1.
Holinshed's Chronicles
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It was a large, comprehensive description of the British history. The Chronicles are a source of interest to many because of their links to many of Shakespeares plays. In 1548 Reginald Wolfe, a London printer, conceived the idea of creating a Universal Cosmography of the whole world and he wanted the work to be printed in English and he wanted maps and illustrations in the book as well. Wolfe acquired many of John Lelands works and with these he constructed chronologies, when Wolfe realised he could not complete this project on his own, he hired Raphael Holinshed and William Harrison to assist him. Wolfe died with the still uncompleted in 1573, and the project — changed to a work specifically about the British Isles — was run by a consortium of three members of the London stationers. They kept Raphael Holinshed who employed William Harrison, Richard Stanyhurst, Edmund Campion, in 1577 the work was published in two volumes after some censorship by the Privy Council of some of Stanyhursts contribution on Ireland. When the Chronicles were first published, they were met with suspicion by many scholars, who regarded the works as un-academic. Shakespeare is widely believed to have used the second edition of the Chronicles as the source for most of his history plays, the plot of Macbeth. Several other playwrights, such as Christopher Marlowe used the Chronicles as a source, Shakespeare used Holinsheds work extensively in Macbeth, but in modified form. An instance is the Three Witches, whom Holinshed describes as creatures of the elderwood, nymphs and fairies are generally viewed as beautiful and youthful, but Shakespeares three witches in Macbeth are ugly, dark, and bizarre. It is believed that he made the change to heighten the suspense, however, the Chronicles were lacking any description of Macbeths character, so Shakespeare improvised on several points. The characters Banquo and Fleance were also taken from Holinshed’s works, kewes, Paulina, Archer, Ian W. Heal, Felicity, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Holinsheds Chronicles, Holinsheds Chronicles England, Scotland, and Ireland. Excerpts from Holinsheds Chronicles, Volume V, Scotland, at Macbeth Navigator, works by Raphael Holinshed at Project Gutenberg Holinsheds Chronicles at Project Gutenberg The Holinshed Project at Oxford University, with parallel texts of the 1577 and 1587 editions. 1587 facsimile, from the University of Pennsylvania Essay on Raphael Holinshed Macbeth, What is its relationship to Scottish history
2.
Chronicle
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A chronicle is a historical account of facts and events ranged in chronological order, as in a time line. Typically, equal weight is given for historically important events and local events and this is in contrast to a narrative or history, which sets selected events in a meaningful interpretive context and excludes those the author does not see as important. Some made use of materials, charters, letters, or the works of earlier chroniclers. Still others are tales of such unknown origins so as to hold mythical status, copyists also affected chronicles in creative copying, making corrections or in updating or continuing a chronicle with information not available to the original author. The reliability of a chronicle is an important determination for modern historians. In modern times various contemporary newspapers or other periodicals have adopted chronicle as part of their name, various fictional stories have also adopted chronicle as part of their title, to give an impression of epic proportion to their stories. A chronicle which traces world history is called a universal chronicle, scholars categorize the genre of chronicle into two subgroups, live chronicles, and dead chronicles. A dead chronicle is one where the author gathers his list of events up to the time of his writing, a live chronicle is where one or more authors add to a chronicle in a regular fashion, recording contemporary events shortly after they occur. Because of the immediacy of the information, historians tend to value live chronicles, such as annals, the earliest medieval chronicle to combine both retrospective and contemporary entries, is the Chronicle of Ireland, which spans the years 431 to 911. Chronicles are the predecessors of modern time lines rather than analytical histories, if the chronicles deal with events year by year, they are often called annals. Unlike the modern historian, most chroniclers tended to take their information as they found it, the point of view of most chroniclers is highly localised, to the extent that many anonymous chroniclers can be sited in individual abbeys. Later 16th century Scottish chronicles, written after the Reformation, shape history according to Catholic or Protestant viewpoints. It is impossible to say how many chronicles exist, as the many ambiguities in the definition of the make it impossible to draw clear distinctions of what should or should not be included. However, the Encyclopedia of the Medieval Chronicle lists some 2,500 items written between 300 and 1500 AD
3.
William Shakespeare
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William Shakespeare was an English poet, playwright, and actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the worlds pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called Englands national poet, and the Bard of Avon and his extant works, including collaborations, consist of approximately 38 plays,154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright, Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children, Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Sometime between 1585 and 1592, he began a career in London as an actor, writer. He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613, at age 49, Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613. His early plays were primarily comedies and histories, which are regarded as some of the best work ever produced in these genres. He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, including Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, in his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies, also known as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights. Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and it was prefaced with a poem by Ben Jonson, in which Shakespeare is hailed, presciently, as not of an age, but for all time. In the 20th and 21st centuries, his works have been adapted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship. His plays remain highly popular and are studied, performed. William Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, an alderman and a successful glover originally from Snitterfield, and Mary Arden and he was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and baptised there on 26 April 1564. His actual date of birth unknown, but is traditionally observed on 23 April. This date, which can be traced back to an 18th-century scholars mistake, has proved appealing to biographers because Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616 and he was the third child of eight and the eldest surviving son. At the age of 18, Shakespeare married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway, the consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582. The next day, two of Hathaways neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage, twins, son Hamnet and daughter Judith, followed almost two years later and were baptised 2 February 1585. Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August 1596, after the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592. The exception is the appearance of his name in the bill of a law case before the Queens Bench court at Westminster dated Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589
4.
Shakespeare's plays
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The plays written by English poet, playwright, and actor William Shakespeare have the reputation of being among the greatest in the English language and in Western literature. Many of his plays appeared in print as a series of quartos, but approximately half of them remained unpublished until 1738, the traditional division of his plays into tragedies, comedies and histories follows the categories used in the First Folio. Previously, the most common forms of popular English theatre were the Tudor morality plays and these plays, celebrating piety generally, use personified moral attributes to urge or instruct the protagonist to choose the virtuous life over Evil. The characters and plot situations are largely symbolic rather than realistic, as a child, Shakespeare would likely have seen this type of play. The other strand of tradition was classical aesthetic theory. This theory was derived ultimately from Aristotle, in Renaissance England, however, at the universities, plays were staged in a more academic form as Roman closet dramas. These plays, usually performed in Latin, adhered to classical ideas of unity and decorum, Shakespeare would have learned this theory at grammar school, where Plautus and especially Terence were key parts of the curriculum and were taught in editions with lengthy theoretical introductions. Archaeological excavations on the foundations of the Rose and the Globe in the twentieth century showed that all London English Renaissance theatres were built around similar general plans. Despite individual differences, the theatres were three stories high, and built around an open space at the centre. The upper level behind the stage could be used as a balcony, as in Romeo and Juliet, or as a position for a character to harangue a crowd, as in Julius Caesar. Usually built of timber, lath and plaster and with thatched roofs, the theatres were vulnerable to fire. When the Globe burned down in June 1613, it was rebuilt with a tile roof, a different model was developed with the Blackfriars Theatre, which came into regular use on a long term basis in 1599. The Blackfriars was small in comparison to the theatres, and roofed rather than open to the sky. For Shakespeare as he began to write, both traditions were alive, they were, moreover, filtered through the recent success of the University Wits on the London stage. By the late 16th century, the popularity of morality and academic plays waned as the English Renaissance took hold and their plays blended the old morality drama with classical theory to produce a new secular form. The new drama combined the rhetorical complexity of the play with the bawdy energy of the moralities. However, it was ambiguous and complex in its meanings. Shakespeares Elizabethan tragedies demonstrate his independence from classical models
5.
Sutton Hall, Sutton Lane Ends
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Sutton Hall is a former country house to the west of the village of Sutton Lane Ends, Cheshire, England. The present building dates from the middle of the 17th century, with additions and alterations in the late 18th century and it has since been converted into a pub restaurant. The house is constructed partly in stone, and partly in timber framing, the arms of the U end in irregular gables. The left gable is in stone, and the right is timber-framed, the upper storey of the right gable is jettied, the jetty being supported on brackets carved with wooden figures, one a knight in chain mail. Between the two wings is the great hall. A 16th century chapel at the rear of the house, which has served at different times as stables and as a convent, the house is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade II listed building. In the grounds of the hall is a Bronze Age barrow, probably a cremation site, now much reduced in size. Once the property of the Sir Humphrey Davenport, Chief Baron of the Exchequer in 1631, the Manor of Sutton later passed by marriage to Sir Rowland Belasyse, an ancestor of the Earls of Fauconberg. In 1819 it was acquired by the Countess of Lucan and descended to her successors, the countess had been born Elizabeth Belasyse, daughter of Henry Belasyse, 2nd Earl Fauconberg and in 1794 had married Richard Bingham, who became the 2nd Earl of Lucan in 1799. By 1804, after six children, they had separated, in 2008 the building was substantially refurbished as a restaurant by Brunning and Price, the then owners. Listed buildings in Sutton, Cheshire East Website showing the current use as a public house
6.
Genesis flood narrative
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The Genesis flood narrative makes up chapters 6–9 in the Book of Genesis, in the Torah. Thus, the flood was a reversal of creation, although many religious groups consider the story to be largely allegorical, there are still many groups and individuals who believe the story to be literally true. Genesis 6, 1–4 presents the reason for the flood, the Sons of God marry the daughters of men and sire a race of giants, mighty men which of old, men of renown. Genesis continues, And GOD saw that the wickedness of man great in the earth, God decides to destroy the world in a reversal of creation. The flood occurs because God judges humanity, in Genesis 6, 5-8, the LORD judged man for being wicked and evil. In verses Genesis 6, 11-22, God judged all flesh for being corrupt, the judgment in verses 6, 5–8 is thought to have been written earlier and later combined with the second. This element of judgment makes the flood story different from the flood in the Babylonian Epic of Gilgamesh. In the Gilgamesh story, the flood is mentioned only in passing as part of the Epic tale itself, beginning with Genesis 6,14, God instructed Noah to build an ark to save his immediate family, along with samples of animal life. The ark was to be made of wood covered with pitch inside and outside. The ark was 300 cubits long,50 cubits wide, and 30 cubits high, and it had an opening for daylight near the top, an entrance on its side, and three decks. God told Noah that he, his sons, his wife, his sons wives, and two of each kind of beast – male and female – would survive in the ark. The Priestly source, Genesis 7,11,8, 1-2, describes the nature of the waters as a cosmic cataclysm, by the opening of the springs of the deep. This is the reverse of the separation of the waters recounted in the Genesis creation narrative of chapter 1. After Noah and the remnant of animals were secured, the fountains of the great deep, the waters elevated, with the summits of the highest mountains under 15 cubits of water, flooding the world for 150 days, and then receding in 220 days. The Jahwist version of how the waters came to be is indicated in Genesis 7,12. During this time, the ark came to rest on the mountains of Ararat, then he sends out a dove to see if the waters had decreased from the ground, but the dove could not find a resting place, and returned to the ark. He waited another seven days, and again sent out the dove, and he waited another seven days and sent out the dove, and it did not return. When Noah removed the covering of the ark, he saw that the ground was drying, God makes a pledge of commitment to Noah in Genesis 9, 1–17
7.
