1.
One Tree Hill (New Zealand)
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Maungakiekie / One Tree Hill is a 182-metre volcanic peak in Auckland, New Zealand. It is an important memorial place for both Māori and other New Zealanders, the suburb around the base of the hill is also called One Tree Hill. It is surrounded by the suburbs of Royal Oak to the west, and clockwise, Epsom, Greenlane, Oranga, the summit provides views across the Auckland area, and allows visitors to see both of Aucklands harbours. The hills scoria cones were erupted from three craters – one is intact and two have been breached by lava flows that rafted away part of the side of the scoria cone. Lava flows went in all directions, many towards Onehunga, covering an area of 20 square kilometres, making it the second largest of the Auckland volcanic field, behind Rangitoto Island. The age of eruption is unknown, but it is older than 28,500 years as it has a mantling of volcanic ash erupted at that time from Te Tātua-a-Riukiuta volcano. The Māori name Maungakiekie means mountain of the kiekie vine, Māori also knew it as tōtara that stands alone. The mountain and its surrounds were home to the Te Wai ō Hua tribe from the early 1700s, other Māori tribes in the Auckland area can also trace their ancestry to the mountain. Maungakiekie was the largest and most important Māori pā in pre-European times, the cone and its surroundings are estimated to have been home to a population of up to 5,000. Its position between the Waitemata Harbour to the east and the Manukau Harbour to the west offered a variety of seafood from the two harbours. The volcanic soil on the cone was highly fertile. The hill was relatively easy to defend from raiding parties from other tribes due to its steep sides, the Government under its preemptive rights excluded 115 acres of the hill itself from the sale and this was vested in the Crown. This is now One Tree Hill Domain, in 1853 Brown & Campbell purchased Henrys land surrounding the recently protected One Tree Hill Domain. This land ultimately became Cornwall Park in 1901, in 1964 the government led an initiative to restore the mountain. After two years the initiative was cancelled and the mountain left alone, One Tree Hill Domain is a park, owned by Ngā Mana Whenua o Tāmaki Makaurau Collective and administered by Ngā Mana Whenua o Tāmaki Makaurau Authority. One Tree Hill Domain adjoins Cornwall Parks creating a total of 220 hectares of green space. The hilltop is always accessible by foot but because it became a nightly party stop for boy racers, the area contains two parks, One Tree Hill Domain and Cornwall Park, which are next to each other and thus often perceived as one. One Tree Hill Domain is open to the public and formerly administered by Auckland City Council, all decisions are made by the owners who have delegated minor day-to-day operations to Cornwall Park Trust
2.
Auckland
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Auckland is a city in the North Island of New Zealand. It is the most populous area in the country. Auckland has a population of 1,495,000, which constitutes 32 percent of New Zealands population, a diverse and multicultural city, Auckland is home to the largest Polynesian population in the world. It has also been called Ākarana, the Māori pronunciation of Auckland, the Auckland urban area ranges to Waiwera in the north, Kumeu in the northwest, and Runciman in the south. It is not contiguous, the section from Waiwera to Whangaparāoa Peninsula is separate from its nearest neighbouring suburb of Long Bay, the surrounding hills are covered in rainforest and the landscape is dotted with dozens of dormant volcanic cones. The central part of the area occupies a narrow isthmus between the Manukau Harbour on the Tasman Sea and the Waitemata Harbour on the Pacific Ocean. It is one of the few cities in the world to have harbours on two major bodies of water. The isthmus on which Auckland resides was first settled around 1350 and was valued for its rich, Māori population in the area is estimated to have peaked at 20,000 before the arrival of Europeans. After a British colony was established in 1840, the new Governor of New Zealand, William Hobson and he named the area Auckland for George Eden, Earl of Auckland, British First Lord of the Admiralty. It was replaced as the capital in 1865, but immigration to the new city stayed strong, today, Aucklands Central Business District is the major financial centre of New Zealand. Auckland is classified as a Beta World City because of its importance in finance, commerce, media, entertainment, arts, education and tourism. Aucklands landmarks such as the Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tāmaki, the Harbour Bridge, the Sky Tower, the isthmus was settled by Māori around 1350, and was valued for its rich and fertile land. Many pā were created, mainly on the volcanic peaks, Māori population in the area is estimated to have been about 20,000 people before the arrival of Europeans. As a result, the region had relatively low numbers of Māori when European settlement of New Zealand began, there is, however, nothing to suggest that this was the result of a deliberate European policy. Auckland was officially declared New Zealands capital in 1841 and the transfer of the administration from Russell in the Bay of Islands was completed in 1842. However, even in 1840 Port Nicholson was seen as a choice for an administrative capital because of its proximity to the South Island. After losing its status as capital, Auckland remained the city of the Auckland Province until the provincial system was abolished in 1876. Each of the four settlements had about 800 settlers, the men being fully armed in case of emergency but spent nearly all their time breaking in the land and establishing roads
3.
Volcano
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A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface. Earths volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into 17 major, therefore, on Earth, volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging. This type of volcanism falls under the umbrella of plate hypothesis volcanism, Volcanism away from plate boundaries has also been explained as mantle plumes. These so-called hotspots, for example Hawaii, are postulated to arise from upwelling diapirs with magma from the boundary,3,000 km deep in the Earth. Volcanoes are usually not created where two plates slide past one another. Erupting volcanoes can pose hazards, not only in the immediate vicinity of the eruption. Historically, so-called volcanic winters have caused catastrophic famines, the word volcano is derived from the name of Vulcano, a volcanic island in the Aeolian Islands of Italy whose name in turn comes from Vulcan, the god of fire in Roman mythology. The study of volcanoes is called volcanology, sometimes spelled vulcanology, at the mid-oceanic ridges, two tectonic plates diverge from one another as new oceanic crust is formed by the cooling and solidifying of hot molten rock. Most divergent plate boundaries are at the bottom of the oceans, therefore, most volcanic activity is submarine, black smokers are evidence of this kind of volcanic activity. Where the mid-oceanic ridge is above sea-level, volcanic islands are formed, for example, subduction zones are places where two plates, usually an oceanic plate and a continental plate, collide. In this case, the plate subducts, or submerges under the continental plate forming a deep ocean trench just offshore. In a process called flux melting, water released from the subducting plate lowers the temperature of the overlying mantle wedge. This magma tends to be very viscous due to its high content, so it often does not reach the surface. When it does reach the surface, a volcano is formed, typical examples of this kind of volcano are Mount Etna and the volcanoes in the Pacific Ring of Fire. Because tectonic plates move across them, each volcano becomes dormant and is eventually re-formed as the plate advances over the postulated plume and this theory is currently under criticism, however. The most common perception of a volcano is of a mountain, spewing lava and poisonous gases from a crater at its summit, however. The features of volcanoes are more complicated and their structure. Some volcanoes have rugged peaks formed by lava domes rather than a summit crater while others have features such as massive plateaus
4.
Hauraki Gulf
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The Hauraki Gulf / Tīkapa Moana is a coastal feature of the North Island of New Zealand. It has an area of 4000 km², and lies between, in order, the Auckland Region, the Hauraki Plains, the Coromandel Peninsula. Most of the gulf is part of the Hauraki Gulf Marine Park, Hauraki is Māori for north wind. In 2014, the gulf was officially named Hauraki Gulf / Tīkapa Moana, the gulf is part of the Pacific Ocean, which it joins to the north and east. It is largely protected from the Pacific by Great Barrier Island and Little Barrier Island to the north and it is thus well protected against all but northern winds. Three large channels join the gulf to the Pacific, to the north of Auckland several peninsulas jut into the gulf, notably the Whangaparaoa Peninsula. Tiritiri Matangi Island is near the end of this peninsula, further north, Kawau Island nestles under the Tawharanui Peninsula. Numerous beaches dot the shores of the gulf, many of them known for swimming and surfing. During the last glaciation period the gulf was dry land, with the sea level being around 100–110 m lower than at present, the gulf was submerged when the sea reached its current level around 7200 years ago. In the west of the gulf lie a string of islands guarding the mouth of the Waitemata Harbour and these include Ponui Island, Waiheke Island, Tiritiri Matangi and the iconic dome of Rangitoto Island, which is connected to the much older Motutapu Island by a causeway. The islands are separated from the mainland by the Tamaki Strait, at the southern end of the gulf is the wide, relatively shallow Firth of Thames. Beyond this lie the Hauraki Plains, drained by the Waihou River, the Hunua Ranges and hills of the Coromandel Peninsula rise on either side of the Firth. There are approximately 25 species of mammals in the gulf. Nearly a third of the marine mammal species live in or visit the Marine Park. The population remaining is estimated to be between 100-200, in recent years, increases in numbers of migrating baleen whales are confirmed long after the end of hunting era. These are humpback whales, southern blue whales, pygmy blue whales, less frequently, fin whales and sei whales are seen as well. For southern right whales, these whales will possibly become seasonal residents in the gulf as the populations recover, many of the islands are official or unofficial bird sanctuaries, holding important or critically endangered species like kiwi, takahe, brown teal and grey-faced petrel. The gulf is a vibrant natural environment, which has seen significant damage during the 20th, particularly damaging were the introduction of industrialised fishing, with for example snapper fishing peaking in the 1970s at more than 10,000 tonnes a year
5.
