1.
President of Northern Cyprus
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The President of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus is the head of state of the TRNC. Rauf Denktaş was the first and founding president of Northern Cyprus and his position was taken over by Mehmet Ali Talat, followed by Derviş Eroğlu and the current president, Mustafa Akıncı. The president is elected every five years, presidential elections are held in two rounds if no candidate gains more than 50% of the votes in the first round. It is necessary that the president is originated from the island of Cyprus and it is also necessary that he/she has lived in the country for five years, has received secondary education and he/she is over 30 years old. The presidency is not a position in the semi-presidential political system of Northern Cyprus. The President reserves the right to dismiss the Assembly of the Republic in case a government cannot be formed within sixty days or three successive governments receive votes of no confidence. The President has also traditionally been the chief negotiator for the resolution of the Cyprus dispute, the president is represented by the speaker of the Assembly of the Republic when the president is abroad. Prime Minister of Northern Cyprus Official website
2.
Nejat Konuk
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Nejat Konjuk was a former prime minister of Northern Cyprus, He held this office twice, once from 1976 to 1978 and a second time from 1983 to 1985. He was born in Nicosia in 1928, born in 1928 in Nicosia, Cyprus, Osman Nejat Konuk completed his primary and secondary education in Nicosia. In 1951, he graduated with a degree in Law from the Ankara Faculty of Law, following his graduation he worked in Turkey in the public sector as legal advisor (Bursa Forestry Department. He left public service in 1955 and worked as an independent lawyer until 1960, with the establishment of the transitional Autonomous Turkish Cypriot Administration when Rauf Denktaş became Vice-Turkish Cypriot Leader, he was appointed as Denktaş’s Undersecretary. In 1969, Konuk portfolio was changed when he was appointed to be the Undersecretary of Justice, at the 5 July 1970 general elections, he was elected to the Turkish Cypriot Community Parliament, representing Nicosia district. In the new Executive Board of the Turkish Cypriot Community he was tasked with the Justice, at the 1976 general elections he was re-elected to the parliament from Nicosia. With NUP majority Konuk was appointed to form the first government of the newly formed KTFD and he joined the Democratic Peoples’ Party and became its leader. He was re-elected to the parliament as a DHP MP for Nicosia, in 1985 Konuk retired from active politics. TRNC government document on Nejat Konuk
3.
Mehmet Ali Talat
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Mehmet Ali Talat is a Turkish Cypriot politician who served as the President of Northern Cyprus between 2005 and 2010. Talat is the leader of the social democratic Republican Turkish Party and he became prime minister in 2004, and subsequently won the presidential election held on 17 April 2005. Talat was inaugurated on 25 April 2005, succeeding retiring leader Rauf Denktaş and he lost the presidential election of 2010 and was replaced by Derviş Eroğlu as President. Talat was born in Kyrenia on 6 July 1952, completing his secondary education in Cyprus, Talat graduated from Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department of the Middle East Technical University in Ankara, Turkey. He also participated in the movement of the Republican Turkish Party. He served as the party secretary for Education, Talat joined the CTP in 1973 and soon rose to the party leadership. He worked as a refrigerator repairman during this time and he was a senior figure in the party when the independence of Northern Cyprus was declared in 1983. The CTP had opposed the creation of an independent state in the north previously, however, according to Talat, the party had been threatened by Denktaş to prevent them from voting against the declaration. Talat was one of those against voting for in the internal party debate, Talat later controversially stated that he had cried after this meeting. Talat was the Minister of Education and Culture in the first coalition government formed by the CTP-Democratic Party Alliance after the elections of December 1993. He undertook the same post in the second DP-CTP coalition government, Talat was elected as the leader of the CTP on 14 January 1996, succeeding Özker Özgür. As part of his cabinet, he appointed Raşit Pertev as Chief Negotiator for the United Nations Peace Talks, Talat remained publicly committed to reunification. This led ultimately to the side winning the general elections in 2009 and its candidate. On 14 June 2015, Talat won the congress of the CTP, under his leadership, the Yorgancıoğlu cabinet resigned and was replaced by a cabinet headed by Ömer Kalyoncu, in a grand coalition with the National Unity Party. Talat was sometimes dubbed as the leader of the cabinet. Talat then became the leader of the opposition as UBP. On 22 May 2016, he announced that he would not be a candidate for the leadership in the next congress. Mehmet Ali Talat is married to Oya Talat, a chemist, the couple got married on 29 October 1978
4.
Makarios III
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In his three terms as President he survived four assassination attempts and a coup détat. He is widely regarded by Greek Cypriots as the Father of the Nation or Ethnarch, michael Christodoulou Mouskos was born in Panayia village in the Paphos District. In 1926, aged 13, he was admitted to Kykkos Monastery as a novice, at age 20 he was sent to the Pancyprian Gymnasium in Nicosia, where he completed his secondary education in 1936. He spent the years of World War II studying theology and law at the University of Athens. In 1948, while studying at Boston, he was elected Bishop of Kition against his will. Mouskos adopted the clerical name Makarios and returned to Cyprus, like many public figures in the Greek Cypriot community in Cyprus, in the 1940s and 1950s he was an active supporter of enosis, the union of Cyprus with Greece. On September 18,1950, Makarios, only 37 years old, was elected Archbishop of Cyprus, in this role he was not only the official head of the Orthodox Church in Cyprus, but became the Ethnarch, de facto national leader of the Greek Cypriot community. This highly influential position put Makarios at the centre of Cypriot politics, during the 1950s, Makarios embraced his dual role as Archbishop and Ethnarch with enthusiasm and became a very popular figure among Greek Cypriots. He soon became an advocate for enosis, and during the early part of the decade he maintained close links with the Greek government. In August 1954, partly at Makarios instigation, Greece began to raise the question of Cyprus at the United Nations and this was viewed by advocates of enosis as likely to result in the voluntary union of Cyprus with Greece following a public referendum. However, the British government was reluctant to decolonize the island which had become their new headquarters for the Middle East, in 1955, a pro-enosis organization was formed under the banner of Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston, or EOKA. This was an independence movement of the period. In later life he denied any involvement in the violent resistance undertaken by EOKA. On August 20,1955, Greece submitted a petition to the United Nations requesting the application of the principle of self-determination to the people of Cyprus. In October 1955, with the security situation deteriorating, the British governor, Sir John Harding, by this stage, Makarios had become closely identified with the insurgency, and talks broke up without any agreement in early 1956. The Archbishop and his staff were flown to Aden and then on to Mombassa, at the Kenyan port the party were embarked in the East African Naval Vessel “Rosalind”, escorted by the frigate HMS Loch Fada. The flotilla arrived in Port Victoria on 14 March, in the latter years of the 1950s, the Turkish Cypriot community first began to float the idea of Taksim or partition, as a counterweight to the Greek ideal of enosis or union. In this way the Cyprus dispute became increasingly polarized between two communities with opposing visions of the future of the island, Makarios was released from exile after a year, although he was still forbidden to return to Cyprus
5.
Paphos
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Paphos /ˈpæfɒs/ is a coastal city in the southwest of Cyprus and the capital of Paphos District. In antiquity, two locations were called Paphos, Old Paphos and New Paphos, the currently inhabited city, New Paphos, lies on the Mediterranean coast, about 50 km west of Limassol, which has an A6 highway connection. Paphos International Airport is the countrys second-largest airport, in Greco-Roman times, Paphos was the islands capital, and it is well known for the remains of the Roman governors palace, where extensive, fine mosaics are a major tourist attraction. Paul the Apostle visited the town during the first century AD, the town of Paphos is included in the official UNESCO list of cultural and natural treasures of the worlds heritage. Paphos enjoys a climate, with the mildest temperatures on the island. Paphos has been selected as a European Capital of Culture for 2017, the author of Bibliotheke, the Hellenistic encyclopedia of myth long attributed to Apollodorus, gives the genealogy. Pygmalion was so devoted to the cult of Aphrodite that he removed the statue to his palace, the daimon of the goddess entered into the statue, and the living Galatea bore Pygmalion a son, Paphos, and a daughter, Metharme. Cinyras, perhaps the son of Paphus, but perhaps the successful suitor of Metharme, founded the city under the patronage of Aphrodite, according to another legend preserved by Strabo, whose text, however, varies, it was founded by the Amazons. Archaeologists report that the site of Old or Upper Paphos has been inhabited since the Neolithic period and it was a centre of the cult of Aphrodite and of pre-Hellenic fertility deities. Aphrodites mythical birthplace was on island, where her temple was erected by the Myceneans in the 12th century BC. The Greek names of two kings, Etevandros and Akestor, are attested in Cypriot syllabary on objects of seventh century BC found in Kourion. The mosaics of Nea Paphos are among the most beautiful in the world, the port of Paphos was rebuilt by Nicocles, the last king of Paphos, at the time of Alexander III of Macedon. The theatre, located in the area of the ancient city, is dated to approximately the end of the fourth century BC and has been under excavation by the University of Sydney since 1995. Old Paphos, now the site of Kouklia was seated on an eminence, at the distance of about ten stadia from the sea, to which, however and it was not far from the Zephyrium promontory and the mouth of the little River Bocarus. The Greeks agreed that Aphrodite had landed at the site of Paphos when she rose from the sea, according to Pausanias, her worship was introduced to Paphos from Syria, but much more probably it was of Phoenician origin. Archaeology has established that Cypriots venerated a fertility goddess before the arrival of the Greeks, in a cult that combined Aegean, female figurines and charms found in the immediate vicinity date as far back as the early third millennium. Here the worship of the goddess was centred, not for Cyprus alone, the Cinyradae, or descendants of Cinyras, were the chief priests, Greek by name but of Phoenician origin. Their power and authority were very great, but it may be inferred from certain inscriptions that they were controlled by a senate, there was also an oracle here
6.
