as barbs and is very difficult to remove. Once the barbs stick to the skin it can cause a skin irritation. For this reason, Datu Pulpulan enacted a law that whoever among the Atis will use the grass to endanger others will face death as punishment. The picturesque mountain which stood majestically in the area was thought to be the place of Bululakaw. The island was so named by the Malay settlers due to the splendid beauty, a Spaniard named Gonzalo Ronquillo reached the island and also gave the name Pan hay which means theres a bread in the island. The place was then called Pan-hay which eventually became Panay, Madja-as was established by nine rebel datus or high officials connected with the court of Brunei, who were forced to leave that are on account of enmity of the Rajah at that time ruling the land. The datus, together with their wives and children, as well as few faithful servants and followers were escorted out of the country by the Rajahs Chief Minister. The local folklore says that the name of the Bornean Rajah was Makatunao and their ultimate origins may be traced to the sacking of the kingdom of Pannai at North Sumatra by the Chola dynasty who had placed puppet Rajahs on the throne after their invasion
29.
Portugal
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Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic, is a country on the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. It is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, to the west and south it is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean and to the east and north by Spain. The Portugal–Spain border is 1,214 kilometres long and considered the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union, the republic also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira, both autonomous regions with their own regional governments. The territory of modern Portugal has been settled, invaded. The Pre-Celts, Celts, Carthaginians and the Romans were followed by the invasions of the Visigothic, in 711 the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by the Moors, making Portugal part of Muslim Al Andalus. Portugal was born as result of the Christian Reconquista, and in 1139, Afonso Henriques was proclaimed King of Portugal, in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal established the first global empire, becoming one of the worlds major economic, political and military powers. Portugal monopolized the trade during this time, and the Portuguese Empire expanded with military campaigns led in Asia. After the 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy, the democratic but unstable Portuguese First Republic was established, democracy was restored after the Portuguese Colonial War and the Carnation Revolution in 1974. Shortly after, independence was granted to almost all its overseas territories, Portugal has left a profound cultural and architectural influence across the globe and a legacy of over 250 million Portuguese speakers today. Portugal is a country with a high-income advanced economy and a high living standard. It is the 5th most peaceful country in the world, maintaining a unitary semi-presidential republican form of government and it has the 18th highest Social Progress in the world, putting it ahead of other Western European countries like France, Spain and Italy. Portugal is a pioneer when it comes to drug decriminalization, as the nation decriminalized the possession of all drugs for use in 2001. The early history of Portugal is shared with the rest of the Iberian Peninsula located in South Western Europe, the name of Portugal derives from the joined Romano-Celtic name Portus Cale. Other influences include some 5th-century vestiges of Alan settlements, which were found in Alenquer, Coimbra, the region of present-day Portugal was inhabited by Neanderthals and then by Homo sapiens, who roamed the border-less region of the northern Iberian peninsula. These were subsistence societies that, although they did not establish prosperous settlements, neolithic Portugal experimented with domestication of herding animals, the raising of some cereal crops and fluvial or marine fishing. Chief among these tribes were the Calaicians or Gallaeci of Northern Portugal, the Lusitanians of central Portugal, the Celtici of Alentejo, a few small, semi-permanent, commercial coastal settlements were also founded in the Algarve region by Phoenicians-Carthaginians. Romans first invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 219 BC, during the last days of Julius Caesar, almost the entire peninsula had been annexed to the Roman Republic. The Carthaginians, Romes adversary in the Punic Wars, were expelled from their coastal colonies and it suffered a severe setback in 150 BC, when a rebellion began in the north
30.