Shield volcano
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A shield volcano is a type of volcano usually built almost entirely of fluid lava flows. They are named for their low profile, resembling a warriors shield lying on the ground and this is caused by the highly fluid lava they erupt, which travels farther than lava erupted from stratovolcanoes. This results in the accumulation of broad sheets of lava. The shape of shield volcanoes is due to the low viscosity of their mafic lava, Shield volcanoes are built by effusive eruptions, which flow out in all directions to create a shield like that of a warrior. Shield volcano itself is taken from the German term Schildvulkan, examples of pyroclastic shields include Billy Mitchell volcano in Papua New Guinea and the Purico Complex in Chile, an example of a felsic shield is the Big Obsidian Flow in Oregon. Active shield volcanoes experience near-continuous eruptive activity over long periods of time. Mount Everest, by comparison, is 8,848 m in height, the research has not yet been confirmed. Shield volcanoes feature a slope that gradually steepens with elevation before eventually flattening near the summit. In height they are typically about one twentieth their width, although the general form of a typical shield volcano varies little worldwide regional differences exist in their size and morphological characteristics. 4° and an average volume of 1.7 km3. Rift zones are a prevalent feature on shield volcanoes that is rare on other volcanic types, the large, decentralized shape of Hawaiian volcanoes as compared to their smaller, symmetrical Icelandic cousins can be attributed to rift eruptions. Fissure venting is common in Hawaiʻi, most Hawaiian eruptions begin with a wall of fire along a major fissure line before centralizing to a small number of points. These eruptions, the calmest of volcanic events, are characterized by the emission of highly fluid basaltic lavas with low gaseous content. These lavas travel a far greater distance than those of other types before solidifying, forming extremely wide. Low volumes of such lavas layered over long periods of time are what slowly constructs the characteristically low, central-vent eruptions, meanwhile, often take the form of large lava fountains, which can reach heights of hundreds of meters or more. If eruptive rates are enough, they may even form splatter-fed lava flows. Hawaiian eruptions are often extremely long lived, Puʻu ʻŌʻō, a cone of Kilauea, has been erupting continuously since 1983. These lava flows can be anywhere between 2 and 20 m thick, pāhoehoe flows, in contrast, move in more conventional sheets, or by the advancement of lava toes in snaking lava columns. Increasing viscosity on the part of the lava or shear stress on the part of local topography can morph a pāhoehoe flow into an aa one, although most shield volcanoes are by volume almost entirely Hawaiian and basaltic in origin, they are rarely exclusively so
6.
Hectare
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The hectare is an SI accepted metric system unit of area equal to 100 ares and primarily used in the measurement of land as a metric replacement for the imperial acre. An acre is about 0.405 hectare and one hectare contains about 2.47 acres, in 1795, when the metric system was introduced, the are was defined as 100 square metres and the hectare was thus 100 ares or 1⁄100 km2. When the metric system was further rationalised in 1960, resulting in the International System of Units, the are was not included as a recognised unit. The hectare, however, remains as a non-SI unit accepted for use with the SI units, the metric system of measurement was first given a legal basis in 1795 by the French Revolutionary government. At the first meeting of the CGPM in 1889 when a new standard metre, manufactured by Johnson Matthey & Co of London was adopted, in 1960, when the metric system was updated as the International System of Units, the are did not receive international recognition. The units that were catalogued replicated the recommendations of the CGPM, many farmers, especially older ones, still use the acre for everyday calculations, and convert to hectares only for official paperwork. Farm fields can have long histories which are resistant to change, with names such as the six acre field stretching back hundreds of years. The names centiare, deciare, decare and hectare are derived by adding the standard metric prefixes to the base unit of area. The centiare is a synonym for one square metre, the deciare is ten square metres. The are is a unit of area, equal to 100 square metres and it was defined by older forms of the metric system, but is now outside of the modern International System of Units. It is commonly used to measure real estate, in particular in Indonesia, India, and in French-, Portuguese-, Slovakian-, Serbian-, Czech-, Polish-, Dutch-, in Russia and other former Soviet Union states, the are is called sotka. It is used to describe the size of suburban dacha or allotment garden plots or small city parks where the hectare would be too large, the decare is derived from deka, the prefix for 10 and are, and is equal to 10 ares or 1000 square metres. It is used in Norway and in the former Ottoman areas of the Middle East, the hectare, although not strictly a unit of SI, is the only named unit of area that is accepted for use within the SI. The United Kingdom, United States, Burma, and to some extent Canada instead use the acre, others, such as South Africa, published conversion factors which were to be used particularly when preparing consolidation diagrams by compilation. In many countries, metrication redefined or clarified existing measures in terms of metric units, non-SI units accepted for use with the International System of Units
7.
Auckland volcanic field
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The Auckland volcanic field is an area of monogenetic volcanoes covered by much of the metropolitan area of Auckland, New Zealands largest city, located in the North Island. The fields 53 volcanoes have produced an array of maars, tuff rings, scoria cones. Each volcano has erupted for just one period, lasting for weeks to years, except for Rangitoto Island. The field is fuelled entirely by basaltic magma, unlike the explosive subduction-driven volcanism in the central North Island, such as at Mount Ruapehu, the field is currently dormant, but has the potential to become active again in the future. The field ranges from Lake Pupuke and Rangitoto Island in the north to Matukutururu in the south, the first vent erupted at Onepoto Volcano 248,000 ±28,000 years ago. The most recent eruption was of Rangitoto, a shield volcano just east of the city. The eruptions have tended to become bigger over time, with Rangitoto making up almost 60% of the entire volume of erupted material. All of the volcanoes are small, most being less than 150 meters in height. Lake Pupuke, on the North Shore near Takapuna, is an explosion crater. A few similar craters such as Orakei Basin are open to the sea, the field has produced voluminous lava flows that cover much of the Auckland isthmus. One of the longest runs from Mt Saint John northward, almost crossing the Waitemata Harbour to form Meola Reef, more than 50 lava tubes and other lava caves have been discovered, including the 290 metre long Wiri Lava Cave. The second longest individual cave in the Auckland field, some 270 metres in length, is the Cave of a Thousand Press-ups to the east of One Tree Hill. Two impressive depressions caused by lava cave collapses are the Puka Street Grotto, all the volcanoes probably erupted on land except for Rangitoto, which erupted during the current interglacial period. Many of the cones were occupied by substantial Māori pa before European settlement. Many of the cones have been levelled or strongly altered – in small part due to the historical Māori use, however several of the remaining volcanoes are now preserved as landmarks and parks. While often ignored until the late 20th century, it has amongst other things minimised severe changes to Mount Roskill proposed by Transit New Zealand for the Southwestern Motorway. In March 2007, New Zealand submitted the volcanic field, with several specifically named features, at that time, only 2% of more than 800 World Heritage Sites worldwide were in this mixed category. Since the field is not extinct, new volcanic events may occur at any time and these effects might continue for several months and cause substantial destruction and disruption
8.
North Shore, New Zealand
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North Shore is the part of the urban area of Auckland, New Zealand, located to the north of the Waitemata Harbour. The city had an population of 229,000 at 30 June 2010. The former city was also the fourth largest city in land, with an area of 129.81 square kilometres. It was also the most densely populated city in the country because, unlike other New Zealand cities, the North Shore has been administered by various councils over the years, in the most recent past the North Shore City Council. On 1 November 2010, North Shore City Council and the six local councils. The administrative area of North Shore City Council was bounded by Rodney District to the north, Waitemata Harbour to the south, the seat of the council was in Takapuna. The city was divided into three wards, Harbour, Northern and Central, and each ward is divided into two community boards. Inner suburbs include Milford, Takapuna, Belmont, Devonport, Bayswater, Northcote, Birkenhead, Highbury, Hillcrest, Glenfield, Wairau Valley, Westlake and Forrest Hill. Those here with an asterisk, along several other beaches on the Hauraki Gulf coast, are collectively known as East Coast Bays. By the 1950s, only about 50,000 people lived on the Shore, eventually the growth became significant enough for the North Shore to be considered a city in its own right, though densities remained still below what is typical south of the Harbour. All council services and facilities are now under authority of the Auckland Council, commuting within the North Shore itself can be done relatively easily, but those who commute to Auckland City and need to cross the Auckland Harbour Bridge face severe traffic congestion. The alternative route through western suburbs is also prone to traffic at peak times. Several options for new bridges and tunnels have been studied in depth, but at the moment, public transport has been upgraded in an attempt to reduce the citys car dependence. In 2003, there were indications that the stages of the busway project were generally regarded as a success. The North Shore City Council increased the number of facilities with more park and ride stations in Sunnynook, Smales Farm and these were completed in February 2008. In January 2009, the Northern Busway began trial runs featuring New Zealands first bus-dedicated roadway, a number of North Shore suburbs have a regular ferry service to Auckland City, including Devonport, Stanley Bay, Bayswater, Birkenhead. Others are planned for Takapuna and Browns Bay, the city was run by a 15-member council and mayor, democratically elected every three years using the First Past The Post voting system. The final mayor prior to 2010 amalgamation was Andrew Williams, the mayor was a strong critic of the Super City proposals which would see North Shore City amalgamated into a larger Auckland authority, Auckland Council
9.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
10.