North Nicosia
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North Nicosia or Northern Nicosia is the capital and largest city of the de facto state of Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. It is the part of the divided city of Nicosia and is governed by the Nicosia Turkish Municipality. As of 2011, North Nicosia had a population of 61,378, the city is the economic, political and cultural centre of Northern Cyprus, with many shops, restaurants and shopping malls. It is home to a walled city, centred on the Sarayönü Square. Described as a city with high levels of welfare, it has seen great growth and development in the 21st century, including the construction of new highways. It hosts a significant number of tourists and a variety of activities, including its international festivals of theatre. With a student population over 34,000, North Nicosia is an important centre of education, in 1963, in the aftermath of constitutional amendments by the Greek Cypriots which were rejected by the Turkish Cypriots, intercommunal violence broke out. Nicosia was divided into Greek and Turkish Cypriot quarters by the Green Line, on 15 July 1974, there was an attempted coup détat led by the Greek military junta to unite the island with Greece. The coup ousted president Makarios III and replaced him with pro-enosis nationalist Nikos Sampson, on 20 July 1974, the Turkish army invaded the island, fearing that the coup would result in enosis. On 23 April 2003, the Ledra Palace crossing was opened through the Green Line and this was followed by the opening of Ayios Dometios crossing point on 9 May 2003. On 3 April 2008, the Ledra Street crossing was also reopened, as the capital, North Nicosia is Northern Cypruss political, economic and cultural centre. North Nicosia hosts the ministries of Northern Cyprus, the city is governed by the Nicosia Turkish Municipality, which is recognized by the constitution of the Republic of Cyprus. The Nicosia Turkish Municipality is headed by the mayor, Mehmet Harmancı from the Communal Democracy Party, each of these quarters are headed by a muhtar, who is elected by the residents in local elections. The northern part is richer in historical buildings and cultural works, with its Selimiye quarter retaining its historical character. The walled city overall has been declared an area by the Turkish Cypriot Department of Antiquities. At the centre of the city lies the Atatürk Square. It still hosts mass rallies during political campaigns and the headquarters of the National Unity Party, in the middle of the square stands the Venetian Column, known simply as the Obelisk to the locals and symbolic of the countrys government. The column was brought from the ancient city of Salamis by the Venetians in 1550, the coats of arms of six Italian noble families still remains at the bottom of the column, even though the statue of the lion on it has been replaced with a copper ball
7.
Northern Cyprus
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Northern Cyprus, officially the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, is a self-declared state that comprises the northeastern portion of the island of Cyprus. Recognised only by Turkey, Northern Cyprus is considered by the community to be part of the Republic of Cyprus. Northern Cyprus extends from the tip of the Karpass Peninsula in the northeast to Morphou Bay, Cape Kormakitis and its westernmost point and its southernmost point is the village of Louroujina. A buffer zone under the control of the United Nations stretches between Northern Cyprus and the rest of the island and divides Nicosia, the islands largest city and capital of both sides. A coup détat in 1974, performed as part of an attempt to annex the island to Greece, due to its lack of recognition, Northern Cyprus is heavily dependent on Turkey for economic, political and military support. Attempts to reach a solution to the Cyprus dispute have been unsuccessful, the Turkish Army maintains a large force in Northern Cyprus. Northern Cyprus is a semi-presidential, democratic republic with a cultural heritage incorporating various influences, the official language is Turkish, with a distinct local dialect being spoken. The vast majority of the consists of Sunni Muslims, while religious attitudes are varied and mostly moderate. Northern Cyprus is an observer of the OIC and ECO, and has status in the PACE under the title Turkish Cypriot Community. A united Cyprus gained independence from British rule in August 1960, the agreement involved Cyprus being governed under a constitution which apportioned Cabinet posts, parliamentary seats and civil service jobs on an agreed ratio between the two communities. Within three years, tensions began to show between the Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots in administrative affairs, in particular, disputes over separate municipalities and taxation created a deadlock in government. In 1963 President Makarios proposed unilateral changes to the constitution, via 13 amendments, Turkish Cypriots filed a lawsuit against the 13 amendments in the Supreme Constitutional Court of Cyprus. On 25 April 1963, the SCCC decided that Makarios 13 amendments were illegal, on 21 May, the president of the SCCC resigned due to Makarios stance. On 15 July, Makarios ignored the decision of the SCCC, after the resignation of the president of the SCCC, the SCCC ceased to exist. The Supreme Court of Cyprus was formed by merging the SCCC and the High Court of Cyprus, on 30 November, Makarios legalized the 13 proposals. In 1963, the Greek Cypriot wing of the government created the Akritas plan which outlined a policy that would remove Turkish Cypriots from the government, the plan stated that if the Turkish Cypriots objected then they should be violently subjugated before foreign powers could intervene. Almost immediately, intercommunal violence broke out with a major Greek Cypriot paramilitary attack upon Turkish Cypriots in Nicosia, seven hundred Turkish hostages, including children, were taken from the northern suburbs of Nicosia. Nikos Sampson, a nationalist and future leader, led a group of Greek Cypriot irregulars into the mixed suburb of Omorphita/Küçük Kaymaklı
8.
Turkish Cypriot
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Turkish Cypriots or Cypriot Turks are ethnic Turks originating from Cyprus. Following the Ottoman conquest of the island in 1571, about 30,000 Turkish settlers were given once they arrived in Cyprus. Additionally, many of the converted to Islam during the early years of Ottoman rule. Nonetheless, the influx of mainly Muslim settlers to Cyprus continued intermittently until the end of the Ottoman period, today, while Northern Cyprus is home to a significant part of the Turkish Cypriot population, the majority of Turkish Cypriots live abroad, forming the Turkish Cypriot diaspora. The emigration was exacerbated by the violence in the 1950s and 1960s. The vernacular of Turkish spoken by Turkish Cypriots is Cypriot Turkish, the vast majority of Turkish Cypriots are Sunni Muslims. Some of these captives accepted or were forced to covert to Christianity and were baptized, by 1425 some of these slaves helped the Mamluke army to gain access to Limassol Castle. Despite the release of some of the captives, after the payment of ransoms, the medieval Cypriot historian Leontios Machairas recalled that the baptized Turks were not permitted to leave Nicosia when the Mamlukes approached the city after the battle of Khirokitia in 1426. According to Professor Charles Fraser Beckingham there must therefore have been some Cypriots, at least nominally Christian, by 1488 the Ottomans made their first attempt at conquering Cyprus when Sultan Bayezid II sent a fleet to conquer Famagusta. However, the attempt failed due to the intervention of a Venetian fleet. Thereafter, the Queen of Cyprus, Caterina Cornaro, was forced to relinquish her crown to the Republic of Venice in 1489, in the same year Ottoman ships were seen off the coast of Karpas and the Venetians began to strengthen the fortifications of the island. Nonetheless, by 1500 coastal raids by Ottoman vessels resulted in the loss of Venetian fleets forcing Venice to negotiate a peace treaty with the Ottoman Empire in 1503. However, by May 1539 Suleiman I decided to attack Limassol because the Venetians had been sheltering pirates who continuously attacked Ottoman ships, Limassol stayed under Ottoman control until a peace treaty was signed in 1540. Nonetheless, Cyprus continued to be a haven for pirates who interrupted the safe passage of Ottoman trade ships and Muslim pilgrims sailing to Mecca and Medina. The basis for the emergence of a sizeable and enduring Turkish community in Cyprus emerged when Ottoman troops landed on the island in mid-May 1570, However, there were also some new converts to Islam on the island during the early years of Ottoman rule. This influx of mainly Muslim settlers to Cyprus continued intermittently until the end of the Ottoman period, by the second quarter of the nineteenth century approximately 30,000 Muslims were living in Cyprus, comprising about 35% of the total population. Throughout the Ottoman rule, the ratio between Christian Greeks and Muslim Turks fluctuated constantly. During 1745-1814, the Muslim Turkish Cypriots constituted the majority on the island against the Christian Greek Cypriots However, by 1841, according to the first British census of Cyprus, in 1881, 95% of the islands Muslims spoke Turkish as their mother tongue
9.
National Unity Party (Northern Cyprus)
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The National Unity Party is a nationalist and conservative political party in Northern Cyprus. It was founded by Rauf Denktaş on October 11,1975, the party had stayed in power from its creation until the 2003 elections with the exception of the period from 1994–1996. At the 2009 legislative elections for the House of Representatives of Northern Cyprus the party won 44% of the vote and 26 out of 50 seats. Its candidate, former Prime Minister Derviş Eroğlu amassed at the Northern Cyprus presidential elections 22. 8% of the votes, the party is currently the senior partner in a minority government with the Democratic Party, with its leader Hüseyin Özgürgün serving as Prime Minister. It had previously been a partner in a coalition with the Republican Turkish Party
10.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
11.
Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus
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Northern Cyprus, officially the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, is a self-declared state that comprises the northeastern portion of the island of Cyprus. Recognised only by Turkey, Northern Cyprus is considered by the community to be part of the Republic of Cyprus. Northern Cyprus extends from the tip of the Karpass Peninsula in the northeast to Morphou Bay, Cape Kormakitis and its westernmost point and its southernmost point is the village of Louroujina. A buffer zone under the control of the United Nations stretches between Northern Cyprus and the rest of the island and divides Nicosia, the islands largest city and capital of both sides. A coup détat in 1974, performed as part of an attempt to annex the island to Greece, due to its lack of recognition, Northern Cyprus is heavily dependent on Turkey for economic, political and military support. Attempts to reach a solution to the Cyprus dispute have been unsuccessful, the Turkish Army maintains a large force in Northern Cyprus. Northern Cyprus is a semi-presidential, democratic republic with a cultural heritage incorporating various influences, the official language is Turkish, with a distinct local dialect being spoken. The vast majority of the consists of Sunni Muslims, while religious attitudes are varied and mostly moderate. Northern Cyprus is an observer of the OIC and ECO, and has status in the PACE under the title Turkish Cypriot Community. A united Cyprus gained independence from British rule in August 1960, the agreement involved Cyprus being governed under a constitution which apportioned Cabinet posts, parliamentary seats and civil service jobs on an agreed ratio between the two communities. Within three years, tensions began to show between the Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots in administrative affairs, in particular, disputes over separate municipalities and taxation created a deadlock in government. In 1963 President Makarios proposed unilateral changes to the constitution, via 13 amendments, Turkish Cypriots filed a lawsuit against the 13 amendments in the Supreme Constitutional Court of Cyprus. On 25 April 1963, the SCCC decided that Makarios 13 amendments were illegal, on 21 May, the president of the SCCC resigned due to Makarios stance. On 15 July, Makarios ignored the decision of the SCCC, after the resignation of the president of the SCCC, the SCCC ceased to exist. The Supreme Court of Cyprus was formed by merging the SCCC and the High Court of Cyprus, on 30 November, Makarios legalized the 13 proposals. In 1963, the Greek Cypriot wing of the government created the Akritas plan which outlined a policy that would remove Turkish Cypriots from the government, the plan stated that if the Turkish Cypriots objected then they should be violently subjugated before foreign powers could intervene. Almost immediately, intercommunal violence broke out with a major Greek Cypriot paramilitary attack upon Turkish Cypriots in Nicosia, seven hundred Turkish hostages, including children, were taken from the northern suburbs of Nicosia. Nikos Sampson, a nationalist and future leader, led a group of Greek Cypriot irregulars into the mixed suburb of Omorphita/Küçük Kaymaklı
12.
