1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
3.
States and union territories of India
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India is a federal union comprising twenty-nine states and seven union territories. The states and union territories are further subdivided into districts and further into smaller administrative divisions, the Constitution of India distributes the sovereign executive and legislative powers exercisable with respect to the territory of any State between the Union and that State. The Indian subcontinent has been ruled by different ethnic groups throughout its history. Between 1947 and 1950, the territories of the states were politically integrated into the Indian Union. The new Constitution of India, which came into force on 26 January 1950, the new republic was also declared to be a Union of States. The nine Part A states were Assam, Bihar, Bombay, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Orissa, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal. The eight Part B states were former princely states or groups of states, governed by a rajpramukh, who was usually the ruler of a constituent state. The rajpramukh was appointed by the President of India, the Part B states were Hyderabad, Jammu and Kashmir, Madhya Bharat, Mysore, Patiala and East Punjab States Union, Rajasthan, Saurashtra, and Travancore-Cochin. The ten Part C states included both the former chief commissioners provinces and some states, and each was governed by a chief commissioner appointed by the President of India. The Part C states were Ajmer, Bhopal, Bilaspur, Coorg, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Cutch, Manipur, Tripura, the only Part D state was the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, which were administered by a lieutenant governor appointed by the central government. The Union Territory of Puducherry was created in 1954 comprising the previous French enclaves of Pondichéry, Karaikal, Yanam, Andhra State was created on 1 October 1953 from the Telugu-speaking northern districts of Madras State. The States Reorganisation Act of 1956 reorganised the states based on linguistic lines resulting in the creation of the new states, as a result of this act, Madras State retained its name with Kanyakumari district added to from Travancore-Cochin. Andhra Pradesh was created with the merger of Andhra State with the Telugu-speaking districts of Hyderabad State in 1956, kerala was created with the merger of Malabar district and the Kasaragod taluk of South Canara districts of Madras State with Travancore-Cochin. The Laccadive Islands which were divided between South Canara and Malabar districts of Madras State were united and organised into the territory of Lakshadweep. Bombay State was enlarged by the addition of Saurashtra State and Kutch State, Rajasthan and Punjab gained territories from Ajmer and Patiala and East Punjab States Union respectively and certain territories of Bihar was transferred to West Bengal. Bombay State was split into the states of Gujarat and Maharashtra on 1 May 1960 by the Bombay Reorganisation Act. Nagaland was formed on 1 December 1963, the Punjab Reorganisation Act of 1966 resulted in the creation of Haryana on 1 November and the transfer of the northern districts of Punjab to Himachal Pradesh. The act also designated Chandigarh as a territory and the shared capital of Punjab
4.
Madhya Pradesh
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Madhya Pradesh is a state in central India. Its capital is Bhopal and the largest city is Indore, nicknamed the heart of India due to its geographical location in India, Madhya Pradesh is the second-largest state in the country by area. With over 75 million inhabitants, it is the fifth-largest state in India by population and it borders the states of Uttar Pradesh to the northeast, Chhattisgarh to the southeast, Maharashtra to the south, Gujarat to the west, and Rajasthan to the northwest. Its total area is 308,252 km², subsequently, the region was ruled by the major dynasties of India. By the early 18th century, the region was divided into small kingdoms which were captured by the British and incorporated into Central Provinces and Berar. This state was the largest in India by area until 2000, in recent years, the states GDP growth has been above the national average. Rich in mineral resources, MP has the largest reserves of diamond, more than 30% of its area is under forest cover. Its tourism industry has seen growth, with the state topping the National Tourism Awards in 2010–11. Isolated remains of Homo erectus found in Hathnora in the Narmada Valley indicate that Madhya Pradesh might have been inhabited in the Middle Pleistocene era, painted pottery dated to the later mesolithic period has been found in the Bhimbetka rock shelters. Chalcolithic sites belonging to Kayatha culture and Malwa culture have been discovered in the part of the state. The city of Ujjain arose as a centre in the region. It served as the capital of the Avanti kingdom, other kingdoms mentioned in ancient epics — Malava, Karusha, Dasarna and Nishada — have also been identified with parts of Madhya Pradesh. Chandragupta Maurya united northern India around 320 BCE, establishing the Mauryan Empire, ashoka the greatest of Mauryan rulers brought the region under firmer control. After the decline of the Maurya empire, the region was contested among the Sakas, the Kushanas, the Satavahanas, Heliodorus, the Greek Ambassador to the court of the Shunga king Bhagabhadra erected the Heliodorus pillar near Vidisha. Ujjain emerged as the predominant commercial centre of western India from the first century BCE, the Satavahana dynasty of the northern Deccan and the Saka dynasty of the Western Satraps fought for the control of Madhya Pradesh during the 1st to 3rd centuries CE. The Satavahana king Gautamiputra Satakarni inflicted a defeat upon the Saka rulers and conquered parts of Malwa. Subsequently, the region came under the control of the Gupta empire in the 4th and 5th centuries, and their southern neighbours, the attacks of the Hephthalites or White Huns brought about the collapse of the Gupta empire, which broke up into smaller states. The king Yasodharman of Malwa defeated the Huns in 528, ending their expansion, later, Harsha ruled the northern parts of the state
5.
Malwa
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Malwa is a natural region in west-central India occupying a plateau of volcanic origin. Geologically, the Malwa Plateau generally refers to the upland north of the Vindhya Range. Politically and administratively, the historical Malwa region includes districts of western Madhya Pradesh, the definition of Malwa is sometimes extended to include the Nimar region north of the Vindhyas. The Malwa region had been a political unit from the time of the ancient Malava Kingdom. It has been ruled by several kingdoms and dynasties, including the Avanti Kingdom, the Mauryans, the Malavas, the Guptas, the Paramaras, the Malwa sultans, the Mughals and the Marathas. Malwa continued to be a division until 1947, when the Malwa Agency of British India was merged into Madhya Bharat state of independent India. Although its political borders have fluctuated throughout history, the region has developed its own culture, influenced by the Rajasthani, Marathi. Ujjain had been the political, economic, and cultural capital of the region in ancient times, overall, agriculture is the main occupation of the people of Malwa. The region has one of the important producers of opium in the world. Wheat and soybeans are other important cash crops, and textiles are a major industry, several early stone age or Lower Paleolithic habitations have been excavated in eastern Malwa. The name Malwa is derived from the name of the ancient Indian tribe of Malavas, the name Malava is said to be derived from the Sanskrit term Malav, which means “part of the abode of Lakshmi”. The location of the Malwa or Moholo, mentioned by the 7th-century Chinese traveller Xuanzang, is identified with present-day Gujarat. The region is cited as Malibah in Arabic records, such as Kamilu-t Tawarikh by Ibn Asir, Ujjain, also known historically as Ujjaiyini and Avanti, emerged as the first major centre in the Malwa region during Indias second wave of urbanisation in the 7th century BC. Around 600 BC an earthen rampart was built around Ujjain, enclosing a city of considerable size, Avanti was one of the prominent mahajanapadas of ancient India. The region was conquered by the Maurya Empire in the mid-4th century BC, Ashoka, who was later a Mauryan emperor, was governor of Ujjain in his youth. After the death of Ashoka in 232 BC, the Maurya Empire began to collapse, although evidence is sparse, Malwa was probably ruled by the Kushanas, the Shakas and the Satavahana dynasty during the 1st and 2nd century CE. Ownership of the region was the subject of dispute between the Western Kshatrapas and the Satavahanas during the first three centuries AD, Ujjain emerged a major trading centre during the 1st century AD. Malwa became part of the Gupta Empire during the reign of Chandragupta II, also known as Vikramaditya, the Gupta period is widely regarded as a golden age in the history of Malwa, when Ujjain served as the empires western capital
6.
Demonym
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A demonym is a word that identifies residents or natives of a particular place, which is derived from the name of that particular place. It is a neologism, previously gentilic was recorded in English dictionaries, e. g. the Oxford English Dictionary, thus a Thai may be any resident or citizen of Thailand, of any ethnic group, or more narrowly a member of the Thai people. Conversely, some groups of people may be associated with multiple demonyms, for example, a native of the United Kingdom may be called a British person, a Brit, or a Briton. In some languages, when a parallel demonym does not exist, in English, demonyms are capitalized and are often the same as the adjectival form of the place, e. g. Egyptian, Japanese, or Greek. Significant exceptions exist, for instance the adjectival form of Spain is Spanish, English widely includes country-level demonyms such as Ethiopian or Guatemalan and more local demonyms such as Seoulite, Wisconsinite, Chicagoan, Michigander, Fluminense, and Paulista. Some places lack a commonly used and accepted demonym and this poses a particular challenge to those toponymists who research demonyms. The word gentilic comes from the Latin gentilis and the English suffix -ic, the word demonym was derived from the Greek word meaning populace with the suffix for name. National Geographic attributes the term demonym to Merriam-Webster editor Paul Dickson in a recent work from 1990 and it was subsequently popularized in this sense in 1997 by Dickson in his book Labels for Locals. However, in What Do You Call a Person From, a Dictionary of Resident Names attributed the term to George H. Scheetz, in his Names Names, A Descriptive and Prescriptive Onymicon, which is apparently where the term first appears. Several linguistic elements are used to create demonyms in the English language, the most common is to add a suffix to the end of the location name, slightly modified in some instances. Cairo → Cairene Cyrenaica → Cyrene Damascus → Damascene Greece → Greek Nazareth → Nazarene Slovenia → Slovene Often used for Middle Eastern locations and European locations. Kingston-upon-Hull → Hullensian Leeds → Leodensian Spain → Spaniard Savoy → Savoyard -ese is usually considered proper only as an adjective, thus, a Chinese person is used rather than a Chinese. Monaco → Monégasque Menton → Mentonasque Basque Country → Basque Often used for French locations, mostly they are from Africa and the Pacific, and are not generally known or used outside the country concerned. In much of East Africa, a person of an ethnic group will be denoted by a prefix. For example, a person of the Luba people would be a Muluba, the plural form Baluba, similar patterns with minor variations in the prefixes exist throughout on a tribal level. And Fijians who are indigenous Fijians are known as Kaiviti and these demonyms are usually more informal and colloquial. In the United States such informal demonyms frequently become associated with mascots of the sports teams of the state university system. In other countries the origins are often disputed and these will typically be formed using the standard models above
7.