Motutapu Island
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Motutapu Island is a 1,509 ha island in the Hauraki Gulf to the northeast of the city of Auckland, New Zealand. The island is part of the Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park and its full name, rarely used, is Te Motutapu a Taikehu, The sacred island of Taikehu, Taikehu having been a tohunga of the Tainui iwi. Motutapu, meaning sacred or sanctuary island, is a used for various islands in a number of Polynesian cultures. The island can be accessed via ferry services departing from Auckland City. The island is now linked by a causeway to the much younger volcanic island cone of Rangitoto. Prior to the emergence of the volcano, the island had been occupied by Māori for over 100 years. The eruption, some 700 years ago, destroyed their settlements, of the many archaeological sites recorded, one, the Sunde Site, shows human and dog footprints preserved in solidified ash. These were protected from erosion by a layer of ash from the next eruption, today the island lacks the forest cover of neighbouring Rangitoto Island and most areas are limited to grass and wet meadows. There are few trees on the island but a reforestation project has been carried out by The Motutapu Restoration Trust. The project has brought back many indigenous flora to various sections of the island, in March 2013, two shallow earthquakes situated beneath Motutapu Island measuring 3.1 and 3.9 shook the Auckland area. Fears they could be a sign of an eruption at nearby Rangitoto Island were allayed by geologists. Motutapu has a history that encompasses virtually the full span of New Zealand settlement. It was one of the earliest places inhabited both by Polynesians, and later by Europeans in the Auckland region, the earliest evidence for occupation of Motutapu dates to before the eruption of Rangitoto in c. AD1400. The eruption smothered Motutapu in ash and caused widespread deforestation, Archaeological deposits bracketing the ash suggest the eruption prompted a shift from broad spectrum hunting of forest birds to intensive marine exploitation and horticulture. Numerous kumara pits were found by archeologists. Following the eruption Motutapu is reported to have been visited by both the Arawa and Tainui canoes and was settled by the Tainui ancestors of the Ngai Tai. The Ngati Tai maintained rights of occupation from that time until its eventual sale with only minor incursions from other groups. The Ngati Huarere of Arawa descent claimed bird snaring rights over the kaka by right of conquest, in the 1820s many of the islands in the Hauraki Gulf, including Motutapu, were evacuated in response to the threat of Hongi Hika and the Ngapuhi armed with muskets
11.
Waka (canoe)
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Waka are Māori watercraft, usually canoes ranging in size from small, unornamented canoes used for fishing and river travel, to large decorated war canoes up to 40 metres long. The earliest archaeological find of a canoe in New Zealand was reported in 2014 and it was found near the Anaweka estuary in a remote part of Tasman and carbon dated to about 1400. The canoe was constructed in New Zealand, but was a sophisticated canoe, Waka taua are large canoes manned by up to 80 paddlers and are up to 40 metres in length. The gunwale is raised in some by a continuous plank which gives increased freeboard, the resurgence of Māori culture has seen an increase in the numbers of waka taua built, generally on behalf of a tribal group, for use on ceremonial occasions. Traditionally the war canoe was highly tapu, no cooked food was allowed in the craft and the waka had to be entered over the gunwales, not the bow or stern which were highly decorated with powerful symbols. Canoes were often painted black or white with black representing death. The main colour was red which stood for tapu, sometimes a waka would be placed upright as a marker for a dead chief with the curved bottom of the hull carved. Māori told missionaries during the Musket wars that battles between waka took place at sea with the aim being to ram an enemys waka amidships at high speed, the ramming vessel would ride up over the gunwale and either force it under water or cause it to roll over. The enemies were killed, left to drown or captured to be used in cannibal feasts or as slaves if they were female. This description matches the attack on the boat of Abel Tasman in Golden Bay in 1642 when a Māori catamaran rammed a cock boat and 4 Dutch sailors were killed. During the classic period a hapū would select a Totara tree, Totara is a lightweight wood with a high natural oil content that helps prevent rot. This would include the removal of bark from one side of the trunk and the clearing of the ground, after chants and prayers the tree would be felled by a combination of fires around the base and chopping with hand adzes. On an especially large tree with aerial roots a stage about 3m high was built of wood, on this was built a framework on which was suspended a giant upside down toki, about 2. 5m long. The long axis of the toki was tied to the member of the upper frame work so that it could pivot back and forwards. Heavy rocks were tied to each side of the axis at its lowest point to give momentum. The toki was pulled back and released so that the cutting edge bit into the wood that was weakened by fire and it could take two to three weeks to cut down a large tree in this manner. The head of the tree and branches were removed then the hull was roughly shaped in situ using fire and hand adzes, a stone adze was used by relatively gentle but regular and repeated blows. The head was soaked in water to make the binding swell, once the shaping was complete, the log of 3–4 tonnes was pulled by teams of men to a stream or river using multiple ropes made from raupo
12.
Clinker brick
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Clinker bricks are partially vitrified bricks used in the construction of buildings. Clinkers are burnt under temperatures so high that the pores of the property are closed by the beginning sinter process and are often mis-shapen. Thus they are denser and therefore heavier and more irregular than regular bricks. Clinkers hardly take up water and are durable, but have higher thermal conductivity than the more porous conventional red bricks. The name comes from the sound they make when banged together, in early brick firing kilns called brick clamps, the surface of the bricks that were too close to the fire changed into the volcanic textures and darker/purplish colors. Modern brick-making techniques can recreate the appearance of these bricks and produce a consistent product. In the United States, clinker bricks were made famous by the Pasadena, California architecture firm Greene and Greene who used them in walls, foundations, Clinker is sometimes spelled klinker which is the original Dutch/Low German word. The onomatopoeic verb klinken means to sound, i. e. a klinker is a sounder and these brick stones produce a specifically bright sound when hit with or against something, for instance each other. Clinker bricks are also known as hard Dutch paving bricks, in 18th century New York, the Dutch interspersed dark clinkers with regular bricks. Some used clinkers to spell out their family initials on brick dwellings, clinkers consist of bits and ends, field-late and white-burning or red-burning clays. Through different mixtures of the raw ingredients, many varied colour nuances can be achieved, for the production of masonry units the source materials—clay and water—are mixed and formed industrially in a string extrusion process. For special purposes, for example the restoration of listed buildings, during the drying process, the water concentration decreases to approximately 3%. Then clinkers are fired at temperatures between 1100 °C and 1300 °C in a kiln, in contrast to the 800 °C to 1200 °C temperature range seen with normal bricks. Because of their low porosity, clinker bricks are inferior thermal insulators, canal clinkers are named according to the German Institute for Standardization’s DIN4051. Clinkers are frost resisting and, thus are suited particularly for facades, the formats of the clinker stones are named according to the German Institute for Standardization’s DIN1053. Base for the different formats is the format with length 240 millimetres, width 115 millimetres. For facade layouts architects also order clinkers produced in special dimensions, for use with facades, it is possible to cope varied shaped elements. Sculptor Ernst Barlach also worked with clinkers which then were produced according to his drafts, Clinker bricks take on a special colouring, often greenish tones, if burnt with peat
13.
Scoria
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Scoria is a highly vesicular, dark colored volcanic rock that may or may not contain crystals. It is typically dark in color, and basaltic or andesitic in composition, Scoria is relatively low in density as a result of its numerous macroscopic ellipsoidal vesicles, but in contrast to pumice, all scoria has a specific gravity greater than 1, and sinks in water. Scoria may form as part of a flow, typically near its surface, or as fragmental ejecta. Most scoria is composed of fragments, and may contain phenocrysts. The word scoria comes from the Greek σκωρία, skōria, rust, an old name for scoria is cinder. Scoria differs from pumice, another vesicular volcanic rock, in having larger vesicles and thicker vesicle walls, the difference is probably the result of lower magma viscosity, allowing rapid volatile diffusion, bubble growth, coalescence, and bursting. As rising magma encounters lower pressures, dissolved gases are able to exsolve, some of the vesicles are trapped when the magma chills and solidifies. Vesicles are usually small, spheroidal and do not impinge upon one another, volcanic cones of scoria can be left behind after eruptions, usually forming mountains with a crater at the summit. An example is Maungarei in New Zealand, which like Te Tatua-a-Riukiuta in the south of the city has been extensively quarried. Quincan, a form of Scoria, is quarried at Mount Quincan in Far North Queensland. Scoria has several characteristics that influence how it is used. It is somewhat porous, has high surface area and strength for its weight, Scoria is often used in landscaping and drainage works. It is also used in gas barbecue grills. Scoria can be used for high-temperature insulation, Scoria is used on oil well sites to limit mud issues with heavy truck traffic. It is also used as a traction aid on ice- and snow-covered roads, cinder Tuff Pumice Volcanoes List of rock types Rock
14.
Lava tube
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A lava tube is a natural conduit formed by flowing lava which moves beneath the hardened surface of a lava flow. Tubes can be actively draining lava from a volcano during an eruption, or can be extinct, meaning the flow has ceased. Lava tubes are a type of cave formed when an active low-viscosity lava flow develops a continuous and hard crust. Tubes form in one of two ways, by the crusting over of lava channels, and from pāhoehoe flows where the lava is moving under the surface, Lava usually leaves the point of eruption in channels. These channels tend to very hot as their surroundings cool. This means they slowly develop walls around them as the lava cools and/or as the channel melts its way deeper. These channels can get enough to crust over, forming an insulating tube that keeps the lava molten. These types of lava tubes tend to be closer to the eruption point. Farther away from the point, lava can flow in an unchanneled, fanlike manner as it leaves its source. Called pāhoehoe flows, these areas of surface-moving lava cool, forming either a smooth or rough, the lava continues to flow this way until it begins to block its source. At this point, the lava is still hot enough to break out at a point. Lava flows from the source to this breakout point as the surrounding lava of the pāhoehoe flow cools. This forms a channel that becomes a lava tube. A broad lava-flow field often consists of a lava tube. When the supply of lava stops at the end of an eruption or lava is diverted elsewhere, lava in the system drains downslope. Lava tubes generally have pāhoehoe floors, although this may often be covered in breakdown from the ceiling. A variety of speleothems may be found in lava tubes including a variety of stalactite forms generally known as lavacicles, lavacicles are the most common of lava tube speleothems. Drip stalagmites may form under tubular lava stalactites, and the latter may grade into a known as a tubular lava helictite
15.
