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Raw material

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Anthracite coal stockpile at the shipping area of a mid-slope coal processing plant. The road leading up beyond the stockpile leads down from a Mountain top strip mine which sources the materials.

Latex being collected from a tapped rubber tree

A raw material, also known as a feedstock or most correctly unprocessed material, is a basic material that is used to produce goods, finished products, energy, or intermediate materials which are feedstock for future finished products. As feedstock, the term connotes these materials are bottleneck assets and are highly important with regard to producing other products. An example of this is crude oil, which is a raw material and a feedstock used in the production of industrial chemicals, fuels, plastics, and pharmaceutical goods; lumber is a raw material used to produce a variety of products including furniture.^[1]

The term "raw material" denotes materials in minimally processed or unprocessed in states; e.g., raw latex, crude oil, cotton, coal, raw biomass, iron ore, air, logs, or seawater i.e. "...any product of agriculture, forestry, fishing and any other mineral that is in its natural form or which has undergone the transformation required to prepare it for internationally marketing in substantial volumes."^[2]

Africa has 30% of global reserves of non-energy mineral raw materials but this wealth has had a negative impact upon African countries, this phenomenon, known as "Dutch disease" or the "resource curse", occurs when the economy of a country is mainly based upon its exports due to its method of governance.^[3] An example of this is the "geological scandal" of the Democratic Republic of Congo as it is rich in raw materials; the Second Congo War focused on controlling these raw materials.^[4]

Raw materials are also used by non-humans, such as birds using found objects and twigs to create nests.

References[edit]

^ Wolf, Jakob (15 January 2010). Schnellkurs HGB-Jahresabschluss: Das neue Bilanzrecht: Richtig vorgehen — erfolgreich umstellen. Walhalla Fachverlag. p. 90. ISBN 978-3-8029-3436-0.
^ Christophe Degryse, L'économie en 100 et quelques mots d'actualité, De Boeck, 2005, p. 140.
^ Bernard Tchibambelela, Le commerce mondial de la faim: stratégie de rupture positive au Congo-Brazzaville, Éditions L'Harmattan, 2009, p. 183.
^ Pascal Boniface, La géopolitique: Les relations internationales, Éditions Eyrolles et tout le monde s'en fou, 2011.

Further reading[edit]

Karl Marx, Capital, Vol. 1, Part III, Chap. 7.

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Anthracite – Anthracite is a hard, compact variety of coal that has a submetallic luster. It has the highest carbon content, the fewest impurities, Anthracite is the most metamorphosed type of coal, in which the carbon content is between 92. 1% and 98%. The term is applied to varieties of coal which do not give off tarry or other hydrocarbon vapours when heated below their point of ignition. Anthracite ignites with difficulty and burns with a short, blue, Anthracite is categorized into standard grade, which is used mainly in power generation, and high grade and ultra high grade, the principal uses of which are in the metallurgy sector. Anthracite accounts for about 1% of global reserves, and is mined in only a few countries around the world. China accounts for the majority of production, other producers are Russia, Ukraine, North Korea, South Africa, Vietnam, the UK, Australia, Canada. Total production in 2010 was 670 million tons, Anthracite derives from the Greek anthrakítēs, literally coal-like.

1. Anthracite coal

2. An American culm pile.

3. Anthracite (Ibbenbüren, Germany)

4. Anthracite (near Bay City, Michigan)

Coal – Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure. Coal is composed primarily of carbon, along with quantities of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen. A fossil fuel, coal forms when plant matter is converted into peat, which in turn is converted into lignite, then sub-bituminous coal, after that bituminous coal. This involves biological and geological processes that take place over time, throughout history, coal has been used as an energy resource, primarily burned for the production of electricity and heat, and is also used for industrial purposes, such as refining metals. Coal is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide, the extraction of coal, its use in energy production and its byproducts are all associated with

1. Anthracite coal

2. Bituminous coal

3. Coastal exposure of the Point Aconi Seam (Nova Scotia)

4. Coal miner in Britain, 1942

Stockpile – A stockpile is a pile or storage location for bulk materials, forming part of the bulk material handling process. Stockpiles are used in different areas, such as in a port. The stockpile is normally created by a stacker, a reclaimer is used to recover the material. Stockpiles are normally stacked in stockyards in refineries, ports and mine sites, a simple stockpile is formed by machinery dumping coal into a pile, either from dump trucks, pushed into heaps with bulldozers or from conveyor booms. More controlled stockpiles are formed using stackers to form piles along the length of a conveyor, and reclaimers to retrieve the coal when required for product loading, etc

1. Sand stockpile

Coal processing plant – The more of this waste material that can be removed from coal, the lower its total ash content, the greater its market value and the lower its transportation costs. The coal delivered from the mine that reports to the preparation plant is called run-of-mine, or ROM. This is the raw material for the CPP, and consists of coal, rocks, middlings, minerals, contamination is usually introduced by the mining process and may include machine parts, used consumables and parts of ground engaging tools. ROM coal can have a large variability of moisture and maximum particle size, Coal needs to be stored at various stages of the preparation process, and conveyed around the CPP facilities. Coal handling is part of the field of bulk material handling. Stockpiles provide surge capacity to various parts of the CPP, ROM coal is delivered with large variations in production rate of tonnes per hour. A ROM stockpile is used to allow the washplant to be fed coal at lower, a simple stockpile is formed by mach

1. A coal "washer" in Eastern Kentucky

2. A modern coal breaker in Mahanoy City, Pennsylvania combines washing, crushing, grading, sorting, stockpiling, and shipping in one facility built into a stockpile of anthracite coal below a mountain top strip mine

3. Coal stockpile

4. Coal stacker

Surface mining – Surface mining, including strip mining, open-pit mining and mountaintop removal mining, is a broad category of mining in which soil and rock overlying the mineral deposit are removed. In contrast to mining, in which the overlying rock is left in place. Surface mining began in the century and is practiced throughout the world. It gained popularity throughout the 20th century, and surface mines now produce most of the coal mined in the United States, in most forms of surface mining, heavy equipment, such as earthmovers, first remove the overburden. Next, huge machines, such as dragline excavators or Bucket wheel excavators, there are five main forms of surface mining, detailed below. Strip mining is the practice of mining a seam of mineral, by first removing a strip of overlying soil. It is most commonly used to mine coal and lignite, strip mining is only practical when the ore body to be excavated is relatively near the surface. This type of mining uses some of the largest machines on e

1. Coal strip mine in Wyoming

2. The Bagger 288 is a bucket-wheel excavator used in strip mining.

3. Strip mining at Garzweiler, Germany. The lignite being extracted is at left, the removed overburden being placed at right. Note that it is a largely flat mine for a horizontal mineral.

4. The El Chino mine located near Silver City, New Mexico is an open-pit copper mine.

Rubber tapping – Rubber tapping is the process by which the latex is collected from a rubber tree. An incision is made in the bark, which cuts through the latex vessels. Timing of the incision must be planned within the cycle to optimise the latex yield. Rubber tapping is an environmentally attractive land use, jungle rubber is essentially old secondary forest, strongly resembling the primary forest. Its species richness is about half that of the primary forest, thiollay estimated that jungle rubber supports about 137 bird species, against 241 in the primary forest itself. Jungle rubber is expected to resemble primary forest in its hydrological functions, monoculture rubber tree plantations have far less of an environmental impact than other crops, such as coffee or especially oil palm. Each night a rubber tapper must remove a layer of bark along a downward half spiral on the tree trunk. If done carefully and with skill, this tapping panel will yield latex for up to five years, then the opposite side w

1. Rubber tapping Sri Lanka

2. Rubber tapping in Basilan, Philippines.

3. Animal products

Crude oil – Petroleum is a naturally occurring, yellow-to-black liquid found in geological formations beneath the Earths surface, which is commonly refined into various types of fuels. Components of petroleum are separated using a technique called fractional distillation and it consists of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other organic compounds. The name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oil and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil. A fossil fuel, petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms, usually zooplankton and algae, are buried underneath sedimentary rock, Petroleum has mostly been recovered by oil drilling. Drilling is carried out studies of structural geology, sedimentary basin analysis. Petroleum is used in manufacturing a variety of materials. Concern over the depletion of the earths finite reserves of oil, the burning of fossil fuels plays the major role in the current episode of global warming. The word petroleu