Postal Index Number
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A Postal Index Number or PIN or Pincode is a code in the post office numbering or post code system used by India Post, the Indian postal administration. The code is six digits long, the PIN Code system was introduced on 15 August 1972 by Shriram Bhikaji Velankar, an additional secretary in the Union Ministry of Communications. The system was introduced to simplify the manual sorting and delivery of mail by eliminating confusion over incorrect addresses, similar place names, there are nine PIN zones in India, including eight regional zones and one functional zone. The first digit of the PIN code indicates the region, the second digit indicates the sub-region, and the third digit indicates the sorting district within the region. The final three digits are assigned to individual post offices, a state may have one or more sorting districts depending on the volumes of mail handled. The fourth digit represents the route on which a Delivery office is located in the sorting district and this is 0 for offices in the core area of the sorting district. The last two represent the delivery office within the sorting district starting from 01 which would be the GPO or HO. The numbering of the office is done chronologically with higher numbers assigned to newer delivery offices. If the volume of mails handled at an office is too large, a new delivery office is created. Thus two delivery offices situated next to each other only have the first four digits in common. Each PIN code is mapped to exactly one delivery post office which receives all the mail to be delivered to one or more lower offices within its jurisdiction, all of which share the same code. The delivery office can either be a General Post Office, a Head Office or Sub Office which are located in urban areas. The post from the office is sorted and routed to other delivery offices for a different PIN or to one of the relevant sub offices or branch offices for the same PIN. Branch offices are located in areas and have limited postal services
8.
Vehicle registration plate
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A vehicle registration plate, also known as a number plate or a license plate, is metal or plastic plate attached to a motor vehicle or trailer for official identification purposes. The registration identifier is a numeric or alphanumeric ID that uniquely identifies the owner within the issuing regions database. The first two letters indicate the state to which the vehicle is registered, the next two digit numbers are the sequential number of a district. Due to heavy volume of vehicle registration, the numbers were given to the RTO offices of registration as well, the third part indicates the year of registration of the vehicle and is a 4 digit number unique to each plate. In some countries, the identifier is unique within the entire country, whether the identifier is associated with a vehicle or a person also varies by issuing agency. In the vast majority of jurisdictions, the government holds a monopoly on the manufacturing of vehicle registration plates for that jurisdiction. Thus, it is illegal for private citizens to make and affix their own plates. Alternately, the government will merely assign plate numbers, and it is the owners responsibility to find an approved private supplier to make a plate with that number. In some jurisdictions, plates will be assigned to that particular vehicle for its lifetime. If the vehicle is destroyed or exported to a different country. Other jurisdictions follow a policy, meaning that when a vehicle is sold the seller removes the current plate from the vehicle. Buyers must either obtain new plates or attach plates they already hold, as well as register their vehicles under the buyers name, a person who sells a car and then purchases a new one can apply to have the old plates put onto the new car. One who sells a car and does not buy a new one may, depending on the laws involved, have to turn the old plates in or destroy them. Some jurisdictions permit the registration of the vehicle with personal plates, in some jurisdictions, plates require periodic replacement, often associated with a design change of the plate itself. Vehicle owners may or may not have the option to keep their original plate number, alternately, or additionally, vehicle owners have to replace a small decal on the plate or use a decal on the windshield to indicate the expiration date of the vehicle registration. Plates are usually fixed directly to a vehicle or to a frame that is fixed to the vehicle. Sometimes, the plate frames contain advertisements inserted by the service centre or the dealership from which the vehicle was purchased. Vehicle owners can also purchase customized frames to replace the original frames, in some jurisdictions licence plate frames are illegal
9.
Climate of India
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The climate of India comprises a wide range of weather conditions across a vast geographic scale and varied topography, making generalisations difficult. Many regions have different microclimates. The nation has four seasons, winter, summer, a rainy season. As Earths highest and most massive mountain range, the Himalayas bar the influx of frigid katabatic winds from the icy Tibetan Plateau and northerly Central Asia. Most of North India is thus kept warm or is only mildly chilly or cold during winter, though the Tropic of Cancer—the boundary between the tropics and subtropics—passes through the middle of India, the bulk of the country can be regarded as climatically tropical. There is one scientific opinion which states that in South Asia such climatic events are likely to change in unpredictability, frequency, during the Triassic period of some 251–199.6 Ma, the Indian subcontinent was part of a vast supercontinent known as Pangaea. India later merged into the southern supercontinent Gondwana, a process beginning some 550–500 Ma and this is underscored by Indias vast coal reserves—much of it from the late Paleozoic sedimentary sequence—the fourth-largest reserves in the world. During the Mesozoic, the world, including India, was warmer than today. With the coming of the Carboniferous, global cooling stoked extensive glaciation, which spread northwards from South Africa towards India, tectonic movement by the Indian Plate caused it to pass over a geologic hotspot—the Réunion hotspot—now occupied by the volcanic island of Réunion. This resulted in a flood basalt event that laid down the Deccan Traps some 60–68 Ma. This may have contributed to the global Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, which caused India to experience significantly reduced insolation, elevated atmospheric levels of sulphur gases formed aerosols such as sulphur dioxide and sulphuric acid, similar to those found in the atmosphere of Venus, these precipitated as acid rain. Elevated carbon dioxide emissions also contributed to the effect, causing warmer weather that lasted long after the atmospheric shroud of dust. Further climatic changes 20 million years ago, long after India had crashed into the Laurasian landmass, were enough to cause the extinction of many endemic Indian forms. The nations climate is influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert. Simultaneously, the Thar Desert plays a role in attracting moisture-laden southwest summer monsoon winds that, four major climatic groupings predominate, into which fall seven climatic zones that, as designated by experts, are defined on the basis of such traits as temperature and precipitation. Groupings are assigned according to the Köppen climate classification system. A tropical rainy climate governs regions persistent to warm or high temperatures, India hosts two climatic subtypes- tropical monsoon climate, tropical wet and dry climate that fall under this group. 1) The most humid is the tropical wet climate—also known as a tropical monsoon climate—that covers a strip of southwestern lowlands abutting the Malabar Coast, the Western Ghats, Indias two island territories, Lakshadweep and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, are also subject to this climate
10.
Climatic regions of India
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India has a large variation in climate from region to region, due to its vast size. India experiences climate from four major climate groups and these can be further subdivided into seven climatic types. For ecological regions, see Ecoregions of India, for Regions see List of regions of India, the regions belonging to this group experience persistent high temperatures which normally do not go below 18 °C even in the coolest month. Tropical wet The west coastal lowlands, the Western Ghats, and it is characterised by high temperatures throughout the year, even in the hills. The rainfall here is seasonal, but heavy and is above 78 cm in a year, Most of the rain is received in the period from May to November, and is adequate for the growth of vegetation during the entire year. December to March are the dry months with little rainfall. The heavy rain is responsible for the wet forests in these regions. Tropical wet and dry or savannah climate Most of the plateau of peninsula India enjoys this climate, winter and early summer are long dry periods with temperature above 18 °C. Summer is very hot and the temperatures in the low level areas can go above 45 °C during May. The rainy season is from June to September and the rainfall is between 75 and 150 cm. Only central eastern Tamil Nadu falls under this tract and receives rainfall during the months of late November to January. This group consists of regions where the rate of evaporation of water is higher than the rate of moisture received through precipitation. Tropical semi-arid climate A long stretch of land situated to the south of Tropic of Cancer and east of the western ghats and the Cardamom Hills experiences this climate. It includes Karnataka, interior and western Tamil Nadu, western Andhra Pradesh and this region is a famine prone zone with very unreliable rainfall which varies between 40 and 75 cm annually. Towards the north of Krishna River the summer monsoon is responsible for most of the rainfall, the coldest month is December but even in this month the temperature remains between 20 °C and 24 °C. The months of March to May are hot and dry with mean temperatures of around 32 °C. The vegetation mostly comprises grasses with a few scattered trees due to the rainfall, hence this area is not very well suited for permanent agriculture. Sub-tropical arid climate Most of western Rajasthan falls under this climate type characterised by scanty rainfall, cloud bursts are largely responsible for the all the rainfall seen in this region which is less than 30 cm
11.
Precipitation
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In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, graupel, Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor, so that the water condenses and precipitates. Thus, fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions, because the vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate. Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated, Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud. Short, intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called showers, moisture that is lifted or otherwise forced to rise over a layer of sub-freezing air at the surface may be condensed into clouds and rain. This process is active when freezing rain is occurring. A stationary front is often present near the area of freezing rain, provided necessary and sufficient atmospheric moisture content, the moisture within the rising air will condense into clouds, namely stratus and cumulonimbus. Eventually, the droplets will grow large enough to form raindrops. Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy, thundersnow is possible within a cyclones comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation, on the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating. The movement of the trough, or intertropical convergence zone. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 cubic kilometres of it over the oceans and 107,000 cubic kilometres over land. Given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres, Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes. Precipitation may occur on celestial bodies, e. g. when it gets cold, Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form of frost. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 km3 of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 km3 of it over the oceans, given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres. Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, stratiform, and orographic rainfall, Precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice
12.
Sea level
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Mean sea level is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earths oceans from which heights such as elevations may be measured. A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a low and mean high tide at a particular location. Sea levels can be affected by factors and are known to have varied greatly over geological time scales. The careful measurement of variations in MSL can offer insights into ongoing climate change, the term above sea level generally refers to above mean sea level. Precise determination of a sea level is a difficult problem because of the many factors that affect sea level. Sea level varies quite a lot on several scales of time and this is because the sea is in constant motion, affected by the tides, wind, atmospheric pressure, local gravitational differences, temperature, salinity and so forth. The easiest way this may be calculated is by selecting a location and calculating the mean sea level at that point, for example, a period of 19 years of hourly level observations may be averaged and used to determine the mean sea level at some measurement point. One measures the values of MSL in respect to the land, hence a change in MSL can result from a real change in sea level, or from a change in the height of the land on which the tide gauge operates. In the UK, the Ordnance Datum is the sea level measured at Newlyn in Cornwall between 1915 and 1921. Prior to 1921, the datum was MSL at the Victoria Dock, in Hong Kong, mPD is a surveying term meaning metres above Principal Datum and refers to height of 1. 230m below the average sea level. In France, the Marégraphe in Marseilles measures continuously the sea level since 1883 and it is used for a part of continental Europe and main part of Africa as official sea level. Elsewhere in Europe vertical elevation references are made to the Amsterdam Peil elevation, satellite altimeters have been making precise measurements of sea level since the launch of TOPEX/Poseidon in 1992. A joint mission of NASA and CNES, TOPEX/Poseidon was followed by Jason-1 in 2001, height above mean sea level is the elevation or altitude of an object, relative to the average sea level datum. It is also used in aviation, where some heights are recorded and reported with respect to sea level, and in the atmospheric sciences. An alternative is to base height measurements on an ellipsoid of the entire Earth, in aviation, the ellipsoid known as World Geodetic System 84 is increasingly used to define heights, however, differences up to 100 metres exist between this ellipsoid height and mean tidal height. The alternative is to use a vertical datum such as NAVD88. When referring to geographic features such as mountains on a topographic map, the elevation of a mountain denotes the highest point or summit and is typically illustrated as a small circle on a topographic map with the AMSL height shown in metres, feet or both. In the rare case that a location is below sea level, for one such case, see Amsterdam Airport Schiphol
13.