Turkish Federated State of Cyprus
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The Turkish Federated State of Cyprus was the name of a state on the region of Northern Cyprus declared in 1975 and existing until 1983, that was not recognized by the international community. It was succeeded by the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, which is only recognized by the Republic of Turkey. The UN General Secretary came to Cyprus on 25–26 December 1974, the United Nations Security Council Resolution 367 stated regret for the declaration, however, it was not regarded as a unilateral declaration of independence and an attempt at breaking away. The Turkish Cypriot leadership, headed by Rauf Denktaş, hoped that the Greek Cypriots would treat them as equals, meanwhile, the transition from an administration to a state enabled Turkish Cypriots to write their own constitution. In the 1976 elections, the National Unity Party of Denktaş received 53. 7% of votes and this parliament then proceeded with the debating and writing of the constitution. This unilateral declaration of independence was rejected by the UN and the Republic of Cyprus, for subsequent developments, see Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. In 1978, the imports of the Turkish Federated State of Cyprus were 2,067,457,000 Turkish Liras, in 1980, the imports were 7,086,008,000 Turkish Liras and the exports were 3,345,262,000 Turkish Liras
13.
Autonomous Turkish Cypriot Administration
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The first executive committee of the administration assumed office on 26 August 1974, but the administration was officially established on 1 October 1974. The decision to establish it was necessitated by the reflection of the massive social change in the island. The executive committee was replaced by the first Turkish Cypriot cabinet on 8 October 1974, the administration kept Northern Cyprus under a state of emergency until 20 December 1974. The administration was autonomous under the Republic of Cyprus, with the republics constitution being in place. The members of the parliament also kept their previous positions, representing districts like Paphos, according to Andrew Borowiec, the immediate functioning of the administration was hindered by the heavy military presence on its territory. On August 30, when the administration had recently been unofficially established, the minister of Labor and Social Works of the administration was İsmet Kotak. The administration reorganized the customs of the port of Famagusta and reopened it on 6 September 1974, the Ercan International Airport, then called the Tymbou Airport, was opened to chartered flights and some 75,000 tons of citrus fruits grown in the territory were exported. Efforts were made to reopen the closed tourism establishments, and nine hotels were reopened until November 1974, with help from the Turkish Airlines, the Cyprus Turkish Airlines was established and started flights to Turkey by January 1975. The administration received great economic and administrative help from Turkey, which ran development programs headed by the ambassador, Ziya Müezzinoğlu, under these programs, Ziraat Bank of Turkey functioned as the central bank under the administration. The farms and livestock left behind by Greek Cypriots were integrated into the economy, two state farms were established, one in Famagusta and the other in Morphou. More than 100 factories in the territory were incorporated into a company with public shares, the administration allowed Turkish military personnel who participated in the invasion to obtain Turkish Cypriot citizenship and settle in Northern Cyprus. The resettlement of displaced Turkish Cypriots from the south was overseen, Andrew Borowiec wrote that Turkey announced plans to settle 5000 farm workers in the island to take up the abandoned rural possessions of Greek Cypriots. This led to Greek and Greek Cypriot accusations that Turkey was purposefully changing the structure of Cyprus
14.
Republic of Cyprus
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Cyprus, officially the Republic of Cyprus, is an island country in the Eastern Mediterranean and the third largest and third most populous island in the Mediterranean. It is located south of Turkey, west of Syria and Lebanon, northwest of Israel and Palestine, north of Egypt, the earliest known human activity on the island dates to around the 10th millennium BC. Archaeological remains from this include the well-preserved Neolithic village of Khirokitia. Cyprus was settled by Mycenaean Greeks in two waves in the 2nd millennium BC, Cyprus was placed under British administration based on Cyprus Convention in 1878 and formally annexed by Britain in 1914. While Turkish Cypriots made up 18% of the population, the partition of Cyprus and creation of a Turkish state in the north became a policy of Turkish Cypriot leaders, following nationalist violence in the 1950s, Cyprus was granted independence in 1960. On 15 July 1974, a coup détat was staged by Greek Cypriot nationalists and elements of the Greek military junta in an attempt at enosis and these events and the resulting political situation are matters of a continuing dispute. The Cyprus Republic has de jure sovereignty over the island of Cyprus, as well as its territorial sea and exclusive economic area, another nearly 4% of the islands area is covered by the UN buffer zone. The international community considers the part of the island as territory of the Republic of Cyprus occupied by Turkish forces. The occupation is viewed as illegal under law, amounting to illegal occupation of EU territory since Cyprus became a member of the European Union. Cyprus is a major tourist destination in the Mediterranean, on 1 January 2008, the Republic of Cyprus joined the eurozone. The earliest attested reference to Cyprus is the 15th century BC Mycenaean Greek
15.
The English School, Nicosia
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The English School, Nicosia is a selective secondary school in Nicosia, Cyprus. It has a selection process for admittance. It is one of the schools in Nicosia designated to be bi-communal. Originally it only accepted the children of the British rulers of the island and was located within the walls of Nicosia. It moved to its current premises in 1939, the school started off as a private venture but control was transferred to the British Governor in 1930. Following independence from British occupation in 1960, control passed to the Cypriot Government, in 2007, the schools status and eligibility for state grants was challenged at the Supreme Court. In 1958, EOKA distributed a text threatening Greek Cypriots that attended the school and this resulted in the parents removing students from the school and the number of Greek Cypriots attending fell from 317 to 21. Some of the Schools worst moments came to pass during the time when Thomas Thomas was Headmaster, scandals rocked the school and the Headmaster was sacked, with accusations over favouritism and his erratic behaviour. From September 2003 onwards, the returned to its bi-communal status by re-enrolling Turkish Cypriots. It is a selective academic co-educational secondary school and most of its leavers attend universities in Great Britain. In November 2006, Turkish Cypriot students were attacked at The English School by extremist members of National Voice of Youth with a Greek Soul. At the time, The US Department of State released the following statement, staff are all qualified graduates of British or other English Language universities, or, in the case of the Greek Department, of Greek universities. Religious Education is also available for students who do not wish to partake in Religious Instruction, lessons review a more general overview of various faiths and their histories. The school is situated in a semi-wooded parkland near the centre of the capital Nicosia and is one of the largest school campus in Cyprus, the school is split into four houses. Curtis Yarvin, computer scientist, political philosopher, neoreactionary thinker Dimitris Lipertis, poet and writer, former teacher
16.
Cyprus
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Cyprus, officially the Republic of Cyprus, is an island country in the Eastern Mediterranean and the third largest and third most populous island in the Mediterranean. It is located south of Turkey, west of Syria and Lebanon, northwest of Israel and Palestine, north of Egypt, the earliest known human activity on the island dates to around the 10th millennium BC. Archaeological remains from this include the well-preserved Neolithic village of Khirokitia. Cyprus was settled by Mycenaean Greeks in two waves in the 2nd millennium BC, Cyprus was placed under British administration based on Cyprus Convention in 1878 and formally annexed by Britain in 1914. While Turkish Cypriots made up 18% of the population, the partition of Cyprus and creation of a Turkish state in the north became a policy of Turkish Cypriot leaders, following nationalist violence in the 1950s, Cyprus was granted independence in 1960. On 15 July 1974, a coup détat was staged by Greek Cypriot nationalists and elements of the Greek military junta in an attempt at enosis and these events and the resulting political situation are matters of a continuing dispute. The Cyprus Republic has de jure sovereignty over the island of Cyprus, as well as its territorial sea and exclusive economic area, another nearly 4% of the islands area is covered by the UN buffer zone. The international community considers the part of the island as territory of the Republic of Cyprus occupied by Turkish forces. The occupation is viewed as illegal under law, amounting to illegal occupation of EU territory since Cyprus became a member of the European Union. Cyprus is a major tourist destination in the Mediterranean, on 1 January 2008, the Republic of Cyprus joined the eurozone. The earliest attested reference to Cyprus is the 15th century BC Mycenaean Greek
17.
Famagusta
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Famagusta /ˌfæməˈɡʊstə, ˌfɑː-/, is a city on the east coast of Cyprus. It is located east of Nicosia, and possesses the deepest harbour of the island, the old walled city and parts of the modern town presently fall within the de facto Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus in Gazimağusa District of which it is the capital. In antiquity, the town was known as Arsinoe, after Arsinoe II of Egypt, in Greek it is called Ammochostos, meaning hidden in sand. This name developed into Famagusta, used in Western European languages, in Turkish, the city is also called Gazimağusa, Gazi means veteran in Turkish, and the city has been officially awarded with the title after 1974. The old town is nicknamed the city of 365 churches owing to a legend that at its peak, the city was founded around 274 BC, after the serious damage to Salamis by an earthquake, by Ptolemy II Philadelphus and named Arsinoe after his sister. Arsinoe was described as a town by Strabo in his Geographica in the first century BC. It remained a fishing village for a long time. Later, as a result of the evacuation of Salamis due to the Arab invasion led by Muawiyah I. The turning point for Famagusta was 1192 with the onset of Lusignan rule and it was during this period that Famagusta developed as a fully-fledged town. It increased in importance to the Eastern Mediterranean due to its natural harbour and this development accelerated in the 13th century as the town became a centre of commerce for both the East and West. An influx of Christian refugees fleeing the downfall of Acre in Palestine transformed it from a village into one of the richest cities in Christendom. In 1372 the port was seized by Genoa and in 1489 by Venice and this commercial activity turned Famagusta into a place where merchants and ship owners led lives of luxury. The belief that wealth could be measured by the churches they built inspired these merchants to have churches built in varying styles. These churches, which still exist, were the reason Famagusta came to be known as the district of churches, the development of the town focused on the social lives of the wealthy people and was centred upon the Lusignan palace, the Cathedral, the Square and the harbour. In 1570–1571, Famagusta was the last stronghold in Venetian Cyprus to hold out against the Turks under Mustafa Pasha and it resisted a siege of thirteen months and a terrible bombardment, until at last the garrison surrendered. The Ottoman forces had lost 50,000 men, including Mustafa Pashas son, with the advent of the Ottoman rule, Latins lost their privileged status in Famagusta and were expelled from the city. Greek Cypriots were at first allowed to own and buy property in the city, Turkish families from Anatolia were resettled in the walled city but could not fill the buildings that previously hosted a population of 10,000. This caused a decrease in the population of Famagusta
18.