Elizabeth I of England
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Elizabeth I was Queen of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, his second wife, who was executed two and a half years after Elizabeths birth. Annes marriage to Henry VIII was annulled, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate, edwards will was set aside and Mary became queen, deposing Lady Jane Grey. During Marys reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels, in 1558, Elizabeth succeeded her half-sister to the throne and set out to rule by good counsel. She depended heavily on a group of trusted advisers, led by William Cecil, one of her first actions as queen was the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the Supreme Governor. This Elizabethan Religious Settlement was to evolve into the Church of England and it was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce an heir to continue the Tudor line. She never did, despite numerous courtships, as she grew older, Elizabeth became famous for her virginity. A cult grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, in government, Elizabeth was more moderate than her father and half-siblings had been. One of her mottoes was video et taceo, in religion, she was relatively tolerant and avoided systematic persecution. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign affairs, manoeuvring between the powers of France and Spain. She only half-heartedly supported a number of ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France, by the mid-1580s, England could no longer avoid war with Spain. Englands defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 associated Elizabeth with one of the greatest military victories in English history, Elizabeths reign is known as the Elizabethan era. Some historians depict Elizabeth as a short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler, towards the end of her reign, a series of economic and military problems weakened her popularity. Such was the case with Elizabeths rival, Mary, Queen of Scots, after the short reigns of Elizabeths half-siblings, her 44 years on the throne provided welcome stability for the kingdom and helped forge a sense of national identity. Elizabeth was born at Greenwich Palace and was named after both her grandmothers, Elizabeth of York and Elizabeth Howard and she was the second child of Henry VIII of England born in wedlock to survive infancy. Her mother was Henrys second wife, Anne Boleyn, at birth, Elizabeth was the heir presumptive to the throne of England. She was baptised on 10 September, Archbishop Thomas Cranmer, the Marquess of Exeter, the Duchess of Norfolk, Elizabeth was two years and eight months old when her mother was beheaded on 19 May 1536, four months after Catherine of Aragons death from natural causes. Elizabeth was declared illegitimate and deprived of her place in the royal succession, eleven days after Anne Boleyns execution, Henry married Jane Seymour, who died shortly after the birth of their son, Prince Edward, in 1537
8.
Kingdom of England
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In the early 11th century the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, united by Æthelstan, became part of the North Sea Empire of Cnut the Great, a personal union between England, Denmark and Norway. The completion of the conquest of Wales by Edward I in 1284 put Wales under the control of the English crown, from the accession of James I in 1603, the Stuart dynasty ruled England in personal union with Scotland and Ireland. Under the Stuarts, the kingdom plunged into war, which culminated in the execution of Charles I in 1649. The monarchy returned in 1660, but the Civil War had established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without the consent of Parliament and this concept became legally established as part of the Glorious Revolution of 1688. From this time the kingdom of England, as well as its state the United Kingdom. On 1 May 1707, under the terms of the Acts of Union 1707, the Anglo-Saxons referred to themselves as the Engle or the Angelcynn, originally names of the Angles. They called their land Engla land, meaning land of the English, by Æthelweard Latinized Anglia, from an original Anglia vetus, the name Engla land became England by haplology during the Middle English period. The Latin name was Anglia or Anglorum terra, the Old French, by the 14th century, England was also used in reference to the entire island of Great Britain. The standard title for all monarchs from Æthelstan until the time of King John was Rex Anglorum, Canute the Great, a Dane, was the first king to call himself King of England. In the Norman period Rex Anglorum remained standard, with use of Rex Anglie. The Empress Matilda styled herself Domina Anglorum, from the time of King John onwards all other titles were eschewed in favour of Rex or Regina Anglie. In 1604 James VI and I, who had inherited the English throne the previous year, the English and Scottish parliaments, however, did not recognise this title until the Acts of Union of 1707. The kingdom of England emerged from the unification of the early medieval Anglo-Saxon kingdoms known as the Heptarchy, East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria, Kent, Essex, Sussex. The Viking invasions of the 9th century upset the balance of power between the English kingdoms, and native Anglo-Saxon life in general, the English lands were unified in the 10th century in a reconquest completed by King Æthelstan in 927 CE. During the Heptarchy, the most powerful king among the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms might become acknowledged as Bretwalda, the decline of Mercia allowed Wessex to become more powerful. It absorbed the kingdoms of Kent and Sussex in 825, the kings of Wessex became increasingly dominant over the other kingdoms of England during the 9th century. In 827, Northumbria submitted to Egbert of Wessex at Dore, in 886, Alfred the Great retook London, which he apparently regarded as a turning point in his reign. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says that all of the English people not subject to the Danes submitted themselves to King Alfred, asser added that Alfred, king of the Anglo-Saxons, restored the city of London splendidly
9.
Kingdom of Scotland
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The Kingdom of Scotland was a state in northwest Europe traditionally said to have been founded in 843, which joined with the Kingdom of England to form a unified Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707. Its territories expanded and shrank, but it came to occupy the third of the island of Great Britain. It suffered many invasions by the English, but under Robert I it fought a war of independence. In 1603, James VI of Scotland became King of England, in 1707, the two kingdoms were united to form the Kingdom of Great Britain under the terms of the Acts of Union. The Crown was the most important element of government, the Scottish monarchy in the Middle Ages was a largely itinerant institution, before Edinburgh developed as a capital city in the second half of the 15th century. The Scottish Crown adopted the conventional offices of western European courts, Parliament also emerged as a major legal institution, gaining an oversight of taxation and policy, but was never as central to the national life as its counterpart in England. In the 17th century, the creation of Justices of Peace, the continued existence of courts baron and the introduction of kirk sessions helped consolidate the power of local lairds. Scots law developed into a system in the Middle Ages and was reformed and codified in the 16th and 17th centuries. Under James IV the legal functions of the council were rationalised, in 1532, the College of Justice was founded, leading to the training and professionalisation of lawyers. David I is the first Scottish king known to have produced his own coinage, Early Scottish coins were virtually identical in silver content to English ones, but from about 1300 their silver content began to depreciate more rapidly than the English coins. At the union of the Crowns in 1603 the Scottish pound was fixed at only one-twelfth the value of the English pound, the Bank of Scotland issued pound notes from 1704. Scottish currency was abolished by the Act of Union, Scotland is half the size of England and Wales in area, but has roughly the same length of coastline. Geographically Scotland is divided between the Highlands and Islands and the Lowlands, the Highlands had a relatively short growing season, which was further shortened during the Little Ice Age. From Scotlands foundation to the inception of the Black Death, the population had grown to a million, following the plague and it expanded in the first half of the 16th century, reaching roughly 1.2 million by the 1690s. Significant languages in the kingdom included Gaelic, Old English, Norse and French. Christianity was introduced into Scotland from the 6th century, in the Norman period the Scottish church underwent a series of changes that led to new monastic orders and organisation. During the 16th century, Scotland underwent a Protestant Reformation that created a predominately Calvinist national kirk, there were a series of religious controversies that resulted in divisions and persecutions. The Scottish Crown developed naval forces at various points in its history, Land forces centred around the large common army, but adopted European innovations from the 16th century, and many Scots took service as mercenaries and as soldiers for the English Crown
10.
Kingdom of Ireland
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The Kingdom of Ireland was a client state of the Kingdom of England that existed on Ireland from 1542 until 1800. It came into being when the Parliament of Ireland passed the Crown of Ireland Act 1542, the territory of the Kingdom had previously had the status of a lordship of the Crown. The Parliament of Ireland passed the Acts of Union 1800 by which it abolished itself, the act was also passed by the Parliament of Great Britain. The act also had the effect of establishing the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland on the first day of 1801 by uniting the Crowns of Ireland, in its early years, the Kingdom of Ireland had limited recognition. While some Protestant powers in Europe recognised Henry and his heir Edward as monarch of Ireland, Henrys daughter, Queen Mary I of England, was recognised as Queen of Ireland by Pope Paul IV in 1555. The papal bull Laudabiliter of Pope Adrian IV was issued in 1155 and it granted the Angevin King Henry II of England the title Dominus Hibernae. Laudabiliter authorised the king to invade Ireland, to bring the country into the European sphere, in return, Henry was required to remit a penny per hearth of the tax roll to the Pope. This was reconfirmed by Adrians successor Pope Alexander III in 1172, when Pope Clement VII excommunicated the king of England, Henry VIII, in 1533, the constitutional position of the lordship in Ireland became uncertain. Henry had broken away from the Holy See and declared himself the head of the Church in England and he had petitioned Rome to procure an annulment of his marriage to Queen Catherine. The Treason Act 1537 was passed to counteract this, following the failed revolt of Silken Thomas in 1534–35, Grey, the lord deputy, had some military successes against several clans in the late 1530s, and took their submissions. By 1540 most of Ireland seemed at peace and under the control of the kings Dublin administration, Henry was proclaimed King of Ireland by the Crown of Ireland Act 1542, an Act of the Irish Parliament. The new kingdom was not recognised by the Catholic monarchies in Europe, after the death of King Edward VI, Henrys son, the papal bull of 1555 recognised the Roman Catholic Queen Mary I as Queen of Ireland. The link of personal union of the Crown of Ireland to the Crown of England became enshrined in Catholic canon law, in this fashion, the Kingdom of Ireland was ruled by the reigning King of England. This placed the new Kingdom of Ireland in personal union with the Kingdom of England, in line with its expanded role and self-image, the administration established the Kings Inns for barristers in 1541, and the Ulster King of Arms to regulate heraldry in 1552. Proposals to establish a university in Dublin were delayed until 1592, in 1603 James VI King of Scots became James I of England, uniting the Kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland in a personal union. The political order of the kingdom was interrupted by the Wars of the Three Kingdoms starting in 1639, during the subsequent interregnum period, England, Scotland and Ireland were ruled as a republic until 1660. This period saw the rise of the loyalist Irish Catholic Confederation within the kingdom and, from 1653, the kingdoms order was restored 1660 with the restoration of Charles II. Without any public dissent, Charless reign was backdated to his fathers execution in 1649, Poynings Law was repealed in 1782 in what came to be known as the Constitution of 1782, granting Ireland legislative independence
11.