Bibrod Tirth
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Bibrod Tirth in Ratlam, Madhya Pradesh is regarded as a major center of Jainism religion. Notable attraction of this Jain worship center is approximately 2.49 ft high idol of Adinath Bhagwan, there is an inscription that his idol belongs to a period earlier than even the thirteenth century. Nearly 76 centimetres high, black-colored idol of Bhagawan Adinath in the Padmansana posture and this tirth is also known as Kesariyaji, it is inside the large fort in the Bibrod village. There is an inscription that his idol belongs to an earlier than even the thirteenth century. Jain Svetambar Murtipujak Jinalay, Mallinath Trust, Choumukhipul, Bibrod, Ratlam, Madhya Pradesh, India
14.
Opium
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Opium is the dried latex obtained from the opium poppy. The latex also contains the closely related opiates codeine and thebaine, the word meconium historically referred to related, weaker preparations made from other parts of the opium poppy or different species of poppies. The production of opium has not changed since ancient times, through selective breeding of the Papaver somniferum plant, the content of the phenanthrene alkaloids morphine, codeine, and to a lesser extent thebaine has been greatly increased. For the illegal trade, the morphine is extracted from the opium. It is then converted to heroin which is two to four times as potent, and increases the value by two to four times, the reduced weight and bulk make it easier to smuggle. Evidence from ancient Greece indicate that opium was consumed in several ways, including inhalation of vapors, suppositories, medical poultices, Opium is mentioned in the most important medical texts of the ancient world, including the Ebers Papyrus and the writings of Dioscorides, Galen, and Avicenna. Widespread medical use of unprocessed opium continued through the American Civil War before giving way to morphine and its successors, Opium has been actively collected since prehistoric times. Though western scholars typically estimate this to be around 1500 BCE, Indian scholars maintain that the verses and the history contained in them have been orally transmitted thousands of years before. A common name for males in Afghanistan is Redey, which in Pashto means poppy and this term may be derived from the Sanskrit words rddhi and hrdya, which mean magical, a type of medicinal plant, and heart-pleasing, respectively. The upper Asian belt of Afghanistan, Pakistan, northern India, numerous finds of P. somniferum or P. setigerum from Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements have also been reported. The first known cultivation of poppies was in Mesopotamia, approximately 3400 BCE, by Sumerians, who called the plant hul gil. Tablets found at Nippur, a Sumerian spiritual center south of Baghdad, described the collection of juice in the morning. Opium production continued under the Babylonians and Egyptians, Opium was used with poison hemlock to put people quickly and painlessly to death, but it was also used in medicine. The Ebers Papyrus, c. 1500 BCE, describes a way to stop a child using grains of the poppy plant strained to a pulp. Spongia somnifera, sponges soaked in opium, were used during surgery, the Egyptians cultivated opium thebaicum in famous poppy fields around 1300 BCE. Opium was traded from Egypt by the Phoenicians and Minoans to destinations around the Mediterranean Sea, including Greece, Carthage, and Europe. By 1100 BCE, opium was cultivated on Cyprus, where surgical-quality knives were used to score the poppy pods, and opium was cultivated, traded, Opium was also mentioned after the Persian conquest of Assyria and Babylonian lands in the 6th century BCE. From the earliest finds, opium has appeared to have ritual significance, and anthropologists have speculated ancient priests may have used the drug as a proof of healing power
15.
Rajasthan
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Rajasthan is Indias largest state by area. Elsewhere it is bordered by the other Indian states, Punjab to the north, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh to the northeast, Madhya Pradesh to the southeast, and Gujarat to the southwest. Rajasthan is also home to two national reserves, the Ranthambore National Park in Sawai Madhopur and Sariska Tiger Reserve in Alwar. The state was formed on 30 March 1949 when Rajputana – the name adopted by the British Raj for its dependencies in the region – was merged into the Dominion of India. Its capital and largest city is Jaipur, also known as Pink City, other important cities are Jodhpur, Udaipur, Bikaner, Kota and Ajmer. Parts of what is now Rajasthan were partly part of the Vedic Civilisation, kalibangan, in Hanumangarh district, was a major provincial capital of the Indus Valley Civilization. Matsya Kingdom of the Vedic civilisation of India, is said to roughly corresponded to the state of Jaipur in Rajasthan. The capital of Matsya was at Viratanagar, which is said to have named after its founder king Virata. Bhargava identifies the two districts of Jhunjhunu and Sikar and parts of Jaipur district along with Haryana districts of Mahendragarh, bhargava also locates the present day Sahibi River as the Vedic Drishadwati River, which along with Saraswati River formed the borders of the Vedic state of Brahmavarta. Manu and Bhrigu narrated the Manusmriti to a congregation of seers in this area only, the Indo-Scythians invaded the area of Ujjain and established the Saka era, marking the beginning of the long-lived Saka Western Satraps state. Gurjars ruled for many dynasties in this part of the country, up to the tenth century almost the whole of North India, acknowledged the supremacy of the Gurjars with their seat of power at Kannauj. The Gurjar Pratihar Empire acted as a barrier for Arab invaders from the 8th to the 11th century, the chief accomplishment of the Gurjara Pratihara empire lies in its successful resistance to foreign invasions from the west, starting in the days of Junaid. Majumdar says that this was acknowledged by the Arab writers. He further notes that historians of India have wondered at the progress of Muslim invaders in India. Traditionally the Rajputs, Jats, Meenas, REBARI, Gurjars, Bhils, Rajpurohit, Charans, Yadavs, Bishnois, Sermals, PhulMali, all these tribes suffered great difficulties in protecting their culture and the land. Millions of them were killed trying to protect their land, a number of Gurjars had been exterminated in Bhinmal and Ajmer areas fighting with the invaders. Meenas were rulers of Bundi, Hadoti and the Dhundhar region, hem Chandra Vikramaditya, the Hindu Emperor, was born in the village of Machheri in Alwar District in 1501. Hem Chandra was killed in the battlefield at Second Battle of Panipat fighting against Mughals on 5 November 1556, maharana Pratap of Mewar resisted Akbar in the famous Battle of Haldighati and later operated from hilly areas of his kingdom
16.
Gujarat
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Gujarat is a state in Western India, sometimes referred to as the Jewel of Western India. It has an area of 196,024 km2 with a coastline of 1,600 km, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula, and a population in excess of 60 million. The state is bordered by Rajasthan to the north, Maharashtra to the south, Madhya Pradesh to the east, and the Arabian Sea and its capital city is Gandhinagar, while its largest city is Ahmedabad. Gujarat is home to the Gujarati-speaking people of India, the state encompasses some sites of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, such as Lothal and Dholavira. Lothal is believed to be one of the worlds first seaports, Gujarat was known to the ancient Greeks, and was familiar in other Western centres of civilisation through the end of the European Middle Ages. Modern-day Gujarat is derived from Sanskrit term Gurjaradesa, the Gurjar nation, parts of modern Rajasthan and Gujarat have been known as Gurjaratra or Gurjarabhumi for centuries before the Mughal period. Gujarat was one of the centres of the Indus Valley Civilization. It contains ancient metropolitan cities from the Indus Valley such as Lothal, Dholavira, the ancient city of Lothal was where Indias first port was established. The ancient city of Dholavira is one of the largest and most prominent archaeological sites in India, the most recent discovery was Gola Dhoro. Altogether, about 50 Indus Valley settlement ruins have been discovered in Gujarat, the ancient history of Gujarat was enriched by the commercial activities of its inhabitants. There is clear evidence of trade and commerce ties with Egypt, Bahrain. The early history of Gujarat reflects the grandeur of Chandragupta Maurya who conquered a number of earlier states in what is now Gujarat. Pushyagupta, a Vaishya, was appointed governor of Saurashtra by the Mauryan regime and he ruled Giringer and built a dam on the Sudarshan lake. Between the decline of Mauryan power and Saurashtra coming under the sway of the Samprati Mauryas of Ujjain, in the first half of the 1st century AD there is the story of a merchant of King Gondaphares landing in Gujarat with Apostle Thomas. The incident of the cup-bearer killed by a lion might indicate that the city described is in Gujarat. For nearly 300 years from the start of the 1st century AD, the weather-beaten rock at Junagadh gives a glimpse of the ruler Rudradaman I of the Saka satraps known as Western Satraps, or Kshatraps. Mahakshatrap Rudradaman I founded the Kardamaka dynasty which ruled from Anupa on the banks of the Narmada up to the Aparanta region which bordered Punjab, in Gujarat several battles were fought between the south Indian Satavahana dynasty and the Western Satraps. The greatest ruler of the Satavahana Dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni who defeated the Western Satraps, the Kshatrapa dynasty was replaced by the Gupta Empire with the conquest of Gujarat by Chandragupta Vikramaditya
17.
Humid subtropical climate
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A humid subtropical climate is a zone of climate characterised by hot, usually humid summers and mild to cool winters. It normally lies on the southeast side of all continents, generally between latitudes 25° and 40° and it tends to be located at coastal or near coastal locations. However, in cases it extends inland, most notably in China. Under the Köppen climate classification, subtropical climates are found in the warmest parts of his Warm Temperate climates or Cfa and this climate features mean temperatures in the coldest month between 0 °C and 18 °C and mean temperatures in the warmest month 22 °C or higher. However, while some climatologists have opted to describe this type as a humid subtropical climate Köppen himself never used this term. The humid subtropical climate classification was created under the Trewartha Climate classification. The Trewartha system was a 1966 update of the Köppen climate classification and this was seen to effectively separate temperate climates like London or New York City from true subtropical locations like Brisbane or Savannah for example. Rainfall often shows a peak, especially where monsoons are well developed, as in Southeast Asia. Most summer rainfall occurs during thunderstorms that build up due to the surface heating and strong subtropical sun angle. Weak tropical lows that move in from adjacent warm tropical oceans, winter rainfall is often associated with large storms in the westerlies that have fronts that reach down into subtropical latitudes. However, many subtropical climates such as southeast Asia or Florida have very dry winters, with frequent brush fires, in Africa, the humid subtropical climates are found in two separate areas on the southern hemisphere of the continent. The Cwa climate is found over a portion of the interior of the Middle. Some lower portions of the Ethiopian Highlands also have this climate, the climate is also found in the narrow coastal sections of southern and eastern South Africa, primarily in KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape provinces. South Africas version of this climate features heavy oceanic influences resulting in milder temperatures. This is particularly evident in its winters when temperatures do not drop as low as in other regions within the humid subtropical category. Locations in Asia with a subtropical climate differ from those in other continents in that they often have marked seasonal differences in precipitation. Cities near the boundary of this zone include Hong Kong, Hanoi. At Hainan Island and in Taiwan, the transitions from subtropical into fully tropical
18.