1. Pumpjack pumping an oil well near Lubbock, Texas

2. Proven world oil reserves, 2013. Unconventional reservoirs such as natural heavy oil and oil sands are included.

3. An oil refinery in Mina-Al-Ahmadi, Kuwait

4. Natural petroleum spring in Korňa, Slovakia

Chemical – A chemical substance is a form of matter that has constant chemical composition and characteristic properties. It cannot be separated into components by physical methods, i. e. without breaking chemical bonds. Chemical substances can be chemical elements, chemical compounds, ions or alloys, Chemical substances are often called pure to set them apart from mixtures. A common example of a substance is pure water, it has the same properties. Other chemical substances commonly encountered in pure form are diamond, gold, table salt, however, in practice, no substance is entirely pure, and chemical purity is specified according to the intended use of the chemical. Chemical substances exist as solids, liquids, gases, or plasma, Chemical substances may be combined or converted to others by means of chemical reactions. Forms of energy, such as light and heat, are not matter, a chemical substance may well be defined as any material with a definite chemical composition in an introductory general c

1. Steam and liquid water are two different forms of the same chemical substance, water.

2. Colors of a single chemical (Nile red) in different solvents, under visible and UV light, showing how the chemical interacts dynamically with its solvent environment.

3. Native sulfur crystals. Sulfur occurs naturally as elemental sulfur, in sulfide and sulfate minerals and in hydrogen sulfide.

4. Potassium ferricyanide is a compound of potassium, iron, carbon and nitrogen; although it contains cyanide anions, it does not release them and is nontoxic.

Fuel – A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other substances so that it releases chemical or nuclear energy as heat or to be used for work. The concept was applied solely to those materials capable of releasing chemical energy but has since also been applied to other sources of heat energy such as nuclear energy. The heat energy released by reactions of fuels is converted into mechanical energy via a heat engine, other times the heat itself is valued for warmth, cooking, or industrial processes, as well as the illumination that comes with combustion. Fuels are also used in the cells of organisms in a known as cellular respiration. Hydrocarbons and related oxygen-containing molecules are by far the most common source of fuel used by humans, fuels are contrasted with other substances or devices storing potential energy, such as those that directly release electrical energy or mechanical energy. The first known use of fuel was the combustion of wood or sticks by Homo erectus nea

1. Wood was one of the first fuels to be used by humans and is still the primary energy source in much of the world. [citation needed]

2. Coal is an important solid fuel.

3. A gasoline station.

4. A 20-pound (9.1 kg) propane cylinder.

Plastic – Plastic is a material consisting of any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic compounds that are malleable and can be molded into solid objects. Plastics are typically organic polymers of high mass, but they often contain other substances. They are usually synthetic, most commonly derived from petrochemicals, due to their relatively low cost, ease of manufacture, versatility, and imperviousness to water, plastics are used in an enormous and expanding range of products, from paper clips to spaceships. They have already displaced many traditional materials, such as wood, stone, horn and bone, leather, paper, metal, glass, and ceramic, in most of their former uses. In developed countries, about a third of plastic is used in packaging, other uses include automobiles, furniture, and toys. In the developing world, the ratios may be different - for example, the worlds first fully synthetic plastic was bakelite, invented in New York in 1907 by Leo Baekeland who coined the term

1. Household items made of various types of plastic

2. A chair made with a polypropylene seat

3. Plastic (LDPE) bowl, by GEECO, Made in England, c1950.

4. Molded plastic food replicas on display outside a restaurant in Japan

Pharmaceutical – A pharmaceutical drug is a drug used to diagnose, cure, treat, or prevent disease. Drug therapy is an important part of the field and relies on the science of pharmacology for continual advancement. Drugs are classified in various ways, one of the key divisions is by level of control, which distinguishes prescription drugs from over-the-counter drugs. Other ways to classify medicines are by mode of action, route of administration, biological system affected, an elaborate and widely used classification system is the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System. The World Health Organization keeps a list of essential medicines, Drug discovery and drug development are complex and expensive endeavors undertaken by pharmaceutical companies, academic scientists, and governments. Governments generally regulate what drugs can be marketed, how drugs are marketed, controversies have arisen over drug pricing and disposal of used drugs. In the US, a drug is, A substance recognized by an o

1. "Medication" redirects here. For other uses, see Medication (disambiguation).

Lumber – Lumber, or timber is wood that has been processed into beams and planks, a stage in the process of wood production. Lumber may also refer to currently un-needed furniture, as in Lumber room, or an awkward gait, ultimately derived from the look of unfashionable, Lumber may be supplied either rough-sawn, or surfaced on one or more of its faces. Besides pulpwood, rough lumber is the raw material for furniture-making and it is available in many species, usually hardwoods, but it is also readily available in softwoods, such as white pine and red pine, because of their low cost. Lumber is mainly used for structural purposes but has other uses as well. It is classified more commonly as a softwood than as a hardwood, in Australia, Ireland, New Zealand and Britain, the term timber describes sawn wood products, such as floor boards. In the United States and Canada, generally timber describes standing or felled trees, before they are milled into boards, Timber there also describes sawn lumber not

1. Timber in storage for later processing at a sawmill

2. Wood cut from Victorian Eucalyptus regnans

3. The harbor of Bellingham, Washington, filled with logs, 1972

4. A 2×4.

Latex – LaTeX is a document preparation system. When writing, the writer uses plain text as opposed to the text found in WYSIWYG word processors like Microsoft Word or LibreOffice Writer. The writer uses markup tagging conventions to define the structure of a document, to stylise text throughout a document. A TeX distribution such as TeX Live or MikTeX is used to produce a file suitable for printing or digital distribution. Within the typesetting system, its name is stylised as LaTeX and it also has a prominent role in the preparation and publication of books and articles that contain complex multilingual materials, such as Tamil, Sanskrit and Greek. LaTeX uses the TeX typesetting program for formatting its output, LaTeX can be used as a standalone document preparation system or as an intermediate format. In the latter role, for example, it is used as part of a pipeline for translating DocBook. LaTeX is intended to provide a language that accesses the power of TeX in an easier way for writers.

1. Formats

Biomass – Biomass is an industry term for getting energy by burning wood, and other organic matter. It has become popular among power stations, which switch from coal to biomass to comply with the law. Biomass most often refers to plants or plant-based materials that are not used for food or feed, as an energy source, biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat, or indirectly after converting it to various forms of biofuel. Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be achieved by different methods which are classified into, thermal, chemical. Historically, humans have harnessed biomass-derived energy since the time people began burning wood to make fire. Even today, biomass is the source of fuel for domestic use in many developing countries. Biomass is all biologically-produced matter based in carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, the estimated biomass production in the world is 104.9 petagrams of carbon per year, about half in the ocean and half on land. Wood remains the largest biomas

1. Sugarcane plantation in Brazil. Sugarcane bagasse is a type of biomass.

2. A cogeneration plant in Metz, France. The station uses waste wood biomass as an energy source, and provides electricity and heat for 30,000 dwellings.