Cavite
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Cavite is a province in the Philippines located on the southern shores of Manila Bay in the Calabarzon region on Luzon island. Situated just 21 kilometers south of the capital, it is one of the most industrialized, with a population of 3,678,301 in 2015, it is the most populated province in the country. Cavite is surrounded by Laguna province to the east, Metro Manila to the northeast, to the west lies the West Philippine Sea. It is located within the Greater Manila Area, not to be confused with adjacent Metro Manila, Cavite is the second smallest province in the Calabarzon region. The province has two mountain ranges, Cavite is divided into four physiographical areas, namely, the lowest lowland area, lowland area, the central hilly area and the upland mountainous area. The lowest lowland area is the plain in particular. These areas have low ground level of 0 to 2 metres elevation compared to the high tide level of about 0.8 meters from the mean sea level. These are the cities of Cavite, Bacoor and the municipalities of Kawit, Noveleta, Rosario, northern part of Carmona, the lowland area consists of the coastal and alluvial plains. These areas have flat ground slope of less than 0. 5%, the alluvial plain can be found in the city of Imus and southern part of General Trias. Into these municipalities forms the area between the coastal plain and the central hilly area. It also covers areas of Bacoor, Kawit, Noveleta, Rosario, Tanza. The third topography type is the hilly area, generally found on the mountain foot slope. It forms the rolling tuffaceous plateau and this topography includes steep hills, ridges and elevated inland valley. The plateau is characterized with ground elevation ranging from 30 meters to nearly 400 meters and its ground slope ranges from 0.5 to 2%. The city of Trece Martires and Dasmariñas and the municipalities of General Emilio Aguinaldo, General Mariano Alvarez, Indang, Maragondon, Ternate, Silang and Carmona have this kind of topography. The last topography type is upland mountainous area, found in Magallanes, Amadeo, Tagaytay, Mendez, Alfonso, southern part of Maragondon and they are situated at a very high elevation above 400 meters with slopes of more than 2%. The Tagaytay ridge has an elevation of 610 metres with Mount Sungay at 14°8′31. 71″N 121°1′19. 02″E. The mountain was much higher before with an elevation of 752 meters, the prominence of the mountain was leveled in half during the construction of Peoples Park in the Sky during the Marcos administration
31.
Macabebe, Pampanga
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Macabebe is a first-class municipality in the province of Pampanga, Philippines. According to the 2010 census, it had a population of 70,777 people, Macabebe, an ancient town in the province of Pampanga is intimately linked to the Pampanga River. The Macabebes were the first known Kapampangans, in the Spanish Colonial period of the Philippines, Macabebe was considered one of the oldest and most important communities of Pampanga. The ancient town of Macabebe owes its importance to its location along the Rio Grande de la Pampanga, the rivers routes and its northern tributaries provided the pathways to the early major settlements in Pampanga. The English translation of Macabebe, meaning, bordering the river banks describes the heritage of the ancient town. The Macabebe dialect is said to be harsher and louder than others due to how the people must have had to communicate across the river. The Pampanga River is of importance to Macabebe. Fishing is still a source of sustenance and income for its residents. A number of fisheries can be found along the river banks, the province of Pampanga is also the traditional homeland of the Kapampangan people. The Kapampangan of Macabebe have played a dynamic and at times conflicting role in the history of the Philippines and they fought against the Spanish in 1571, but they also defended the last Spanish garrison against revolutionaries in 1898. In 1901, American General Frederick Funston and his troops captured Philippine President Emilio Aguinaldo in Palanan, Isabela, the Americans pretended to be captives of the Macabebes, who were dressed in Philippine Army uniforms. Once Funston and his “captors” entered Aguinaldos camp, they fell upon the guards and quickly overwhelmed them. Many Kapampangan guerrillas and Hukbalahap resistance was downfall invading the municipalities in Macabebe was the siege of three year conflicts and attacking Japanese troops, after the insurgencies, many Kapampangan guerrillas and Hukbalahap resistance was downfall retreating by the Japanese Imperial Armed Forces in the town municipalities. When the Battle of Macabebe begins on 1945.237.158.176 Like other towns in the Philippines, Macabebe is governed by a mayor, the mayor is the executive head and leads the towns departments in executing the ordinances and improving public services. The vice mayor heads a legislative council consisting of councilors from the barangays of barrios, in religion, the town has Catholics 87%, Members Church of God International 5%, Iglesia ni Cristo 3%, Evangelicals 2%, others 3%. The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of San Fernando has jurisdiction over the 1575 San Nicolas de Tolentino Parish Church and it was founded in 1575 under the advocation of San Nicolas de Tolentino. The heritage church measures 70 metres long,17 metres wide and 11 metres high, the facade of the church has scantly ornamentation and its architectural symmetry is lost amid and the various forms assumed the windows and the main entrance. Simple neo-classic lines of the facade, Macabebe is also home to San Gabriel Chapel
32.