Monsoon
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Usually, the term monsoon is used to refer to the rainy phase of a seasonally changing pattern, although technically there is also a dry phase. The term is sometimes used for locally heavy but short-term rains. The major monsoon systems of the world consist of the West African and Asia-Australian monsoons, the inclusion of the North and South American monsoons with incomplete wind reversal has been debated. The south-west monsoon winds are called Nairutya Maarut in India, the English monsoon came from Portuguese monção, ultimately from Arabic mawsim and/or Hindi mausam, perhaps partly via early modern Dutch monsun. Strengthening of the Asian monsoon has been linked to the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau after the collision of the Indian sub-continent and Asia around 50 million years ago. Because of studies of records from the Arabian Sea and that of the wind-blown dust in the Loess Plateau of China, testing of this hypothesis awaits deep ocean sampling by the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program. The monsoon has varied significantly in strength since this time, largely linked to climate change. A study of marine plankton suggested that the Indian Monsoon strengthened around 5 million years ago, then, during ice periods, the sea level fell and the Indonesian Seaway closed. When this happened, cold waters in the Pacific were impeded from flowing into the Indian Ocean and it is believed that the resulting increase in sea surface temperatures in the Indian Ocean increased the intensity of monsoons. Five episodes during the Quaternary at 2.22 Ma,1.83 Ma,0.68 Ma,0.45 Ma and 0.04 Ma were identified which showed a weakening of Leeuwin Current. The weakening of the LC would have an effect on the sea surface temperature field in the Indian Ocean, thus these five intervals could probably be those of considerable lowering of SST in the Indian Ocean and would have influenced Indian monsoon intensity. The impact of monsoon on the weather is different from place to place. In some places there is just a likelihood of having a more or less rain. In other places, quasi semi-deserts are turned into green grasslands where all sorts of plants. The Indian Monsoon turns large parts of India from a kind of semi-desert into green lands, see photos only taken 3 months apart in the Western Ghats. In places like this it is crucial for farmers to have the right timing for putting the seeds on the fields, Monsoons are large-scale sea breezes which occur when the temperature on land is significantly warmer or cooler than the temperature of the ocean. These temperature imbalances happen because oceans and land absorb heat in different ways, in contrast, dirt, sand, and rocks have lower heat capacities, and they can only transmit heat into the earth by conduction and not by convection. Therefore, bodies of water stay at an even temperature
19.
Population density
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Population density is a measurement of population per unit area or unit volume, it is a quantity of type number density. It is frequently applied to living organisms, and most of the time to humans and it is a key geographical term. Population density is population divided by land area or water volume. Low densities may cause a vortex and lead to further reduced fertility. This is called the Allee effect after the scientist who identified it, commonly this may be calculated for a county, city, country, another territory, or the entire world. The worlds population is around 7,000,000,000, therefore, the worldwide human population density is around 7,000,000,000 ÷510,000,000 =13.7 per km2. If only the Earths land area of 150,000,000 km2 is taken into account and this includes all continental and island land area, including Antarctica. If Antarctica is also excluded, then population density rises to over 50 people per km2, thus, this number by itself does not give any helpful measurement of human population density. Several of the most densely populated territories in the world are city-states, microstates, cities with high population densities are, by some, considered to be overpopulated, though this will depend on factors like quality of housing and infrastructure and access to resources. Most of the most densely populated cities are in Southeast Asia, though Cairo, for instance, Milwaukee has a greater population density when just the inner city is measured, and the surrounding suburbs excluded. Arithmetic density, The total number of people / area of land, physiological density, The total population / area of arable land. Agricultural density, The total rural population / area of arable land, residential density, The number of people living in an urban area / area of residential land. Urban density, The number of people inhabiting an urban area / total area of urban land, ecological optimum, The density of population that can be supported by the natural resources. S. States by population density Selected Current and Historic City, Ward & Neighborhood Density
20.
Ratlam Junction railway station
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Ratlam Junction railway station is a major rail junction on the New Delhi–Mumbai main line of Indian Railways. It comes under Western Railways zone of Indian Railways, Ratlam is one of the busy and revenue generating junction for Western Railways. There are four railway tracks which pass through Ratlam City. Ratlam is connected to Indore and Neemuch via National Highway no.79
21.
Indian Railways
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Indian Railways is a state-owned railway company, responsible for rail transport in India. It is owned and operated by the Government of India through the Ministry of Railways. It is fourth largest railway network in the world comprising 119,630 kilometres of track and 92,081 km of running track over a route of 68,525 km with 7,216 stations at the end of 2015-16. In 2015-16, IR carried 8.107 billion passengers annually or more than 22 million passengers a day and 1.101 billion tons of freight annually, Railways were first introduced to India in the year 1853 from Bombay to Thane. In 1951 the systems were nationalised as one unit, the Indian Railways, IR operates both long distance and suburban rail systems on a multi-gauge network of broad, metre and narrow gauges. It also owns locomotive and coach production facilities at places in India, with assigned codes identifying their gauge, kind of power. Its operations cover twenty six states and three union territories across India, and also has connectivity to Bangladesh and Pakistan. Indian Railways is the eighth biggest employer and had 1.331 million employees at the end of 2015-16. In 2015–2016 Indian Railways had revenues of ₹1.683 trillion which consists of ₹1.069 trillion freight earnings and it had operating ratio of 90. 5% in 2015-16. As on the end of 2015-16, IRs rolling stock comprises over 251,256 Freight Wagons,70,241 Passenger Coaches and 11,122 Locomotives, Indian Railways run on average 13,313 passenger trains daily in 2015-16. Mail or Express trains, most common type, run at speed of 50.9 km/hr on Broad Gauge and 34.2 km/hr on Meter Gauge. The trains have a 5 digit numbering system, as of at the end of 2015-16, of the total 68,525 km route length,28,327 km was electrified and 28,371 km was Double or Multiple line route. Since 1960, almost all electrified sections on IR use 25,000 volts AC traction through overhead catenary delivery, the history of railway transport in India began in the mid-nineteenth century. The core of the pressure for building railways In India came from London, in 1848, there was not a single kilometre of railway line in India. The countrys first railway, built by the Great Indian Peninsula Railway, opened in 1853, the East Indian Railway Company was established 1 June 1845 in London by a deed of settlement with a capital of £4,000,000, largely raised in London. The Great Southern India Railway Co. was founded in Britain in 1853, Construction of track in Madras Presidency began in 1859 and the 80-mile link from Trichinopoly to Negapatam was opened in 1861. The Carnatic Railway founded in 1864, opened a Madras-Arakkonam-Kancheepuram line in 1865, the Great Southern India Railway Company was subsequently merged with the Carnatic Railway Company in 1874 to form the South Indian Railway Company. A British engineer, Robert Maitland Brereton, was responsible for the expansion of the railways from 1857 onwards, the Allahabad-Jabalpur branch line of the East Indian Railway had been opened in June 1867
22.
Western Railway zone
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The Western Railway is one of the 17 zones of Indian Railways, and is among the busiest railway networks in India. The major railway routes of Indian Railways which come under Western Railways are, Mumbai Central - Ratlam, Mumbai Central - Ahmedabad, the railway system is divided into six operating divisions, Vadodara, Ahmedabad, Rajkot, Bhavnagar, Ratlam and Mumbai. Surat railway station is one of the busiest railway station in Western Railway in non-junction category where more than 160 trains passes per day, Western Railway General Managers official bungalow Bombarci is located on Altamont road in Cumbala hill, Mumbai. The narrow gauge lines of Cutch State Railway was also merged into it in 1951, the BB&CI Railway was itself inaugurated in 1855, starting with the construction of a 29-mile broad gauge track from Ankleshwar to Utran in Gujarat state on the west coast. In 1864, the railway was extended to Mumbai, in 1860 Surat railway station was built and it was first railway station in Asia which is having platform on first floor. In 1883, a gauge railway system, initially linking Delhi with Agra, Jaipur. The first suburban service in Mumbai with steam traction was introduced in April 1867 and it was extended to Churchgate in 1870. By 190045 trains in direction were carrying over one million passengers annually. The railways of several states were also integrated into the Western Railway. The Gaekwars of Baroda built the Gaekwars Baroda State Railway, which was merged into the BB&CI in 1949, several railways of western Gujarat, including the Bhavnagar, Kathiawar, Jamnagar & Dwarka, Gondal, and Morvi railways were merged into the Saurashtra Railway in 1948. The Jodhpur and Bikaner Railway was taken over by Rajasthan state in 1949, on 28 November 1864 BB&CI Railway, the precursor of Western Railway, touched the soil of Mumbai. On this day BB&CI railways first train from Mumbai was flagged off from Grant Road station, since then the city of Mumbai has grown with Western Railway and so has Western Railway evolved as lifeline of the city. Western Railway has planned several celebrations to mark the occasion and these include Exhibitions, A compendium of BB&CI Magazine, Brochures, Renovation of Heritage Gallery, Curio Shop etc. Western Railway headquarters is in Mumbais Churchgate station and serves the state of Gujarat, some portions of Western Madhya Pradesh. EMUs are of 9 car,12 car or 15 car rakes and are differentiated as slow, slow trains halt at all stations, while fast ones halt at important stations only and are preferable over longer distances. The first electric train on this section was introduced in 1928 between Churchgate and Andheri, the gauge-wise kilometrage of Western Railways at present, is as under, Conserving Heritage, Western Railway has opened Heritage Gallery at its Headquarters Building at Churchgate, Mumbai. The Gallery has recently been renovated and it is a collection of various models of BB&CI era, the precursor of Western Railway. Many notes of agents of BB&CI dating back to 1860s have also been displayed, Suburban timetable of 1948, steam engine model, signalling equipments, Model of 1928 EMUs, working model of Auxiliary Warning System, etc. have been beautifully displayed
23.