3. Stump harvesting increases the recovery of biomass from a forest.

4. Eucalyptus in Brazil. Remains of the tree are reused for power generation.

Iron ore – Iron ores are rocks and minerals from which metallic iron can be economically extracted. The ores are rich in iron oxides and vary in color from dark grey, bright yellow. The iron itself is found in the form of magnetite, hematite, goethite, limonite or siderite. Ores containing very high quantities of hematite or magnetite are known as ore or direct shipping ore. Iron ore is the raw material used to make pig iron, indeed, it has been argued that iron ore is more integral to the global economy than any other commodity, except perhaps oil. Metallic iron is virtually unknown on the surface of the Earth except as iron-nickel alloys from meteorites, although iron is the fourth most abundant element in the Earths crust, comprising about 5%, the vast majority is bound in silicate or more rarely carbonate minerals. Prior to the revolution, most iron was obtained from widely available goethite or bog ore, for example during the American Revolution. Prehistoric societies used laterite as a sour

1. Hematite: the main iron ore in Brazilian mines

2. This stockpile of iron ore pellets will be used in steel production.

3. Processed taconite pellets with reddish surface oxidation as used in the steelmaking industry, with a US Quarter (diameter: 24 mm (0.96 in)) shown for scale

Air

Seawater – Seawater, or salt water, is water from a sea or ocean. On average, seawater in the oceans has a salinity of about 3. 5% This means that every kilogram of seawater has approximately 35 grams of dissolved salts. Average density at the surface is 1.025 kg/l, seawater is denser than both fresh water and pure water because the dissolved salts increase the mass by a larger proportion than the volume. The freezing point of seawater decreases as salt concentration increases, at typical salinity, it freezes at about −2 °C. The coldest seawater ever recorded was in 2010, in a stream under an Antarctic glacier, seawater pH is typically limited to a range between 7.5 and 8.4. However, there is no universally accepted reference pH-scale for seawater, although the vast majority of seawater has a salinity of between 31 g/kg and 38 g/kg, seawater is not uniformly saline throughout the world. Where mixing occurs with fresh water runoff from river mouths, near melting glaciers or vast amounts precipitat

1. Seawater in the Strait of Malacca

Resource curse – This is hypothesized to happen for many different reasons, and there are many academic debates about when and why it occurs. Most experts believe the curse is not universal or inevitable. The idea that resources might be more of a curse than a blessing began to emerge in debates in the 1950s and 1960s about the economic problems of low. An influential study by Jeffrey Sachs and Andrew Warner found a correlation between natural resource abundance and poor economic growth. Hundreds of studies have now evaluated the effects of wealth on a wide range of economic outcomes, and offered many explanations for how, why. The IMF classifies 51 countries as “resource-rich. ”These are countries which derive at least 20% of exports or 20% of fiscal revenue from natural resources. 29 of these countries are low- and lower-middle-income, a 2016 meta-study finds weak support for the thesis that resource richness adversely affects long-term economic growth. Dutch disease makes tradable goods less competi

1. Air

Democratic Republic of Congo – The Democratic Republic of the Congo, also known as DR Congo, DRC, DROC, East Congo, Congo-Kinshasa, or simply the Congo is a country located in Central Africa. From 1971 to 1997 it was named, and is still called, Zaire. It is the second-largest country in Africa by area and eleventh largest in the world, the Congolese Civil Wars, which began in 1996, brought about the end of Mobutu Sese Sekos 32-year reign and devastated the country. These wars ultimately involved nine African nations, multiple groups of UN peacekeepers and twenty armed groups, besides the capital, Kinshasa, the other major cities, Lubumbashi and Mbuji-Mayi, are both mining communities. DR Congos largest export is raw minerals, with China accepting over 50% of DRCs exports in 2012, as of 2015, according to the Human Development Index, DR Congo has a low level of human development, ranking 176 out of 187 countries. The country was known officially as the Democratic Republic of the Congo from 1965 to 27 October 1971, in

1. Village attacked by Arab-Swahili slavers near Nyangwe, end of 19th century

2. Flag

3. View of Leopoldville Station and Port in 1884.

4. Force Publique soldiers in the Belgian Congo in 1918. At its peak, the Force Publique had around 19,000 African soldiers, led by 420 white officers.

Second Congo War – The Second Congo War began in August 1998 in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, little more than a year after the First Congo War, and involved some of the same issues. The war officially ended in July 2003, when the Transitional Government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo took power, although a peace agreement was signed in 2002, violence continued in many regions of the country, especially in the east. Hostilities have continued since in the ongoing Lords Resistance Army insurgency, named the deadliest war in modern African history, the Second Congo War has directly involved nine African countries, as well as approximately 20 separate armed groups. By 2008, the war and its aftermath had caused 5.4 million deaths, principally through disease and starvation, another 2 million are displaced from their homes or sought asylum in neighbouring countries. The war was driven by the trade in minerals, among other things. The new Tutsi-dominated RPF government of Rwanda protested this

1. Rape has been used as a weapon of war in both the First and Second Congo Wars. Original caption states: "Photo: USAID/Leah Werchick; Rape victims who have been successfully reintegrated into their communities assemble in a 'peace hut' near Walungu, South Kivu in DRC."

2. Rebel soldiers photographed in the northern town of Gbadolite in 2000

3. A Congolese soldier with a PK machine gun photographed near the Rwandan border in 2001

4. Meeting of victims of Sexual violence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Found object – Pablo Picasso first publicly utilized the idea when he pasted a printed image of chair caning onto his painting titled Still Life with Chair Caning. The most famous example is Fountain, a standard urinal purchased from a store and displayed on a pedestal. Found objects derive their identity as art from the designation placed upon them by the artist and this may be indicated by either its anonymous wear and tear or by its recognizability as a consumer icon. The context into which it is placed is also a relevant factor. The idea of dignifying commonplace objects in this way was originally a challenge to the accepted distinction between what was considered art as opposed to not art. In this sense the artist gives the time and a stage to contemplate an object. Appreciation of found objects in this way can prompt philosophical reflection in the observer, there is usually some degree of modification of the found object, although not always to the extent that it cannot be recognized, as is th

1. Marcel Duchamp, Fountain, 1917. Photograph by Alfred Stieglitz

2. Junk art at Oak Street Beach

3. An Oak Tree by Michael Craig-Martin; 1973

Nest – A nest is a structure built by certain animals to hold its eggs, its offspring, or occasionally the animal itself. Although nests are most closely associated with birds, members of all classes of vertebrates and some invertebrates construct nests. They may be composed of material such as twigs, grass. Human-made materials, such as string, plastic, cloth, or paper, nests can be found in all types of habitat. Nest building is driven by a biological urge known as the instinct in birds. Generally each species has a style of nest. Nest complexity is roughly correlated with the level of care by adults. Nests of prairie dogs and several social insects can host millions of individuals, Nest building is often driven by a biological urge in pregnant animals to protect ones offspring known as the nesting instinct. Animals build nests to protect their eggs, their offspring, or themselves from danger, the simplest nests are designed to hide eggs from predators, shield them from the sun or other env

1. A bird nest

2. A Night Heron building a nest.

3. A pair of Osprey building a nest.

4. Hundreds of honeybees gather on their honeycomb nest

Bulk cargo – Bulk cargo is commodity cargo that is transported unpackaged in large quantities. It refers to material in liquid or granular, particulate form, as a mass of relatively small solids, such as petroleum/crude oil, grain, coal. This cargo is usually dropped or poured, with a spout or shovel bucket, into a bulk carrier ships hold, railroad car/railway wagon, smaller quantities can be boxed and palletised. Bulk cargo is classified as liquid or dry, the Baltic Exchange is based in London and provides a range of indices benchmarking the cost of moving bulk commodities, dry and wet, along popular routes around the seas. Some of these indices are used to settle Freight Futures. The most famous of the Baltic indices is the Baltic Dry Indices and this is a derived function of the Baltic Capesize index, Baltic Panamax index, Baltic Supramax index and the Baltic Handysize index. The BDI has been used as a bellwether for the economy as it can be interpreted as an indicator of an increase or decrease

1. A mini-bulker taking on cargo in Brest.

2. Modern tank cars carry all types of liquid and gaseous commodities.

3. This heap of iron ore pellets will be used in steel production.

Bulk materials – Bulk cargo is commodity cargo that is transported unpackaged in large quantities. It refers to material in liquid or granular, particulate form, as a mass of relatively small solids, such as petroleum/crude oil, grain, coal. This cargo is usually dropped or poured, with a spout or shovel bucket, into a bulk carrier ships hold, railroad car/railway wagon, smaller quantities can be boxed and palletised. Bulk cargo is classified as liquid or dry, the Baltic Exchange is based in London and provides a range of indices benchmarking the cost of moving bulk commodities, dry and wet, along popular routes around the seas. Some of these indices are used to settle Freight Futures. The most famous of the Baltic indices is the Baltic Dry Indices and this is a derived function of the Baltic Capesize index, Baltic Panamax index, Baltic Supramax index and the Baltic Handysize index. The BDI has been used as a bellwether for the economy as it can be interpreted as an indicator of an increase or decrease