John Hooker (English constitutionalist)
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John Hooker alias John Vowell of Exeter in Devon, was an English historian, writer, solicitor, antiquary, and civic administrator. From 1555 to his death he was Chamberlain of Exeter and he was twice MP for Exeter in 1570/1 and 1586, and for Athenry in Ireland in 1569 and wrote an influential treatise on parliamentary procedure. He wrote an account of the siege of Exeter during the Prayer Book Rebellion in 1549. He spent several years in Ireland as legal adviser to Sir Peter Carew and he was one of the editors of the second edition of Raphael Holinsheds Chronicles, published in 1587. His last, unpublished and probably uncompleted work was the first topographical description of the county of Devon and he founded a guild of Merchant Adventurers under a charter from Queen Mary. He was the uncle of Richard Hooker, the influential Anglican theologian, Hooker was born at Bourbridge Hall in Exeter, Devon, England. He was the son and eventual heir of Robert Vowell of Exeter alias Hooker by his third wife Agnes Dobell. His grandfather was John Vowell alias Hooker, MP for Exeter, the earliest recorded member of the Vowell family was Jenaph Vowell of Pembroke in Wales, from whom John Hooker was 6th in descent. The original Welsh name was possibly ap-Howell, jenaphs son Jago Vowell married Alice Hooker, daughter and heiress of Richard Hooker of Hurst Castle, Southampton. By the time he was born the family had been prominent in Exeter for several generations, Hooker received an excellent classical education, reading Roman law at Oxford followed by a period in Europe studying with leading Protestant divines, notably Pietro Martire Vermigli. From 1551 to 1553 he was employed by Myles Coverdale during his incumbency as Bishop of Exeter. In 1555 he became the first chamberlain of Exeter, a post he held until his death. He used these archives to compile his Annals of the City in which he details the characteristics of every Tudor mayor of Exeter, in 1570/71 he was MP for Exeter. At a time when it was deemed essential for cities and nations to have ancient lineage, Hooker described the foundation of Exeter by Corinaeus, nephew of Brutus of Britain. In 1568, possibly because he regarded himself as underpaid for the work he was doing for Exeter, Hooker was persuaded by Sir Peter Carew to accompany him to Ireland as his legal adviser. He organised Carews papers in support of his claim for the barony of Idrone, Hooker later wrote a biography of Carew, The dyscourse and dyscoverye of the lyffe of Sir Peter Carew, in which he almost certainly understated the deceit and aggression behind Carews Irish venture. Until Carews death in 1575, Hooker spent much time in Ireland, the session had lasted only a few weeks, but he kept a journal in which he accurately recorded the proceedings. In writing his treatise Hooker took much inspiration from the Modus Tenendi Parliamentum, in 1586 Hooker again represented Exeter in parliament
12.
Shakespearean history
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In the First Folio, the plays of William Shakespeare were grouped into three categories, comedies, histories, and tragedies. The histories—along with those of contemporary Renaissance playwrights—help define the genre of history plays and these last are considered to have been composed in two cycles. The so-called first tetralogy, apparently written in the early 1590s, deals with the part of the struggle and includes Henry VI, parts one. The second tetralogy, finished in 1599 and including Richard II, Henry IV, Part 1, Henry IV, Part 2 and Henry V, is called the Henriad after its protagonist Prince Hal. The folios classifications are not unproblematic, besides proposing other categories such as romances and problem plays, many modern studies treat the histories together with those tragedies that feature historical characters. As they are in the first folio, the plays are listed here in the sequence of their action, short forms of the full titles are used. Coriolanus Julius Caesar Antony and Cleopatra As with the Roman plays, although both are connected with British history, and based on similar sources, they are usually not considered part of Shakespeares English histories. King Lear Macbeth The source for most of the English history plays, as well as for Macbeth, the source for the Roman history plays is Plutarchs Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans Compared Together, in the translation made by Sir Thomas North in 1579. Shakespeares history plays focus on only a part of the characters lives. Political bias is also clear in Henry VIII, which ends with a celebration of the birth of Elizabeth. However, Shakespeares celebration of Tudor order is important in these plays than his presentation of the spectacular decline of the medieval world. Some of Shakespeares histories – notably Richard III – point out that this world came to its end when opportunism and Machiavellianism infiltrated its politics. Shakespeare made use of the Lancaster and York myths, as he found them in the chronicles, the Lancaster myth regarded Richard IIs overthrow and Henry IVs reign as providentially sanctioned, and Henry Vs achievements as a divine favour. The York myth saw Edward IVs deposing of the ineffectual Henry VI as a restoration of the usurped throne to the lawful heirs of Richard II. For Shakespeares use of the three myths, see Interpretations, thus the sentiments of the Lancaster myth are spoken by Lancastrians, the opposing myth is voiced by Yorkists, and the Tudor myth is embodied in Henry Tudor. Shakespeare thereby allows each play to create its own ethos and mythos, where the chronicles sought to explain events in terms of divine justice, Shakespeare plays down this explanation. In place of providential explanations, Shakespeare often presents events more in terms of justice or Senecan dramaturgy. Dreams, prophecies and curses, for example, loom large in the tetralogy and are dramatized as taking effect
13.
Macbeth
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Macbeth is a tragedy by William Shakespeare, it is thought to have been first performed in 1606. It dramatises the damaging physical and psychological effects of political ambition on those who seek power for its own sake. Of all the plays that Shakespeare wrote during the reign of James I and it was first published in the Folio of 1623, possibly from a prompt book, and is his shortest tragedy. A brave Scottish general named Macbeth receives a prophecy from a trio of witches that one day he will become King of Scotland, consumed by ambition and spurred to action by his wife, Macbeth murders King Duncan and takes the Scottish throne for himself. He is then wracked with guilt and paranoia, forced to commit more and more murders to protect himself from enmity and suspicion, he soon becomes a tyrannical ruler. The bloodbath and consequent civil war swiftly take Macbeth and Lady Macbeth into the realms of madness, the events of the tragedy are usually associated with the execution of Henry Garnet for complicity in the Gunpowder Plot of 1605. In the backstage world of theatre, some believe that the play is cursed, over the course of many centuries, the play has attracted some of the most renowned actors to the roles of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth. It has been adapted to film, television, opera, novels, comics, the play opens amidst thunder and lightning, and the Three Witches decide that their next meeting shall be with Macbeth. Macbeth, the Kings kinsman, is praised for his bravery, in the following scene, Macbeth and Banquo discuss the weather and their victory. As they wander onto a heath, the Three Witches enter, though Banquo challenges them first, they address Macbeth, hailing him as Thane of Glamis, Thane of Cawdor, and that he shall be King hereafter. Macbeth appears to be stunned to silence, when Banquo asks of his own fortunes, the witches respond paradoxically, saying that he will be less than Macbeth, yet happier, less successful, yet more. He will father a line of kings though he himself will not be one, while the two men wonder at these pronouncements, the witches vanish, and another thane, Ross, arrives and informs Macbeth of his newly bestowed title, Thane of Cawdor. The first prophecy is fulfilled, and Macbeth, previously skeptical. King Duncan welcomes and praises Macbeth and Banquo, and declares that he spend the night at Macbeths castle at Inverness. Macbeth sends a message ahead to his wife, Lady Macbeth, Lady Macbeth suffers none of her husbands uncertainty and wishes him to murder Duncan in order to obtain kingship. When Macbeth arrives at Inverness, she overrides all of her husbands objections by challenging his manhood and he and Lady Macbeth plan to get Duncans two chamberlains drunk so that they will black out, the next morning they will blame the chamberlains for the murder. They will be defenseless as they remember nothing. While Duncan is asleep, Macbeth stabs him, despite his doubts and he is so shaken that Lady Macbeth has to take charge
14.
King Lear
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King Lear is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare. The Tragedy of King Lear, a more theatrical revision, was included in the 1623 First Folio, Modern editors usually conflate the two, though some insist that each version has its own individual integrity that should be preserved. The tragedy is particularly noted for its probing observations on the nature of human suffering, george Bernard Shaw wrote, No man will ever write a better tragedy than Lear. The eldest, Goneril, speaks first, declaring her love for her father in fulsome terms, moved by her flattery Lear proceeds to grant to Goneril her share as soon as she has finished her declaration, before Regan and Cordelia have a chance to speak. He then awards to Regan her share as soon as she has spoken, in his anger he disinherits Cordelia and divides her share between Regan and Goneril. Kent objects to Lears unfair treatment of Cordelia, enraged by Kents protests, Lear then summons the Duke of Burgundy and the King of France, who have both proposed marriage to Cordelia. Learning that Cordelia has been disinherited, the Duke of Burgundy withdraws his suit, the King of France is shocked by Lears decision because up until this time Lear has only praised and favored Cordelia. Meanwhile, Gloucester has introduced his illegitimate son Edmund to Kent, Lear announces he will live alternately with Goneril and Regan, and their husbands. He reserves to himself a retinue of one hundred knights, to be supported by his daughters, Goneril and Regan speak privately, revealing that their declarations of love were fake, and that they view Lear as a foolish old man. Edmund resents his illegitimate status, and plots to dispose of his older brother Edgar. He tricks their father Gloucester with a letter, making him think Edgar plans to usurp the estate. Kent returns from exile in disguise under the name of Caius, Lear and Caius quarrel with Oswald, Gonerils steward. Lear discovers that now that Goneril has power, she no longer respects him and she orders him to behave better and reduces his retinue. Enraged, Lear departs for Regans home, Edmund learns from Curan, a courtier, that there is likely to be war between Albany and Cornwall, and that Regan and Cornwall are to arrive at Gloucesters house that evening. Taking advantage of the arrival of the duke and Regan, Edmund fakes an attack by Edgar and he disinherits Edgar and proclaims him an outlaw. Bearing Lears message to Regan, Caius meets Oswald again at Gloucesters home, quarrels with him again, when Lear arrives, he objects to the mistreatment of his messenger, but Regan is as dismissive of her father as Goneril was. Goneril arrives and supports Regans argument against him, Lear yields completely to his rage. He rushes out into a storm to rant against his ungrateful daughters, Kent later follows to protect him
15.
Cymbeline
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Although listed as a tragedy in the First Folio, modern critics often classify Cymbeline as a romance or even a comedy. Like Othello and The Winters Tale, it deals with the themes of innocence, while the precise date of composition remains unknown, the play was certainly produced as early as 1611. Cymbeline, the Roman Empires vassal king of Britain, once had two sons, Guiderius and Arvirargus, but they were twenty years earlier as infants by an exiled traitor named Belarius. Cymbeline now discovers that his only child left, his daughter Imogen, has married her lover Posthumus Leonatus. The lovers have exchanged jewellery as tokens, Imogen now with a bracelet, Cymbeline dismisses the marriage and banishes Posthumus, since Imogen, as Cymbelines only child, must produce a fully royal-blooded heir to succeed to the British throne. In the meantime, Cymbelines Queen is conspiring to have Cloten, her cloddish and arrogant son by a marriage, married to Imogen. The Queen passes the poison along to Pisanio, Posthumus and Imogens loving servant, No longer able to be with her banished Posthumus, Imogen secludes herself in her chambers, away from Clotens aggressive advances. If Iachimo wins, he will get Posthumuss token ring, if Posthumus wins, not only must Iachimo pay him but also fight Posthumus in a duel with swords. Iachimo heads to Britain where he attempts to seduce the faithful Imogen. Iachimo then hides in a chest in Imogens bedchamber and, when the princess falls asleep and he also takes note of the room and Imogens partly naked body to be able to present false evidence to Posthumus that he has seduced his bride. Returning to Italy, Iachimo convinces Posthumus that he has successfully seduced Imogen, however, Pisanio refuses to kill Imogen and reveals to her Posthumuss plot. He has Imogen disguise herself as a boy and continue to Milford Haven to seek employment and he also gives her the Queens poison, believing it will alleviate her psychological distress. In the guise of a boy, Imogen adopts the name Fidele, meanwhile, Cloten learns of the meeting between Imogen and Posthumus at Milford Haven. Dressing himself enviously in Posthumuss clothes, he decides to go to Wales to kill Posthumus, and then rape, abduct and these two young men are in fact the British princes Guiderius and Arviragus, who themselves do not realise their own origin. The men discover Fidele, and instantly captivated by an affinity for him become fast friends. Outside the cave, Guiderius is met by Cloten, who throws insults, meanwhile, Imogens fragile state worsens and she takes the poison as a hopeful medicine, when the men re-enter, they find her dead. They mourn and, after placing Clotens body beside hers, briefly depart to prepare for the double burial, Imogen awakes to find the headless body, and believes it to be Posthumus due to the fact the body is wearing Posthumus clothes. The treacherous Queen is now wasting away due to the disappearance of her son Cloten, meanwhile, despairing of his life, a guilt-ridden Posthumus enlists in the Roman forces as they begin their invasion of Britain
16.