Mumbai
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Mumbai is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is the most populous city in India and the ninth most populous agglomeration in the world, Mumbai lies on the west coast of India and has a deep natural harbour. In 2008, Mumbai was named a world city. It is also the wealthiest city in India, and has the highest GDP of any city in South, West, Mumbai has the highest number of billionaires and millionaires among all cities in India. The seven islands that came to constitute Mumbai were home to communities of fishing colonies, during the mid-18th century, Bombay was reshaped by the Hornby Vellard project, which undertook reclamation of the area between the seven islands from the sea. Along with construction of roads and railways, the reclamation project, completed in 1845. Bombay in the 19th century was characterised by economic and educational development, during the early 20th century it became a strong base for the Indian independence movement. Upon Indias independence in 1947 the city was incorporated into Bombay State, in 1960, following the Samyukta Maharashtra movement, a new state of Maharashtra was created with Bombay as the capital. Mumbai is the financial, commercial and entertainment capital of India and it is also home to some of Indias premier scientific and nuclear institutes like BARC, NPCL, IREL, TIFR, AERB, AECI, and the Department of Atomic Energy. The city also houses Indias Hindi and Marathi film and television industry, Mumbais business opportunities, as well as its potential to offer a higher standard of living, attract migrants from all over India, making the city a melting pot of many communities and cultures. The oldest known names for the city are Kakamuchee and Galajunkja, in 1508, Portuguese writer Gaspar Correia used the name Bombaim, in his Lendas da Índia. This name possibly originated as the Old Portuguese phrase bom baim, meaning good little bay, in 1516, Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa used the name Tana-Maiambu, Tana appears to refer to the adjoining town of Thane and Maiambu to Mumbadevi. Other variations recorded in the 16th and the 17th centuries include, Mombayn, Bombay, Bombain, Bombaym, Monbaym, Mombaim, Mombaym, Bambaye, Bombaiim, Bombeye, Boon Bay, and Bon Bahia. After the English gained possession of the city in the 17th century, Ali Muhammad Khan, imperial diwan or revenue minister of the Gujarat province, in the Mirat-i-Ahmedi referred to the city as Manbai. By the late 20th century, the city was referred to as Mumbai or Mambai in the Indian statewise official languages of Marathi, Konkani, Gujarati, Kannada and Sindhi, the Government of India officially changed the English name to Mumbai in November 1995. According to Slate magazine, they argued that Bombay was a corrupted English version of Mumbai, Slate also said The push to rename Bombay was part of a larger movement to strengthen Marathi identity in the Maharashtra region. A resident of Mumbai is called mumbaikar in the Marathi language, the term has been in use for quite some time but it gained popularity after the official name change to Mumbai. Mumbai is built on what was once an archipelago of seven islands, Bombay Island, Parel, Mazagaon, Mahim, Colaba, Worli and it is not exactly known when these islands were first inhabited
24.
Delhi
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Delhi, officially the National Capital Territory of Delhi or NCT, is a city and a union territory of India. It is bordered by Haryana on three sides and by Uttar Pradesh to the east, the NCT covers an area of 1,484 square kilometres. According to 2011 census, Delhis city population was about 11 million, Delhis urban area is now considered to extend beyond the NCT boundary to include an estimated population of over 26 million people making it the worlds second largest urban area. As of 2016 recent estimates of the economy of its urban area have ranked Delhi either the top or second most productive metro area of India. Delhi is the second wealthiest city after Mumbai in India, with a wealth of $450 billion. Delhi has been inhabited since the 6th century BC. Through most of its history, Delhi has served as a capital of various kingdoms and it has been captured, ransacked and rebuilt several times, particularly during the medieval period, and modern Delhi is a cluster of a number of cities spread across the metropolitan region. New Delhi is jointly administered by the government of India and the local government of Delhi. Delhi is also the centre of the National Capital Region, which is a unique interstate regional planning area created by the National Capital Region Planning Board Act of 1985, Delhi ranks among the cities with the worst air pollution in the world. There are a number of myths and legends associated with the origin of the name Delhi, one of them is derived from Dhillu or Dilu, a king who built a city at this location in 50 BC and named it after himself. The coins in circulation in the region under the Tomaras were called dehliwal, according to the Bhavishya Purana, King Prithiviraja of Indraprastha built a new fort in the modern-day Purana Qila area for the convenience of all four castes in his kingdom. He ordered the construction of a gateway to the fort and later named the fort dehali, another theory suggests that the citys original name was Dhillika. The people of Delhi are referred to as Delhiites or Dilliwalas, the city is referenced in various idioms of the Northern Indo-Aryan languages. Dilli dilwalon ka shehr or Dilli Dilwalon ki meaning Delhi belongs to the large-hearted/daring, aas-paas barse, Dilli pani tarse, literally meaning it pours all around, while Delhi lies parched. An allusion to the sometimes semi-arid climate of Delhi, it refers to situations of deprivation when one is surrounded by plenty. The area around Delhi was probably inhabited before the second millennium BC, the city is believed to be the site of Indraprastha, the legendary capital of the Pandavas in the Indian epic Mahabharata. According to Mahabharata, this land was initially a huge mass of forests called Khandavaprastha which was burnt down to build the city of Indraprastha, the earliest architectural relics date back to the Maurya period, in 1966, an inscription of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka was discovered near Srinivaspuri. Remains of eight cities have been discovered in Delhi
25.
Ajmer
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Ajmer is one of the major cities in the Indian state of Rajasthan and is the centre of the eponymous Ajmer District. According to the 2011 census, Ajmer has a population of around 551,360 in its urban agglomeration and 542,580 in the city, the city is located at a distance of 135 km from the state capital Jaipur and 391 km from the national capital New Delhi. The city was established by a Shakambhari Chahamana ruler, either Ajayaraja I or Ajayaraja II, after the defeat of Prithviraja lll in 1192 CE, the city came under Muslim rule. Ajmer is surrounded by the Aravalli Mountains and it is a pilgrimage centre for the shrine of the Sufi Saint Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti and is also the base for visiting Pushkar, an ancient Hindu pilgrimage city, famous for the temple of Brahma. Ajmer has been selected as one of the cities for the HRIDAY - Heritage City Development. Ajmer was originally known as Ajayameru, the 12th century text Prithviraja Vijaya states that the Shakambhari Chahamana king Ajayaraja II established the city of Ajayameru. Historian Dasharatha Sharma notes that the earliest mention of the name occurs in Palhas Pattavali. This suggests that Ajmer was founded sometime before 1113 CE, a prashasti, issued by Vigraharaja IV and found at Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra, states Ajayadeva moved his residence to Ajmer. The later text Prabandha-Kosha states that it was the 8th century king Ajayaraja I who commissioned the Ajayameru fort, Singh, this claim appears to be true, as inscriptions dated to the 8th century CE have been found at Ajmer. Singh theorizes that Ajayaraja II later enlarged the town, constructed palaces, Ajmer has a hot, semi-arid climate with over 55 centimetres of rain every year, but most of the rain occurs in the monsoon months, between June and September. Temperatures remain relatively high throughout the year, with the months of April to early July having an average daily temperature of about 30 °C. During the monsoon there is frequent heavy rain and thunderstorms, the winter months of November to February are mild and temperate with average temperatures ranging from 15–18 °C with little or no humidity. There are, however, occasional cold fronts that cause temperatures to fall to near freezing levels. Ajmer is well connected to the cities of India by land. Work on the Kishangarh Airport near Ajmer was inaugurated by Prime Minister Manmohan Singh in September 2013, at present the nearest airport is the Jaipur International Airport, about 132 km away, with daily flights to major cities in India. Akbar and his queen used to come here by foot every year on pilgrimage from Agra in observance of a vow when he prayed for a son. The large pillars called Kose Minars, erected at intervals of two miles along the way between Agra and Ajmer mark the places where the royal pilgrims halted every day. It has been estimated that around 125,000 pilgrims visit the site every day, official Website Of Dargah, http, //www. ajmergharibnawaz. com Dargah Website for Deg Booking, offering flower, ittar at Sufi Shrine Khwaja Gharib Nawaz, Ajmer Sharif Dargah, India
26.
Jab We Met
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Jab We Met is a 2007 Indian romantic drama film directed and written by Imtiaz Ali. The film tells the story of a feisty Punjabi girl who is sent off track when she bumps into a depressed Mumbai businessman on a train to Delhi. While attempting to get him back on board when he alights at a station stop, released in the United Kingdom a day before its worldwide release of 26 October 2007, the film became a hit at the Indian box office as well as overseas. The distributors of the film, Shree Ashtavinayak Cinevision Ltd, announced that Jab We Met would be remade by corporate entity Moser Baer in four other Indian languages, Tamil, Kannada, the film remains one of the most romantic movies in Bollywood. Aditya Kashyap, a wealthy industrialist faces many problems in business, after attending his girlfriends wedding with someone else, he leaves his mobile, car and identities behind and walks away. At chatrapathi shivaji terminal he boards a departing train, there he bumps into Geet Dhillon, an energetic, talkative Punjabi girl. He tries to jump off of the train but disturbed by Geet calling him inside saying that standing at door was dangerous and he finds her irritating and shouts at her but she continues her chatter after he apologizes. Aditya gets off the train and Geet follows him making her miss the train, Aditya reluctantly agrees to help Geet by driving a taxi at a stupendously fast speed to the next train station where the train Geet was in was to stop next. However, Geet misses the train again and Geet and Aditya rent a room but is later raided by the police. Aditya starts to feel good about life again and starts to have fun with Geet, when Geets grandfather sees them both together, he thinks that they are a couple and that they are in love with each other. But no one seems to believe him, Aditya has fallen in love with Geet but is aware that Geet does not love him and instead loves Anshuman. Geet decides to elopes with Anshuman as she was sure that her family wouldnt agree for their marriage as their religions are different, when she escapes from her house along with Aditya, her family thinks that they both eloped. They go to Manali, where Anshuman resides, Geet requests Aditya to come with her and meet Anshuman, but he says that their journey together is over and bids her farewell, and the two part ways. Nine months later, Adityas company announces the name of a new caller card as Geet on television which Geets family see. When Geets uncle angrily meets Aditya he says Geet is not with him but somehow knows that she is fine and he goes to meet Anshuman and discovers that Anshuman had rejected Geet. Aditya then goes to Manali where he is shocked to see Geet as a depressed and quiet schoolteacher, having lost her bubbly and he brings her back home to Bhatinda to her relatives as promised to her uncle. He takes Anshuman there too as his friend, Geets grandfather again says that they are a couple which is true as Aditya and Geet love each other but Geet thinks she loves Anshuman. All the rituals are performed with Aditya when they should be done with Anshuman, Aditya chooses to leave as he still thinks Geet loves Anshuman
27.