Teacher
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A teacher is a person who helps others to acquire knowledge, competences or values. Informally the role of teacher may be taken on by anyone, in some countries, teaching young people of school age may be carried out in an informal setting, such as within the family, rather than in a formal setting such as a school or college. Some other professions may involve a significant amount of teaching, in most countries, formal teaching is usually carried out by paid professional teachers. This article focuses on those who are employed, as their role, to teach others in a formal education context. A teachers role may vary among cultures, Teachers may provide instruction in literacy and numeracy, craftsmanship or vocational training, the arts, religion, civics, community roles, or life skills. Formal teaching tasks include preparing lessons according to agreed curricula, giving lessons, a teachers professional duties may extend beyond formal teaching. In some education systems, teachers may have responsibility for student discipline, Teaching is a highly complex activity. This is in part because teaching is a practice, that takes place in a specific context. Factors that influence what is expected of teachers include history and tradition, social views about the purpose of education, so the competences required by a teacher are affected by the different ways in which the role is understood around the world. Broadly, there seem to be four models, the teacher as manager of instruction, the teacher as caring person, the teacher as expert learner, some evidence-based international discussions have tried to reach such a common understanding. Scholarly consensus is emerging that what is required of teachers can be grouped under three headings, knowledge craft skills and dispositions and it has been found that teachers who showed enthusiasm towards the course materials and students can create a positive learning experience. These teachers do not teach by rote but attempt to find new invigoration for the materials on a daily basis. One of the challenges facing teachers is that they may have covered a curriculum until they begin to feel bored with the subject. Students who had enthusiastic teachers tend to rate them higher than teachers who didnt show much enthusiasm for the course materials, Teachers that exhibit enthusiasm can lead to students who are more likely to be engaged, interested, energetic, and curious about learning the subject matter. Recent research has found a correlation between teacher enthusiasm and students intrinsic motivation to learn and vitality in the classroom, students who experienced a very enthusiastic teacher were more likely to read lecture material outside of the classroom. There are various mechanisms by which teacher enthusiasm may facilitate higher levels of intrinsic motivation, teacher enthusiasm may contribute to a classroom atmosphere of energy and enthusiasm which feeds student interest and excitement in learning the subject matter. Enthusiastic teachers may also lead to becoming more self-determined in their own learning process. The concept of mere exposure indicates that the teachers enthusiasm may contribute to the expectations about intrinsic motivation in the context of learning
19.
Istanbul
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Istanbul, historically known as Constantinople and Byzantium, is the most populous city in Turkey and the countrys economic, cultural, and historic center. Istanbul is a city in Eurasia, straddling the Bosphorus strait between the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea. Its commercial and historical center lies on the European side and about a third of its population lives on the Asian side, the city is the administrative center of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality, both hosting a population of around 14.7 million residents. Istanbul is one of the worlds most populous cities and ranks as the worlds 7th-largest city proper, founded under the name of Byzantion on the Sarayburnu promontory around 660 BCE, the city developed to become one of the most significant in history. After its reestablishment as Constantinople in 330 CE, it served as a capital for almost 16 centuries, during the Roman and Byzantine, the Latin. Overlooked for the new capital Ankara during the period, the city has since regained much of its prominence. The population of the city has increased tenfold since the 1950s, as migrants from across Anatolia have moved in, arts, music, film, and cultural festivals were established at the end of the 20th century and continue to be hosted by the city today. Infrastructure improvements have produced a complex transportation network, considered a global city, Istanbul has one of the fastest-growing metropolitan economies in the world. It hosts the headquarters of many Turkish companies and media outlets and accounts for more than a quarter of the gross domestic product. Hoping to capitalize on its revitalization and rapid expansion, Istanbul has bid for the Summer Olympics five times in twenty years, the first known name of the city is Byzantium, the name given to it at its foundation by Megarean colonists around 660 BCE. The name is thought to be derived from a personal name, ancient Greek tradition refers to a legendary king of that name as the leader of the Greek colonists. Modern scholars have hypothesized that the name of Byzas was of local Thracian or Illyrian origin. He also attempted to promote the name Nova Roma and its Greek version Νέα Ῥώμη Nea Romē, the use of Constantinople to refer to the city during the Ottoman period is now considered politically incorrect, even if not historically inaccurate, by Turks. By the 19th century, the city had acquired other names used by foreigners or Turks. Europeans used Constantinople to refer to the whole of the city, pera was used to describe the area between the Golden Horn and the Bosphorus, but Turks also used the name Beyoğlu. The name İstanbul is commonly held to derive from the Medieval Greek phrase εἰς τὴν Πόλιν and this reflected its status as the only major city in the vicinity. The importance of Constantinople in the Ottoman world was reflected by its Ottoman name Der Saadet meaning the gate to Prosperity in Ottoman. An alternative view is that the name evolved directly from the name Constantinople, with the first, a Turkish folk etymology traces the name to Islam bol plenty of Islam because the city was called Islambol or Islambul as the capital of the Islamic Ottoman Empire
20.
Barrister
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A barrister is a type of lawyer in common law jurisdictions. Barristers mostly specialise in courtroom advocacy and litigation and their tasks include taking cases in superior courts and tribunals, drafting legal pleadings, researching the philosophy, hypothesis and history of law, and giving expert legal opinions. Often, barristers are also recognised as legal scholars, Barristers are distinguished from solicitors, who have more direct access to clients, and may do transactional-type legal work. It is mainly barristers who are appointed as judges, and they are hired by clients directly. In England and Wales, barristers may seek authorisation from the Bar Standards Board to conduct litigation and this allows a barrister to practise in a dual capacity, fulfilling the role of both barrister and solicitor. A barrister, who can be considered as a jurist, is a lawyer who represents a litigant as advocate before a court of appropriate jurisdiction, a barrister speaks in court and presents the case before a judge or jury. In some jurisdictions, a barrister receives additional training in law, ethics. In contrast, a solicitor generally meets with clients, does preparatory and administrative work, in this role, he or she may draft and review legal documents, interact with the client as necessary, prepare evidence, and generally manage the day-to-day administration of a lawsuit. Barristers usually have particular knowledge of law, precedent. When a solicitor in general practice is confronted with a point of law. In most countries, barristers operate as sole practitioners, and are prohibited from forming partnerships or from working as a barrister as part of a corporation, however, barristers normally band together into chambers to share clerks and operating expenses. Some chambers grow to be large and sophisticated, and have a corporate feel. In some jurisdictions, they may be employed by firms of solicitors, banks, in contrast, solicitors and attorneys work directly with the clients and are responsible for engaging a barrister with the appropriate expertise for the case. Barristers generally have little or no contact with their lay clients. All correspondence, inquiries, invoices, and so on, will be addressed to the solicitor, in court, barristers are often visibly distinguished from solicitors by their apparel. For example, in Ireland, England, and Wales, a barrister usually wears a wig, stiff collar, bands. Since January 2008, solicitor advocates have also been entitled to wear wigs, in many countries the traditional divisions between barristers and solicitors are breaking down. Barristers once enjoyed a monopoly on appearances before the courts, but in Great Britain this has now been abolished
21.
Lincoln's Inn
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The Honourable Society of Lincolns Inn is one of the four Inns of Court in London to which barristers of England and Wales belong and where they are called to the Bar. It is recognised to be one of the worlds most prestigious professional bodies of judges and it is the largest Inn and it covers 11 acres. The other three are Middle Temple, Inner Temple and Grays Inn, the Inn is believed to be named after Henry de Lacy, 3rd Earl of Lincoln. The Inn is also known for its large garden and library. The nearest tube station is Holborn tube station or Chancery Lane, Lincolns Inn does not declare a specific foundation date, as there is a tradition that none of the Inns of Court regards itself to be any older than the others. The Inn was home to influential people, including Prime Ministers, Chief Judges. During the 12th and 13th century, the law was taught in the City of London primarily by the clergy, as a result, the system of legal education fell apart. The common lawyers migrated to the hamlet of Holborn, the nearest place to the law courts at Westminster Hall that was outside the City, as with the other Inns of Court, the precise date of founding of Lincolns Inn is unknown. The third Earl of Lincoln had encouraged lawyers to move to Holborn and it is felt that Lincolns Inn became a formally organised Inn of Court soon after the Earls death in 1310. At some point before 1422, the part of Lincolns Inn, as they had become known, after the Earl, moved to the estate of Ralph Neville. They retained Thavies and Furnivals Inn, using them as training houses for young lawyers, in 1537, the land Lincolns Inn sat on was sold by Bishop Richard Sampson to a Bencher named William Suliard, and his son sold the land to Lincolns Inn in 1580. The Inn became formally organised as a place of legal education thanks to a decree in 1464, during the 15th century, the Inn was not a particularly prosperous one, and the Benchers, particularly John Fortescue, are credited with fixing this situation. Lincolns Inn had no constitution or fundamental form of governance, admissions were recorded in the black books and divided into two categories, Clerks who were admitted to Clerks Commons, and Fellows Socii who were admitted to Fellows Commons. By 1466, the Fellows were divided into Benchers, those at the Bar, by 1502, the extra barram Fellows were being referred to as inner barristers, in contrast to the utter or outer barristers. A Bencher, Benchsitter or Master of the Bench is a member of the Council, the term originally referred to one who sat on the benches in the main hall of the Inn, which were used for dining and during moots, and the term originally had no significance. In Lincolns Inn, the idea of a Bencher was believed to have far earlier than elsewhere, there are records of four Benchers being sworn in 1440. William Holdsworth and the editor of the Black Books both concluded that Benchers were, from the earliest times, the governors of the Inn, the Governors were elected to serve a year-long term, with between four and six sitting at any one time. By the late 15th century, the group were the Governors with assistance and advice from the other masters of the Bench
22.
Turkish Resistance Organization
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The Greek Cypriot paramilitary organization, EOKA started its anti-British activities for Enosis, the union of the island with Greece. Due to the Turkish Cypriots support for the British, the EOKA leader Georgios Grivas declared them an enemy, the first underground organization formed by Turkish Cypriots to oppose enosis was Volkan. This organization was founded in 1956 or September 1955 according to different sources, roni Alasor, however, claims that TMTs organisation structure and base had been formed as early as 1950 with its centre in Yenişehir, Ankara. The exact date of establishment of the TMT varies across several sources, rauf Denktaş, however, claimed that the organization was established on 27 November. The establishment took place in the house of Kemal Tanrıverdi in Nicosia and its declaration of establishment, which called all Turkish Cypriot members of resistance organizations to unite under the TMT, was printed on 26 November 1957 by the Lefkoşa Türk Lisesi. Initially, it only had about 100 members, the TMT was initially formed with a local initiative, with the aims of raising awareness in Turkey about the Cypriot issue and military training and supply for Turkish Cypriot fighters. However, its leaders were aware that such an organization would not be popular without Turkish support, on 2 January 1958, Denktaş and Küçük flew to Ankara to meet with Fatin Rüştü Zorlu. After several months of consideration, Turkey decided to support the organization on the condition that Turkish support would be kept secret, Daniş Karabelen was assigned to organize the TMTs foundation. Communication with its members in Cyprus was by radio and the leader of the TMT was Fatin Rüştü Zorlu. General Daniş Karabelen, in charge of unconventional warfare office of Turkey, was leading the irregular Turkish Cypriot attacks on Greek Cypriot properties, the TMT was an ethno-nationalist organization, with a right-wing, revolutionary stance. Harry Anastasiou called its ideology a uniquely Cypriot expression of Turkish nationalism, TMTs main goal was to counter the Greek Cypriot demand for enosis. TMT used the symbol of the Gray Wolf, an important archetype from Turkish mythology, TMT was active mainly between 1958 and 1974, promoting partition of Cyprus. Turkish Cypriot newspaper Avrupa claimed that TMT was also responsible for the death of two Turkish Cypriot lawyers in 1962 believed to have killed by the Greek Cypriots. An article published by the former Turkish Cypriot newspaper Zafer Kıbrıslı Türklerindir reveals the murders of various Turkish Cypriots who continued to support the Greek Cypriots by TMT in 1958, operation Atilla Cyprus dispute Bloody Christmas
23.