John Leland (antiquary)
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John Leland or Leyland was an English poet and antiquary. Leland has been described as the father of English local history, most evidence for Lelands life and career comes from his own writings, especially his poetry. He was born in London on 13 September, most probably in about 1503, having lost both his parents at an early age, he and his brother were raised by Thomas Myles. Leland was educated at St Pauls School, London, under its first headmaster and it was here that he already met some of his future benefactors, notably William Paget. Leland was subsequently sent to Christs College, Cambridge, graduating in 1522, while studying there, he was for a short time imprisoned, having accused a certain knight of collaborating with Richard de la Pole, the Yorkist claimant to the throne. He proceeded to Lambeth, London, serving Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk, when the duke died in 1524, the king sent Leland to Oxford, where as Anthony Wood later claimed from tradition, he became a fellow of All Souls College. He would later deplore the state of education at Oxford, which he felt was too conservative in its approach to classical studies, between 1526 and 1528, Leland proceeded to Paris, studying along with many fellow expatriates, both English and German. His original plan to study in Italy, too, never succeeded, Leland honed his skills at composing Latin poetry and sought the acquaintance of humanist scholars whom he much admired, such as Guillaume Budé and Jacques Lefèvre dÉtaples. A scholar of particular importance for Leland was François Dubois, professor at the Collège de Tournai, who had a profound effect on his poetic as well as antiquarian interests. While in France, Leland kept in touch with his friends and sponsors in England, probably including Thomas Wolsey, Cardinal and Lord Chancellor, by 1529, Leland had returned to England. He was appointed one of the chaplains to King Henry VIII, in 1533, Leland received papal dispensation for four benefices, on condition that he became subdeacon within two years and priest within seven. He was appointed prebendary of Wilton Abbey in 1535 and received two adjacent benefices, Leland and Nicholas Udall composed verses to be read or recited at the pageant of Anne Boleyns arrival in London in 1533, which was staged for the occasion of her coronation. Their common patron was probably Thomas, Duke of Norfolk and Cornwall, the poets worked together again during 1533 and 1534, when Leland contributed verses for Udalls Floures for Latine Spekynge. In 1533, the king appears to have entrusted Leland with a document, a moste gratius commission, which authorized him to examine and use the libraries of all religious houses in England. Leland spent the few years travelling from house to house, for the most part shortly before they were dissolved. About 1535, he met the ex-Carmelite churchman and fellow antiquary John Bale, in the 1530s and 1540s, the royal library was reorganised to accommodate hundreds of books that were previously kept in monastic collections. Leland himself describes how Henrys palaces at Greenwich, Hampton Court, Lelands part in this is uncertain. There is no evidence that he oversaw the relocation of the books to their new home or received a librarians wages
17.
Edmund Campion
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Saint Edmund Campion, S. J. was an English Roman Catholic Jesuit priest and martyr. While conducting a ministry in officially Anglican England, Campion was arrested by priest hunters. Convicted of high treason, he was hanged, drawn and quartered at Tyburn, Campion was beatified by Pope Leo XIII in 1886 and canonised in 1970 by Pope Paul VI as one of the Forty Martyrs of England and Wales. His feast is celebrated on 1 December, born in London on 24 January 1540, Campion was the son of a bookseller in Paternoster Row, near St Pauls Cathedral. He received his education at Christs Hospital school and, at the age of 13, was chosen to make the complimentary speech when Queen Mary visited the city in August 1553. He then attended St Johns College, Oxford, becoming fellow in 1557 and taking the required Oath of Supremacy. He took a degree at Oxford in 1564. Two years later, Campion welcomed Queen Elizabeth to the university and he was selected to lead a public debate in front of the Queen. By the time the Queen had left Oxford, Campion had earned the patronage of the powerful William Cecil and also the Earl of Leicester, when Sir Thomas White, the founder of the college, was buried in 1567, the Latin oration fell to the lot of Campion. Inwardly he took a remorse of conscience and detestation of mind, for some three months he eluded his pursuers, going by the name Mr Patrick and occupying himself by writing A Historie of Ireland. He entered the English College founded by William Allen, the enrollment of the college grew, and a papal subsidy was granted a little time after Campions arrival. Campion found himself reunited with Oxford friends and he was to teach rhetoric while there and finish studying for the degree of Bachelor of Divinity, which was granted him by the University of Douai on 21 January 1573. He received minor orders after this and was ordained sub-deacon, Campion then travelled to Rome on foot, alone and in the guise of a pilgrim, to join the Jesuits. In April 1573, in Rome, he became the first novice accepted into the Society of Jesus by Mercurianus and he was assigned to the Austrian Province as there was not yet an English province of the Jesuits and began his two-year novitiate at Brunn in Moravia. He was ordained deacon and priest by Anthony Brus, O. M. C. R. S, archbishop of Prague and said his first Mass on 8 September 1578. For six years, Campion taught at the Jesuit college in Prague as professor of rhetoric and philosophy. In 1580, the Jesuit mission to England began, the mission was strictly forbidden, according to Campions Brag, to deal in any respects with matters of state or policy of this realm. Robert Persons who, as superior, was intended to counterbalance his own fervour and he had been surprised to learn that he was chosen to take part in the mission, and expressed the fear that he lacked constitutional courage
18.
Hector Boece
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Hector Boece, known in Latin as Hector Boecius or Boethius, was a Scottish philosopher and historian, and the first Principal of Kings College in Aberdeen, a predecessor of the University of Aberdeen. He was born in Dundee where he attended school and was educated at the nearby University of St Andrews, by 1497 he had become a professor of philosophy at the university. From then onwards, he worked closely with Elphinstone, to set up the new university and by 1505, the university structure was modelled on those of Paris and of Orléans. As intended, Boece was installed as the first principal of the university and gave lectures on medicine, at the end of 1534, Boece became Rector of Fyvie. He died in Aberdeen two years later at the age of 71, Boece wrote and published two books, one of biography and one of history. In 1522 he published the Vitae Episcoporum Murthlacensium et Aberdonensium and in 1527 the Historia Gentis Scotorum to the accession of James III of Scotland, the former was the basis of a poem in Scots by Alexander Gardyne. It was written in a flowing and pleasing style, became popular, by modern standards it is overly patriotic, and has many inaccuracies. The historical account of Macbeth of Scotland, in particular, flattered the antecedents of Boeces patron King James IV of Scotland, and greatly maligned the real Macbeth. The work was received at the time, both in Europe and in Scotland, after its translation from Latin into French and then in 1536 from Latin into Scots by John Bellenden. There are some glimpses in the Historia of contemporary Scotland, such as the statement that the Eurasian beaver, continuations of the Historia and its influence Boeces Historia as published terminated in 1438. In the early 1530s the scholar Giovanni Ferrerio, engaged by Robert Reid of Kinloss Abbey, wrote a continuation of Boeces history, extending it another 50 years, to the end of the reign of James III. John Lesley in his De Origine, Moribus, et Rebus Gestis Scotorum, the metrical translation into Scots by William Stewart, not published until the nineteenth century, also provided some expansion. The chronicler Polydore Vergil made some use of Boece for his 1534 Historia Anglica, david Chalmers of Ormond in his Histoire abbregée wrote about the French, English and Scottish monarchies, relying on Boece for the Scottish account. The Historia was translated into English for Raphael Holinsheds Chronicles of England, Scotland, the account in Holinsheds Chronicle was then used by William Shakespeare as the basis of his play Macbeth. George Buchanan made heavy use of Boece in his Rerum Scoticarum Historia, Boeces sources Boeces claimed sources fell into three classes. The works of John Fordun and Walter Bower defined the tradition which he attempted to make seamless, filling the gaps in the chronicle, and applying the approach common to humanists of his period. The works of Tacitus had been rediscovered, in the 14th century, and contained material relevant to British history, finally there was a group of sources that remain debated, material from Elphinstone, and the authors Veremundus, Cornelius Hibernicus, and John Campbell. No written record of these works survives, sharp criticism of the sourcing of Boeces history was voiced in the sixteenth century by Humphrey Lhuyd and John Twyne
19.
Privy Council of the United Kingdom
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Her Majestys Most Honourable Privy Council, usually known simply as the Privy Council, is a formal body of advisers to the Sovereign of the United Kingdom. Its membership mainly comprises senior politicians, who are present or former members of either the House of Commons or the House of Lords, the Council also holds the delegated authority to issue Orders of Council, mostly used to regulate certain public institutions. The Council advises the sovereign on the issuing of Royal Charters, which are used to grant special status to incorporated bodies, otherwise, the Privy Councils powers have now been largely replaced by the Cabinet of the United Kingdom. The Judicial Committee consists of judges appointed as Privy Counsellors, predominantly Justices of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. The Privy Council of the United Kingdom was preceded by the Privy Council of Scotland, the key events in the formation of the modern Privy Council are given below, Witenagemot was an early equivalent to the Privy Council of England. During the reigns of the Norman monarchs, the English Crown was advised by a court or curia regis. The body originally concerned itself with advising the sovereign on legislation, administration, later, different bodies assuming distinct functions evolved from the court. The courts of law took over the business of dispensing justice, nevertheless, the Council retained the power to hear legal disputes, either in the first instance or on appeal. Furthermore, laws made by the sovereign on the advice of the Council, powerful sovereigns often used the body to circumvent the Courts and Parliament. During Henry VIIIs reign, the sovereign, on the advice of the Council, was allowed to enact laws by mere proclamation, the legislative pre-eminence of Parliament was not restored until after Henry VIIIs death. Though the royal Council retained legislative and judicial responsibilities, it became an administrative body. The Council consisted of forty members in 1553, but the sovereign relied on a smaller committee, by the end of the English Civil War, the monarchy, House of Lords, and Privy Council had been abolished. The remaining parliamentary chamber, the House of Commons, instituted a Council of State to execute laws, the forty-one members of the Council were elected by the House of Commons, the body was headed by Oliver Cromwell, de facto military dictator of the nation. In 1653, however, Cromwell became Lord Protector, and the Council was reduced to thirteen and twenty-one members, all elected by the Commons. In 1657, the Commons granted Cromwell even greater powers, some of which were reminiscent of those enjoyed by monarchs, the Council became known as the Protectors Privy Council, its members were appointed by the Lord Protector, subject to Parliaments approval. In 1659, shortly before the restoration of the monarchy, the Protectors Council was abolished, Charles II restored the Royal Privy Council, but he, like previous Stuart monarchs, chose to rely on a small group of advisers. Under George I even more power transferred to this committee and it now began to meet in the absence of the sovereign, communicating its decisions to him after the fact. Thus, the British Privy Council, as a whole, ceased to be a body of important confidential advisers to the sovereign and it is closely related to the word private, and derives from the French word privé
20.