Indore
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Indore /ɪnˈdɔər/, is the largest and most populous city of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. It serves as the headquarters of both Indore District and Indore Division, Indore was described by the Economic Times as the commercial capital of the state. It is also considered as a hub of the state. With a census-estimated 2011 population of 1,994,397 and 2,170,295, the city is distributed over a land area of just 530 square kilometers making Indore the most densely populated major city in the central province. It comes under Tier 2 cities in India, Indore traces its roots to its 16th century founding as a trading hub between the Deccan and Delhi. The city and its surroundings came under Hindu Maratha Empire on 18 May 1724 after Maratha Peshwa Baji Rao I assumed the control of Malwa. During the days of the British Raj, Indore State was a 19 Gun Salute princely state ruled by the Maratha Holkar dynasty, Indore served as the capital of the Madhya Bharat from 1950 until 1956. Indores financial district, anchored by central Indore, functions as the capital of the Madhya Pradesh and is home to the Madhya Pradesh Stock Exchange. It has also qualified the first round of Smart Cities Mission and has selected as one of the first twenty cities to be developed as Smart Cities. By 1720, the headquarters of the local pargana were transferred from Kampel to Indore, on 18 May 1724, the Nizam accepted the rights of the Maratha Peshwa Baji Rao I to collect chauth from the area. In 1733, the Peshwa assumed the control of Malwa. Nandlal Chaudhary accepted the suzerainty of the Marathas, on 29 July 1732, Bajirao Peshwa-I granted Holkar State by merging 28 and half parganas to Malhar Rao Holkar, the founder ruler of Holkar dynasty. His daughter-in-law Ahilyabai Holkar moved the capital to Maheshwar in 1767. In 1818, the Holkars were defeated by the British during the Third Anglo-Maratha War, a residency with British resident was established at Indore, but Holkars continued to rule Indore State as a princely state mainly due to efforts of their Dewan Tatya Jog. During that time, Indore was established the headquarters of British Central Agency, Ujjain was originally the commercial centre of Malwa. But the British administrators such as John Malcolm decided to promote Indore as an alternative to Ujjain, because the merchants of Ujjain had supported anti-British elements. In 1906 electric supply was started in the city, fire brigade was established in 1909 and in 1918, first master-plan of city was made by noted architect and town planner, Patrick Geddes. During the period of Maharaja Tukoji Rao Holkar II efforts were made for the planned development, with the introduction of Railways in 1875, the business in Indore flourished till the reign of Maharaja Shivaji Rao Holkar, Maharaja Tukoji Rao Holkar III and Maharaja Yeshwant Rao Holkar
28.
Neemuch
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Neemuch or Nimach is a town in the Malwa region of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. The town shares its border with state of Rajasthan and is the administrative headquarters of Neemuch District. Formerly a large British cantonment of Gwalior princely state, in 1822 the town became the headquarters of the combined Rajputana–Malwa political agency, the British Cantonment was disbanded in 1932 after which it was maintained by a British Municipal Board. Neemuch was the birthplace of the Central Reserve Police Force in 1939 and is home to a large scale army recruitment centre for the organisation, the CRPF still maintains part of Neemuchs British Military Cantonment, which was the first of its kind in India. The bungalow area, native troops area, bazar area and fields and gardens were maintained initially by the municipal board, after independence Neemuch City and the Baghana area were included in the municipal area. Neemuch is known as Indias Eye donation capital as it accounts for the highest per capita eye donation rate in the country, Neemuch also has Asia’s biggest opium alkaloid processing plant which is a government-owned company named- Opium and Alkaloid Works. It is a junction and distribution centre for agricultural products. Handloom weaving is the industry here. A number of myths surround the name Neemuch, a further theory is that Nimach is an abbreviation of North India Mounted Artillery and Cavalry Headquarters. The city was the location of a palace in the district of the Ajmer, originally a part of the territory of Malwa, it was given to the Rana in 1768 to pay off debts incurred by the rana of Mewar. After that it became a British cantonment of the Gwalior princely state, the Neemuch cantonment played a significant role in the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and was the centre of disturbances in Malwa. In 1857, Neemuch was the most southerly place to which the Rebellion extended, a brigade of native Bengal troops were stationed at Neemuch, then mutinied and marched to Delhi. European officers took refuge in the fort, and were besieged by a rebel force from Mandasor. The Europeans defended the city until relieved by the Malwa field force, since 1895 Neemuch has been the headquarters of the political agent in Malwa, a subdivision of the British Central India Agency. Neemuch district is part of the Ujjain Division and it borders Rajasthan to the west and north and Mandsaur district to the east and south. It was split from Mandsaur District on 30 June 1998, the city is divided into three main parts, Neemuch city, Chhavani, and Baghana. 56 and Neemuch - Bhopal State Highway no.87, Baghana is widely known for its Anaj Mandi. The Neemuch district has approximately 9,56,000 inhabitants as of 2001, distances to other towns, Neemuch is famous for Krishi Upaj Mandi
29.
Chittorgarh
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Chittorgarh pronunciation is a city and a municipality in Rajasthan state of western India. It lies on the Berach River, a tributary of the Banas, and is the headquarters of Chittorgarh District. The city of Chittaurgarh is located on the banks of river Gambhiri, the district was bifurcated and a new district namely Pratap Garh was created with certain portion taken from Udaipur district in the newly created district of Pratap Garh. Fiercely independent, the fort of Chittor was under siege thrice and each time they fought bravely, thrice Jauhar was committed by the ladies and children. The sacrifice of Rao Jaimal and Patta, two army chieftains of Mewar, in the war against the Mughals was so great that the Mughal Emperor Akbar installed their statues in the fort of Agra. It has also been a land of worship for Meera, Chittorgarh is home to the Chittorgarh Fort, the largest fort in India and Asia. It was named Chitrakut after Chitrangada Mori, a Rajput chieftain as inscribed on ancient Mewari coins, the fort is surrounded by a circular wall which has seven huge gates before one can enter the main fort area. Some accounts say that the Mori dynasty was in possession of the fort when Bappa Rawal the founder of the kingdom of Mewar seized Chittor garh, some other accounts say Bappa Rawal received it as a part of the dowry after marriage with the last Solanki princess. After that date his descendants ruled Mewar, which stretched from Gujarat to Ajmer, Chittor was one of the most contested seats of power in India with probably some of the most glorious battles being fought over its possession. It is famous in the annals of the Mewar Dynasty as its first capital, by tradition, it remained the Mewar capital for 834 years. With only brief interruptions, the fort has always remained in possession of the Sisodias of the Guhilot clan of Rajputs, Chittorgarh was captured in 1303 AD by Ala ud din Khilji, Sultan of Delhi who led a huge army. Elderly people then had the responsibility to raise the children and it was recaptured in 1326 by the young Hammir Singh, a scion of the same Gehlot clan. The dynasty fathered by him came to be known by the name Sisodia after the village where he was born, Rana Kumbha was a versatile man, a brilliant poet, and musician. He built Mewar up to a position of military strength. But, perhaps more important Rana Kumbha was a patron of the arts to rival Lorenzo de Medici, by the 16th century, Mewar had become the leading Rajput state. Rana Sanga of Mewar led the combined Rajput forces against the Mughal emperor Babur in 1527, later in 1535 Bahadur Shah, the Sultan of Gujarat, besieged the fort, causing immense carnage. It is said that all 3,200 men then living in the fort donned the robes of martyrdom and rode out to face certain death in the war. The ultimate sacrifice for freedom, Jauhar was again performed for the time after the Mughal Emperor Akbar captured Chittorgarh in 1568
30.
Golden Quadrilateral
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The Golden Quadrilateral is a highway network connecting many of the major industrial, agricultural and cultural centres of India. A quadrilateral of sorts is formed by connecting Chennai, Kolkata, Delhi and Mumbai, other metropolises also connected by the network are Ahmedabad, Bengaluru, Bhubaneswar, Jaipur, Kanpur, Pune, Surat, Nellore, Vijayawada and Vishakapatnam. The project was launched in 2001 by Atal Bihari Vajpayee under the NDA government, the vast majority of the Golden Quadrilateral is not access controlled, although safety features such as guardrails, shoulders, and high-visibility signs are in use. The GQ project is managed by the National Highways Authority of India under the Ministry of Road, Transport and Highways. The Mumbai-Pune Expressway, the first controlled-access toll road to be built in India is a part of the GQ Project as it was not funded by NHAI, Infrastructure Leasing & Financial Services has been one of the major contributors to the infrastructural development activity in the GQ project. It is a project came in 1999 and initiated in 2001 by Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee. It was projected to connect four metropolitan cities of India, Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, the project consisted of constructing four and six-lane express highways. The project was planned to be completed by 2006 but due to delays it got completed in 2012, Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee laid the foundation stone for the project on 6 January 1999. In January 2012, India announced the four-lane GQ highway network as complete, indias government had initially estimated that the Golden Quadrilateral project would cost ₹600 billion at 1999 prices. However, the highway has been built under-budget, as of August 2011, cost incurred by Indian government was about half of initial estimate, at ₹308.58 billion. The eight contracts in progress, as of August 2011, were worth ₹16.34 billion, in September 2009, it was announced that the existing four-laned highways would be converted into six-lane highways. The expansion project was reported at various stages to be behind schedule, mainly due to land acquisition constraints and disputes with contractors which had to be re-negotiated. Sections of NH2, NH5 and NH8 have now been prioritized for widening to six lanes under DBFO pattern. On NH8 six-lane work is completed from Vadodara to Surat, the Hosur-Krishnagiri stretch of the Bengaluru-Chennai stretch is being expanded from four lanes to six lanes by Reliance Infrastructure. The projected economic benefits of the GQ project are - Establishing faster transport networks between major cities and ports, providing an impetus to smoother movement of products and people within India. Enabling industrial and job development in smaller towns through access to markets, providing opportunities for farmers, through better transportation of produce from the agricultural hinterland to major cities and ports for export, through lesser wastage and spoils. Driving economic growth directly, through construction as well as through indirect demand for cement, steel, giving an impetus to Truck transport throughout India. Only National Highways are used in the Golden Quadrilateral, Dubeys name was leaked by the PMO to the NHAI, and he was transferred against his wishes to Gaya, Bihar, where he was murdered on 27 November
31.