Lava
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Lava is the molten rock expelled by a volcano during an eruption. The resulting rock after solidification and cooling is called lava. The molten rock is formed in the interior of planets, including Earth. The source of the heat melts the rock within the earth is geothermal energy. When first erupted from a vent, lava is a liquid usually at temperatures from 700 to 1,200 °C. A lava flow is an outpouring of lava, which is created during a non-explosive effusive eruption. When it has stopped moving, lava solidifies to form igneous rock, the term lava flow is commonly shortened to lava. Although lava can be up to 100,000 times more viscous than water, lava can flow great distances before cooling and solidifying because of its thixotropic, explosive eruptions produce a mixture of volcanic ash and other fragments called tephra, rather than lava flows. The word lava comes from Italian, and is derived from the Latin word labes which means a fall or slide. The first use in connection with extruded magma was apparently in an account written by Francesco Serao on the eruption of Vesuvius between May 14 and June 4,1737. Serao described a flow of lava as an analogy to the flow of water. The composition of almost all lava of the Earths crust is dominated by silicate minerals, mostly feldspars, olivine, pyroxenes, amphiboles, micas, igneous rocks, which form lava flows when erupted, can be classified into three chemical types, felsic, intermediate, and mafic. These classes are primarily chemical, however, the chemistry of lava also tends to correlate with the temperature, its viscosity. Felsic or silicic lavas such as rhyolite and dacite typically form lava spines, most silicic lava flows are extremely viscous, and typically fragment as they extrude, producing blocky autobreccias. Felsic magmas can erupt at temperatures as low as 650 to 750 °C, unusually hot rhyolite lavas, however, may flow for distances of many tens of kilometres, such as in the Snake River Plain of the northwestern United States. Intermediate or andesitic lavas are lower in aluminium and silica, and usually somewhat richer in magnesium, intermediate lavas form andesite domes and block lavas, and may occur on steep composite volcanoes, such as in the Andes. Poorer in aluminium and silica than felsic lavas, and also commonly hotter, greater temperatures tend to destroy polymerized bonds within the magma, promoting more fluid behaviour and also a greater tendency to form phenocrysts. Higher iron and magnesium tends to manifest as a darker groundmass, mafic or basaltic lavas are typified by their high ferromagnesian content, and generally erupt at temperatures in excess of 950 °C
16.
Pteridium esculentum
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Pteridium esculentum, commonly known as Austral bracken or simply bracken, is a species of the bracken genus native to a number of countries in the Southern Hemisphere. First described as Pteris esculenta by German botanist Georg Forster in 1786, the Eora people of the Sydney region knew it as gurgi. P. esculentum grows from creeping rhizomes, which are covered with reddish hair, from them arise single large roughly triangular fronds, which grow to 0. 5–2 metres tall. The fronds are stiff with a brown stripe and it is found in all states of Australia apart from the Northern Territory, as well as New Zealand, Norfolk Island, Malaysia, Polynesia, and New Caledonia. Within Victoria it is widespread and common to altitudes of 1,000 metres, in New South Wales, it occurs in across central, eastern and southern parts of the state. It can also be weedy and invade disturbed areas, in Western Australia, it grows near the southern and western coastlines, as far north as Geraldton. Like its northern relatives, Pteridium esculentum is very quick to colonise disturbed areas. It is often treated as a weed and it does create a more humid sheltered microclimate under its leaves and is food for a variety of native insects. Two species of fruit fly were recorded in a study near Sydney, Another study near Sydney yielded 17 herbivorous arthropods. The Māori of New Zealand used the rhizomes of P. Patu aruhe were significant items, aborigines in Australia ate the roots after they were pounded into a paste and roasted. Pteridium esculentum contains the known bracken carcinogen ptaquiloside, concentrations of ptaquiloside in bracken in New Zealand vary greatly, and in a high proportion of stands ptaquiloside is not found. A higher incidence of ptaquiloside, and some very high concentrations, are found in areas where bovine enzootic haematuria and/or acute haemorrhagic syndrome was known to occur
17.
Pterostylis
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Pterostylis metcalfei.001. jpg Pterostylis is a genus of about 120 species of plants in the orchid family, Orchidaceae. Commonly called greenhood orchids, they are terrestrial, deciduous, perennial, tuberous, herbs found in Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, New Caledonia and one Indonesian island. The flowers are green, sometimes with brown, reddish or white stripes and are distinguished from other orchids by their unusual flower structures. The galea curves forward, covers the parts of the flower, is important in the pollination process and is about as long as the lateral sepals. The dorsal sepal is translucent white with green, reddish or brown stripes, the two lateral sepals are joined at their base, form the front of the flower and usually protrude to form points or ears which extend above or to the side of the galea. The third petal forms the highly modified labellum, as in other orchids, the sexual parts of the flower form part of the column and in all greenhoods, this structure has a pair of mostly translucent wings and is also important in pollination. The tuber of a greenhood is usually more or less spherical in shape, a new one is produced early in the life of the parent tuber at the same time as a new shoot is produced and continues to grow, reaching maturity at the end of the growing season. In some species, a number of daughter tubers grow. The leaves are attached in a rosette to the base of the peduncle or stalk of the plant by a short petiole, or further up it. There may be one or several flowers on the peduncle, most greenhoods are pollinated by insects, nearly always by tiny flies from the family Mycetophilidae or by mosquitoes. The insect approaches the flower from downwind, as if attracted by a scent, the features of an actively-moving labellum, along with the galea, are unique to these orchids. The fruit of a greenhood is a dehiscent capsule containing up to 500 tiny seeds and is oblong to elliptic in shape with three ridges, other parts of the flower wither soon after pollination and the dry remains are attached to the end of the capsule. The first observation of Pterostylis by European botanists was probably by Joseph Banks when HMS Endeavour visited Botany Bay in 1770, the first formal description of a greenhood was by Jacques Labillardière who collected a specimen from Bruny Island and gave it the name Disperis alata. After several name changes, Disperis alata is now known as Pterostylis alata, the genus Pterostylis was first raised by Robert Brown who formally described 19 species but did not nominate a type species. The species he described were collected from the east coast of the mainland and from Tasmania, about 120 species have now been described and about 100 of them are endemic to Australia. In 2001 the genus Pterostylis was split such that two new genera, Plumatichilos and Oligochaetochilus, were established based on morphological characters and these divisions effectively separated species with a thread-like, feathery labellum, and those with downward-curved lateral sepals from the remaining Pterostylis species. These changes were not adopted widely by Australian herbaria as the data appeared to support a monophyletic group, the genus name is derived from the Ancient Greek words pteron meaning feather or wing and stylos meaning pillar or post referring to the wings on the column. Pterostylis closest relative is Achlydosa, restricted to New Caledonia and sole other genus of subtribe Pterostylidinae, in Australia they are found in all states and Lord Howe Island, but not in the Northern Territory
18.
Mahuika
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For the underwater geological feature, see Mahuika crater. Mahuika is a Māori fire deity, generally, Mahuika is female and wife of the god Auahitūroa. In some versions, she is the sister of Hine-nui-te-pō. It was from her that Māui obtained the secret of making fire and she married Auahitūroa and together they had five children, named for the five fingers on the human hand, called collectively Ngā Mānawa. The symbolism of this connection between toropuku and fire is revealed in the stories where Māui obtains fire from Mahuika by tricking her into giving him her fingernails one by one. She is also said to have played a role in the formation of Rangitoto Island, asking Mataoho, god of earthquakes and eruptions, in some parts of New Zealand, Mahuika is a male deity. Maui wrestled him in order to win the secret of making fire, in other parts of Polynesia, similar deities are known as Mafuie, Mafuike, Mahuie or Mahuike. E. Best, Maori Religion and Mythology, Part 2, R. D. Craig, Dictionary of Polynesian Mythology,148. J. F. Stimson, Legends of Maui and Tahaki, 17-23
19.