Dictionary of National Biography
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The Dictionary of National Biography is a standard work of reference on notable figures from British history, published from 1885. The updated Oxford Dictionary of National Biography was published on 23 September 2004 in 60 volumes and he approached Leslie Stephen, then editor of the Cornhill Magazine, owned by Smith, to become editor. Stephen persuaded Smith that the work should focus on subjects from the UK and its present, an early working title was the Biographia Britannica, the name of an earlier eighteenth-century reference work. The first volume of the Dictionary of National Biography appeared on 1 January 1885, in May 1891 Leslie Stephen resigned and Sidney Lee, Stephens assistant editor from the beginning of the project, succeeded him as editor. While much of the dictionary was written in-house, the DNB also relied on external contributors, by 1900, more than 700 individuals had contributed to the work. Successive volumes appeared quarterly with complete punctuality until midsummer 1900, when the series closed with volume 63, the year of publication, the editor and the range of names in each volume is given below. The supplements brought the work up to the death of Queen Victoria on 22 January 1901. The dictionary was transferred from its original publishers, Smith, Elder & Co. to Oxford University Press in 1917, until 1996, Oxford University Press continued to add further supplements featuring articles on subjects who had died during the twentieth century. The supplements published between 1912 and 1996 added about 6,000 lives of people who died in the century to the 29,120 in the 63 volumes of the original DNB. In 1993 a volume containing missing biographies was published and this had an additional 1,000 lives, selected from over 100,000 suggestions. Consequently, the dictionary was becoming less and less useful as a reference work, in 1966, the University of London published a volume of corrections, cumulated from the Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research. There were various versions of the Concise Dictionary of National Biography, the last edition, in three volumes, covered everyone who died before 1986. In the early 1990s Oxford University Press committed itself to overhauling the DNB, the new dictionary would cover British history, broadly defined, up to 31 December 2000. The research project was conceived as a one, with in-house staff co-ordinating the work of nearly 10,000 contributors internationally. Following Matthews death in October 1999, he was succeeded as editor by another Oxford historian, Professor Brian Harrison, in January 2000. The new dictionary, now known as the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, was published on 23 September 2004 in 60 volumes in print at a price of £7500, most UK holders of a current library card can access it online free of charge. In subsequent years, the print edition has been able to be obtained new for a lower price. At publication, the 2004 edition had 50,113 biographical articles covering 54,922 lives, a small permanent staff remain in Oxford to update and extend the coverage of the online edition
21.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
22.
Wikisource
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Wikisource is an online digital library of free content textual sources on a wiki, operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikisource is the name of the project as a whole and the name for each instance of that project, the projects aims are to host all forms of free text, in many languages, and translations. Originally conceived as an archive to store useful or important historical texts, the project officially began in November 24,2003 under the name Project Sourceberg. The name Wikisource was adopted later that year and it received its own domain name seven months later, the project has come under criticism for lack of reliability but it is also cited by organisations such as the National Archives and Records Administration. The project holds works that are either in the domain or freely licensed, professionally published works or historical source documents, not vanity products. Verification was initially made offline, or by trusting the reliability of digital libraries. Now works are supported by online scans via the ProofreadPage extension, some individual Wikisources, each representing a specific language, now only allow works backed up with scans. While the bulk of its collection are texts, Wikisource as a whole hosts other media, some Wikisources allow user-generated annotations, subject to the specific policies of the Wikisource in question. Wikisources early history included several changes of name and location, the original concept for Wikisource was as storage for useful or important historical texts. These texts were intended to support Wikipedia articles, by providing evidence and original source texts. The collection was focused on important historical and cultural material. The project was originally called Project Sourceberg during its planning stages, in 2001, there was a dispute on Wikipedia regarding the addition of primary source material, leading to edit wars over their inclusion or deletion. Project Sourceberg was suggested as a solution to this, perhaps Project Sourceberg can mainly work as an interface for easily linking from Wikipedia to a Project Gutenberg file, and as an interface for people to easily submit new work to PG. Wed want to complement Project Gutenberg--how, exactly, and Jimmy Wales adding like Larry, Im interested that we think it over to see what we can add to Project Gutenberg. It seems unlikely that primary sources should in general be editable by anyone -- I mean, Shakespeare is Shakespeare, unlike our commentary on his work, the project began its activity at ps. wikipedia. org. The contributors understood the PS subdomain to mean either primary sources or Project Sourceberg, however, this resulted in Project Sourceberg occupying the subdomain of the Pashto Wikipedia. A vote on the name changed it to Wikisource on December 6,2003. Despite the change in name, the project did not move to its permanent URL until July 23,2004, since Wikisource was initially called Project Sourceberg, its first logo was a picture of an iceberg
23.
Project Gutenberg
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Project Gutenberg is a volunteer effort to digitize and archive cultural works, to encourage the creation and distribution of eBooks. It was founded in 1971 by Michael S. Hart and is the oldest digital library, most of the items in its collection are the full texts of public domain books. The project tries to make these as free as possible, in long-lasting, as of 3 October 2015, Project Gutenberg reached 50,000 items in its collection. The releases are available in plain text but, wherever possible, other formats are included, such as HTML, PDF, EPUB, MOBI, most releases are in the English language, but many non-English works are also available. There are multiple affiliated projects that are providing additional content, including regional, Project Gutenberg is also closely affiliated with Distributed Proofreaders, an Internet-based community for proofreading scanned texts. Project Gutenberg was started by Michael Hart in 1971 with the digitization of the United States Declaration of Independence, Hart, a student at the University of Illinois, obtained access to a Xerox Sigma V mainframe computer in the universitys Materials Research Lab. Through friendly operators, he received an account with an unlimited amount of computer time. Hart has said he wanted to back this gift by doing something that could be considered to be of great value. His initial goal was to make the 10,000 most consulted books available to the public at little or no charge and this particular computer was one of the 15 nodes on ARPANET, the computer network that would become the Internet. Hart believed that computers would one day be accessible to the general public and he used a copy of the United States Declaration of Independence in his backpack, and this became the first Project Gutenberg e-text. He named the project after Johannes Gutenberg, the fifteenth century German printer who propelled the movable type printing press revolution, by the mid-1990s, Hart was running Project Gutenberg from Illinois Benedictine College. More volunteers had joined the effort, all of the text was entered manually until 1989 when image scanners and optical character recognition software improved and became more widely available, which made book scanning more feasible. Hart later came to an arrangement with Carnegie Mellon University, which agreed to administer Project Gutenbergs finances, as the volume of e-texts increased, volunteers began to take over the projects day-to-day operations that Hart had run. Starting in 2004, an online catalog made Project Gutenberg content easier to browse, access. Project Gutenberg is now hosted by ibiblio at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Italian volunteer Pietro Di Miceli developed and administered the first Project Gutenberg website and started the development of the Project online Catalog. In his ten years in this role, the Project web pages won a number of awards, often being featured in best of the Web listings, Hart died on 6 September 2011 at his home in Urbana, Illinois at the age of 64. In 2000, a corporation, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Long-time Project Gutenberg volunteer Gregory Newby became the foundations first CEO, also in 2000, Charles Franks founded Distributed Proofreaders, which allowed the proofreading of scanned texts to be distributed among many volunteers over the Internet
24.
Internet Archive
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The Internet Archive is a San Francisco–based nonprofit digital library with the stated mission of universal access to all knowledge. As of October 2016, its collection topped 15 petabytes, in addition to its archiving function, the Archive is an activist organization, advocating for a free and open Internet. Its web archive, the Wayback Machine, contains over 150 billion web captures, the Archive also oversees one of the worlds largest book digitization projects. Founded by Brewster Kahle in May 1996, the Archive is a 501 nonprofit operating in the United States. It has a budget of $10 million, derived from a variety of sources, revenue from its Web crawling services, various partnerships, grants, donations. Its headquarters are in San Francisco, California, where about 30 of its 200 employees work, Most of its staff work in its book-scanning centers. The Archive has data centers in three Californian cities, San Francisco, Redwood City, and Richmond, the Archive is a member of the International Internet Preservation Consortium and was officially designated as a library by the State of California in 2007. Brewster Kahle founded the Archive in 1996 at around the time that he began the for-profit web crawling company Alexa Internet. In October 1996, the Internet Archive had begun to archive and preserve the World Wide Web in large quantities, the archived content wasnt available to the general public until 2001, when it developed the Wayback Machine. In late 1999, the Archive expanded its collections beyond the Web archive, Now the Internet Archive includes texts, audio, moving images, and software. It hosts a number of projects, the NASA Images Archive, the contract crawling service Archive-It. According to its web site, Most societies place importance on preserving artifacts of their culture, without such artifacts, civilization has no memory and no mechanism to learn from its successes and failures. Our culture now produces more and more artifacts in digital form, the Archives mission is to help preserve those artifacts and create an Internet library for researchers, historians, and scholars. In August 2012, the Archive announced that it has added BitTorrent to its file download options for over 1.3 million existing files, on November 6,2013, the Internet Archives headquarters in San Franciscos Richmond District caught fire, destroying equipment and damaging some nearby apartments. The nonprofit Archive sought donations to cover the estimated $600,000 in damage, in November 2016, Kahle announced that the Internet Archive was building the Internet Archive of Canada, a copy of the archive to be based somewhere in the country of Canada. The announcement received widespread coverage due to the implication that the decision to build an archive in a foreign country was because of the upcoming presidency of Donald Trump. Kahle was quoted as saying that on November 9th in America and it was a firm reminder that institutions like ours, built for the long-term, need to design for change. For us, it means keeping our cultural materials safe, private and it means preparing for a Web that may face greater restrictions
25.
LibriVox
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On 6 August 2016, the project completed project number 10,000. Most releases are in the English language, but many works are also available. There are multiple affiliated projects that are providing additional content, LibriVox is closely affiliated with Project Gutenberg from where the project gets some of its texts, and the Internet Archive that hosts their offerings. LibriVox was started in August 2005 by Montreal-based writer Hugh McGuire, who set up a blog, the first recorded book was The Secret Agent by Joseph Conrad. LibriVox is an invented word inspired by Latin words liber in its genitive form libri and vox, the word was also coined because of other connotations as liber also means child and free, independent, unrestricted. As the LibriVox forum says it, We like to think LibriVox might be interpreted as child of the voice, finally, the other link we like is library so you could imagine it to mean Library of Voice. There has been no decision or consensus by LibriVox founders or the community of volunteers for a single pronunciation of LibriVox and it is accepted that any audible pronunciation is accurate. LibriVox is a volunteer-run, free content, Public Domain project and it has no budget or legal personality. The development of projects is managed through an Internet forum, supported by an admin team, in early 2010, LibriVox ran a fundraising drive to raise $20,000 to cover hosting costs for the website of about $5, 000/year and improve front- and backend usability. Volunteers can choose new projects to start, either recording on their own or inviting others to join them, once a volunteer has recorded his or her contribution, it is uploaded to the site, and proof-listened by members of the LibriVox community. Finished audiobooks are available from the LibriVox website, and MP3, recordings are also available through other means, such as iTunes, and, being free of copyright, they are frequently distributed independently of LibriVox on the Internet and otherwise. LibriVox only records material that is in the domain in the United States. Because of copyright restrictions, LibriVox produces recordings of only a number of contemporary books. These have included, for example, the 9/11 Commission Report and it contains much popular classic fiction, but also includes less predictable texts, such as Immanuel Kants Critique of Pure Reason and a recording of the first 500 digits of pi. The collection also features poetry, plays, religious texts and non-fiction of various kinds, in January 2009, the catalogue contained approximately 55 percent fiction and drama,25 percent non-fiction and 20 percent poetry. By the end of 2016, the most viewed item was The Adventures of Tom Sawyer in a 2006 solo recording by John Greenman, around 90 percent of the catalogue is recorded in English, but recordings exist in 31 languages altogether. Chinese, French and German are the most popular languages other than English amongst volunteers, LibriVox has garnered significant interest, in particular from those interested in the promotion of volunteer-led content and alternative approaches to copyright ownership on the Internet. It has received support from the Internet Archive and Project Gutenberg, intellectual freedom and commons proponent Mike Linksvayer described it in 2008 as perhaps the most interesting collaborative culture project this side of Wikipedia
26.