1. A mini-bulker taking on cargo in Brest.

2. Modern tank cars carry all types of liquid and gaseous commodities.

3. This heap of iron ore pellets will be used in steel production.

Bulk liquids – Bulk cargo is commodity cargo that is transported unpackaged in large quantities. It refers to material in liquid or granular, particulate form, as a mass of relatively small solids, such as petroleum/crude oil, grain, coal. This cargo is usually dropped or poured, with a spout or shovel bucket, into a bulk carrier ships hold, railroad car/railway wagon, smaller quantities can be boxed and palletised. Bulk cargo is classified as liquid or dry, the Baltic Exchange is based in London and provides a range of indices benchmarking the cost of moving bulk commodities, dry and wet, along popular routes around the seas. Some of these indices are used to settle Freight Futures. The most famous of the Baltic indices is the Baltic Dry Indices and this is a derived function of the Baltic Capesize index, Baltic Panamax index, Baltic Supramax index and the Baltic Handysize index. The BDI has been used as a bellwether for the economy as it can be interpreted as an indicator of an increase or decrease

1. A mini-bulker taking on cargo in Brest.

2. Modern tank cars carry all types of liquid and gaseous commodities.

3. This heap of iron ore pellets will be used in steel production.

Biomaterial – A biomaterial is any substance that has been engineered to interact with biological systems for a medical purpose - either a therapeutic or a diagnostic one. As a science, biomaterials is about fifty years old, the study of biomaterials is called biomaterials science or biomaterials engineering. It has experienced steady and strong growth over its history, with many companies investing large amounts of money into the development of new products, biomaterials science encompasses elements of medicine, biology, chemistry, tissue engineering and materials science. Note that a biomaterial is different from a material, such as bone. Additionally, care should be exercised in defining a biomaterial as biocompatible, a biomaterial that is biocompatible or suitable for one application may not be biocompatible in another. Biomaterials can be derived either from nature or synthesized in the using a variety of chemical approaches utilizing metallic components, polymers. They are often used and/or a

1. The iridescent nacre inside a nautilus shell.

Commodity – In economics, a commodity is a marketable item produced to satisfy wants or needs. Economic commodities comprise goods and services, the word commodity came into use in English in the 15th century, from the French commodité, amenity, convenience. Going further back, the French word derives from the Latin commoditas, meaning suitability, convenience, the Latin word commodus meant variously appropriate, proper measure, time, or condition, and advantage, benefit. The term commodity is specifically used for a good or service when the demand for it has no qualitative differentiation across a market. In other words, a commodity good or service has full or partial but substantial fungibility, that is, the market treats its instances as equivalent or nearly so with no regard to who produced them. As the saying goes, From the taste of wheat, it is not possible to tell who produced it, a Russian serf, petroleum and copper are other examples of such commodities, their supply and demand being a pa

1. Yerba mate (left), coffee bean (middle) and tea (right), all used for caffeinated infusions, are commodity cash crops.

Conflict resource – Conflict resources are natural resources extracted in a conflict zone and sold to perpetuate the fighting. There is both anecdotal and statistical evidence that belligerent accessibility to precious commodities can prolong conflicts and these minerals are essential in the manufacture of a variety of devices, including consumer electronics such as mobile phones, laptops, and MP3 players. The extraction and sale of diamonds, also known as conflict diamonds, is a better-known phenomenon which occurs under virtually identical conditions. Even petroleum can be a resource, ISIL uses oil revenue to finance its military. International efforts to trade in conflict resources, tried to reduce incentives to extract. For example, in the United States, the 2010 Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act required manufacturers to audit their supply chains and report use of conflict minerals. In 2015 a US federal appeals court struck down aspects of the reporting requirements as a viola

1. Four common conflict minerals, clockwise from top left: coltan, cassiterite, gold ore, and wolframite.

Downcycling – Downcycling, also referred to as cascading, describes the recycling of waste in cases where the recycled material is of lower quality and functionality than the original material. An important example of downcycling is the accumulation of tramp elements in secondary metals, steel scrap from end-of-life vehicles, for example, is often contaminated with copper from wires and tin from coating. This contaminated scrap yields a secondary steel that does not meet the specifications for automotive steel and therefore, the term downcycling was used by Reiner Pilz in an interview by Thornton Kay of Salvo in 1994. We talked about the impending EU Demolition Waste Streams directive, recycling, he said, I call it downcycling. They smash bricks, they smash everything, what we need is upcycling where old products are given more value not less. It was a pinky looking aggregate with pieces of brick, old tiles. Is this the future for Europe, the term downcycling was also used by William McDonough and M

1. Major types

Materials science – The interdisciplinary field of materials science, also commonly termed materials science and engineering, involves the discovery and design of new materials, with an emphasis on solids. Materials science still incorporates elements of physics, chemistry, and engineering, as such, the field was long considered by academic institutions as a sub-field of these related fields. Materials science is a syncretic discipline hybridizing metallurgy, ceramics, solid-state physics and it is the first example of a new academic discipline emerging by fusion rather than fission. Many of the most pressing scientific problems humans currently face are due to the limits of the materials that are available, thus, breakthroughs in materials science are likely to affect the future of technology significantly. Materials scientists emphasize understanding how the history of a material influences its structure, the understanding of processing-structure-properties relationships is called the § materials paradi

1. A diamond cuboctahedron showing a number of crystallographic planes, imaged with scanning electron microscopy.

2. A late Bronze Age sword or dagger blade.

3. Microstructure of pearlite.

4. Crystal structure of a perovskite with a chemical formula ABX 3.

Natural resource

1. The rainforest in Fatu-Hiva, in the Marquesas Islands, is an example of an undisturbed natural resource. Forest provides timber for humans, food and shelter for the flora and fauna. The nutrient cycle between organisms form food chains and biodiversity of species.

2. The Carson Fall in Mount Kinabalu, Malaysia is an example of undisturbed natural resource. Waterfalls provide spring water for humans, animals and plants for survival and also habitat for marine organisms. The water current can be used to turn turbines for hydroelectric generation.

3. The ocean is an example of a natural resource. Ocean waves can be used to generate wave power which is a renewable energy. Ocean water is important for salt production and providing habitat for deep water fishes. There are biodiversity of marine species in the sea where nutrient cycles are common.

4. A picture of the Udachnaya pipe, an open-pit diamond mine in Siberia. An example of a non-renewable natural resource.

Recycling

1. An American poster from World War II

2. The 3 chasing arrows of the international recycling logo

3. British poster from World War II

4. Glass recovered by crushing only one kind of beer bottle

Upcycling

1. Johann Dieter Wassmann (Jeff Wassmann), Vorwarts! (Go Forward!), 1897.

2. Major types

International Standard Book Number

1. A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code

Karl Marx

1. Marx in 1875

2. Marx's birthplace in Trier. It was purchased by the Social Democratic Party of Germany in 1928 and now houses a museum devoted to him.

3. Jenny von Westphalen in the 1830s

4. Friedrich Engels, whom Marx met in 1844; they became lifelong friends and collaborators.

LIST OF IMAGES

1. Anthracite – Anthracite is a hard, compact variety of coal that has a submetallic luster. It has the highest carbon content, the fewest impurities, Anthracite is the most metamorphosed type of coal, in which the carbon content is between 92. 1% and 98%. The term is applied to varieties of coal which do not give off tarry or other hydrocarbon vapours when heated below their point of ignition. Anthracite ignites with difficulty and burns with a short, blue, Anthracite is categorized into standard grade, which is used mainly in power generation, and high grade and ultra high grade, the principal uses of which are in the metallurgy sector. Anthracite accounts for about 1% of global reserves, and is mined in only a few countries around the world. China accounts for the majority of production, other producers are Russia, Ukraine, North Korea, South Africa, Vietnam, the UK, Australia, Canada. Total production in 2010 was 670 million tons, Anthracite derives from the Greek anthrakítēs, literally coal-like. Other terms which refer to anthracite are black coal, hard coal, stone coal, dark coal, coffee coal, blind coal, Kilkenny coal, crow coal or craw coal, markets to distinguish it from its competitors. Culm has different meanings in British and American English, england, culm is the imperfect anthracite of north Devon and Cornwall, which was used as a pigment. The term is used to refer to the rock strata whose deposits are found in both Britain and in the Rhenish hill countries. Lastly, it may refer to coal exported from Britain during the 19th century, america, culm refers to the waste or slack from anthracite mining, mostly dust and small pieces not suitable for use in home furnaces. Anthracite is similar in appearance to the jet and is sometimes used as a jet imitation. Anthracite differs from ordinary bituminous coal by its hardness, its higher relative density of 1. 3–1.4, and luster. It contains a percentage of fixed carbon and a low percentage of volatile matter. It is also free from included soft or fibrous notches and does not soil the fingers when rubbed, anthracitization is the transformation of bituminous coal into anthracite. The moisture content of fresh-mined anthracite generally is less than 15 percent, the heat content of anthracite ranges from 22 to 28 million Btu per short ton on a moist, mineral-matter-free basis. The heat content of coal consumed in the United States averages 25 million Btu/ton, on the as-received basis. Since the 1980s, anthracite refuse or mine waste has been used for power generation in a form of recycling