EOKA
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EOKA was a Greek Cypriot nationalist guerrilla organisation that fought a campaign for the end of British rule in Cyprus, for the islands self-determination and for eventual union with Greece. Prime minister Eleftherios Venizelos on the hand was an ardent anglophile. After Venizelos efforts to sway Constantines opinion proved unsuccessful, the promise was never realised, in the 1950s, EOKA was established having the specific aim to mount a military campaign to end the status of Cyprus as a British crown colony and achieve the islands unification with Greece. AKEL was previously involved in organising the plebiscite of 1950, where the vast majority of Greek Cypriots voted for union with Greece, EOKA was a nationalist organisation with the ultimate goal of The liberation of Cyprus from the British yoke, claiming to be anti-colonialist. Although not stated in its declaration of existence, which was printed and distributed on 1 April 1955. Despite this ideology being reflected throughout the campaign in many of its members. The head of the arm of EOKA, Makarios, took a more compromising approach. Ultimately, the intents of the struggle were according to the organisation political, EOKA, in Grivas words, wanted to attract the attention of the world through high-profile operations that would make headlines. In his memoirs Grivas admits to by deeds of heroism and self sacrifice to draw the attention of public opinion. The military campaign began on April 1,1955. The organisation was headed by Georgios Grivas, a graduate of the Hellenic Military Academy, Grivas had served as an officer in the Greek Army. He had fought in both World Wars, during the German occupation of Greece in World War II, he led a small, extreme right-wing resistance group, named Organization X. After the war and during the Hellenic Civil War, he led Organisation X in opposing the leftist resistance guerillas of ELAS, Grivas assumed the nom de guerre Digenis in direct reference to the Byzantine Digenis Akritas who repelled invaders from the Byzantine Empire. Second in command in EOKA was Grigoris Afxentiou, also an officer of the Greek army. Afxentiou had graduated from the reserves Officers Academy in 1950 with no experience in military operations. Recruitment of members was targeted at the younger population, the conditions for a mass uprising as witnessed in other colonial conflicts were assessed not to exist in Cyprus. There were no fundamental economic problems nor was there widespread poverty or food shortage, the working class was largely allied to the AKEL left-wingers and did not openly support an armed paramilitary campaign. Cyprus privileged geographical position allowed the class to prosper through international trade
24.
Enosis
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Enosis refers to the movement of various Greek communities that live outside Greece, for incorporation of the regions they inhabit into the Greek state. Widely known is the case of the Greek-Cypriots for union of Cyprus into Greece, following Greek independence, movements calling for Enosis achieved popular support among ethnic Greeks living outside the Greek nation state. Britain transferred the islands to Greece in 1864, Thessaly remained under Ottoman control after the formation of the Kingdom of Greece. Although parts of the territory had participated in the uprisings in the Greek War of Independence In 1821. During the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78 Greece remained neutral, as a result of assurances by the Great Powers that her claims on the Ottoman Empire would be considered after the war. In 1881 Greece and the Ottoman Empire signed the Convention of Constantinople which created a new Greco-Turkish border, Crete rebelled against Ottoman rule during the Cretan Revolt of 1866-69 using the motto Crete, Enosis, Freedom or Death. The Cretan State was established following the intervention of the Great Powers, the Dodecanese were held by Italy until World War II, after which they became a British military protectorate. The islands were united with Greece by the 1947 Treaty of Peace with Italy. In modern times, apart from Cyprus, the call for Enosis is adopted among part of the Greeks living in southern Albania/Northern Epirus. In 1828, modern Greece’s first president Ioannis Kapodistrias whose maternal ancestors were Greek Cypriots, called for union of Cyprus with Greece, a string of British proposals for local autonomy under continued British suzerainty were roundly rejected. The idea of enosis was systematically implanted into the minds of Greek Cypriot youth through education, as such, Greek Cypriot schools put emphasis on the idea of being part of a greater Greek nation and the realization of Megali Idea to make Greece great again. They taught students that they were Greeks and should welcome enosis, in the 1940s and 50s, textbooks portrayed Turks as enemies of Greeks and claimed that Greek Cypriots were enslaved by the British. Students pledged their loyalty to the Greek king at the Boy Scouts, inter-communal periodicals, published by the British, were prevented from being accessed by students and teachers were pressured to actively promote enosis as they feared retribution by the Church. Even though the U. K. was an ally of Greece during WW2 and had supported the Greek government during the Greek civil war. The Church then proceeded to organize its own unofficial referendum which would place in churches. Later, there were accusations that the local Greek Orthodox church had told its congregation that if it did not vote in favour of Enosis that would have meant excommunication from the church. Unlike modern elections and referendums, which are decided by secret ballot, an obvious reason for this could be that, given the unofficial status of the referendum, a secret ballot would be easier to dispute than an eponymous one. After the referendum, a delegation was formed with the aim of the distribution of the referendum documents
25.
U.N. General Assembly
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The United Nations General Assembly is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations and the only one in which all member nations have equal representation. The General Assembly is the deliberative, policymaking and representative organ of the UN. It has also established a number of subsidiary organs. It can also reconvene for special and emergency special sessions and its composition, functions, powers, voting, and procedures are set out in Chapter IV of the United Nations Charter. The first session was convened on 10 January 1946 in the Methodist Central Hall in London, other questions are decided by a straightforward majority. Each member country has one vote, apart from approval of budgetary matters, including adoption of a scale of assessment, Assembly resolutions are not binding on the members. The Assembly may make recommendations on any matters within the scope of the UN, except matters of peace, the one state, one vote power structure potentially allows states comprising just five percent of the world population to pass a resolution by a two-thirds vote. During the 1980s, the Assembly became a forum for the North-South dialogue and these issues came to the fore because of the phenomenal growth and changing makeup of the UN membership. In 1945, the UN had 51 members and it now has 193, of which more than two-thirds are developing countries. Because of their numbers, developing countries are able to determine the agenda of the Assembly, the character of its debates. For many developing countries, the UN is the source of much of their diplomatic influence, the Assembly can consider the matter immediately with a view to making recommendations to Members for collective measures to maintain or restore international peace and security. The first session of the UN General Assembly was convened on 10 January 1946 in the Methodist Central Hall in London, the next few annual sessions were held in different cities, the second session in New York, and the third session was in Paris. It moved to the permanent United Nations Headquarters in New York at the start of its seventh regular annual session, on 14 October 1952. In December 1988, in order to hear Yasser Arafat, the General Assembly organised its 29th session in the Palace of Nations, all 193 members states of the United Nations are members of the General Assembly. The agenda for each session is planned up to seven months in advance and this is refined into a provisional agenda 60 days before the opening of the session. Items on the agenda are numbered, the General Assembly votes on many resolutions brought forth by sponsoring states. These are generally statements symbolizing the sense of the community about an array of world issues. Most General Assembly resolutions are not enforceable as a legal or practical matter, the General Assembly has authority to make final decisions in some areas such as the United Nations budget
26.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
27.
Greece
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Greece, officially the Hellenic Republic, historically also known as Hellas, is a country in southeastern Europe, with a population of approximately 11 million as of 2015. Athens is the capital and largest city, followed by Thessaloniki. Greece is strategically located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, situated on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, it shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the northeast. Greece consists of nine regions, Macedonia, Central Greece, the Peloponnese, Thessaly, Epirus, the Aegean Islands, Thrace, Crete. The Aegean Sea lies to the east of the mainland, the Ionian Sea to the west, the Cretan Sea and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the longest coastline on the Mediterranean Basin and the 11th longest coastline in the world at 13,676 km in length, featuring a vast number of islands, eighty percent of Greece is mountainous, with Mount Olympus being the highest peak at 2,918 metres. From the eighth century BC, the Greeks were organised into various independent city-states, known as polis, which spanned the entire Mediterranean region and the Black Sea. Greece was annexed by Rome in the second century BC, becoming a part of the Roman Empire and its successor. The Greek Orthodox Church also shaped modern Greek identity and transmitted Greek traditions to the wider Orthodox World, falling under Ottoman dominion in the mid-15th century, the modern nation state of Greece emerged in 1830 following a war of independence. Greeces rich historical legacy is reflected by its 18 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, among the most in Europe, Greece is a democratic and developed country with an advanced high-income economy, a high quality of life, and a very high standard of living. A founding member of the United Nations, Greece was the member to join the European Communities and has been part of the Eurozone since 2001. Greeces unique cultural heritage, large industry, prominent shipping sector. It is the largest economy in the Balkans, where it is an important regional investor, the names for the nation of Greece and the Greek people differ from the names used in other languages, locations and cultures. The earliest evidence of the presence of human ancestors in the southern Balkans, dated to 270,000 BC, is to be found in the Petralona cave, all three stages of the stone age are represented in Greece, for example in the Franchthi Cave. Neolithic settlements in Greece, dating from the 7th millennium BC, are the oldest in Europe by several centuries and these civilizations possessed writing, the Minoans writing in an undeciphered script known as Linear A, and the Mycenaeans in Linear B, an early form of Greek. The Mycenaeans gradually absorbed the Minoans, but collapsed violently around 1200 BC and this ushered in a period known as the Greek Dark Ages, from which written records are absent. The end of the Dark Ages is traditionally dated to 776 BC, the Iliad and the Odyssey, the foundational texts of Western literature, are believed to have been composed by Homer in the 7th or 8th centuries BC. With the end of the Dark Ages, there emerged various kingdoms and city-states across the Greek peninsula, in 508 BC, Cleisthenes instituted the worlds first democratic system of government in Athens
28.
British Government
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Her Majestys Government, commonly referred to as the UK government or British government, is the central government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The government is led by the Prime Minister, who all the remaining ministers. The prime minister and the other most senior ministers belong to the supreme decision-making committee, the government ministers all sit in Parliament, and are accountable to it. After an election, the monarch selects as prime minister the leader of the party most likely to command a majority of MPs in the House of Commons. Under the uncodified British constitution, executive authority lies with the monarch, although this authority is exercised only by, or on the advice of, the prime minister, the Cabinet members advise the monarch as members of the Privy Council. They also exercise power directly as leaders of the Government Departments, the current prime minister is Theresa May, who took office on 13 July 2016. She is the leader of the Conservative Party, which won a majority of seats in the House of Commons in the election on 7 May 2015. Prior to this, Cameron and the Conservatives led a government from 2010 to 2015 with the Liberal Democrats. A key principle of the British Constitution is that the government is responsible to Parliament, Britain is a constitutional monarchy in which the reigning monarch does not make any open political decisions. All political decisions are taken by the government and Parliament and this constitutional state of affairs is the result of a long history of constraining and reducing the political power of the monarch, beginning with the Magna Carta in 1215. Parliament is split into two houses, the House of Lords and the House of Commons, the House of Commons is the lower house and is the more powerful. The House of Lords is the house and although it can vote to amend proposed laws. Parliamentary time is essential for bills to be passed into law, Ministers of the Crown are responsible to the House in which they sit, they make statements in that House and take questions from members of that House. For most senior ministers this is usually the elected House of Commons rather than the House of Lords, since the start of Edward VIIs reign, in 1901, the prime minister has always been an elected member of Parliament and therefore directly accountable to the House of Commons. Under the British system the government is required by convention and for reasons to maintain the confidence of the House of Commons. It requires the support of the House of Commons for the maintenance of supply, by convention if a government loses the confidence of the House of Commons it must either resign or a General Election is held. The support of the Lords, while useful to the government in getting its legislation passed without delay, is not vital, a government is not required to resign even if it loses the confidence of the Lords and is defeated in key votes in that House. The House of Commons is thus the Responsible house, the prime minister is held to account during Prime Ministers Question Time which provides an opportunity for MPs from all parties to question the PM on any subject
29.