Lake Pupuke
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Lake Pupuke is a heart-shaped freshwater lake occupying a volcanic crater between the suburbs of Takapuna and Milford on the North Shore of Auckland, New Zealand. The heart shape is a result of its formation by the linking of two circular craters - a larger one forming most of the lake and a smaller one forming the arm in the northeast. Separated from the sea by less than 200 m at one point, it has a circumference of about 4.5 km and it is popular for recreational activities and the lakefront property around it. Other similar craters in the Auckland Volcanic Field were either buried by later eruptions, some moulds have escaped burial by the boat ramp and car park built on top of the lava, and can be viewed at low tide. In 1894, a house was built on the shore of the lake to supply fresh water to the local area. This was replaced in 1906 by a pump house. As a result of increasing demand, the level of the lake fell. The use of the lake as a water supply was discontinued in 1944 when new supplies were sourced from reservoirs in the Waitakere Ranges. The second pump house has became a Category II protected building under the New Zealand Historic Places Trust in 1983 and it is now maintained as a theatre with three performance spaces including an outdoor amphitheatre. A Māori myth surrounding the lake tells of a tupua couple, after quarreling and cursing Mahuika, the fire-goddess, their home on the mainland was destroyed by Matahoe, god of earthquakes and eruptions, on Mahuikas behalf. Lake Pupuke resulted from the destruction, while Rangitoto Island rose from the sea as their exile, the mists surrounding Rangitoto at certain times are considered the tears of the tupua couple for their former home. Close to the Takapuna city centre, the lake is not only with wild birds but with picnickers, paddlers, kayakers, rowers, yachtsmen, divers. Free divers have practiced in the lake, and the Pupuke Boating Club operates there. The Auckland Dragon Boat Association runs an annual race event on the lake, with 200m, 500m. The lake is the venue for Dragon Boat, Canoe sprints, Canoe marathon, Lake Pupuke is suitable for swimming but murky and contains thick vegetation, and there have been drownings. The lake has been tested for bacteria and generally meets safe swimming conditions, in 2007, recreational fishing has become more prominent since rainbow trout were released into the lake from a fish hatchery. However, since there are no actual streams entering or leaving the lake, trout will not be able to reproduce naturally, other fish in the lake include tench, perch, rudd, and carp. The crater wall has been quarried in places, most intensely on the western side between Shea Terrace and Rangitira Avenue, where Smales Quarry continues to operate
20.
The Crown
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The Crown is the state in all its aspects within the jurisprudence of the Commonwealth realms and their sub-divisions, although the term is not only a metonym for the State. The Crown is a sole that represents the legal embodiment of executive, legislative. These monarchies are united by the union of their monarch. The concept of the Crown developed first in the Kingdom of England as a separation of the crown and property of the nation state from the person. The concept spread through English and later British colonisation and is now rooted in the lexicon of the other 15 independent realms. In this context it should not be confused with any physical crown, the concept of the Crown took form under the feudal system. Though not used this way in all countries that had this system, in England, all rights, land, for instance, was granted by the Crown to lords in exchange for feudal services and they, in turn, granted the land to lesser lords. One exception to this was common socage—owners of land held as socage held it only to the Crown. The Crown as ultimate owner of all property also owns any property which has become bona vacantia, the monarch is the living embodiment of the Crown and, as such, is regarded as the personification of the state. He office cannot exist without the office-holder, the Crown also represents the legal embodiment of executive, legislative, and judicial governance. While the Crowns legal personality is usually regarded as a sole, it can, at least for some purposes. Historically, the Crown was considered to be indivisible, two judgments—Ex parte Indian Association of Alberta and Ex parte Quark —challenged that view. The Crown in each of the Commonwealth realms is a similar, because both Canada and Australia are federations, there are also crowns in right of each Canadian province and each Australian state. The Succession to the Crown Law 2013 defined the Crown, for the purposes of implementing the Perth Agreement in Jersey law, as the Crown in right of the Bailiwick of Jersey. Legislation in the Isle of Man also defines the Crown in right of the Isle of Man as being separate from the Crown in right of the United Kingdom and this constitutional concept is also worded as the Crown in right of the Bailiwick of Guernsey. The reserve powers of the Crown for each territory are no longer considered to be exercisable on the advice of the UK government, often cases are brought by the Crown according to the complaint of a claimant. The title of the case follows the pattern of R v Y. Thus R v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union is R v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union, where Miller is Gina Miller, in Scotland, criminal prosecutions are undertaken by the Lord Advocate in the name of the Crown
21.
Basalt
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Basalt is a common extrusive igneous rock formed from the rapid cooling of basaltic lava exposed at or very near the surface of a planet or moon. Flood basalt describes the formation in a series of basalt flows. By definition, basalt is an igneous rock with generally 45-55% silica and less than 10% feldspathoid by volume. Basalt commonly features a very fine-grained or glassy matrix interspersed with visible mineral grains, the average density is 3.0 gm/cm3. Basalt is defined by its content and texture, and physical descriptions without mineralogical context may be unreliable in some circumstances. Basalt is usually grey to black in colour, but rapidly weathers to brown or rust-red due to oxidation of its mafic minerals into hematite, although usually characterized as dark, basaltic rocks exhibit a wide range of shading due to regional geochemical processes. Due to weathering or high concentrations of plagioclase, some basalts can be quite light-coloured and these phenocrysts usually are of olivine or a calcium-rich plagioclase, which have the highest melting temperatures of the typical minerals that can crystallize from the melt. Basalt with a texture is called vesicular basalt, when the bulk of the rock is mostly solid. Gabbro is often marketed commercially as black granite and these ultramafic volcanic rocks, with silica contents below 45% are usually classified as komatiites. Agricola applied basalt to the black rock of the Schloßberg at Stolpen. Tholeiitic basalt is relatively rich in silica and poor in sodium, included in this category are most basalts of the ocean floor, most large oceanic islands, and continental flood basalts such as the Columbia River Plateau. Basalt rocks are in some cases classified after their content in High-Ti and Low-Ti varieties. High-Ti and Low-Ti basalts have been distinguished in the Paraná and Etendeka traps and it has greater than 17% alumina and is intermediate in composition between tholeiite and alkali basalt, the relatively alumina-rich composition is based on rocks without phenocrysts of plagioclase. Alkali basalt is relatively poor in silica and rich in sodium and it is silica-undersaturated and may contain feldspathoids, alkali feldspar and phlogopite. Boninite is a form of basalt that is erupted generally in back-arc basins. Ocean island basalt Lunar basalt On Earth, most basalt magmas have formed by melting of the mantle. Basalt commonly erupts on Io, the third largest moon of Jupiter, and has formed on the Moon, Mars, Venus. The crustal portions of oceanic tectonic plates are composed predominantly of basalt, produced from upwelling mantle below, the mineralogy of basalt is characterized by a preponderance of calcic plagioclase feldspar and pyroxene
22.
Quarry
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A quarry is a place from which dimension stone, rock, construction aggregate, riprap, sand, gravel, or slate has been excavated from the ground. A quarry is the thing as an open-pit mine from which minerals are extracted. The only non-trivial difference between the two is that open-pit mines that produce building materials and dimension stone are commonly referred to as quarries, the word quarry can also include the underground quarrying for stone, such as Bath stone. The surfaces are polished and finished with varying degrees of sheen or luster, polished slabs are often cut into tiles or countertops and installed in many kinds of residential and commercial properties. Natural stone quarried from the earth is considered a luxury and tends to be a highly durable surface. Quarries in level areas with shallow groundwater or which are located close to surface water often have engineering problems with drainage, generally the water is removed by pumping while the quarry is operational, but for high inflows more complex approaches may be required. For example, the Coquina quarry is excavated to more than 60 feet below sea level, to reduce surface leakage, a moat lined with clay was constructed around the entire quarry. Ground water entering the pit is pumped up into the moat, as a quarry becomes deeper, water inflows generally increase and it also becomes more expensive to lift the water higher during removal, this can become the limiting factor in quarry depth. Some water-filled quarries are worked from beneath the water, by dredging, many people and municipalities consider quarries to be eyesores and require various abatement methods to address problems with noise, dust, and appearance. One of the effective and famous examples of successful quarry restoration is Butchart Gardens in Victoria, BC. A further problem is pollution of roads from trucks leaving the quarries, to control and restrain the pollution of public roads, wheel washing systems are becoming more common. Many quarries naturally fill with water after abandonment and become lakes, water-filled quarries can be very deep with water, often 50 feet or more, that is often surprisingly cold. Unexpectedly cold water can cause a swimmers muscles to weaken, it can also cause shock. Though quarry water is very clear, submerged quarry stones. Several people drown in quarries each year, however, many inactive quarries are converted into safe swimming sites
23.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
24.
Naval mine
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A naval mine is a self-contained explosive device placed in water to damage or destroy surface ships or submarines. Unlike depth charges, mines are deposited and left to wait until they are triggered by the approach of, or contact with, Naval mines can be used offensively—to hamper enemy shipping movements or lock vessels into a harbour, or defensively—to protect friendly vessels and create safe zones. Mines can be laid in many ways, by purpose-built minelayers, refitted ships, submarines and their flexibility and cost-effectiveness make mines attractive to the less powerful belligerent in asymmetric warfare. The cost of producing and laying a mine is usually anywhere from 0. 5% to 10% of the cost of removing it, parts of some World War II naval minefields still exist because they are too extensive and expensive to clear. It is possible for some of these 1940s-era mines to remain dangerous for many years to come, Mines have been employed as offensive or defensive weapons in rivers, lakes, estuaries, seas, and oceans, but they can also be used as tools of psychological warfare. Offensive mines are placed in enemy waters, outside harbours and across important shipping routes with the aim of sinking both merchant and military vessels. Defensive minefields safeguard key stretches of coast from enemy ships and submarines, forcing them into more easily defended areas, minefields designed for psychological effect are usually placed on trade routes and are used to stop shipping from reaching an enemy nation. They are often spread thinly, to create an impression of minefields existing across large areas, a single mine inserted strategically on a shipping route can stop maritime movements for days while the entire area is swept. International law requires nations to declare when they mine an area, the warnings do not have to be specific, for example, during World War II, Britain declared simply that it had mined the English Channel, North Sea, and French coast. Chinese records tell of naval explosives in the 16th century, used to fight against Japanese pirates and this kind of naval mine was loaded in a wooden box, sealed with putty. General Qi Jiguang made several timed, drifting explosives, to harass Japanese pirate ships, although this is the rotating steel wheellocks first use in naval mines, Jiao Yu had described their use for land mines back in the 14th century. The first plan for a sea mine in the West was by Ralph Rabbards, the Dutch inventor Cornelius Drebbel was employed in the Office of Ordnance by King Charles I of England to make weapons, including a floating petard which proved a failure. Weapons of this type were apparently tried by the English at the Siege of La Rochelle in 1627, American David Bushnell developed the first American naval mine for use against the British in the American War of Independence. It was a watertight keg filled with gunpowder that was floated toward the enemy and it was used on the Delaware River as a drift mine. In 1812 Russian engineer Pavel Shilling exploded a mine using an electrical circuit. Russian naval specialists set more than 1500 naval mines, or infernal machines, designed by Moritz von Jacobi and by Immanuel Nobel, the mining of Vulcan led to the worlds first minesweeping operation. During the next 72 hours,33 mines were swept, the Jacobi mine was designed by German born, Russian engineer Jacobi, in 1853. The mine was tied to the sea bottom by an anchor, a cable connected it to a cell which powered it from the shore
25.