Anthracite – Anthracite coal
Anthracite – An American culm pile.
Anthracite – Anthracite (Ibbenbüren, Germany)
Anthracite – Anthracite (near Bay City, Michigan)

2. Coal – Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure. Coal is composed primarily of carbon, along with quantities of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen. A fossil fuel, coal forms when plant matter is converted into peat, which in turn is converted into lignite, then sub-bituminous coal, after that bituminous coal. This involves biological and geological processes that take place over time, throughout history, coal has been used as an energy resource, primarily burned for the production of electricity and heat, and is also used for industrial purposes, such as refining metals. Coal is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide, the extraction of coal, its use in energy production and its byproducts are all associated with environmental and health effects including climate change. Coal is extracted from the ground by coal mining, since 1983, the worlds top coal producer has been China. In 2015 China produced 3,747 million tonnes of coal –47. 7% of 7,861 million tonnes world coal production, in 2015 other large producers were United States, India, European Union and Australia. The word originally took the col in Old English, from Proto-Germanic *kula. In Old Turkic languages, kül is ash, cinders, öčür is quench, the compound charcoal in Turkic is öčür kül, literally quenched ashes, cinders, coals with elided anlaut ö- and inflection affixes -ülmüş. At various times in the geologic past, the Earth had dense forests in low-lying wetland areas, due to natural processes such as flooding, these forests were buried underneath soil. As more and more soil deposited over them, they were compressed, the temperature also rose as they sank deeper and deeper. As the process continued the plant matter was protected from biodegradation and oxidation and this trapped the carbon in immense peat bogs that were eventually covered and deeply buried by sediments. Under high pressure and high temperature, dead vegetation was slowly converted to coal, as coal contains mainly carbon, the conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called carbonization. The wide, shallow seas of the Carboniferous Period provided ideal conditions for coal formation, the exception is the coal gap in the Permian–Triassic extinction event, where coal is rare. Coal is known from Precambrian strata, which predate land plants — this coal is presumed to have originated from residues of algae, in its dehydrated form, peat is a highly effective absorbent for fuel and oil spills on land and water. It is also used as a conditioner for soil to make it able to retain. Lignite, or brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal, jet, a compact form of lignite, is sometimes polished and has been used as an ornamental stone since the Upper Palaeolithic

Coal – Anthracite coal
Coal – Bituminous coal
Coal – Coastal exposure of the Point Aconi Seam (Nova Scotia)
Coal – Coal miner in Britain, 1942

3. Stockpile – A stockpile is a pile or storage location for bulk materials, forming part of the bulk material handling process. Stockpiles are used in different areas, such as in a port. The stockpile is normally created by a stacker, a reclaimer is used to recover the material. Stockpiles are normally stacked in stockyards in refineries, ports and mine sites, a simple stockpile is formed by machinery dumping coal into a pile, either from dump trucks, pushed into heaps with bulldozers or from conveyor booms. More controlled stockpiles are formed using stackers to form piles along the length of a conveyor, and reclaimers to retrieve the coal when required for product loading, etc

Stockpile – Sand stockpile

4. Coal processing plant – The more of this waste material that can be removed from coal, the lower its total ash content, the greater its market value and the lower its transportation costs. The coal delivered from the mine that reports to the preparation plant is called run-of-mine, or ROM. This is the raw material for the CPP, and consists of coal, rocks, middlings, minerals, contamination is usually introduced by the mining process and may include machine parts, used consumables and parts of ground engaging tools. ROM coal can have a large variability of moisture and maximum particle size, Coal needs to be stored at various stages of the preparation process, and conveyed around the CPP facilities. Coal handling is part of the field of bulk material handling. Stockpiles provide surge capacity to various parts of the CPP, ROM coal is delivered with large variations in production rate of tonnes per hour. A ROM stockpile is used to allow the washplant to be fed coal at lower, a simple stockpile is formed by machinery dumping coal into a pile, either from dump trucks, pushed into heaps with bulldozers or from conveyor booms. More controlled stockpiles are formed using stackers to form piles along the length of a conveyor, taller and wider stockpiles reduce the land area required to store a set tonnage of coal. Larger coal stockpiles have a rate of heat loss, leading to a higher risk of spontaneous combustion. Travelling, luffing boom stackers that straddle a feed conveyor are commonly used to create coal stockpiles, tunnel conveyors can be fed by a continuous slot hopper or bunker beneath the stockpile to reclaim material. Front-end loaders and bulldozers can be used to push the coal into feeders, sometimes front-end loaders are the only means of reclaiming coal from the stockpile. This has a low up-front capital cost, but much higher operating costs, high-capacity stockpiles are commonly reclaimed using bucket-wheel reclaimers. These can achieve high rates Sampling of coal is an important part of the process control in the CPP. A grab sample is a sample of the coal at a point in the process stream. A routine sample is taken at a set frequency, either over a period of time or per shipment, Coal sampling consists of several types of sampling devices. A cross cut sampler mimics the stop belt sampling method specified by a standard published by the American Society for Testing. A cross cut sampler mounts directly on top of the conveyor belt, there are several points in the wash plant that many coal operations choose to sample. The raw coal, before it enters the plant, the refuse, to see what the plant missed

Coal processing plant – A coal "washer" in Eastern Kentucky
Coal processing plant – A modern coal breaker in Mahanoy City, Pennsylvania combines washing, crushing, grading, sorting, stockpiling, and shipping in one facility built into a stockpile of anthracite coal below a mountain top strip mine
Coal processing plant – Coal stockpile
Coal processing plant – Coal stacker

5. Surface mining – Surface mining, including strip mining, open-pit mining and mountaintop removal mining, is a broad category of mining in which soil and rock overlying the mineral deposit are removed. In contrast to mining, in which the overlying rock is left in place. Surface mining began in the century and is practiced throughout the world. It gained popularity throughout the 20th century, and surface mines now produce most of the coal mined in the United States, in most forms of surface mining, heavy equipment, such as earthmovers, first remove the overburden. Next, huge machines, such as dragline excavators or Bucket wheel excavators, there are five main forms of surface mining, detailed below. Strip mining is the practice of mining a seam of mineral, by first removing a strip of overlying soil. It is most commonly used to mine coal and lignite, strip mining is only practical when the ore body to be excavated is relatively near the surface. This type of mining uses some of the largest machines on earth, there are two forms of strip mining. The more common method is area stripping, which is used on flat terrain. As each long strip is excavated, the overburden is placed in the produced by the previous strip. Contour stripping involves removing the overburden above the seam near the outcrop in hilly terrain. Contour stripping is often followed by auger mining into the hillside and this method commonly leaves behind terraces in mountainsides. Open-pit mining refers to a method of extracting rock or minerals from the earth through their removal from a pit or borrow. Although open-pit mining is sometimes referred to as strip mining. Mountaintop removal mining is a form of mining that mines coal seams beneath mountaintops by first removing the mountaintop overlying the coal seam. Explosives are used to break up the layers above the seam. Excess mining waste or overburden is dumped by large trucks into fills in nearby hollow or valley fills, MTR involves the mass restructuring of earth in order to reach the coal seam as deep as 400 feet below the surface. Mountaintop removal replaces the original steep landscape with a flatter topography

Surface mining – Coal strip mine in Wyoming
Surface mining – The Bagger 288 is a bucket-wheel excavator used in strip mining.
Surface mining – Strip mining at Garzweiler, Germany. The lignite being extracted is at left, the removed overburden being placed at right. Note that it is a largely flat mine for a horizontal mineral.
Surface mining – The El Chino mine located near Silver City, New Mexico is an open-pit copper mine.