University of Oxford
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The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university located in Oxford, England. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris, after disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two ancient universities are frequently referred to as Oxbridge. The university is made up of a variety of institutions, including 38 constituent colleges, All the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university, each controlling its own membership and with its own internal structure and activities. Being a city university, it not have a main campus, instead, its buildings. Oxford is the home of the Rhodes Scholarship, one of the worlds oldest and most prestigious scholarships, the university operates the worlds oldest university museum, as well as the largest university press in the world and the largest academic library system in Britain. Oxford has educated many notable alumni, including 28 Nobel laureates,27 Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford has no known foundation date. Teaching at Oxford existed in form as early as 1096. It grew quickly in 1167 when English students returned from the University of Paris, the historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188 and the first known foreign scholar, Emo of Friesland, arrived in 1190. The head of the university had the title of chancellor from at least 1201, the university was granted a royal charter in 1248 during the reign of King Henry III. After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge, the students associated together on the basis of geographical origins, into two nations, representing the North and the South. In later centuries, geographical origins continued to many students affiliations when membership of a college or hall became customary in Oxford. At about the time, private benefactors established colleges as self-contained scholarly communities. Among the earliest such founders were William of Durham, who in 1249 endowed University College, thereafter, an increasing number of students lived in colleges rather than in halls and religious houses. In 1333–34, an attempt by some dissatisfied Oxford scholars to found a new university at Stamford, Lincolnshire was blocked by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge petitioning King Edward III. Thereafter, until the 1820s, no new universities were allowed to be founded in England, even in London, thus, Oxford and Cambridge had a duopoly, the new learning of the Renaissance greatly influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards. Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn, who contributed to the revival of Greek language studies, and John Colet, the noted biblical scholar. With the English Reformation and the breaking of communion with the Roman Catholic Church, recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe, as a centre of learning and scholarship, Oxfords reputation declined in the Age of Enlightenment, enrolments fell and teaching was neglected
27.
Cunobeline
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Cunobeline was a king in pre-Roman Britain from the late first century BC until the 40s AD. He is mentioned in passing by the classical historians Suetonius and Dio Cassius and he appears to have controlled a substantial portion of south-eastern Britain, and is called King of the Britons by Suetonius. Cunobeline appears in British legend as Cynfelyn, Kymbelinus or Cymbeline and his name is a compound made up of cuno- and Belenos. From numismatic evidence Cunobelinus appears to have taken power around 9 AD, some of the Verulamium coins name him as the son of Tasciovanus, a previous king of the Catuvellauni, unlike his fathers, his coins name no co-rulers. He may have been emboldened to act against the Trinovantes by the Roman defeat in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in Germania in AD9, Cunobelinus appears to have maintained quite good relations with the Roman Empire. He used the title Rex and classical motifs on his coins and he was probably one of the British kings that Strabo says sent embassies to Augustus. Strabo reports Romes lucrative trade with Britain, the exports included grain, gold, silver, iron, hides, slaves. Cunobelinus had three sons, Adminius, Togodumnus and Caratacus, and a brother, Epaticcus, known to history, Epaticcus expanded his influence into the territory of the Atrebates in the early 20s AD, taking the Atrebatan capital Calleva by about 25. He continued to expand his territory until his death in about 35, when Caratacus took over from him, Adminius, judging by his coins, had control of Kent by this time. Suetonius tells us that in ca.40 he was banished from Britain by his father, Caligula prepared an invasion of Britain, but abandoned it in farcical circumstances, ordering his soldiers to attack the waves and gather seashells as the spoils of victory. Cunobelinus died some time before 43, the Lexden Tumulus on the outskirts of Colchester has been suggested as his tomb. Caratacus completed the conquest of the Atrebates, and their king, Verica, fled to Rome, providing the new emperor, Claudius, Caratacus and Togodumnus led the initial resistance to the invasion. Dio Cassius tells us that the Bodunni, a tribe who were tributary to the Catuvellauni, changed sides and this is probably a misspelling of the Dobunni of Gloucestershire, indicating that Cunobelinuss hegemony extended as far as the West Country. It is possible, based on evidence, that Sallustius Lucullus. Cunobelinuss memory was preserved in British legend and beyond, a genealogy preserved in the medieval Welsh manuscript Harleian 3859 contains three generations which read Caratauc map Cinbelin map Teuhant. The remainder of the genealogy contains the names of a sequence of Roman emperors, in Geoffrey of Monmouths Historia Regum Britanniae he appears as Kymbelinus, son of Tenvantius, a powerful warrior who was raised in the courts of Augustus. He was very friendly with the Roman court, his country was equipped with Roman weapons and he had two sons, Guiderius and Arvirargus. Guiderius succeeded him, but died in the stages of Claudiuss invasion
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Imogen (Cymbeline)
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Imogen was the daughter of King Cymbeline in Shakespeares play Cymbeline. She was described by William Hazlitt as perhaps the most tender, the name Innogen is mentioned as a ghost character in early editions of Much Ado About Nothing as the wife of the Leonato character. Imogen in Cymbeline is paired with a character with the epithet Leonatus, Imogen is princess of Britain, and the virtuous wife of the exiled Posthumus, whose praise of her moral purity incites Posthumuss acquaintance Iachimo to bet Posthumus that he can seduce her. Posthumus plots to kill his wife, but the killer reveals the plot to Imogen and advises her to hide, she escapes to the woods dressed as a man. Taking a drug, she falls into a coma and is presumed dead by the family and she mistakes the headless body for that of her husband. After the battle at the climax of the play she confronts Iachimo who confesses his lies and she is reunited with Posthumus, and her father, and discovers two of the men who took her in are actually her long lost brothers. Oscar Wilde alludes to Imogen in The Picture of Dorian Gray when Dorian describes Sibyl Vane and it must be, if you say it. E. M. Forster alludes to Imogen in Where Angels Fear to Tread when describing Lilias sadness in her marriage, a character in Anthony Trollopes Barchester Towers mentions Imogen, Imogen was true, but how was she rewarded. Her lord believed her to be the paramour of the first he who came near her in his absence, what shocks the virtuous philosopher delights the chameleon poet. A poet is the most unpoetical of anything in existence because he has no identity, Imogen is also alluded to in Nathaniel Hawthornes short story The Antique Ring, Or, who knows, but it is the very ring which Posthumus received from Imogen. In George Bernard Shaws rewrite of the last act of Cymbeline, Cymbeline Refinished and she continually questions both Iachimo and Postumus at the end, refusing to forgive them before finally saying that she will go home and make the best of it, as other women must. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Wood, James. London and New York, Frederick Warne
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Jupiter (mythology)
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Jupiter, also Jove, is the god of sky and thunder and king of the gods in Ancient Roman religion and mythology. Jupiter was the deity of Roman state religion throughout the Republican and Imperial eras. In Roman mythology, he negotiates with Numa Pompilius, the king of Rome, to establish principles of Roman religion such as offering. Jupiter is usually thought to have originated as a sky god, the two emblems were often combined to represent the god in the form of an eagle holding in its claws a thunderbolt, frequently seen on Greek and Roman coins. As the sky-god, he was a witness to oaths. Many of his functions were focused on the Capitoline Hill, where the citadel was located and he was the chief deity of the early Capitoline Triad with Mars and Quirinus. In the later Capitoline Triad, he was the guardian of the state with Juno. His sacred tree was the oak, the Romans regarded Jupiter as the equivalent of the Greek Zeus, and in Latin literature and Roman art, the myths and iconography of Zeus are adapted under the name Iuppiter. In the Greek-influenced tradition, Jupiter was the brother of Neptune, each presided over one of the three realms of the universe, sky, the waters, and the underworld. The Italic Diespiter was also a sky god who manifested himself in the daylight, usually, Tinia is usually regarded as his Etruscan counterpart. The Romans believed that Jupiter granted them supremacy because they had honoured him more than any other people had, Jupiter was the fount of the auspices upon which the relationship of the city with the gods rested. He personified the divine authority of Romes highest offices, internal organization and his image in the Republican and Imperial Capitol bore regalia associated with Romes ancient kings and the highest consular and Imperial honours. The consuls swore their oath of office in Jupiters name, to thank him for his help, they offered him a white ox with gilded horns. A similar offering was made by generals, who surrendered the tokens of their victory at the feet of Jupiters statue in the Capitol. Some scholars have viewed the triumphator as embodying Jupiter in the triumphal procession, Jupiters association with kingship and sovereignty was reinterpreted as Romes form of government changed. Originally, Rome was ruled by kings, after the monarchy was abolished and the Republic established, religious prerogatives were transferred to the patres, nostalgia for the kingship was considered treasonous. Those suspected of harbouring monarchical ambitions were punished, regardless of their service to the state, in the 5th century BC, the triumphator Camillus was sent into exile after he drove a chariot with a team of four white horses —an honour reserved for Jupiter himself. His house on the Capitoline Hill was razed, and it was decreed that no patrician should ever be allowed to live there, during the Conflict of the Orders, Romes plebeians demanded the right to hold political and religious office
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Historia Regum Britanniae