Observation post
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An observation post or O. P. temporary or fixed, is a position from which soldiers can watch enemy movements, to warn of approaching soldiers, or to direct artillery fire. This is especially important as the observer in the post should be rotated every 20–30 minutes, observation posts should be manned with at least two personnel, and should be provided a means of communication with their chain of command, preferably by phone instead of by radio. Often being positioned in secret very close to the enemy, an observation post is usually a small construct, often consisting largely of camouflage materials, however, where frontlines are expected to be stable for a longer time, an observation post may develop into a bunker-like installation. It is not unusual for soldiers to occupy a hide for long periods of time, to avoid detection they have to remove all their own waste, this is achieved with the aid of clingfilm, plastic bags and empty water bottles. One example of makeshift observation posts is Gaza Baptist Church, which was commandeered by both Fatah and Hamas troops during the Fatah–Hamas conflict
26.
Ship graveyard
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A ship graveyard or ship cemetery is a location where the hulls of scrapped ships are left to decay and disintegrate, or left in reserve. Such a practice is now less common due to waste regulations, by analogy, the phrase can also refer to a large number of shipwrecks which have accumulated in a single area but not been removed by human agency, instead being left to disintegrate naturally. These have now all been removed, Portsmouth Harbour hosts a number of ex Royal Navy vessels, awaiting removal for scrapping. Forton Lake in Gosport, near Portsmouth, is host to approximately thirty vessels, the US Navy phantom fleet at Suisun Bay, to the north of San Francisco Bay Wittes Marine Salvage - the Staten Island boat graveyard. Bikini Atoll was designated as a graveyard for the U. S. Pacific fleet, it became known as a nuclear testing facility. Port Augusta Port Flinders Port Pirie Planned scuttling sites near Ardrossan, Cowell, Glenelg, Goat Island, Kangaroo Island, Port Noarlunga, Port Stanvac, Stenhouse Bay, Whyalla and Yankalilla Bay
27.
Bach (New Zealand)
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A bach (/ˈbætʃ/, is a small, often very modest holiday home or beach house in New Zealand. Bach was thought to be short for bachelor pad. An alternative theory for the origin of the word is that bach is the Welsh word for small, baches began to gain popularity in the 1950s as roads improved and the increasing availability of cars allowed for middle-class beach holidays, often to the same beach every year. With yearly return trips being made, baches began to spring up in many family vacation spots and they are almost always small structures, usually made of cheap or recycled material like fibrolite, corrugated iron or used timber. They were influenced by the cabins and sheds of the early settlers and farmers. Other baches used a caravan as the core of the structure, a reconstructed example of a typical bach from the 1950s can be found in National Maritime Museum on Princes Wharf in central Auckland. The period-furnished bach is complemented with an adjacent beach shop with original products from that time, while older baches tend to be fibrolite lean-to structures, modern kit-set structures are becoming popular amongst bach owners. Department of Conservation figures estimate that more than 50,000 baches exist around New Zealand, early baches rarely enjoyed amenities like connections to the water and electricity grid or indoor toilets. They were furnished basically, often with second hand furniture, in more recent times the basic bach has been replaced by the modern holiday house, more substantial, more expensive and usually professionally built. Some bach-dotted beaches in the 1950s have today become suburban areas, as such they are quite prized, even though authorities typically look unfavourably on proposals to convert them into full residential buildings. Some baches whose construction was obviously legally dubious have been dismantled over time
28.
Fullers Group
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Not to be confused with Fullers Bay of Islands Fullers Group Limited is a ferry and tourism company in Auckland, New Zealand. It operates in the Hauraki Gulf and Waitemata Harbour, Fullers Group is the latest in a long line of almost continuous harbour and gulf ferry operations based in Auckland since the 1870s. Fullers run ferries from the Auckland Ferry Terminal in Quay Street, Fullers operate to the North Shore suburbs of Devonport, Bayswater, Birkenhead, Northcote and Stanley Bay, as well as Half Moon Bay near the eastern suburb of Howick, and Waiheke Island. Fullers also operate tourism / excursion ferry services to the Hauraki Gulf islands of Rangitoto Island, services to Rangitoto are via Devonport, and Fullers also operate a Half Moon Bay – Waiheke service. For the tourism services, two new ferries, Adventurer and Wanderer, were purchased in 2006 and 2007 for NZ$3 million. These vessels will also assist on the main ferry routes during peak hours. To be retired end of 2017.2 million passengers, on a total of 42,010 sailings, for the transport, it was fortunate to receive tax payer subsidies of around 84c per passenger and journey. Fullers recently increased prices despite a drop in diesel prices - making this one of the most expensive ferry trips in the world, Auckland subsidies are half the subsidy of Brisbane ferry operators and only a seventh of the subsidies paid for ferry public transport in Sydney. In April 2009, Fullers Auckland ferry services were sold by Infratil to Brian Souters Highland Global Transport, in 2009, Fullers Ferries received a Cycle Friendly Award from Cycling Advocates Network for the best cycle-friendly commitment by a business in New Zealand. Public transport in Auckland Fullers Auckland Fullerswatch - Waiheke Island watchdog site on the Fullers transport monopoly to that island
29.
Sea kayak
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A sea kayak or touring kayak is a kayak developed for the sport of paddling on open waters of lakes, bays, and the ocean. Sea kayaks are small boats with a covered deck and the ability to incorporate a spray deck. They trade off the maneuverability of whitewater kayaks for higher cruising speed, cargo capacity, ease of straight-line paddling, a sea kayak usually ranges anywhere from 10–18 feet for solo craft, and up to 26 feet for tandem craft. Width may be as little as 21 in, and may be up to 36 in, contemporary sea kayaks trace their origin to the native boats of Alaska, northern Canada, and Southwest Greenland. Eskimo hunters developed a fast seagoing craft to hunt seals and walrus, the ancient Aleut name for a sea kayak is Iqyak, and earliest models were constructed from a light wooden frame and covered with sea mammal hides. Archaeologists have found evidence indicating that kayaks are at least 4000 years old, wooden kayaks and fabric kayaks on wooden frames dominated the market up until the 1950s, when fiberglass boats were introduced. Rotomolded plastic kayaks first appeared in 1984, modern sea kayaks come in a wide array of materials, designs, and sizes to suit a variety of intended uses. In sea kayaking, where the designs continue along primarily traditional lines, folding kayaks are in some ways more traditional boats, being similar in design to skin-on-frame kayaks used by native people. Modern folding kayaks use ash and birch or contemporary materials such as aluminum for the frame, unlike native kayaks, folding kayaks can be easily disassembled and packed for transport. Many folding kayaks include inflatable sponsons that improve the stability of the vessel. More recently, a class of inflatable folding kayaks has emerged, in recent years, there has been an increase in production of sit on top kayaks suitable for sea use. This has resulted in a new market for paddlers looking for the versatility of a sit on top, sit on top kayaks are a common choice for sea kayakers who prefer the sit on top versatility, but do not want to sacrifice performance. Modern skin-on-frame sea kayaks constructed with nylon skins represent an ultralight niche within the rigid sea kayak spectrum. A different class of vessel emerged in the 1960s, the Surf ski, most production sea kayaks are between 12 and 24 feet in length, the larger kayaks often built for two paddlers. The width of typical kayaks varies from 18 to 32 inches, the length of a kayak affects not only its cargo capacity but may also affect its tracking ability—the ease with which the boat travels in a straight line. While other design features also impact tracking, very long kayaks are easier to paddle straight, the width of a kayak affects the cargo capacity, the maximum size of the cockpit, and the stability. Most rigid production kayaks are now out of fiberglass, rotomolded polyethylene, thermoformed plastic. More exotic materials include carbon fiber and foam core, some kayaks are hand-built from plywood or wood strips covered with fiberglass
30.