6. Rubber tapping – Rubber tapping is the process by which the latex is collected from a rubber tree. An incision is made in the bark, which cuts through the latex vessels. Timing of the incision must be planned within the cycle to optimise the latex yield. Rubber tapping is an environmentally attractive land use, jungle rubber is essentially old secondary forest, strongly resembling the primary forest. Its species richness is about half that of the primary forest, thiollay estimated that jungle rubber supports about 137 bird species, against 241 in the primary forest itself. Jungle rubber is expected to resemble primary forest in its hydrological functions, monoculture rubber tree plantations have far less of an environmental impact than other crops, such as coffee or especially oil palm. Each night a rubber tapper must remove a layer of bark along a downward half spiral on the tree trunk. If done carefully and with skill, this tapping panel will yield latex for up to five years, then the opposite side will be tapped, allowing this side to heal over. The spiral allows the latex to run down to a collecting cup, the work is done at night or in the early morning before the days temperature rises, so the latex will drip longer before coagulating and sealing the cut. Depending on the product, additional chemicals can be added to the latex cup to preserve the latex longer. Ammonia solution helps prevent natural coagulation and allows the latex to remain in its liquid state, plastic bags containing a coagulant have replaced cups in many plantations in Malaysia. This form of latex is used as the raw material for latex concentrate, naturally coagulated latex, sometimes referred to as cup lump, is collected for processing into block rubbers, which are referred to as technically specified rubbers. The serum left after latex coagulation is rich in quebrachitol, a cyclitol or cyclic polyol, in information technology the term Rubber tapping is sometimes used as a lampoon for planned Production deployments, where the timing of the deployment is crucial. Such deployments are generally done late in the night when customer activity is minimum, for high availability information technology services such as data centres, telecommunications, Internet service providers etc. A time period is stated in advance to the customer to prepare for any possible service disruption to bring any change to the service. Such a disclosure is typically guaranteed as part of a service level agreement, a maintenance window is scheduled between 02,00 AM to 06,00 AM which is the possible low traffic and customer usage time frame. Natural rubber Forestry Maple syrup Chico Mendes The Rubber Tapping Process Extraction of Rubber on YouTube

Rubber tapping – Rubber tapping Sri Lanka
Rubber tapping – Rubber tapping in Basilan, Philippines.
Rubber tapping – Animal products

7. Crude oil – Petroleum is a naturally occurring, yellow-to-black liquid found in geological formations beneath the Earths surface, which is commonly refined into various types of fuels. Components of petroleum are separated using a technique called fractional distillation and it consists of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other organic compounds. The name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oil and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil. A fossil fuel, petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms, usually zooplankton and algae, are buried underneath sedimentary rock, Petroleum has mostly been recovered by oil drilling. Drilling is carried out studies of structural geology, sedimentary basin analysis. Petroleum is used in manufacturing a variety of materials. Concern over the depletion of the earths finite reserves of oil, the burning of fossil fuels plays the major role in the current episode of global warming. The word petroleum comes from Greek, πέτρα for rocks and Greek, the term was found in 10th-century Old English sources. It was used in the treatise De Natura Fossilium, published in 1546 by the German mineralogist Georg Bauer, Petroleum, in one form or another, has been used since ancient times, and is now important across society, including in economy, politics and technology. Great quantities of it were found on the banks of the river Issus, ancient Persian tablets indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper levels of their society. By 347 AD, oil was produced from bamboo-drilled wells in China, early British explorers to Myanmar documented a flourishing oil extraction industry based in Yenangyaung that, in 1795, had hundreds of hand-dug wells under production. The mythological origins of the oil fields at Yenangyaung, and its hereditary monopoly control by 24 families, Pechelbronn is said to be the first European site where petroleum has been explored and used. The still active Erdpechquelle, a spring where petroleum appears mixed with water has been used since 1498, Oil sands have been mined since the 18th century. In Wietze in lower Saxony, natural asphalt/bitumen has been explored since the 18th century, both in Pechelbronn as in Wietze, the coal industry dominated the petroleum technologies. In 1848 Young set up a small business refining the crude oil, Young eventually succeeded, by distilling cannel coal at a low heat, in creating a fluid resembling petroleum, which when treated in the same way as the seep oil gave similar products. The production of oils and solid paraffin wax from coal formed the subject of his patent dated 17 October 1850. In 1850 Young & Meldrum and Edward William Binney entered into partnership under the title of E. W. Binney & Co. at Bathgate in West Lothian, the worlds first oil refinery was built in 1856 by Ignacy Łukasiewicz. The demand for petroleum as a fuel for lighting in North America, edwin Drakes 1859 well near Titusville, Pennsylvania, is popularly considered the first modern well

Crude oil – Pumpjack pumping an oil well near Lubbock, Texas
Crude oil – Proven world oil reserves, 2013. Unconventional reservoirs such as natural heavy oil and oil sands are included.
Crude oil – An oil refinery in Mina-Al-Ahmadi, Kuwait
Crude oil – Natural petroleum spring in Korňa, Slovakia

8. Chemical – A chemical substance is a form of matter that has constant chemical composition and characteristic properties. It cannot be separated into components by physical methods, i. e. without breaking chemical bonds. Chemical substances can be chemical elements, chemical compounds, ions or alloys, Chemical substances are often called pure to set them apart from mixtures. A common example of a substance is pure water, it has the same properties. Other chemical substances commonly encountered in pure form are diamond, gold, table salt, however, in practice, no substance is entirely pure, and chemical purity is specified according to the intended use of the chemical. Chemical substances exist as solids, liquids, gases, or plasma, Chemical substances may be combined or converted to others by means of chemical reactions. Forms of energy, such as light and heat, are not matter, a chemical substance may well be defined as any material with a definite chemical composition in an introductory general chemistry textbook. According to this definition a chemical substance can either be a chemical element or a pure chemical compound. But, there are exceptions to this definition, a substance can also be defined as a form of matter that has both definite composition and distinct properties. The chemical substance index published by CAS also includes several alloys of uncertain composition, in geology, substances of uniform composition are called minerals, while physical mixtures of several minerals are defined as rocks. Many minerals, however, mutually dissolve into solid solutions, such that a rock is a uniform substance despite being a mixture in stoichiometric terms. Feldspars are an example, anorthoclase is an alkali aluminium silicate. In law, chemical substances may include both pure substances and mixtures with a composition or manufacturing process. For example, the EU regulation REACH defines monoconstituent substances, multiconstituent substances and substances of unknown or variable composition, the latter two consist of multiple chemical substances, however, their identity can be established either by direct chemical analysis or reference to a single manufacturing process. For example, charcoal is a complex, partially polymeric mixture that can be defined by its manufacturing process. Therefore, although the chemical identity is unknown, identification can be made to a sufficient accuracy. The CAS index also includes mixtures, polymers almost always appear as mixtures of molecules of multiple molar masses, each of which could be considered a separate chemical substance. However, the polymer may be defined by a precursor or reaction

Chemical – Steam and liquid water are two different forms of the same chemical substance, water.
Chemical – Colors of a single chemical (Nile red) in different solvents, under visible and UV light, showing how the chemical interacts dynamically with its solvent environment.
Chemical – Native sulfur crystals. Sulfur occurs naturally as elemental sulfur, in sulfide and sulfate minerals and in hydrogen sulfide.
Chemical – Potassium ferricyanide is a compound of potassium, iron, carbon and nitrogen; although it contains cyanide anions, it does not release them and is nontoxic.