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Historia regum Britanniae, originally called De gestis Britonum, is a pseudohistorical account of British history, written around 1136 by Geoffrey of Monmouth. It is one of the pieces of the Matter of Britain. Although credited uncritically well into the 16th century, it is now considered to have no value as history, when events described, such as Julius Caesars invasions of Britain, can be corroborated from contemporary histories, Geoffreys account can be seen to be wildly inaccurate. Yet the deeds of men were such that they deserve to be praised for all time. He also cites Gildas and Bede as sources, then follows a dedication to Robert, earl of Gloucester and Waleran, count of Meulan, whom he enjoins to use their knowledge and wisdom to improve his tale. The Historia itself begins with the Trojan Aeneas, who according to Roman legend settled in Italy after the Trojan War and his great-grandson Brutus is banished, and, after a period of wandering, is directed by the goddess Diana to settle on an island in the western ocean. Brutus lands at Totnes and names the island, then called Albion, Brutus defeats the giants who are the only inhabitants of the island, and establishes his capital, Troia Nova, on the banks of the Thames, after his time it is renamed London. When Brutus dies, his three sons, Locrinus, Kamber and Albanactus, divide the county between themselves, the three kingdoms are named Loegria, Kambria and Albany. The story then progresses rapidly through the reigns of the descendants of Locrinus, including Bladud, bladuds son Leir reigns for sixty years. He has no sons, so upon reaching old age he decides to divide his kingdom among his three daughters, Goneril, Regan and Cordelia, to decide who should get the largest share, he asks his daughters how much they love him. Goneril and Regan give extravagant answers, but Cordelia answers simply and sincerely, angered, Goneril and Regan are to share half the island with their husbands, the Dukes of Albany and Cornwall. Cordelia marries Aganippus, King of the Franks, and departs for Gaul, soon Goneril and Regan and their husbands rebel and take the whole kingdom. After Leir has had all his attendants taken from him, he begins to regret his actions towards Cordelia, Cordelia receives him compassionately and restores his royal robes and retinue. Aganippus raises a Gaulish army for Leir, who returns to Britain, defeats his sons-in-law, Leir rules for three years and then dies, Cordelia inherits the throne and rules for five years before Marganus and Cunedagius, her sisters sons, rebel against her. They imprison Cordelia, grief-stricken, she kills herself, Marganus and Cunedagius divide the kingdom between themselves, but soon quarrel and go to war with each other. Cunedagius eventually kills Marganus in Wales and retains the whole kingdom and he is succeeded by his son. A later descendant of Cunedagius, King Gorboduc, has two sons called Ferreux and Porrex and they quarrel and both are eventually killed, sparking a civil war. This leads to Britain being ruled by five kings, who keep attacking each other, dunvallo Molmutius, the son of the King of Cornwall, becomes pre-eminent
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The Decameron
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The Decameron, subtitled Prince Galehaut, is a collection of novellas by the 14th-century Italian author Giovanni Boccaccio. Boccaccio probably conceived the Decameron after the epidemic of 1348, the various tales of love in The Decameron range from the erotic to the tragic. Tales of wit, practical jokes, and life lessons contribute to the mosaic, in addition to its literary value and widespread influence, it provides a document of life at the time. Written in the vernacular of the Florentine language, it is considered a masterpiece of classical early Italian prose. The books primary title exemplifies Boccaccios fondness for Greek philology, Decameron combines two Greek words, δέκα, déka and ἡμέρα, hēméra, to form a term that means ten-day, ten days is the period in which the characters of the frame story tell their tales. Boccaccios subtitle, Prencipe Galeotto, refers to Galehaut, a king portrayed in the Lancelot-Grail who was sometimes called by the title haut prince. Galehaut was a friend of Lancelot and an enemy of King Arthur. When Galehaut learned that Lancelot loved Arthurs wife, Guinevere, he set aside his own ardor for Arthur in order to arrange a meeting between his friend and Guinevere, at this meeting the Queen first kisses Lancelot, and so begins their love affair. In Canto V of Inferno, Dante compares these fictional lovers with the real-life paramours Francesca da Rimini and Paolo Malatesta, in Infierno, Francesca and Paolo read of Lancelot and Guinevere, and the story impassions them to lovemaking. Dantes description of Galehauts munificence and savoir-faire amidst this intrigue impressed Boccaccio and he contrasts this life with that of the menfolk, who enjoy respite in sport, such as hunting, fishing, riding, and falconry. In Italy during the time of the Black Death, a group of seven young women, thus, by the end of the fortnight they have told 100 stories. Each of the ten characters is charged as King or Queen of the company for one of the ten days in turn. Only Dioneo, who tells the tenth tale each day, has the right to tell a tale on any topic he wishes. Many authors have argued that Dioneo expresses the views of Boccaccio himself, each day also includes a short introduction and conclusion to continue the frame of the tales by describing other daily activities besides story-telling. These frame tale interludes frequently include transcriptions of Italian folk songs, the interactions among tales in a day, or across days, as Boccaccio spins variations and reversals of previous material, forms a whole and not just a collection of stories. Throughout Decameron the mercantile ethic prevails and predominates, the commercial and urban values of quick wit, sophistication, and intelligence are treasured, while the vices of stupidity and dullness are cured, or punished. Beyond the unity provided by the narrative, Decameron provides a unity in philosophical outlook. Throughout runs the common theme of Lady Fortune, and how quickly one can rise
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BBC Television Shakespeare
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The BBC Television Shakespeare is a series of British television adaptations of the plays of William Shakespeare, created by Cedric Messina and broadcast by BBC Television. Transmitted in the UK from 3 December 1978 to 27 April 1985, development began in 1975 when Messina saw that the grounds of Glamis Castle would make a perfect location for an adaptation of Shakespeares As You Like It for the Play of the Month series. Upon returning to London, however, he had come to envision an entire series devoted exclusively to the works of Shakespeare. Experiencing financial, logistical and creative problems in the days of production. By the end of its run, the series had proved both a ratings and a financial success, several episodes are now held in high esteem, particularly some of the traditionally lesser known and less frequently staged plays. The complete set is a collection, and several episodes represent the only non-theatrical production of the particular play currently available on DVD. M. Barries The Little Minister for the BBCs Play of the Month series, during his time on set, Messina realised that the castle grounds would make a perfect location for an adaptation of Shakespeares As You Like It. Almost immediately upon pitching the idea to his colleagues, however and he had anticipated that everyone in the BBC would be excited about the concept, but this did not prove so. In particular, the Drama/Plays division felt the series could not possibly be a success without international sales. Writing several months into production, journalist Henry Fenwick wrote the project was gloriously British, however, despite this level of experience, they had never produced anything on the scale of the Shakespeare Series. Later that evening, the scene from Henry V was broadcast, directed by George More OFerrall. 1937 also saw the broadcast of the scene from Richard III, directed by Stephen Thomas. The following year saw the first feature length made-for-TV production, The Tempest, also directed by Bower, the vast majority of these transmissions were broadcast live, and they came to an end with the onset of war in 1939. After the war, Shakespearean adaptations were screened much less frequently, in 1947, for example, OFerrall directed a two-part adaptation of Hamlet, starring John Byron as Hamlet, Sebastian Shaw as Claudius and Margaret Rawlings as Gertrude. There were also four multi-part made-for-TV Shakespearean adaptations shown during the 1950s and 1960s, the first was The Life and Death of Sir John Falstaff. Produced and directed by Ronald Eyre, and starring Roger Livesey as Falstaff, the second was An Age of Kings. Produced by Peter Dews and directed by Michael Hayes, the show comprised fifteen episodes between sixty and eighty minutes each, which adapted all eight of Shakespeares sequential history plays, the third was The Spread of the Eagle, directed and produced by Dews. Featuring nine sixty-minute episodes, the series adapted the Roman plays, in order of the real life events depicted, Coriolanus, Julius Caesar and Antony
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Cymbeline (film)
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Cymbeline is a 2014 American film version of the Shakespeare tragedy based on the play Cymbeline by William Shakespeare. The film is directed by Michael Almereyda and stars Ethan Hawke, Ed Harris, Dakota Johnson, Milla Jovovich and John Leguizamo. Based on the play Cymbeline by William Shakespeare, the story revolves around a war between dirty cops and a gang, and a drug kingpin who is driven to desperate measures. Ed Harris as Cymbeline Milla Jovovich as Queen Ethan Hawke as Iachimo John Leguizamo as Pisanio Penn Badgley as Posthumus Dakota Johnson as Imogen Anton Yelchin as Cloten Peter Gerety as Dr and he would play Iachimo and production was set to start on August 19 in New York City. Anthony Katagas and Michael Benaroya would be the producers of the film, on August 5, it was announced that Ed Harris had signed to star opposite Hawke. He would play the role of King Cymbeline, prior to the world premiere of the film, it was announced Lionsgate had acquired all distribution rights to the film. The film had its premiere at the Venice Film Festival in Italy on September 3,2014. The film then went to screen at the Busan International Film Festival in South Korea on October 3,2014, for a short time, the films U. S. title was Anarchy, but it was changed back to Cymbeline. The film was released in a release and through video on demand on March 13,2015. Cymbeline at the Internet Movie Database Cymbeline at Rotten Tomatoes
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Shakespeare's late romances
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The late romances, often simply called the romances, are a grouping of William Shakespeares last plays, comprising Pericles, Prince of Tyre, Cymbeline, The Winters Tale, and The Tempest. The Two Noble Kinsmen, of which Shakespeare was co-author, is also included in the grouping. The term romances was first used for these works in Edward Dowdens Shakespeare, A Critical Study of His Mind. Later writers have generally been content to adopt Dowdens term, Shakespeares plays cannot be precisely dated, but it is generally agreed that these comedies followed a series of tragedies including Othello, King Lear and Macbeth. Shakespeare wrote tragedies because they were successful at the box office, Shakespeares late romances were also influenced by the development of tragicomedy and the extreme elaboration of the courtly masque as staged by Ben Jonson and Inigo Jones. The subjects and style of plays were also influenced by the preference of the monarch, by Shakespeares ageing company. The romances call for spectacular effects to be onstage, including storms at sea, opulent interior and exterior scenery, dream settings. Scholars have argued that the plays deal with faith and redemption. Shakespeares late romances are, Pericles, Prince of Tyre, ca, 1603–11 The Two Noble Kinsmen, ca. In the First Folio of 1623, John Heminges and Henry Condell, its editors, listed The Tempest and The Winters Tale as comedies, Pericles did not appear in it at all. The romances have grand plot points which are combined with humour, dramatic action and they also feature broader characters, larger spectacles and a different handling of the themes of appearance and reality. The late romances differed from early Shakespearean comedies by relying on grand themes, the romances are Shakespearean tragedies that end happily, instead of a moment of danger that moves rapidly to a solution. They also focus on the relationships between father and daughter, Shakespeares romances were also influenced by two major developments in theatre in the early years of the seventeenth century. The first was the innovation of tragicomedy initiated by John Fletcher and developed in the early Beaumont, tragicomedies made a pretence at grave stuff, but invariably provided a happy ending with light entertainment. Shakespeares romances are more sharply tragicomic than his comedies, threats of death, encounters with the supernatural are also more direct and emphatic. The other influence was the elaboration of the courtly masque being stage in the same period by Ben Jonson. Key scenes in the romances are closely related to court masques, They embrace the visual magnificence. The popular drama during the Renaissance was subject to external influences, elizabeth I enjoyed watching what the people liked, which were the tragedies
35.