Rain
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Rain is liquid water in the form of droplets that have condensed from atmospheric water vapor and then precipitated—that is, become heavy enough to fall under gravity. Rain is a component of the water cycle and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the Earth. It provides suitable conditions for many types of ecosystems, as well as water for power plants. The major cause of production is moisture moving along three-dimensional zones of temperature and moisture contrasts known as weather fronts. If enough moisture and upward motion is present, precipitation falls from convective clouds such as cumulonimbus which can organize into narrow rainbands. On the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by downslope flow which causes heating and drying of the air mass, the movement of the monsoon trough, or intertropical convergence zone, brings rainy seasons to savannah climes. The urban heat island effect leads to increased rainfall, both in amounts and intensity, downwind of cities, global warming is also causing changes in the precipitation pattern globally, including wetter conditions across eastern North America and drier conditions in the tropics. The globally averaged annual precipitation over land is 715 mm, climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes. Rainfall is measured using rain gauges, rainfall amounts can be estimated by weather radar. Rain is also known or suspected on other planets, where it may be composed of methane, neon, sulfuric acid, or even iron rather than water. Air contains water vapor, and the amount of water in a mass of dry air. The amount of moisture in air is commonly reported as relative humidity. How much water vapor a parcel of air can contain before it becomes saturated, warmer air can contain more water vapor than cooler air before becoming saturated. Therefore, one way to saturate a parcel of air is to cool it, the dew point is the temperature to which a parcel must be cooled in order to become saturated. There are four mechanisms for cooling the air to its dew point, adiabatic cooling, conductive cooling, radiational cooling. Adiabatic cooling occurs when air rises and expands, the air can rise due to convection, large-scale atmospheric motions, or a physical barrier such as a mountain. Conductive cooling occurs when the air comes into contact with a surface, usually by being blown from one surface to another. Radiational cooling occurs due to the emission of infrared radiation, either by the air or by the surface underneath, evaporative cooling occurs when moisture is added to the air through evaporation, which forces the air temperature to cool to its wet-bulb temperature, or until it reaches saturation
31.
Metrosideros excelsa
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The pōhutukawa is one of twelve Metrosideros species endemic to New Zealand. The blossom of the tree is called kahika, the generic name Metrosideros derives from the Ancient Greek metra or heartwood and sideron or iron. The species name excelsa is from Latin excelsus, highest, sublime and its closest equivalent in other Polynesian languages is the Cook Island Māori word poutukava, referring to a coastal shrub with white berries, Sophora tomentosa. The -hutu- part of the word comes from *futu, the Polynesian name for the fish-poison tree, the pōhutukawa grows up to 25 metres high, with a spreading, dome-like form. It usually grows as a spreading tree. Its trunks and branches are sometimes festooned with matted, fibrous aerial roots, the oblong, leathery leaves are covered in dense white hairs underneath. The tree flowers from November to January with a peak in mid to late December, with brilliant crimson flowers covering the tree, there is variation between individual trees in the timing of flowering, and in the shade and brightness of the flowers. Pōhutukawa wood is dense, strong and highly figured, maori used it for beaters and other small, heavy items. It was frequently used in shipbuilding, since the naturally curvy shapes made strong knees, by the 1990s, pastoral farming and introduced pests had reduced pōhutukawa forests by over 90%. It also occurs naturally on the shores of lakes in the Rotorua area, a giant pōhutukawa at Te Araroa on the East Coast is reputed to be the largest in the country, with a height of 20 metres and a spread of 38 metres. The tree is renowned as a cliff-dweller, able to maintain a hold in precarious, like its Hawaiian relative the ʻōhiʻa lehua, the pōhutukawa has shown itself to be efficient in the colonisation of lava plains – notably on Rangitoto, a volcanic island in the Hauraki Gulf. In New Zealand, the pōhutukawa is under threat from browsing by the common brushtail possum which strips the tree of its leaves. The pōhutukawa is popular in cultivation, and there are examples in most North Island coastal cities. Vigorous and easy to grow, the tree flourishes well south of its natural range and it has also naturalised on Norfolk Island to the north. The pōhutukawa has been introduced to countries with mild-to-warm climates, including south-eastern Australia. In coastal California, it is a street and lawn tree. In parts of South Africa, the pōhutukawa grows so well that it is regarded as an invasive species, the Spanish city of A Coruña has adopted the pōhutukawa as a floral emblem. At least 39 cultivars of pōhutukawa have been released, duncan & Davies nurseries were a leading force in the mid-20th century, while Graeme Platt has been responsible for 16 different cultivars so far, including a rare white-flowering tree
32.
Metrosideros robusta
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Northern rātā is a huge forest tree endemic to New Zealand. In disturbed ground, or where there are gaps in the forest cover, Northern rātā will grow on the ground with a normal, Northern rātā is found in the North Island from Te Paki in the north to Wellington in the south. Formerly widespread, it is now uncommon over large parts of its former range, in the South Island, Northern rātā is common from Nelson to Greymouth and Hokitika. It reaches its southern limit near Lake Mahinapua at 42°4′ South latitude, the natural habitat is forest along the coasts and in the lowlands. In some parts of its range Northern rātā occurs in montane forest, formerly, with rimu it was a dominant tree in a forest type known as rimu/rātā forest. Young growth is generally pink and covered in fine rust-coloured hairs that are shed as the foliage ages but tends to persist at the midrib. The flowers, borne in sprays on the tips of branches, are a mass of dark scarlet stamens, flowering peaks between November and January, and seeds take a year or slightly more to ripen. The bark is brown or grey-brown and rather corky and provides an ideal stratum for the roots of epiphytic plants such as Astelia species. The wood is brown, and the manner of its growth results in a twisted grain. Northern rātā often begins life as hemi-epiphyte, and the resultant tree has a trunk up to 4 m in diameter made up of interlocking roots which enclose the space left by the former host tree. The host tree of epiphytic Northern rātā is usually rimu, in former times, the tree was described as a strangler, however it may be that rātā can only establish in trees that are already in decline. Northern rātā usually occurs in hardwood, podocarp, and southern beech forests and it is often associated with such species as rewarewa, tawa, hīnau, kānuka, kahikatea, kāmahi, kohekohe, pukatea and māhoe. The greatest threat to Northern rata is browsing by possums which cause damage by eating the leaves, buds, flowers. In severe cases this can lead to the death of the tree within two years, in some districts, this has resulted in the local loss of the species. The situation of the species has been improved through the efforts of Project Crimson, hybridisation with pōhutukawa is another threat to the survival of Northern rātā. Pōhutukawa has naturalised in south of its natural range. Other threats include cutting for firewood, and forest clearance for roading or construction, Northern rātā may be propagated readily from fresh seed. Viability of the seed drops quickly after a few weeks or if it is allowed to dry out, cuttings do not strike readily, but better results can be obtained from using water shoots
33.
Orchidaceae
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The Orchidaceae are a diverse and widespread family of flowering plants, with blooms that are often colourful and often fragrant, commonly known as the orchid family. Along with the Asteraceae, they are one of the two largest families of flowering plants, the Orchidaceae have about 28,000 currently accepted species, distributed in about 763 genera. The determination of which family is larger is still under debate, regardless, the number of orchid species nearly equals the number of bony fishes and is more than twice the number of bird species, and about four times the number of mammal species. The family also encompasses about 6–11% of all seed plants, the largest genera are Bulbophyllum, Epidendrum, Dendrobium and Pleurothallis. The family also includes Vanilla, Orchis, and many cultivated plants such as Phalaenopsis. Moreover, since the introduction of species into cultivation in the 19th century, horticulturists have produced more than 100,000 hybrids. Orchids are easily distinguished from plants, as they share some very evident, shared derived characteristics. Among these are, bilateral symmetry of the flower, many flowers, a nearly always highly modified petal, fused stamens and carpels. All orchids are perennial herbs that lack any permanent woody structure and they can grow according to two patterns, Monopodial, The stem grows from a single bud, leaves are added from the apex each year and the stem grows longer accordingly. The stem of orchids with a monopodial growth can reach several metres in length, as in Vanda, Sympodial, Sympodial orchids have a front and a back. The plant produces a series of adjacent shoots which grow to a size, bloom. Sympodial orchids grow laterally rather than vertically, following the surface of their support, the growth continues by development of new leads, with their own leaves and roots, sprouting from or next to those of the previous year, as in Cattleya. While a new lead is developing, the rhizome may start its growth again from a so-called eye, Sympodial orchids may have visible pseudobulbs joined by a rhizome, which creeps along the top or just beneath the soil. Terrestrial orchids may be rhizomatous or form corms or tubers, the root caps of terrestrial orchids are smooth and white. Some sympodial terrestrial orchids, such as Orchis and Ophrys, have two subterranean tuberous roots, one is used as a food reserve for wintry periods, and provides for the development of the other one, from which visible growth develops. In warm and constantly humid climates, many terrestrial orchids do not need pseudobulbs, epiphytic orchids, those that grow upon a support, have modified aerial roots that can sometimes be a few meters long. In the older parts of the roots, a modified spongy epidermis and it is made of dead cells and can have a silvery-grey, white or brown appearance. In some orchids, the velamen includes spongy and fibrous bodies near the passage cells, the cells of the root epidermis grow at a right angle to the axis of the root to allow them to get a firm grasp on their support
34.