9. Fuel – A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other substances so that it releases chemical or nuclear energy as heat or to be used for work. The concept was applied solely to those materials capable of releasing chemical energy but has since also been applied to other sources of heat energy such as nuclear energy. The heat energy released by reactions of fuels is converted into mechanical energy via a heat engine, other times the heat itself is valued for warmth, cooking, or industrial processes, as well as the illumination that comes with combustion. Fuels are also used in the cells of organisms in a known as cellular respiration. Hydrocarbons and related oxygen-containing molecules are by far the most common source of fuel used by humans, fuels are contrasted with other substances or devices storing potential energy, such as those that directly release electrical energy or mechanical energy. The first known use of fuel was the combustion of wood or sticks by Homo erectus near 2,000,000 years ago, throughout most of human history fuels derived from plants or animal fat were only used by humans. Charcoal, a derivative, has been used since at least 6,000 BCE for melting metals. It was only supplanted by coke, derived from coal, as European forests started to become depleted around the 18th century, charcoal briquettes are now commonly used as a fuel for barbecue cooking. Coal was first used as a fuel around 1000 BCE in China, coal was later used to drive ships and locomotives. By the 19th century, gas extracted from coal was being used for lighting in London. In the 20th and 21st centuries, the use of coal is to generate electricity. Fossil fuels were rapidly adopted during the revolution, because they were more concentrated and flexible than traditional energy sources. They have become a part of our contemporary society, with most countries in the world burning fossil fuels in order to produce power. Currently the trend has been towards renewable fuels, such as biofuels like alcohols, chemical fuels are substances that release energy by reacting with substances around them, most notably by the process of combustion. Most of the energy released in combustion was not stored in the chemical bonds of the fuel. Chemical fuels are divided in two ways, first, by their physical properties, as a solid, liquid or gas. Secondly, on the basis of their occurrence, primary and secondary, solid fuels include wood, charcoal, peat, coal, Hexamine fuel tablets, and pellets made from wood, corn, wheat, rye and other grains. Solid-fuel rocket technology also uses solid fuel, solid fuels have been used by humanity for many years to create fire

Fuel – Wood was one of the first fuels to be used by humans and is still the primary energy source in much of the world. [citation needed]
Fuel – Coal is an important solid fuel.
Fuel – A gasoline station.
Fuel – A 20-pound (9.1 kg) propane cylinder.

10. Plastic – Plastic is a material consisting of any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic compounds that are malleable and can be molded into solid objects. Plastics are typically organic polymers of high mass, but they often contain other substances. They are usually synthetic, most commonly derived from petrochemicals, due to their relatively low cost, ease of manufacture, versatility, and imperviousness to water, plastics are used in an enormous and expanding range of products, from paper clips to spaceships. They have already displaced many traditional materials, such as wood, stone, horn and bone, leather, paper, metal, glass, and ceramic, in most of their former uses. In developed countries, about a third of plastic is used in packaging, other uses include automobiles, furniture, and toys. In the developing world, the ratios may be different - for example, the worlds first fully synthetic plastic was bakelite, invented in New York in 1907 by Leo Baekeland who coined the term plastics. Toward the end of the century, one approach to this problem was met with wide efforts toward recycling, the word plastic is derived from the Greek πλαστικός meaning capable of being shaped or molded, from πλαστός meaning molded. The common word plastic should not be confused with the technical adjective plastic, used for insulating parts in electrical fixtures, paper laminated products, thermally insulation foams. Problems include the probability of moldings naturally being dark colors, One of the most expensive commercial polymers. It forms the basis of artistic and commercial acrylic paints when suspended in water with the use of other agents, polytetrafluoroethylene – Heat-resistant, low-friction coatings, used in things like non-stick surfaces for frying pans, plumbers tape and water slides. It is more known as Teflon. Urea-formaldehyde – One of the aminoplasts and used as an alternative to phenolics. Used as an adhesive and electrical switch housings. Early plastics were bio-derived materials such as egg and blood proteins, in 1600 BC, Mesoamericans used natural rubber for balls, bands, and figurines. Treated cattle horns were used as windows for lanterns in the Middle Ages, materials that mimicked the properties of horns were developed by treating milk-proteins with lye. In the 1800s, as industrial chemistry developed during the Industrial Revolution, the development of plastics also accelerated with Charles Goodyears discovery of vulcanization to thermoset materials derived from natural rubber. Parkesine is considered the first man-made plastic, the plastic material was patented by Alexander Parkes, In Birmingham, UK in 1856. It was unveiled at the 1862 Great International Exhibition in London, parkesine won a bronze medal at the 1862 Worlds fair in London

Plastic – Household items made of various types of plastic
Plastic – A chair made with a polypropylene seat
Plastic – Plastic (LDPE) bowl, by GEECO, Made in England, c1950.
Plastic – Molded plastic food replicas on display outside a restaurant in Japan

11. Pharmaceutical – A pharmaceutical drug is a drug used to diagnose, cure, treat, or prevent disease. Drug therapy is an important part of the field and relies on the science of pharmacology for continual advancement. Drugs are classified in various ways, one of the key divisions is by level of control, which distinguishes prescription drugs from over-the-counter drugs. Other ways to classify medicines are by mode of action, route of administration, biological system affected, an elaborate and widely used classification system is the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System. The World Health Organization keeps a list of essential medicines, Drug discovery and drug development are complex and expensive endeavors undertaken by pharmaceutical companies, academic scientists, and governments. Governments generally regulate what drugs can be marketed, how drugs are marketed, controversies have arisen over drug pricing and disposal of used drugs. In the US, a drug is, A substance recognized by an official pharmacopoeia or formulary, a substance intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease. A substance intended to affect the structure or any function of the body, a substance intended for use as a component of a medicine but not a device or a component, part or accessory of a device. Pharmaceutical or a drug is classified on the basis of their origin, Drug from natural origin, Herbal or plant or mineral origin, some drug substances are of marine origin. Drug from chemical as well as origin, Derived from partial herbal and partial chemical synthesis Chemical. Drug derived from animal origin, For example, hormones, Drug derived from microbial origin, Antibiotics Drug derived by biotechnology genetic-engineering, hybridoma technique for example Drug derived from radioactive substances. An elaborate and widely used system is the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System. The World Health Organization keeps a list of essential medicines, the main classes of painkillers are NSAIDs, opioids and Local anesthetics. For consciousness Some anesthetics include Benzodiazepines and Barbiturates, the main categories of drugs for musculoskeletal disorders are, NSAIDs, muscle relaxants, neuromuscular drugs, and anticholinesterases. Euthanasia is not permitted by law in countries, and consequently medicines will not be licensed for this use in those countries. Administration is the process by which a patient takes a medicine, there are three major categories of drug administration, enteral, parenteral, and other. It can be performed in various forms such as pills, tablets. There are many variations in the routes of administration, including intravenous and they can be administered all at once as a bolus, at frequent intervals or continuously

Pharmaceutical – "Medication" redirects here. For other uses, see Medication (disambiguation).

12. Lumber – Lumber, or timber is wood that has been processed into beams and planks, a stage in the process of wood production. Lumber may also refer to currently un-needed furniture, as in Lumber room, or an awkward gait, ultimately derived from the look of unfashionable, Lumber may be supplied either rough-sawn, or surfaced on one or more of its faces. Besides pulpwood, rough lumber is the raw material for furniture-making and it is available in many species, usually hardwoods, but it is also readily available in softwoods, such as white pine and red pine, because of their low cost. Lumber is mainly used for structural purposes but has other uses as well. It is classified more commonly as a softwood than as a hardwood, in Australia, Ireland, New Zealand and Britain, the term timber describes sawn wood products, such as floor boards. In the United States and Canada, generally timber describes standing or felled trees, before they are milled into boards, Timber there also describes sawn lumber not less than 5 inches in its smallest dimension. The latter includes the often partly finished lumber used in timber-frame construction, remanufactured lumber is the result of secondary or tertiary processing/cutting of previously milled lumber. Specifically, it is cut for industrial or wood-packaging use. Lumber is cut by ripsaw or resaw to create dimensions that are not usually processed by a primary sawmill, resawing is the splitting of 1-inch through 12-inch hardwood or softwood lumber into two or more thinner pieces of full-length boards. For example, splitting a ten-foot 2×4 into two ten-foot 1×4s is considered resawing, structural lumber may also be produced from recycled plastic and new plastic stock. Its introduction has been opposed by the forestry industry. Blending fiberglass in plastic lumber enhances its strength, durability, logs are converted into timber by being sawn, hewn, or split. Sawing with a rip saw is the most common method, because sawing allows logs of lower quality, with grain and large knots. There are various types of sawing, Plain sawn —A log sawn through without adjusting the position of the log, quarter sawn and rift sawn—These terms have been confused in history but generally mean lumber sawn so the annual rings are reasonably perpendicular to the sides of the lumber. Boxed heart—The pith remains within the piece with some allowance for exposure, heart center—the center core of a log. Free of heart center —A side-cut timber without any pith, free of knots —No knots are present. Dimensional lumber is lumber that is cut to standardized width and depth, carpenters extensively use dimensional lumber in framing wooden buildings. Common sizes include 2×4, 2×6, and 4×4, the length of a board is usually specified separately from the width and depth

Lumber – Timber in storage for later processing at a sawmill
Lumber – Wood cut from Victorian Eucalyptus regnans
Lumber – The harbor of Bellingham, Washington, filled with logs, 1972
Lumber – A 2×4.