Deus ex machina
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Deus ex machina is a Latin calque from Greek ἀπὸ μηχανῆς θεός, meaning god from the machine. The term was coined from the conventions of Greek tragedy, where a machine is used to bring actors playing gods onto the stage, the machine could be either a crane used to lower actors from above or a riser that brought actors up through a trapdoor. Preparation to pick up the actors was done behind the skene, the idea was introduced by Aeschylus and was used often to resolve the conflict and conclude the drama. Although the device is associated mostly with Greek tragedy, it appeared in comedies. Aeschylus used the device in his Eumenides, but it was with Euripides that it became a stage machine. More than half of Euripides extant tragedies employ a deus ex machina in their resolution, in Alcestis, the eponymous heroine agrees to give up her own life in order to spare the life of her husband, Admetus. At the end, Heracles shows up and seizes Alcestis from Death, restoring her to life, aristophanes play Thesmophoriazusae parodies Euripides frequent use of the crane by making Euripides himself a character in the play and bringing him on stage by way of the mechane. The effect of the device on Greek audiences was a direct, audiences would have a feeling of wonder and astonishment at the appearance of the gods, which would often add to the moral effect of the drama. Shakespeare used the device in As You Like It, Pericles, Prince of Tyre, Cymbeline and it was also used in John Gays The Beggars Opera where the author uses a character to break the action and rewrite the ending as a reprieve of the hanging of MacHeath. Both in Shakespeares and Gays plays the deus ex machina happens with breaking the illusion often in the form of an episodic narrator exposing the play itself. This is different from the use of the deus ex machina in the ancient examples with the coming from a participant in the action in the form of a god. It is natural for the gods to be considered participants and not outside sources because of their privileged position and it is these attributes that allow the Greek gods to believably wrap up and solve the series of events. During the politically turbulent 17th and 18th centuries, the deus ex machina was sometimes used to make a controversial thesis more palatable to the powers of the day. Aristotle was the first to use deus ex machina as a term to describe the technique as a device to resolve the plot of tragedies and it is generally deemed undesirable in writing and often implies a lack of creativity on the part of the author. In H. G. Wellss The War of the Worlds, in the novel Lord of the Flies, the rescue of the savage children by a passing navy officer is viewed by some critics as a deus ex machina. The abrupt ending conveys the terrible fate that would have afflicted the children if the officer had not arrived at that moment. J. R. R. Tolkien coined the term eucatastrophe to refer to a turn of events that ensures the protagonist does not meet some impending fate. He also referred to the Great Eagles that appear in places in The Hobbit
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Milford Haven
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Milford Haven is a town and community in Pembrokeshire, Wales. It is situated on the side of the Milford Haven Waterway. The town was founded in 1790 on the side of the Waterway. It then became a dock, with the focus moving in the 1960s, after the construction of an oil refinery built by the Esso Company, to logistics for fuel oil. Milford is the second largest settlement in Pembrokeshire, with a population of 12,830, as a Welsh local government community, Milford takes in the town of Milford itself and its suburbs, including Hakin, Hubberston, Liddeston, and Steynton. The total population of the 6 electoral wards in question was 13,907 at the 2011 census, the natural harbour of the Haven was known as a safe port and was exploited for several historical military operations throughout the second millennium. In 1485, Henry VII landed at the Milford Haven Waterway before marching on to England and it was known as a safe port and is mentioned in Shakespeares Cymbeline as blessed Milford. Sir William Hamilton, the founder, had acquired the land from his wife. Seven royal vessels were launched from the dockyard, including HMS Surprise. The town was built on a pattern, thought to have been to the design of Jean-Louis Barrallier. By 1849, the district of Hakin was described as a centre of boat building, and by 1906, Milford had become the sixth largest fishing port in the UK. The Pembrokeshire Herald claimed in 1912 that the trade is Milfords sole industry. the population of the town has doubled by means of it. In 1863, the network came to Milford, linking it to the Haverfordwest line. In 1866, work was completed on an extension which provided access to the docks. Between 1875 and 1886 The Great Eastern was a permanent fixture at Milford Docks and her arrival into the docks was heralded as an example of the scale of vessel which the town could expect to attract. In the late 1850s, work began on a network of forts on both sides of the Milford Haven estuary, as a result of the Royal Commission on the Defence of the United Kingdom. They were designed with the intention of defending the United Kingdom against French invasion, notable examples in the town were Fort Hubberstone in Gelliswick and Scoveston Fort to the north east of the town. By 1901, the population had reached 5,102
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Leir of Britain
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Leir was a legendary king of the Britons whose story was recounted by Geoffrey of Monmouth in his pseudohistorical 12th-century History of the Kings of Britain. According to Geoffreys genealogy of the British dynasty, Leirs reign would have occurred around the 8th century BC, the story was modified and retold by William Shakespeare in his Elizabethan tragedy King Lear. Geoffrey of Monmouth identified Leir as the founder of the city of Leicester. Leir, Lerion, and Ligora all derive from the old Brittonic name of the River Soar, Leirs story was first recorded in Geoffrey of Monmouths History of the Kings of Britain. In it, Leir is part of the dynasty of Brutus of Britain, the dating is inexact, but Geoffrey made Bladud a contemporary of the biblical prophet Elijah. Leir was given the longest reign of Geoffreys kings, ruling for sixty years, Geoffrey claimed he was the eponymous founder of Leicester in England. Leir was said to have been the end of Brutuss male line of descent, as he neared his death, he divided his kingdom among his three daughters. Goneril and Regan flattered their father and, at the advice of Leirs nobles, were married off to the Dukes of Albany and Cornwall, respectively. Cordelia, despite being her fathers favourite, refused to flatter the king, feeling that he should not need special assurances of her love, King Aganippus of the Franks courted and married Cordelia, despite Leir refusing to pay a dowry. Leir then gave Goneril and Regan half of his kingdom, planning to bequeath them the remainder at his death, instead, duke Maglaurus of Albany, Gonerils husband, maintained Leir with a retinue of 60 knights, but his wife reduced this by half after two years. Leir then fled to Regan, who reduced his entourage to only five men, returning to Albany and pleading with Goneril, Leir was left with a single knight for protection. At this point, Leir feared both his daughters and fled to France. He sent Cordelia a messenger when he was outside her court at Karitia and she had him bathed, royally clothed, and assigned a fittingly large band of retainers. He was then received by the king and made regent of France. Leir, his daughter, and her husband invaded Britain and successfully overthrew his daughters, Leir ruled three years and then died. Cordelia succeeded him and buried him in a shrine to the god Janus beneath the River Soar near Leicester – allegedly at the current site of the citys Jewry Wall. An annual feast was held nearby in his honour and this precursor to William Shakespeares tragedy was a comedy, repeating Geoffreys story and ending happily with Leirs restoration to power. The story also appears in John Higgins’s Mirror for Magistrates, Edmund Spensers The Faerie Queene, and other works
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Cordelia (King Lear)
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Cordelia is a fictional character in William Shakespeares tragic play, King Lear. She is the youngest of King Lears three daughters, and his favourite, after her elderly father offers her the opportunity to profess her love to him in return for one third of the land in his kingdom, she refuses and is banished for the majority of the play. Shakespeare had numerous resources to consult while writing King Lear, the oldest source in print was Geoffrey of Monmouths The History of the Kings of Britain, c.1136. This is the earliest written record of Cordelia, here she is depicted as Queen Cordelia. In Shakespeares King Lear, Cordelia is briefly on stage during Act 1 and her father Lear exiles her as a response to her honesty when he asks for professions of love from his three daughters to determine how to divide the lands of his kingdom between them. Cordelias sisters, Goneril and Regan, give deceitfully lavish speeches professing their love, Cordelia, seeing right through her sisters feigned professions, refuses to do the same. Lear deems her answer as too simple, Lear asks her, What can you say to draw / A third more opulent than your sisters. She continues, Unhappy that I am, I cannot heave / My heart into my mouth, I love your majesty / According to my bond, no more nor less. Unlike her father and sisters, Cordelia is able to love from property. Feeling outraged and humiliated that Cordelia will not publicly lavish love on him and she does not return until Act 4, scene 4. Cordelia was always Lear’s favorite daughter, after Lear is rejected by Cordelias wicked sisters, Goneril and Regan, he goes mad. Cordelia returns at the end of the play with the intentions of helping Lear, but when she arrives, Lear can not even recognize her in his state of madness. Nevertheless, she forgives him for banishing her, by the time Lear finally regains his reason and realizes who Cordelia is, they have little time to talk and reconcile. Edmund arrives and sends both to prison, where Cordelia is ultimately hanged. In Nahum Tates happy-ending revision The History of King Lear, which replaced Shakespeares original version on stage for decades, Cordelia marries Edgar, when Lear offers his kingdom to his three daughters, a role reversal occurs in which the daughters become mother figures for Lear. By dividing his kingdom between his daughters, Lear gives them the power to dictate his own future, just as a parent has control over the future of his or her children. Because Cordelia is the daughter he loves most, Lear expects her to care for him as he hands over his power to his children and advances into old age, sir Trevor Nunn and Chris Hunt Phillipa Peak. Brian Blessed & Tony Rotherham Victoria Hamilton, King Lear Dir. Edwin Sherin Anne-Lise Gabold
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Goneril
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King Lear is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare. The Tragedy of King Lear, a more theatrical revision, was included in the 1623 First Folio, Modern editors usually conflate the two, though some insist that each version has its own individual integrity that should be preserved. The tragedy is particularly noted for its probing observations on the nature of human suffering, george Bernard Shaw wrote, No man will ever write a better tragedy than Lear. The eldest, Goneril, speaks first, declaring her love for her father in fulsome terms, moved by her flattery Lear proceeds to grant to Goneril her share as soon as she has finished her declaration, before Regan and Cordelia have a chance to speak. He then awards to Regan her share as soon as she has spoken, in his anger he disinherits Cordelia and divides her share between Regan and Goneril. Kent objects to Lears unfair treatment of Cordelia, enraged by Kents protests, Lear then summons the Duke of Burgundy and the King of France, who have both proposed marriage to Cordelia. Learning that Cordelia has been disinherited, the Duke of Burgundy withdraws his suit, the King of France is shocked by Lears decision because up until this time Lear has only praised and favored Cordelia. Meanwhile, Gloucester has introduced his illegitimate son Edmund to Kent, Lear announces he will live alternately with Goneril and Regan, and their husbands. He reserves to himself a retinue of one hundred knights, to be supported by his daughters, Goneril and Regan speak privately, revealing that their declarations of love were fake, and that they view Lear as a foolish old man. Edmund resents his illegitimate status, and plots to dispose of his older brother Edgar. He tricks their father Gloucester with a letter, making him think Edgar plans to usurp the estate. Kent returns from exile in disguise under the name of Caius, Lear and Caius quarrel with Oswald, Gonerils steward. Lear discovers that now that Goneril has power, she no longer respects him and she orders him to behave better and reduces his retinue. Enraged, Lear departs for Regans home, Edmund learns from Curan, a courtier, that there is likely to be war between Albany and Cornwall, and that Regan and Cornwall are to arrive at Gloucesters house that evening. Taking advantage of the arrival of the duke and Regan, Edmund fakes an attack by Edgar and he disinherits Edgar and proclaims him an outlaw. Bearing Lears message to Regan, Caius meets Oswald again at Gloucesters home, quarrels with him again, when Lear arrives, he objects to the mistreatment of his messenger, but Regan is as dismissive of her father as Goneril was. Goneril arrives and supports Regans argument against him, Lear yields completely to his rage. He rushes out into a storm to rant against his ungrateful daughters, Kent later follows to protect him