Ankara
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Ankara, formerly known as Ancyra and Angora, is the capital of the Republic of Turkey. With a population of 4,587,558 in the center and 5,150,072 in its province. Ankara was Atatürks headquarters from 1920 and has been the capital of the Republic since its founding in 1923, the government is a prominent employer, but Ankara is also an important commercial and industrial city, located at the center of Turkeys road and railway networks. The city gave its name to the Angora wool shorn from Angora rabbits, the long-haired Angora goat, the area is also known for its pears, honey, and muscat grapes. Ankara is an old city with various Hittite, Phrygian, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine. The historical center of town is a hill rising 150 m over the left bank of the Ankara Çayı, a tributary of the Sakarya River. The hill remains crowned by the ruins of the old citadel, as with many ancient cities, Ankara has gone by several names over the ages. It has been identified with the Hittite cult center Ankuwaš, although remains a matter of debate. In classical antiquity and during the period, the city was known as Ánkyra in Greek and Ancyra in Latin. Following its annexation by the Seljuk Turks in 1073, the city known in many European languages as Angora. The form Angora is preserved in the names of breeds of different kinds of animals. The oldest settlements in and around the city center of Ankara belonged to the Hattic civilization which existed during the Bronze Age and was gradually absorbed c, 2000–1700 BC by the Indo-European Hittites. In Phrygian tradition, King Midas was venerated as the founder of Ancyra, but Pausanias mentions that the city was far older. Persian sovereignty lasted until the Persians defeat at the hands of Alexander the Great who conquered the city in 333 BC, Alexander came from Gordion to Ankara and stayed in the city for a short period. After his death at Babylon in 323 BC and the subsequent division of his empire among his generals, Ankara, by that time the city also took its name Ἄγκυρα which, in slightly modified form, provides the modern name of Ankara. Other centers were Pessinos, todays Balhisar, for the Trocmi tribe, the city was then known as Ancyra. The Celtic element was probably relatively small in numbers, an aristocracy which ruled over Phrygian-speaking peasants. However, the Celtic language continued to be spoken in Galatia for many centuries
30.
Turkish government
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The Cabinet of Turkey or Council of Ministers is the body that exercises supreme executive authority in Turkey. It is composed of the heads of the major ministries, Ministers are appointed by the president on the advice of the prime minister. The cabinet is the power and is responsible for the management of the state. The current cabinet is the 65th cabinet of Turkey and is led by Prime Minister Binali Yıldırım
31.
Greek Cypriot
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Greek Cypriots are the ethnic Greek population of Cyprus, forming the islands largest ethnolinguistic community at 78% of the population. Greek Cypriots are mostly members of the Church of Cyprus, an autocephalous Greek Orthodox Church within the communion of Orthodox Christianity. Cyprus was part of the Mycenaean civilization, with production of Mycenaean vases dating to the Late Helladic III. The quantity of this pottery concludes that there were numerous Mycenaean settlers, if not settlements, archaeological evidence shows that Greek settlement began unsystematically in c.1400 BC, then steadied with definite settlements established in c.1200 BC. The close connection between the Arcadian dialect and those of Pamphylia and Cyprus indicates that the migration came from Achaea, Achaeans settled among the old population, and founded Salamis. The epic Cypria, dating to the 7th century BC, may have originated in Cyprus, the majority of Greek Cypriots descend from the Achaeans but also from the other three Greek tribes, Ionians, Aeolians and Dorians. Throughout the history of Cyprus, Greek people continuously colonized the island from different parts of the Hellenic world, Cyprus is the third largest island in the Mediterranean after Sicily and Sardinia, and the largest island in the eastern Mediterranean. Mount Olympus, the highest point of the Troodos Mountains, is the highest point on the island, the island gradually became part of the Hellenic world as the settlers prospered over the next centuries. Alexander the Great conquered the island from the Persians in 333 BC, after the division of the Roman Empire in 285 AD, Cypriots had home rule for almost nine centuries under the jurisdiction of the Byzantine Empire, something not seen again until 1960. Perhaps the most important event of the early Byzantine period was the churchs independence from the Patriarchate of Antioch. The bishop of the ancient capital Salamis was constituted metropolitan by Emperor Zeno, the Byzantine era profoundly molded Greek Cypriot culture. The Greek Orthodox Christian legacy bestowed on Greek Cypriots in this period would live on during the centuries of foreign domination. The Cypriots did however endure the oppressive rule of first the Lusignans, king Amaury, who succeeded his brother Guy de Lusignan in 1194, was particularly intolerant of the Orthodox Church. Greek Cypriot land was appropriated for the Latin churches after they were established in the towns on the island. In addition, tax collection was part of the heavy oppressive attitude of the occupiers to the locals of the island. The Ottoman conquest of Cyprus in 1571 delivered the Greek population from serfdom, Cypriot Greeks were now able to take control of the land they had been working on for centuries. The local Christians resumed practicing their religion in the only way they knew. Despite the inherent oppression of foreign subjugation, the period of Ottoman rule had a impact on Greek Cypriot culture
32.
Turkish invasion of Cyprus
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The Turkish invasion of Cyprus was a Turkish military invasion of the island country of Cyprus. It was launched on 20 July 1974, following the Cypriot coup détat on 15 July 1974, the coup had been ordered by the military Junta in Greece and staged by the Cypriot National Guard in conjunction with EOKA-B. It deposed the Cypriot president Archbishop Makarios III and installed the pro-Enosis Nikos Sampson, the aim of the coup was the annexation of the island by Greece, and the Hellenic Republic of Cyprus was declared. In July 1974, Turkish forces invaded and captured 3% of the island before a ceasefire was declared, the Greek military junta collapsed and was replaced by a democratic government. In August 1974 another Turkish invasion resulted in the capture of approximately 40% of the island, the ceasefire line from August 1974 became the United Nations Buffer Zone in Cyprus and is commonly referred to as the Green Line. Around 150,000 people were expelled from the northern part of the island. A little over a year later in 1975, roughly 60,000 Turkish Cypriots, in 1983 the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus declared independence, although Turkey is the only country that recognizes it. The international community considers the TRNCs territory as Turkish-occupied territory of the Republic of Cyprus, the occupation is viewed as illegal under international law, amounting to illegal occupation of European Union territory since Cyprus became its member. The invasions Turkish Armed Forces code name was Operation Atilla, among Turkish speakers the operation is also referred as Cyprus Peace Operation or Operation Peace or Cyprus Operation, as Turkey took military action on the pretext of a peacekeeping operation. In 1571 the mostly Greek-populated island of Cyprus was conquered by the Ottoman Empire, the island and its population was later leased to Britain by the Cyprus Convention, an agreement reached during the Congress of Berlin in 1878 between the United Kingdom and the Ottoman Empire. Article 20 of the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 marked the end of the Turkish claim to the island. Article 21 of the treaty gave the minority Muslims on the island the choice of leaving the island to live as Turkish subjects in Turkey, or to stay on the island and become British subjects. At this time the population of Cyprus was composed of both Greeks and Turks, who identified themselves with their mother countries. However, the elites of both shared the belief that they were socially more progressive and therefore distinct from the mainlanders. Greek and Turkish Cypriots lived quietly side by side for many years, formal education was perhaps the most important as it affected Cypriots during childhood and youth, education has been a main vehicle of transferring inter-communal hostility. British colonial policies also promoted ethnic polarization, the British applied the principle of divide and rule, setting the two groups against each other to prevent combined action against colonial rule. This and similar practices contributed to inter-communal animosity, Turkish nationalism was at the core of the revolutionary program promoted by the father of modern Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and affected Turkish Cypriots who followed his principles. President of the Republic of Turkey from 1923 to 1938, Atatürk attempted to build a new nation on the ruins of the Ottoman Empire and these principles of secularism and nationalism reduced Islams role in the everyday life of individuals and emphasized Turkish identity as the main source of nationalism
33.
Nikos Sampson
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Sampson was a journalist and a member of EOKA, which rose against the British colonial administration, seeking Enosis of the island of Cyprus with Greece. He was eventually arrested, and sentenced to death, but was imprisoned in Britain after the sentence was commuted, upon his return upon the formation of the Republic of Cyprus, he entered politics, becoming a member of Parliament. Following the Turkish invasion of Cyprus on 20 July he resigned and he was later sentenced to twenty years in prison for abuse of power, the only person convicted vis-à-vis the coup, maintaining there had been a setup and cover up. Three years into his sentence, he was allowed to go to France on medical grounds and he returned to Cyprus in 1990 to resume his sentence, and was pardoned for the remainder of his sentence in 1993. Following his release, he went into the publishing business. He died of cancer in 2001, Sampson was born in the Cypriot port city of Famagusta to Sampson Georgiadis and Theano Liasidou. During his teenage years, he was a footballer, playing as a back in the Anorthosis Famagusta second team. He began his life at a Cyprus newspaper, the The Cyprus Times. His original name was Nikos Georgiadis, but he adopted his fathers forename as his surname, Sampson joined EOKA and formed part of than execution team under the direct orders of General Georgios Grivas, leader of EOKA. Another member of team was Neoptolemos Georgiou. He was involved in at least 15 killings, according to British sources, the actual number was much higher. Among his victims were three police sergeants, and in May 1957, Sampson was tried for one of their murders and he confessed, but was acquitted on the grounds that his confession may have been coerced by torture. At the time, Sampson was working as a journalist, and he would often photograph the bodies of his victims after killing them, the police became suspicious about how Sampson was always the first reporter to arrive at the murder scene and he was arrested. Only a month after his acquittal, he was given away by informants and he was convicted of weapons possession which, under the emergency regulations of the moment, carried a death sentence. The death sentence was commuted to life imprisonment and Sampson was flown to the United Kingdom to serve it. He returned to Nicosia shortly after Independence Day, in 1960 he set up the newspaper Makhi, meaning battle, or struggle, which was one of the first Greek newspapers in circulation in the nation of Cyprus. In 1961, in a series of articles, he admitted his service fighting the occupying police officers in 1956 during the resistance campaign against British rule of the Greek island of Cyprus. According to the Telegraph, as a journalist, he flew to Algeria to interview Ben Bella, following an explosion to the statue of EOKA hero Markos Drakos in Nicosia, Sampson actively participated in clashes between the Greek and Turkish communities in December 1963
34.