Udaipur
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Udaipur is a major city, municipal corporation and the administrative headquarters of the Udaipur district in the Indian state of Rajasthan. It is the capital of the kingdom of Mewar in the former Rajputana Agency. Maharana Udai Singh of the Sisodia clan of Rajput founded the city 1553 and it remained as the capital city till 1818 when it became a British princely state, and thereafter the Mewar province became a part of Rajasthan when India gained independence in 1947. Udaipur is a popular tourist destination. Known for its history, culture, scenic locations and the Rajput-era palaces, Udaipur was founded in 1559, by Maharana Udai Singh II in the fertile circular Girwa Valley to the southwest of Nagda, on the Banas River. The city was established as the new capital of the Mewar kingdom and this area already had a thriving trading town, Ayad, which had served as capital of Mewar in the 10th through 12th centuries. The Girwa region was thus already well-known to Chittaud rulers who moved to it whenever the vulnerable tableland Chittaurgarh was threatened with enemy attacks. Maharana Udai Singh II, in the wake of 16th century emergence of artillery warfare, Ayad was flood-prone, hence he chose the ridge east of Pichola Lake to start his new capital city, where he came upon a hermit while hunting in the foothills of the Aravalli Range. The hermit blessed the king and guided him to build a palace on the spot, Udai Singh II consequently established a residence on the site. In November 1567, the Mughal emperor Akbar laid siege to the fort of Chittor. To protect Udaipur from External attacks, Maharana Udai Singh built a six kilometre long city wall, with seven gates, namely Surajpole, Chandpole, Udiapole, Hathipole, Ambapole, Brahmpole and so on. The area within these walls and gates is known as the old city or the walled city. As the Mughal empire weakened, the Sisodia rulers, reasserted their independence, Udaipur remained the capital of the state, which became a princely state of British India in 1818. Being a mountainous region and unsuitable for heavily armoured Mughal horses, at present, Arvind Singh Mewar is the 76th custodian of the Mewar dynasty. Topography Udaipur is located at 24. 525049°N73. 677116°E /24.525049,73.677116, the city covers an area of 37 km2 and lies at an altitude of 598.00 m above sea level. It is located in the region of Rajasthan, near the Gujarat border. The city lies 403 kilometres southwest of the capital, Jaipur and 250 km northeast from Ahmedabad. Udaipur with its lakes lies on the slope of the Aravalli Range in Rajasthan
32.
Banswara
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Banswara is a city in Banswara District in south Rajasthan in India. The state of Banswara was founded by Maharawal Jagmal Singh and it is named for the bans or bamboo forests in the area. It is also known as City of Hundred Islands, due to presence of islands on the Mahi River named Chachakota where the islands located. Banswara city is governed by City Council which comes under Banswara Urban Agglomeration, the city has population of 100,128, its urban / metropolitan population is 101,177 of which 51,941 are males and 49,236 are females. Banswara is located at 23. 55°N74. 45°E /23.55,74.45 and it has an average elevation of 302 metres. Banswara District is in southern Rajasthan with an area of 5,037 square kilometres located between 23. 11° N to 23. 56° N latitudes and 73. 58° E to 74. 49° E. longitudes. The region represents a rugged terrain undulated by short ridges west of Banswara, the eastern part of it is occupied by flat-topped hills of the Deccan trap. It has the end of the Aravali mountains. The drainage system belongs to the Mahi river which originates from Amjera hills near Dhar in Madhya Preadesh and its main tributaries are Anas, Chanp, Erav, Hiran and Kagdi. The Mahi Bajaj Sagar Dam has been constructed on the Mahi, the Right and Left Main Canals and their distributaries irrigate 60,149 hectares of land. Normal annual rainfall is about 82.59 centimetres, the main crops are maize, wheat, rice, cotton soya bean and gram. Graphite, soapstone, dolomite, rock phosphate, limestone and a variety of marbles are mined in the region, about 20% of the area is designated as forested land, but most of the forest land is devoid of trees in the non-monsoon months. Banswara was a Rajput feudatory state in Rajputana during British India, Banswara state was about 45 miles in length from north to south and 33 miles in breadth from east to west and had an area of 1,606 square miles. The population in 1941 was 258,760, Banswara district forms eastern part of the region known as Vagad or Vagwar. The district was formerly a state ruled by the Maharavals and it is said that a Bhil ruler Bansia or Wasna, ruled over it and Banswara was named after his name. Bansia was defeated and killed by Jagmal Singh who became the first Maharaval of the princely state and it is named so because of the bamboo which were found in abundance in the forests. Banswara massacre is known as Rajathan’s ‘Jallianwala Bagh’, a little known event of the British Raj era. British forces opened fire on tribals who had gathered on the Mangarh hillock situated in the Aravali mountains on the Rajasthan-Gujarat border, the tribals were led by their leader Govind Guru who inspired them to throw off the yoke of British rule
33.
Mandsaur
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Mandsaur or Mandsour is a city in the Malwa region and district of Madhya Pradesh state of central India. It is the headquarters of Mandsaur District. Mandsaur is rich in archaeological and historical heritage But what makes it famous is the temple of Lord Pashupatinath located on the bank of Shivna river and its idol has parallel only in Nepal. The most common language is Malvi. It is also famous for production of Opium around the world. The slate pencil industry is the industry of the district. The name Mandsaur evolved from Marhsaur, which originated from Marh and Saur, the city consists of ten puras, which gave it the name Dashpura. It is also believed that place was once the maternal residence of Mandodari. In old city areas, people worship the idol of Ravana, a 35-feet ten headed sitting idol of Ravana can be seen in the Khanpura area of the city. The hero first assailed the mountainous country called Rohitaka that was dear unto Kartikeya, the encounter the son of Pandu had with the Mattamyurakas of that country was fierce. And the illustrious Nakula after this, subjugated the whole of the desert country, and the hero had a fierce encounter with the royal sage Akrosa. Making circuitous journey that bull among men then conquered the tribes called the Utsava-sanketas, epigraphical discoveries have brought to light two ancient royal houses, who call themselves as Aulikaras and ruled from Dashapura. The first dynasty, who ruled from Dashapura from the beginning comprised the kings in the order of succession. Bandhuvarma was contemporary of Kumaragupta I, there is an inscription about Bandhuvarma at Mandsaur. The silk workers had constructed a Sun temple here which was repaired by Bandhuvarma in Samvat 493 and this indicates that he was present there till 436 CE. After Parakshadharma, the ruler of Mandsaur was Yashodharma, who is identified with Vishnuvardhana, in all probabilities, he was the son and immediate successor of Prakashadharma. Yashodharma Vishnuvardhana assumed the title of Samrat after he occupied the territories of Bandhuvarma and it is also mentioned that Yashodharma Vishnuvardhana had assumed the title of ‘Maharajadhiraja’ or Emperor. Sondani is a village at a distance of about 4 km from Mandsaur situated on Mahu-Nimach Highway towards Mahu. Two monolith pillars were erected here by King Yasodharman in 528 AD with inscription which describe his exploits including victory over Hunas, excavations by the Indian Archaeology Department show that these pillars are lying at their original site
34.
Bhopal
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Bhopal is the capital of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh and the administrative headquarters of Bhopal district and Bhopal division. The city was the capital of the former Bhopal State, Bhopal is known as the City of Lakes for its various natural as well as artificial lakes and is also one of the greenest cities in India. It is the 17th largest city in the country and 131st in the world, a Y-class city, Bhopal houses various institutions and installations of national importance, including ISROs Master Control Facility and BHEL. Bhopal is home to the largest number of Institutes of National Importance in India, namely IISER, MANIT, SPA, the Bhopal disaster continues to be a part of the socio-political debate and a logistical challenge for the people of Bhopal. The city has been adjudged as the 21st cleanest city in India, according to folklore, Bhopal was founded in 11th century by the Paramara king Bhoja, who ruled from his capital at Dhar. This theory states that Bhopal was originally known as Bhojpal after a dam constructed by the kings minister, an alternative theory says that the city is named after another king called Bhupala. In the early 18th century, Bhopal was a village in the Gond kingdom. The modern Bhopal city was established by Dost Mohammad Khan, an Afghan soldier in the Mughal army, after the death of the emperor Aurangzeb, Khan started providing mercenary services to local chieftains in the politically unstable Malwa region. In 1709, he took on the lease of Berasia estate, Khan received the territory of Bhopal from the Gond queen Kamlapati in lieu of payment for mercenary services and usurped her kingdom after her death. In the 1720s, he built the Fatehgarh fort in the village, Bhopal became a princely state after signing a treaty with the British East India Company in 1818. Between 1819 and 1926, the state was ruled by four women, qudsia Begum was the first woman ruler, who was succeeded by her only daughter Sikandar Begum, who in turn was succeeded by her only daughter, Shahjehan Begum. Sultan Jahan Begum was the last woman ruler who, after 25 years of rule, abdicated in favour of her son, the rule of Begums gave the city its waterworks, railways, a postal system, and a municipality constituted in 1907. Bhopal State was the second-largest Muslim-ruled princely state, the first being Hyderabad, after the independence of India in 1947, the last Nawab expressed his wish to retain Bhopal as a separate unit. Agitations against the Nawab broke out in December 1948, leading to the arrest of prominent leaders including Shankar Dayal Sharma, later, the political detainees were released, and the Nawab signed the agreement for Bhopals merger with the Union of India on 30 April 1949. The Bhopal state was taken over by the Union Government of India on 1 June 1949, on December 1984, a Union Carbide India Limited pesticide plant in Bhopal leaked around 32 tons of toxic gases, including methyl isocyanate gas which led to the worst industrial disaster to date. The official death toll was recorded around 4,000. The higher estimates have been challenged, the impact of the disaster continues to this day in terms of psychological and neurological disabilities, blindness, skin, vision, breathing, and birth disorders. The soil and ground water near the site have been contaminated by the toxic wastes
35.
Art of Rajasthan
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Maru Gurjara Art is an ancient Rajasthani art that developed during the early sixth century period in and around Rajasthan. The name Maru Gurjara has its genesis in the fact that during ancient times, Rajasthan and Gujarat had similarities in ethnic, ancient name of Rajasthan was Marudesha while Gujarat was called Gurjaratra. Maru Gurjara Art literally means Art of Rajasthan and Gujarat, during the early medieval period, perhaps early 5th century, a unique art form was taking shape in and around two areas of western India namely Marudesh and Gurjaratra. During this period Marudesh and Gurjaratra saw tremendous changes in the political and cultural sphere, by the onset of seventh century, art of painting and sculpture had reached its zenith in these areas. Colorful tradition of Rajasthanis reflects in art of paintings as well and this painting style is called Maru-Gurjar Painting. It throws light on the heritage of ancient Rajasthan. Under the Royal patronage various styles of paintings developed, cultivated and practiced in Rajasthan, the major painting styles are phad paintings, miniature paintings, kajali paintings, gemstone paintings etc. There is incredible diversity and imaginative creativity found in Rajasthani paintings, major schools of art are Mewar, Marwar, Kishangarh, Bundi, Kota, Jaipur and Alwar. Phad paintings, essentially a scroll painting done on cloth, are beautiful specimen of the Rajasthani cloth paintings. These have their own styles and patterns and are popular due to their vibrant colors. The painted area of God Devnarayan Ki Phad is 170 square feet, some other Pars are also prevalent in Rajasthan, but being of recent origin they are not classical in composition. Another famous Par painting is Pabuji Ki Phad, Pabuji Ki Phad is painted on a 15 x 5 ft. canvas. Other famous heroes of Phad paintings are Gogaji, Prithviraj Chauhan, new York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art
36.