Shrubland
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Shrubland, scrubland, scrub or brush is a plant community characterised by vegetation dominated by shrubs, often also including grasses, herbs, and geophytes. Shrubland may either occur naturally or be the result of human activity and it may be the mature vegetation type in a particular region and remain stable over time, or a transitional community that occurs temporarily as the result of a disturbance, such as fire. A stable state may be maintained by natural disturbance such as fire or browsing. Shrubland may be unsuitable for habitation because of the danger of fire. The term shrubland was coined in 1903, shrubland species generally show a wide range of adaptations to fire, such as heavy seed production, lignotubers, and fire-induced germination. In botany and ecology a shrub is defined as a woody plant less than 8 m high. Tall shrubs are mostly 2–8 m high, small shrubs 1–2 m high, Mediterranean scrublands Mediterranean scrublands occur naturally in the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biomes, located in the five Mediterranean climate regions of the world. Scrublands are most common near the seacoast, and have adapted to the wind. Low, soft-leaved scrublands around the Mediterranean Basin are known as garrigue in France, phrygana in Greece, tomillares in Spain, and batha in Israel. Interior scrublands Interior scrublands occur naturally in areas where soils are nutrient-poor. Florida scrub is another example of interior scrublands, dwarf shrubs Some vegetation types are formed of dwarf-shrubs, low-growing or creeping shrubs. These include the maquis and garrigues of Mediterranean climates, and the acid-loving dwarf shrubs of heathland and moorland, fynbos Maquis Prostrate shrub Semi-desert Shrub-steppe Shrub swamp Moorland
35.
Primary succession
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In other words, it is the gradual growth of an ecosystem over a longer period. In primary succession pioneer species like lichen, algae and fungi as well as other factors like wind. Primary succession begins on rock formations, such as volcanoes or mountains and this creates conditions nearer optimum for vascular plant growth, pedogenesis or the formation of soil is the most momentous process. For example, spores of lichen or fungus, being the species, are spread onto a land of rocks. Then, the rocks are broken down into pieces and organic matter gradually accumulates, favouring the growth of larger plants like grasses, ferns. These plants further improve the habitat and help the adaptation of larger plants like shrubs. More beasts are then attracted to the place and finally a climax community is reached, a good example of primary succession takes place after a volcano has erupted. The lava flows into the ocean and hardens into new land, an example of primary succession is the island of Surtsey, which is an island formed in 1963 after a volcanic eruption from beneath the sea. Surtsey is off the South coast of Iceland and is being monitored to observe primary succession in progress, about thirty species of plant had become established by 2008 and more species continue to arrive, at a typical rate of roughly 2–5 new species per year. Ecological succession Pioneer species Secondary succession Soil creation Stability
36.
New Zealand kaka
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The New Zealand kaka, also known as kākā, is a large species of parrot of the family Strigopidae found in native forests of New Zealand. It is endangered and has disappeared from much of its former range, the New Zealand kaka was described by German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1788. There are two subspecies, the North Island kākā, Nestor meridionalis septentrionalis, and the South Island kākā, the name kākā is a Māori language word meaning parrot, possibly related to kā, to screech. The genus Nestor contains four species, the New Zealand kākā, the kea, the extinct Norfolk kaka, all four are thought to stem from a proto-kākā, dwelling in the forests of New Zealand five million years ago. Their closest relative is the kakapo, together, they form the parrot family Strigopidae, an ancient group that split off from all other Psittacidae before their radiation. The New Zealand kākā is a parrot, measuring 45 cm in length and weighing from 390 to 560 g. It is closely related to the kea, but has darker plumage and is more arboreal, the forehead and crown are greyish white and the nape is greyish brown. The neck and abdomen are more reddish, while the wings are more brownish and this group of parrots is unusual, retaining more primitive features lost in most other parrots, because it split off from the rest around 100 million years ago. The calls include a harsh ka-aa and a whistling u-wiia, the New Zealand kākā lives in lowland and mid-altitude native forest. Its strongholds are currently the offshore reserves of Kapiti Island, Codfish Island and it is breeding rapidly in the mainland island sanctuary at Zealandia, with over 600 birds banded since their reintroduction in 2002. From their reintroduction in 2002 the North Island Kākā continue to re-colonise Wellington, Kākā are mainly arboreal and occupy mid-to-high canopy. Often seen flying across valleys or calling from the top of emergent trees and they are very gregarious and move in large flocks often containing kea where present. The New Zealand kākā eats fruits, berries, seeds, flowers, buds, nectar, sap, plants and it uses its strong beak to shred the cones of the kauri tree to obtain the seeds. It has a tongue with which it feeds on nectar. New Zealand kākā make their nests in trees, laying clutches of 2 to 4 eggs in late winter. Both parents assist in feeding the chicks, in a good fruiting year pairs can double clutch often utilizing the same nest hole for the second clutch. It is unusual for a pair to raise more than three chicks in a clutch, the New Zealand kākā is considered vulnerable. A closely related species, Nestor productus, the Norfolk kaka, predatory mammals are responsible for the loss of an estimated 26 million native birds and their eggs each year in New Zealand
37.
Parrot
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Parrots, also known as psittacines /ˈsɪtəsaɪnz/, are birds of the roughly 393 species in 92 genera that make up the order Psittaciformes, found in most tropical and subtropical regions. The order is subdivided into three superfamilies, the Psittacoidea, the Cacatuoidea, and the Strigopoidea, Parrots have a generally pantropical distribution with several species inhabiting temperate regions in the Southern Hemisphere, as well. The greatest diversity of parrots is in South America and Australasia, characteristic features of parrots include a strong, curved bill, an upright stance, strong legs, and clawed zygodactyl feet. Many parrots are vividly coloured, and some are multi-coloured, most parrots exhibit little or no sexual dimorphism in the visual spectrum. They form the most variably sized bird order in terms of length, the most important components of most parrots diets are seeds, nuts, fruit, buds, and other plant material. A few species sometimes eat animals and carrion, while the lories and lorikeets are specialised for feeding on floral nectar, almost all parrots nest in tree hollows, and lay white eggs from which hatch altricial young. Parrots, along with ravens, crows, jays, and magpies, are among the most intelligent birds, some parrots are intelligent and talk at the level of a four-to-five year old human. Measures taken to conserve the habitats of some high-profile charismatic species have protected many of the less charismatic species living in the same ecosystems. Psittaciform diversity in South America and Australasia suggests that the order may have evolved in Gondwana, molecular studies suggest that parrots evolved approximately 59 million years ago in Gondwana. The three major clades of Neotropical parrots originated about 50 Mya, likewise, the earliest parrots do not have the specialised crushing bills of modern species. If so, they probably had not evolved their morphological autapomorphies yet, the combined evidence supported the hypothesis of Psittaciformes being near passerines, i. e. the mostly land-living birds that emerged in close proximity to the K-Pg extinction. Europe is the origin of the first undeniable parrot fossils, which date from about 50 Mya, the climate there and then was tropical, consistent with the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum. Initially, a neoavian named Mopsitta tanta, uncovered in Denmarks Early Eocene Fur Formation and dated to 54 Mya, was assigned to the Psittaciformes, fossils assignable to Psittaciformes date from slightly later in the Eocene, starting around 50 Mya. Several fairly complete skeletons of birds have been found in England. The fossil record—mainly from Europe—consists of bones clearly recognisable as belonging to parrots of modern type, at this point, however, is found the first unambiguous parrot fossil, an upper jaw that is indistinguishable from that of modern cockatoos. The Psittaciformes comprise three lineages, Strigopoidea, Psittacoidea and Cacatuoidea. Colourful feathers with high levels of psittacofulvin resist the feather-degrading bacterium Bacillus licheniformis better than white ones, lorikeets were previously regarded as a third family, Loriidae, but are now considered a tribe within the subfamily Lorinae, family Cacatuoidea. The two other tribes in the subfamily are the closely related fig parrots and budgerigar, the order Psittaciformes consists of roughly 393 species belonging to 92 genera
38.
Goat
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The domestic goat is a subspecies of goat domesticated from the wild goat of southwest Asia and Eastern Europe. The goat is a member of the family Bovidae and is related to the sheep as both are in the goat-antelope subfamily Caprinae. There are over 300 distinct breeds of goat, Goats are one of the oldest domesticated species, and have been used for their milk, meat, hair, and skins over much of the world. In 2011, there were more than 924 million live goats around the globe, according to the UN Food, female goats are referred to as does or nannies, intact males are called bucks or billies, and juveniles of both sexes are called kids. Goat meat from animals is called kid or cabrito, while meat from older animals is known simply as goat or sometimes called chevon. To refer to the male, Old English used bucca until ousted by hegote, hegoote in the late 12th century, nanny goat originated in the 18th century and billy goat in the 19th. Goats are among the earliest animals domesticated by humans, the most recent genetic analysis confirms the archaeological evidence that the wild Bezoar ibex of the Zagros Mountains is the likely original ancestor of probably all domestic goats today. The earliest remnants of domesticated goats dating 10,000 years before present are found in Ganj Dareh in Iran. Goat remains have been found at sites in Jericho, Choga Mami Djeitun and Çayönü. Studies of DNA evidence suggests 10,000 years BP as the domestication date, historically, goat hide has been used for water and wine bottles in both traveling and transporting wine for sale. It has also used to produce parchment. Goats are considered small livestock animals, compared to animals such as cattle, camels and horses, but larger than microlivestock such as poultry, rabbits, cavies. Each recognized breed of goats has specific weight ranges, which vary from over 140 kg for bucks of larger breeds such as the Boer, within each breed, different strains or bloodlines may have different recognized sizes. At the bottom of the range are miniature breeds such as the African Pygmy. Most goats naturally have two horns, of various shapes and sizes depending on the breed, Goats have horns unless they are polled or the horns have been removed, typically soon after birth. There have been incidents of polycerate goats, although this is a genetic rarity thought to be inherited, the horns are most typically removed in commercial dairy goat herds, to reduce the injuries to humans and other goats. Unlike cattle, goats have not been bred to be reliably polled, as the genes determining sex. Breeding together two genetically polled goats results in a number of intersex individuals among the offspring, which are typically sterile