Turkish Army
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The Turkish Land Forces, or Turkish Army, is the main branch of the Turkish Armed Forces responsible for land-based military operations. Official claims state that the army was founded by Modu Chanyu of the Xiongnu Empire in 209 BC, but the modern history of the army began with its formation after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. Significant events since the foundation of the Army include combat in the Korean War and in the 1974 Turkish invasion of Cyprus, the army holds the preeminent place within the armed forces. It is customary for the Chief of the General Staff of the Republic of Turkey to have been the Commander of the Turkish Land Forces prior to his appointment as Turkeys senior ranking officer. Alongside the other two armed services, the Turkish Army has frequently intervened in Turkish politics, which has now been regulated to an extent with the reform of the National Security Council, the current commander of the Turkish Land Forces is General Salih Zeki Çolak. A more recent estimate put the figure at 391,000, factors contributing to this are further destabilization of Syria and Iraq due to ISIS and the Russian intervention in Syria, as-well as the re-emergence of a PKK insurgency in Turkeys south east. On 28 June 1963, the Turkish Army celebrated the 600th anniversary of its foundation, back then, the accepted theory was that the Turkish Armed Forces had been founded in 1363, when the Pençik corps had been formed. In 1968, Yılmaz Öztuna proposed this theory to Cemal Tural, in 1973, when the Turkish Army celebrated the 610th anniversary of its foundation, Nihal Atsız published his claim again. After the 1980 Turkish coup détat, the Turkish Army formally adopted the date 209 BC as its year of foundation, the modern Turkish Army has its foundations in nine remnant Ottoman Army corps after the Armistice of Mudros at the end of World War I. On November 8,1920, the GNA decided to establish an army instead of irregular troops. On August 26,1922, the Army of the Grand National Assembly launched the general offensive known as the Great Offensive against the Greek forces around Kara Hisâr-ı Sâhip. Nurettin Pashas 1st Army and Yakup Şevki Pashas 2nd Army encircled the main body of Major General Nikolaos Trikoupiss group, fahrettin Pashas V Cavalry Corps entered Smyrna on September 9,1922. Şükrü Naili Pashas III Corps entered Constantinople peacefully on October 6,1923, subsequently to the founding of the Republic of Turkey, the Army of the GNA was reorganized into three army inspectorates. In 1935, Turkey purchased 60 T-26 mod.1933 light tanks from the USSR, the Armoured Brigade of the Turkish Army consisted of the 102nd and the 103rd Companies armed with the T-26 mod.1933 tanks in the end of 1937. The reserve group of the brigade had 21 T-26 tanks also, in the beginning of 1940, the Turkish Army had the Armoured Brigade in Istanbul, which belonged to the 1st Army, and the 1st Tank Battalion, which belonged to the 3rd Army. Turkish T-26 tanks were out of service in 1942. During World War II, Turkey mobilized more than a million personnel, the Turkish Army order of battle in 1941 shows a number of formations. The command of the Turkish Army was formed on July 1,1949, the brigade also fought at Gimnyangjang-ni, Operation Ripper, or the Fourth Battle of Seoul, and Vegas
35.
Turkey
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Turkey, officially the Republic of Turkey, is a transcontinental country in Eurasia, mainly in Anatolia in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, parliamentary republic with a cultural heritage. The country is encircled by seas on three sides, the Aegean Sea is to the west, the Black Sea to the north, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles, Ankara is the capital while Istanbul is the countrys largest city and main cultural and commercial centre. Approximately 70-80% of the countrys citizens identify themselves as ethnic Turks, other ethnic groups include legally recognised and unrecognised minorities. Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group, making up approximately 20% of the population, the area of Turkey has been inhabited since the Paleolithic by various ancient Anatolian civilisations, as well as Assyrians, Greeks, Thracians, Phrygians, Urartians and Armenians. After Alexander the Greats conquest, the area was Hellenized, a process continued under the Roman Empire. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, the empire reached the peak of its power in the 16th century, especially during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. During the war, the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian, Assyrian, following the war, the conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was partitioned into several new states. Turkey is a member of the UN, an early member of NATO. Turkeys growing economy and diplomatic initiatives have led to its recognition as a regional power while her location has given it geopolitical, the name of Turkey is based on the ethnonym Türk. The first recorded use of the term Türk or Türük as an autonym is contained in the Old Turkic inscriptions of the Göktürks of Central Asia, the English name Turkey first appeared in the late 14th century and is derived from Medieval Latin Turchia. Similarly, the medieval Khazar Empire, a Turkic state on the shores of the Black. The medieval Arabs referred to the Mamluk Sultanate as al-Dawla al-Turkiyya, the Ottoman Empire was sometimes referred to as Turkey or the Turkish Empire among its European contemporaries. The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world, various ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic period until the Hellenistic period. Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of the larger Indo-European language family, in fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical centre from which the Indo-European languages radiated. The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has also been inhabited since at least forty years ago. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date, the settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the Iron Age
36.
European Union
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The European Union is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of 4,475,757 km2, the EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished, a monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU operates through a system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community, the community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state has left the EU or its antecedent organisations, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the basis of the EU. The EU as a whole is the largest economy in the world, additionally,27 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7, because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower. After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the nationalism which had devastated the continent. 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, the supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul-Henri Spaak. These men and others are credited as the Founding fathers of the European Union. In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome and they also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958, the EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand, Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power, Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission. In 1973, the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland, Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum
37.
Tassos Papadopoulos
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Efstathios Tassos Nikolaou Papadopoulos was a Cypriot politician and barrister who served as the fifth President of the Republic of Cyprus from February 28,2003 to February 28,2008. His parents were Nicolas and Aggeliki from Assia and he was the first of three children. Papadopoulos attended the Ayios Kassianos and Elenio primary schools in Nicosia and his fathers circle which included lawyers and judges, were influential on his future career and he went on to study law at Kings College London before becoming a barrister-at-law through Grays Inn. His life in London would prove to be pivotal in his political life. In the second year of his studies he lived with future politician Spyros Kyprianou, Papadopoulos returned to Cyprus on the 20th of March 1955, ten days before the start of EOKAs armed struggle against British colonialism. At first he joined EOKA and became regional chief operations in Nicosia, soon however, he became active in PEKA, the political arm of the EOKA guerilla organisation. In 1958, aged 24, he became PEKAs general secretary and he took part in the London Conference in 1959 and was one of the two delegates who voted against the signing of the London and Zurich Agreements. He was also one of the four representatives of the Greek Cypriot side at the Constitutional Commission which drafted the Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus. Following independence, aged 25 and to his own surprise he was appointed first as provisional Minister of Internal affairs and he was the youngest member of the new cabinet and remains the youngest minister to date to serve in a Cypriot government. In 1969 he co-founded the Eniaion Komma a party aligned to, Glafcos Clerides became president whilst Papadopoulos remained vice-president of the party. At the Parliamentary elections held on 15 July 1970 he was elected member of the House of Representatives, however, following a difference of opinion with the leader he later resigned from the party. In 1974 Papadopoulos was imprisoned by the forces responsible for the coup détat. Belonging to Makarios cabinet made him a target and he was rounded up in Famagusta where he was imprisoned. He was released on the evening before the first Turkish invasion of Cyprus and he represented Cyprus at many international conferences, particularly the annual congresses of the International Labour Organization. Furthermore he represented the Greek Cypriot community in many recourses by Cyprus filed at the United Nations, until his election he practised law in Nicosia. Standing as an independent candidate, he was re-elected in the election of 5 September 1976, from July 22, to September 20,1976 he served as President of the House of Representatives. In the 19 May 1991 parliamentary elections he was elected member of the House of Representatives and he was re-elected on 26 May 1996. On 7 October 2000, he was elected unopposed as the President of the Democratic Party during the electoral congress at which the founder of the Party, Spyros Kyprianou
38.
UN Secretary General
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The Secretary-General of the United Nations is the head of the United Nations Secretariat, one of the principal organs of the United Nations. The Secretary-General serves as the administrative officer of the United Nations. The role of the United Nations Secretariat, and of the Secretary-General in particular, is out by Chapter XV of the United Nations Charter. As of 2017, the Secretary-General is António Guterres, appointed by the General Assembly on 13 October 2016, according to the UN website, their roles are further defined as diplomat and advocate, civil servant, and CEO. Nevertheless, this more abstract description has not prevented the office holders from speaking out, responsibilities of the Secretary-General are further outlined in Articles 98 through 100. They are also responsible for making a report to the General Assembly. According to Article 99, they may notify the Security Council on matters which in their opinion may threaten the maintenance of international peace, other than these few guidelines, little else is dictated by the Charter. Interpretation of the Charter has varied between Secretaries-General, with some being more active than others. The Secretary-General is highly dependent upon the support of the states of the UN. The personal skills of the Secretary-General and their staff are crucial to their function, the central position of the UN headquarters in the international diplomatic network is also an important asset. The Secretary-General has the right to place any dispute on the agenda of the Security Council. However, they work mostly behind the scenes if the members of the council are unwilling to discuss a dispute. Most of their time is spent on good offices missions and mediation, sometimes at the request of deliberative organs of the UN and their function may be replaced or supplemented by mediation efforts by the major powers. UN peacekeeping missions are often linked to mediation. The recent improvement in relations between the permanent members of the Security Council has strengthened the role of the Secretary-General as the worlds most reputable intermediary, in the early 1960s, Soviet First Secretary Nikita Khrushchev led an effort to abolish the Secretary-General position. Khrushchev proposed to replace the Secretary-General with a three-person leading council, one member from the West, one from the Eastern Bloc and this idea failed because the neutral powers failed to back the Soviet proposal. Article 97 of the United Nations Charter determines that the Secretary-General is appointed by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council, as the recommendation must come from the Security Council, any of the five permanent members of the Council can veto a nomination. Most Secretaries-General are compromise candidates from middle powers and have little prior fame, unofficial qualifications for the job have been set by precedent in previous selections
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Kofi Annan
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Kofi Atta Annan is a Ghanaian diplomat who served as the seventh Secretary-General of the United Nations from January 1997 to December 2006. Annan and the UN were the co-recipients of the 2001 Nobel Peace Prize and he is the founder and chairman of the Kofi Annan Foundation, as well as chairman of The Elders, an international organization founded by Nelson Mandela. Born in Kumasi, Annan went on to study economics at Macalester College, international relations from the Graduate Institute Geneva, Annan joined the UN in 1962, working for the World Health Organizations Geneva office. He went on to work in several capacities at the UN Headquarters including serving as the Under-Secretary-General for peacekeeping between March 1992 and December 1996 and he was re-elected for a second term in 2001, and was succeeded as Secretary-General by Ban Ki-moon on 1 January 2007. As the Secretary-General, Annan reformed the UN bureaucracy, worked to combat HIV, especially in Africa and he has been criticized for not expanding the Security Council and faced calls for resignation after an investigation into the Oil-for-Food Programme. After leaving the UN, he founded the Kofi Annan Foundation in 2007 to work on international development, in 2012, Annan was the UN–Arab League Joint Special Representative for Syria, to help find a resolution to ongoing conflict there. Annan quit after becoming frustrated with the UNs lack of progress with regard to conflict resolution, in September 2016, Annan was appointed to lead a UN commission to investigate the Rohingya crisis. Kofi Annan was born in the Kofandros section of Kumasi in the Gold Coast on 8 April 1938 and his twin sister Efua Atta, who died in 1991, shared the middle name Atta, which in the Akan means twin. Annan and his sister were born one of the countrys Ashanti and Fante aristocratic families. In the Akan names tradition, some children are named according to the day of the week on which they were born, Kofi in Akan is the name that corresponds with Friday. Annan has said his surname rhymes with cannon in English, from 1954 to 1957, Annan attended the elite Mfantsipim school, a Methodist boarding school in Cape Coast founded in the 1870s. Annan has said that the school taught him that suffering anywhere concerns people everywhere, in 1957, the year Annan graduated from Mfantsipim, the Gold Coast gained independence from Britain and began using the name Ghana. In 1958, Annan began studying economics at the Kumasi College of Science and Technology, now the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology of Ghana. He received a Ford Foundation grant, enabling him to complete his studies in economics at Macalester College in St. Paul, Minnesota, United States. Annan then completed a diplôme détudes approfondies DEA degree in International Relations at The Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies in Geneva, Switzerland, from 1961–62. After some years of experience, he studied at the MIT Sloan School of Management in the Sloan Fellows program. Annan is fluent in English, French, Akan, some Kru languages, in 1962, Kofi Annan started working as a Budget Officer for the World Health Organization, an agency of the United Nations. From 1974 to 1976, he worked as the Director of Tourism in Ghana, in 1980 he became the head of personnel for the office of the UN High Commission for Refugees in Geneva
40.