Culture of Gujarat
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The Culture of Gujarat is both ancient and modern. Marriage is an auspicious occasion in Indian culture. According to the Vedas, the Hindu scriptures, marriage is a lifelong commitment between a man and a woman. It is considered to be the strongest of all bonds and is the initiation into a lifetime of togetherness. The Vedic wedding ceremony consists of prayers, invocations, and vows recited in Sanskrit, the Vedic wedding ceremony dates back to over five thousand years and is performed under a decorated canopy, the mandap. The four pillars that surround the mandap represent the parents of the bride and this signifies the important part they have played in raising their children to become the responsible adults they are today. The ceremony is performed before a fire, or agniaa. Every Hindu ceremony begins with the worship of Lord Ganesha, deity of peace and this is done so people can find strength within themselves to remove any obstacles that may arise. Varghodo The original form of a barat is a procession from the house to the brides house for the wedding ceremony. The wedding day begins with the Mangal Vadya, the playing of Shehnai, swagatam The groom and his family are greeted at the doors of the mandir by the brides parents and family. The mother of the bride then greets and welcomes the groom and she blesses the groom by placing a tilak on his forehead. The groom is led to the mandap where the wedding ceremony will take place. Ganesh Puja Madhuparka While the groom is sitting under the mandap the madhuparka is performed where his feet are washed by the brides parents and he is then offered panchamrut, a drink composed of milk, yogurt, ghee, honey, and sugar. Kanyaa Daan The bride accepts her change of status from a woman to a wife by spreading turmeric powder on her hands. Kanya Daan is performed by the father of the bride in presence of a gathering that is invited to witness the wedding. Vivaaha The bride and the face each other, and the priest ties their garments in a knot. The bride and the groom garland each other and exchange the rings, next the nuptial fire, symbolizing the divine witness, and the sanctifier of the sacrament, is installed and worshipped. Both the bride and the groom grasp their hands together and pray to God for His blessings, samagree, consisting of crushed sandalwood, herbs, sugar, rice, ghee, and twigs is offered into the sacred fire to seek Gods blessings for the couple
37.
Soybean
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Glycine max, commonly known as soybean in North America or soya bean, is a species of legume native to East Asia, widely grown for its edible bean which has numerous uses. The plant, classed as a rather than a pulse by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization. Fat-free soybean meal is a significant and cheap source of protein for animal feeds, for example, soybean products, such as textured vegetable protein, are ingredients in many meat and dairy substitutes. The beans contain significant amounts of acid, dietary minerals. Soy vegetable oil, used in food and industrial applications, is product of processing the soybean crop. Traditional non-fermented food uses of soybeans include soy milk from which tofu and tofu skin are made, fermented soy foods include soy sauce, fermented bean paste, natto and tempeh. The main countries growing soybeans are the United States, Brazil, the English words soy and soya are ultimately derived from the Japanese pronunciation of shōyu, the Sino-Japanese word for soy sauce, by way of the Dutch adaptation of the same word, soja. The genus Glycine Willd. is divided two subgenera, Glycine and Soja. Includes the cultivated soybean, Glycine max Merr. and the wild soybean, Glycine soja is the wild ancestor of Glycine max, and grows wild in China, Japan, Korea and Russia. The subgenus Glycine consists of at least 25 wild perennial species, for example, Glycine canescens F. J. Herm. and G. tomentella Hayata, perennial soybean originated in Africa and is now a widespread pasture crop in the tropics. Like some other crops of long domestication, the relationship of the soybean to wild-growing species can no longer be traced with any degree of certainty. It is a variety with a very large number of cultivars. Like most plants, soybeans grow in distinct morphological stages as they develop from seeds into fully mature plants, the first stage of growth is germination, a process that first becomes apparent as a seeds radicle emerges. This is the first stage of growth and occurs within the first 48 hours under ideal growing conditions. The first photosynthetic structures, the cotyledons, develop from the hypocotyl and these cotyledons both act as leaves and as a source of nutrients for the immature plant, providing the seedling nutrition for its first 7 to 10 days. The first true leaves develop as a pair of single blades, subsequent to this first pair, mature nodes form compound leaves with three blades. Mature trifoliolate leaves, having three to four leaflets per leaf, are often between 6–15 cm long and 2–7 cm broad, under ideal conditions, stem growth continues, producing new nodes every four days. Before flowering, roots can grow 1.9 cm per day, if rhizobia are present, root nodulation begins by the time the third node appears
38.
Parshvanatha
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Parshvanatha, also known as Parshva, was the twenty-third Tirthankara of Jainism. He is the earliest Jain leader for whom there is evidence of having been a historical figure. Circumstantial evidence including a description of the teachings of Parshvanatha in the Sayings of the Seers, Parshvanatha was born on the tenth day of the dark half of the month of Paush to King Asvasena and Queen Vamadevi of Benaras. He belonged to the Ikshvaku dynasty and he assumed and began to practice the twelve basic vows of the adult Jain householder when he reached the age of eight. Parshvanatha lived as formal prince of Benaras and at the age of thirty and he meditated for eighty-four days before attaining Kevala Jnana under a Dhaataki tree near Benaras. His first disciples were his mother and wife, after preaching for 70 years, he achieved moksha at the age of one hundred atop Shikharji, which is known today as the Parasnath Hills after him. Parshvanatha was called purisādāṇīya, a name which shows that he must have been a genial personality, Marubhuti - Visvabhuti, the prime minister of King Aravinda had two sons, elder one named Kamath and younger one named Marubhuti. Kamath killed Marubhuti and died as a criminal, elephant - He was then reborn as an elephant in the forests of Vindyachal. Meanwhile, King Aravinda, after death of his minister Marubhuti, when the elephant came near Aravinda, he recalled his previous human life by the blessings of Aravinda and became calm. Kamath was reborn as a serpent this time, one day, when the elephant went to a river to quench his thirst, the serpent attacked him and he died the peaceful death of absolute renunciation. Sasi-prabha - Vajraghosha was reborn as Sasi-prabha in the twelfth heaven, Agnivega - After spending a luxurious life in heaven, he was reborn as prince Agnivega. He ascended the throne of his father which he renounced to lead an ascetic life. Kamath was reborn as a serpent again after hell and again killed the ascetic in Himalayas during penance, when he was a prince he saved two snakes that had been trapped in a log in an Kamath’s fire. Later, the snakes were reborn as Dharnendra, the lord of the kingdom of the nāgas. Dharnendra and Padmavati sheltered Parshvanatha from a storm sent by a Meghmali, according to the Kalpa Sūtra, Parshvanatha had 164,000 śrāvakas and 327,000 śrāvikās and 16,000 sādhus and 38,000 sādhvīs. He had eight ganadharas, Śubhadatta, Āryaghoṣa, Vasiṣṭha, Brahmacāri, Soma, Śrīdhara, Vīrabhadra, after his death, the ganadhara Śubhadatta became the head of the monastic order. He was then succeeded by Haridatta, Āryasamudra and Keśī, one of the question as mentioned in Śvētāmbara text was The Law taught by Parsva, recognizes but four vows, whilst that of Vardhamana enjoins five. Therefore, according to texts, Parshvanatha taught four vows instead of the presently famous five vows
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Emerald
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Emerald is a gemstone and a variety of the mineral beryl colored green by trace amounts of chromium and sometimes vanadium. Beryl has a hardness of 7. 5–8 on the Mohs scale, most emeralds are highly included, so their toughness is classified as generally poor. The word emerald is derived, from Vulgar Latin, esmaralda/esmaraldus, a variant of Latin smaragdus, emeralds, like all colored gemstones, are graded using four basic parameters–the four Cs of Connoisseurship, Color, Clarity, Cut and Carat weight. Before the 20th century, jewelers used the water, as in a gem of the finest water. Normally, in the grading of colored gemstones, color is by far the most important criterion, however, in the grading of emeralds, clarity is considered a close second. A fine emerald must possess not only a pure verdant green hue as described below, in the 1960s, the American jewelry industry changed the definition of emerald to include the green vanadium-bearing beryl as emerald. As a result, vanadium emeralds purchased as emeralds in the United States are not recognized as such in the UK, in America, the distinction between traditional emeralds and the new vanadium kind is often reflected in the use of terms such as Colombian Emerald. In gemology, color is divided into three components, hue, saturation, and tone, emeralds occur in hues ranging from yellow-green to blue-green, with the primary hue necessarily being green. Yellow and blue are the normal secondary hues found in emeralds, only gems that are medium to dark in tone are considered emerald, light-toned gems are known instead by the species name green beryl. The finest emerald are approximately 75% tone on a scale where 0% tone would be colorless, in addition, a fine emerald should be well saturated and have a hue that is bright. Gray is the normal saturation modifier or mask found in emerald, Emerald tends to have numerous inclusions and surface breaking fissures. Unlike diamond, where the standard, i. e. 10× magnification, is used to grade clarity. Thus, if an emerald has no visible inclusions to the eye it is considered flawless, stones that lack surface breaking fissures are extremely rare and therefore almost all emeralds are treated to enhance the apparent clarity. The inclusions and fissures within an emerald are sometime described as jardin, imperfections are unique for each emerald and can be used to identify a particular stone. Eye-clean stones of a vivid primary green hue, with no more than 15% of any hue or combination of a medium-dark tone. The relative non-uniformity motivates the cutting of emeralds in cabochon form, faceted emeralds are most commonly given an oval cut, or the signature emerald cut, a rectangular cut with facets around the top edge. Most emeralds are oiled as part of the process, in order to fill in surface-reaching cracks so that clarity and stability are improved. Cedar oil, having a refractive index, is often used in this widely adopted practice
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Dharanendra
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Dharanendra is the Yaksha of Parshvanatha, twenty-third Tirthankara in Jainism. He enjoys an independent religious life and is popular amongst Jains. According to the Digambara tradition, when Lord Parshvanatha was a prince, later, these snakes were reborn as Dharanendra, the lord of the underworld Naga Kingdom, and Padmavati. They, then sheltered Parshvanatha when he was harassed by Meghalin, Śvētāmbara tradition, however, does not list Padmavati among the main queens of Dharanendra. Western Ganga literature states that Dharanendra was worshipped for acquiring sons, Jaina Iconography, Abhinav Publications, ISBN 978-81-7017-208-6 Jain, Jyotindra, Fischer, Eberhard, Jaina Iconography, BRILL, ISBN 978-90-04-05259-8
pronunciation (help·info) known historically as Ratnapuri (lit. gem city) is a city in the northwestern part of the Malwa region in Madhya Pradesh state of central India. The city of Ratlam lies 480 metres (1,575 feet) above sea level, it is the administrative headquarters of Ratlam district, which was created in 1947 after the independence of India.[2] The most famous Jain tirth Bibrod Tirth and also Kalika Mata Temple, Isarthuni, Satrunda Mataji Temple, Bilpank Mahadev Temple Kedareshwar Temple(Sailana), Cactus Gardan (Sailana), and Hussain Tekri(Jaora) is situated here.