Tarik Sulayman
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Aside from Tarik Sulayman, this individual has also been associated wht the names Bambalito or Bankau by some historians, while others simply consider him nameless. The battle of Bangkusay happened because he refused to ally with the Spaniards as Rajah Lakan Dula had done, decided to mount an attack on the Spaniards, López de Legazpi got word of the impending attack and launched a preemptive strike. The Macabebe forces were defeated, and Tarik Sulayman himself was killed, the Spanish victory at Bangkusay and López de Legazpis friendship with Rajah Lakan Dula enabled the Spaniards to establish themselves throughout the city and its neighboring towns. Some controversy exists about whether Tarik Sulayman of Macabebe, and Rajah Sulaiman III of Manila were the same person, some have even suggested that the two men were related. Rajah Sulaiman of Manila, on the hand, is clearly recorded as participating in the 1574 Manila Revolt
33.
Governor-General of the Philippines
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They were also the representative of the executive of the ruling power. On November 15,1935, the Commonwealth of the Philippines was established as a government to prepare the country for independence from the American control. The governor-general was replaced by an elected Filipino President of the Philippine Commonwealth, as the executive of the Philippines. The former American Governor-General then became known as the High Commissioner to the Philippines, from 1565 to 1898, the Philippines was under Spanish rule. From 1565–1821, The governor and captain-general was appointed by the Viceroy of New Spain upon recommendation of the Spanish Cortes, when there was a vacancy, the Royal Audiencia in Manila appoints a temporary governor from among its members. Ad interim Real Audiencia Great Britain occupied Manila and the port of Cavite as part of the Seven Years War. After the 1821 Mexican War of Independence, Mexico became independent and was no part of the Spanish Empire. The Viceroyalty of New Spain ceased to exist, the Philippines, as a result, was directly governed from Madrid, under the Crown. The American military government was established following the defeat of Spain in the Spanish–American War, during the transition period, executive authority in all civil affairs in the Philippine government was exercised by the military governor. For the first year, a Military Governor, Adna Chaffee, ruled parts of the still resisting the American rule, concurrent with civil governor. Disagreements between the two were not uncommon, the following year, on July 4,1902, Taft became the sole executive authority. Chaffee remained as commander of Philippine Division until September 30,1902, the title was changed to Governor General in 1905 by an act of Congress. The term insular refers to U. S. island territories that are not incorporated into either a state or a federal district, all insular areas was under the authority of the U. S. Bureau of Insular Affairs, a division of the US War Department. On November 15,1935, the Commonwealth of the Philippines was inaugurated as a government to prepare the country for independence. The office of President of the Philippine Commonwealth replaced the Governor-General as the chief executive. The Governor-General became the High Commissioner of the Philippines with Frank Murphy, the High Commissioner exercised no executive power but rather represented the colonial power, the United States Government, in the Philippines. The high commissioner moved from Malacañang Palace to the newly built High Commissioners Residence, after the Philippine independence on July 4,1946, the last High Commissioner, Paul McNutt, became the first United States Ambassador to the Philippines. In December 1941, the Commonwealth of the Philippines was invaded by Japan as part of World War II, the next year, the Empire of Japan sent a military governor to control the country during wartime, followed by the formal establishment of the puppet second republic