Annan Plan for Cyprus
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The Annan Plan was a United Nations proposal to resolve the Cyprus dispute. The different parts of the proposal were based on the argumentation brought forth by each party in meetings held under the auspices of the UN, the said proposal suggested to restructure the Republic of Cyprus as a United Republic of Cyprus, which would be a federation of two states. It was revised a number of times before being put to the people of Cyprus in a 2004 referendum, the proposal was supported by 65% of Turkish Cypriots, but only 24% of Greek Cypriots. The Annan Plan had undergone five revisions in order to reach its final version, the 5th revision proposed the creation of the United Cyprus Republic, covering the island of Cyprus in its entirety except for the British Sovereign Base Areas. This new country was to be a federation of two constituent states – the Greek Cypriot State and the Turkish Cypriot State – joined together by a government apparatus. An additional three non-voting members would be assigned 2,1, a bicameral legislature, A Senate, with 48 members, divided 24,24 between the two communities. A Chamber of Deputies, with 48 members, divided in proportion to the two communities populations, a Supreme Court composed of equal numbers of Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot judges, plus three foreign judges, to be appointed by the Presidential Council. It also provided for a Reconciliation Commission to bring the two closer together and resolve outstanding disputes from the past. S. President Bill Clinton visited Turkey and Greece, and proximity talks in New York were arranged beginning 3 December. The motivation for this attempt at a Cyprus settlement was Cyprus impending membership of the EU. This prospect was of particular concern not only to Turkey, but also to the USA and the UK, a further concern was the future of the British military bases and installations on Cyprus which were regarded as essential by both the UK and USA. However the EU kept its options open by adding, “In this the Council will take account of all relevant factors. ”Following the talks in New York, four rounds of proximity talks were held in Geneva,31 January –8 February 24 July –4 August, 12–26 September. He was supported in his decision by Turkey, with separate meetings of the Secretary-General with each of the two leaders on 12 September 2001 in New York. Denktaş rejected Annans invitation on the day, but the visit to Cyprus in October 2001 of the President of the European Commission Romano Prodi prompted him to think again. During his visit Prodi stated that Cyprus would become an EU member with or without a settlement, shortly thereafter Denktaş entered into correspondence with Clerides, and a meeting in the presence of Alvaro de Soto was organised in Nicosia on 4 December 2001. The new round of talks was held in Nicosia and ran from 16 January, in September the venue was moved to Paris, and then, in October, meetings were held in New York. On 11 November 2002, Alvaro de Soto presented a plan for the resolution of the Cyprus issue. Following feedback, but no negotiations between the two sides, a version was published on 10 December, two days before the EU Copenhagen summit
41.
2004 Annan Plan Referendum
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A referendum on the Annan Plan was held in the Republic of Cyprus and the breakaway Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus on 24 April 2004. The two communities were asked whether they approved of the revision of the United Nations proposal for reuniting the island. While it was approved by 65% of Turkish Cypriots, it was rejected by 76% of Greek Cypriots. Turnout for the referendum was high at 89% among Greek Cypriots and 87% among Turkish Cypriots, political leaders in the Republic of Cyprus and Greece strongly opposed the plan. Tassos Papadopoulos, president of the Republic of Cyprus, spoke out against the plan in a speech broadcast live on television, two days before the referendums, Cypruss biggest party, Progressive Party of Working People, decided to reject the Annan Plan. Nevertheless, opinion polls conducted in the Republic of Cyprus over the period of the negotiations from start to finish had always shown around 80% opposition to the proposals. Greek Cypriots have not voted uniformly on the Annan Plan and their voting behaviour was strongly depended on their partisanship and their location. However, it was opposed by their leadership, with the Turkish Cypriot President Rauf Denktaş actively advocating a no vote, however, his Prime Minister Mehmet Ali Talat favoured the plans acceptance, while Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan also supported it. Turkey saw a resolution of the Cyprus issue as being an essential first step to eventual Turkish membership of the EU as well as a way of defusing tensions with Greece, the Grey Wolves actively advocated a no vote. There were some limited riots caused by the Grey Wolves party activists against pro-ratification supporters during the pre-vote period, at least 50 such activists had arrived in Northern Cyprus during the pre-voting period. However, the referendum itself passed off peacefully and was deemed free, Greek Cypriots disputed the right of Turkish Cypriots who had immigrated from Turkey since the 1974 breakaway. This was so, despite established international law and UN practice, and persistent repeated calls of our side to the contrary, which were utterly disregarded. The British Foreign Affairs Select Committee noted that while the population did not swing the vote. Republic of Cyprus President Tassos Papadopoulos, emphasised that his people had rejected just the Annan plan and they are not turning their backs on their Turkish Cypriot compatriots, he said soon after the results were declared. They have simply rejected this solution on offer. Turkish Cypriot President Rauf Denktaş responded to the outcome by declaring that, with the Annan Plan rejected. He rejected calls for his resignation, but announced the following month that he would not be standing for a fifth presidential term in 2005. There was varied reaction from Cypruss Guarantor Powers, Greece, Turkey, turkeys Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan said that he believed the result spelled an end for Turkish Cypriot isolation, and that by rejecting the Annan Plan, southern Cyprus the loser
42.
Northern Cyprus presidential election, 2005
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Presidential elections were held in Northern Cyprus on Sunday April 17,2005. It followed parliamentary elections in the unrecognised country on February 20. It is traditional in Turkish Cypriot presidential elections for political parties to nominate individuals as their candidate, the CTP nominated its leader, Mehmet Ali Talat, who emerged as the clear winner with a 56% share of the vote. The notable absence in this election was the first and at that point only president of Northern Cyprus and he had announced in mid-2004 that he would not be running again. A candidate needs a majority of valid votes in order to win a Turkish Cypriot presidential election. If no candidate secures the majority, a second round of voting is held between the two top candidates. The candidate with a majority in this election is elected to a five-year term as president. The election campaign began on March 22 and will end the day before the election, on April 16, under rules set out by the High Electoral Committee, public opinion polls cannot be published or broadcast after April 2. Results for the first round are announced a few hours after polls close, as published by the Anatolia News Agency on April 18,2005. Results are considered unofficial until published in the Official Gazette, the Turkish Cypriot electoral commission put the turnout at 69. 58% - a lower figure than previous presidential elections, which have always been over 80%. It led UBP leader Derviş Eroğlu to question the legitimacy of the election, a poll had been conducted between March 23 and March 27,2005 by the Cyprus Social Research and Education Consultancy Centre. It found that Mehmet Ali Talat would win a majority in the first round
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Photography
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Typically, a lens is used to focus the light reflected or emitted from objects into a real image on the light-sensitive surface inside a camera during a timed exposure. With an electronic sensor, this produces an electrical charge at each pixel. A negative image on film is used to photographically create a positive image on a paper base, known as a print. The word photography was created from the Greek roots φωτός, genitive of φῶς, light and γραφή representation by means of lines or drawing, several people may have coined the same new term from these roots independently. Johann von Maedler, a Berlin astronomer, is credited in a 1932 German history of photography as having used it in an article published on 25 February 1839 in the German newspaper Vossische Zeitung. Both of these claims are now widely reported but apparently neither has ever been confirmed as beyond reasonable doubt. Credit has traditionally given to Sir John Herschel both for coining the word and for introducing it to the public. Photography is the result of combining several technical discoveries, later Greek mathematicians Aristotle and Euclid also independently described a pinhole camera in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE. Daniele Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1566, wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals in 1694. The fiction book Giphantie, published in 1760, by French author Tiphaigne de la Roche, the discovery of the camera obscura that provides an image of a scene dates back to ancient China. Leonardo da Vinci mentions natural camera obscura that are formed by dark caves on the edge of a sunlit valley, a hole in the cave wall will act as a pinhole camera and project a laterally reversed, upside down image on a piece of paper. So the birth of photography was primarily concerned with inventing means to capture, renaissance painters used the camera obscura which, in fact, gives the optical rendering in color that dominates Western Art. The camera obscura literally means dark chamber in Latin and it is a box with a hole in it which allows light to go through and create an image onto the piece of paper. Around the year 1800, British inventor Thomas Wedgwood made the first known attempt to capture the image in a camera obscura by means of a light-sensitive substance and he used paper or white leather treated with silver nitrate. The shadow images eventually darkened all over, the first permanent photoetching was an image produced in 1822 by the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce, but it was destroyed in a later attempt to make prints from it. Niépce was successful again in 1825, in 1826 or 1827, he made the View from the Window at Le Gras, the earliest surviving photograph from nature. Because Niépces camera photographs required a long exposure, he sought to greatly improve his bitumen process or replace it with one that was more practical. With an eye to eventual commercial exploitation, the partners opted for total secrecy, Daguerres efforts culminated in what would later be named the daguerreotype process