13. Latex – LaTeX is a document preparation system. When writing, the writer uses plain text as opposed to the text found in WYSIWYG word processors like Microsoft Word or LibreOffice Writer. The writer uses markup tagging conventions to define the structure of a document, to stylise text throughout a document. A TeX distribution such as TeX Live or MikTeX is used to produce a file suitable for printing or digital distribution. Within the typesetting system, its name is stylised as LaTeX and it also has a prominent role in the preparation and publication of books and articles that contain complex multilingual materials, such as Tamil, Sanskrit and Greek. LaTeX uses the TeX typesetting program for formatting its output, LaTeX can be used as a standalone document preparation system or as an intermediate format. In the latter role, for example, it is used as part of a pipeline for translating DocBook. LaTeX is intended to provide a language that accesses the power of TeX in an easier way for writers. In short, TeX handles the layout side, while LaTeX handles the content side for document processing, LaTeX comprises a collection of TeX macros and a program to process LaTeX documents. LaTeX was originally written in the early 1980s by Leslie Lamport at SRI International, LaTeX is free software and is distributed under the LaTeX Project Public License. It therefore encourages the separation of layout from content while still allowing manual typesetting adjustments where needed and this concept is similar to the mechanism by which many word processors allow styles to be defined globally for an entire document or the use of Cascading Style Sheets to style HTML. The LaTeX system is a language that also handles typesetting and rendering. LaTeX can be extended by using the underlying macro language to develop custom formats. Such macros are often collected into packages, which are available to address special formatting such as complicated mathematical content or graphics. Indeed, in the example below, the environment is provided by the amsmath package. In order to create a document in LaTeX, you first write a file, say document. tex, then you give your document. tex file as input to the TeX program, and TeX writes out a file suitable for viewing onscreen or printing. This write-format-preview cycle is one of the ways in which working with LaTeX differs from what-you-see-is-what-you-get word-processing. It is similar to the code-compile-execute cycle familiar to computer programmers, today, many LaTeX-aware editing programs make this cycle a simple matter of pressing a single key, while showing the output preview on the screen beside the input window

Latex – Formats
Latex

14. Biomass – Biomass is an industry term for getting energy by burning wood, and other organic matter. It has become popular among power stations, which switch from coal to biomass to comply with the law. Biomass most often refers to plants or plant-based materials that are not used for food or feed, as an energy source, biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat, or indirectly after converting it to various forms of biofuel. Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be achieved by different methods which are classified into, thermal, chemical. Historically, humans have harnessed biomass-derived energy since the time people began burning wood to make fire. Even today, biomass is the source of fuel for domestic use in many developing countries. Biomass is all biologically-produced matter based in carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, the estimated biomass production in the world is 104.9 petagrams of carbon per year, about half in the ocean and half on land. Wood remains the largest biomass energy source today, examples include forest residues, yard clippings, wood chips, wood energy is derived by using lignocellulosic biomass as fuel. Harvested wood may be used directly as a fuel or collected from waste streams to be processed into pellet fuel or other forms of fuels. The largest source of energy from wood is pulping liquor or black liquor, in the second sense, biomass includes plant or animal matter that can be converted into fibers or other industrial chemicals, including biofuels. Based on the source of biomass, biofuels are classified broadly into two major categories, first-generation biofuels are derived from sources such as sugarcane and corn starch. Sugars present in this biomass are fermented to produce bioethanol, a fuel which can be used directly in a fuel cell to produce electricity or serve as an additive to gasoline. However, utilizing food-based resources for production only aggravates the food shortage problem. Second-generation biofuels, on the hand, utilize non-food-based biomass sources such as agriculture. These biofuels mostly consist of lignocellulosic biomass, which is not edible and is a waste for many industries. Despite being the alternative, economical production of second-generation biofuel is not yet achieved due to technological issues. These issues arise due to chemical inertness and structural rigidity of lignocellulosic biomass. Plant energy is produced by crops grown for use as fuel that offer high biomass output per hectare with low input energy

Biomass – Sugarcane plantation in Brazil. Sugarcane bagasse is a type of biomass.
Biomass – A cogeneration plant in Metz, France. The station uses waste wood biomass as an energy source, and provides electricity and heat for 30,000 dwellings.
Biomass – Stump harvesting increases the recovery of biomass from a forest.
Biomass – Eucalyptus in Brazil. Remains of the tree are reused for power generation.

15. Iron ore – Iron ores are rocks and minerals from which metallic iron can be economically extracted. The ores are rich in iron oxides and vary in color from dark grey, bright yellow. The iron itself is found in the form of magnetite, hematite, goethite, limonite or siderite. Ores containing very high quantities of hematite or magnetite are known as ore or direct shipping ore. Iron ore is the raw material used to make pig iron, indeed, it has been argued that iron ore is more integral to the global economy than any other commodity, except perhaps oil. Metallic iron is virtually unknown on the surface of the Earth except as iron-nickel alloys from meteorites, although iron is the fourth most abundant element in the Earths crust, comprising about 5%, the vast majority is bound in silicate or more rarely carbonate minerals. Prior to the revolution, most iron was obtained from widely available goethite or bog ore, for example during the American Revolution. Prehistoric societies used laterite as a source of iron ore, historically, much of the iron ore utilized by industrialized societies has been mined from predominantly hematite deposits with grades of around 70% Fe. These deposits are referred to as direct shipping ores or natural ores. Iron-ore mining methods vary by the type of ore being mined, there are four main types of iron-ore deposits worked currently, depending on the mineralogy and geology of the ore deposits. These are magnetite, titanomagnetite, massive hematite and pisolitic ironstone deposits, banded iron formations are sedimentary rocks containing more than 15% iron composed predominantly of thinly bedded iron minerals and silica. Banded iron formations occur exclusively in Precambrian rocks, and are weakly to intensely metamorphosed. Banded iron formations may contain iron in carbonates or silicates, banded iron formations are known as taconite within North America. The mining involves moving tremendous amounts of ore and waste, the waste comes in two forms, non-ore bedrock in the mine, and unwanted minerals which are an intrinsic part of the ore rock itself. The mullock is mined and piled in dumps, and the gangue is separated during the beneficiation process and is removed as tailings. Taconite tailings are mostly the mineral quartz, which is chemically inert and this material is stored in large, regulated water settling ponds. The typical magnetite iron-ore concentrate has less than 0. 1% phosphorus, 3–7% silica, currently magnetite iron ore is mined in Minnesota and Michigan in the U. S. Direct-shipping iron-ore deposits are exploited on all continents except Antarctica, with the largest intensity in South America

Iron ore – Hematite: the main iron ore in Brazilian mines
Iron ore – This stockpile of iron ore pellets will be used in steel production.
Iron ore – Processed taconite pellets with reddish surface oxidation as used in the steelmaking industry, with a US Quarter (diameter: 24 mm (0.96 in)) shown for scale

16. Seawater – Seawater, or salt water, is water from a sea or ocean. On average, seawater in the oceans has a salinity of about 3. 5% This means that every kilogram of seawater has approximately 35 grams of dissolved salts. Average density at the surface is 1.025 kg/l, seawater is denser than both fresh water and pure water because the dissolved salts increase the mass by a larger proportion than the volume. The freezing point of seawater decreases as salt concentration increases, at typical salinity, it freezes at about −2 °C. The coldest seawater ever recorded was in 2010, in a stream under an Antarctic glacier, seawater pH is typically limited to a range between 7.5 and 8.4. However, there is no universally accepted reference pH-scale for seawater, although the vast majority of seawater has a salinity of between 31 g/kg and 38 g/kg, seawater is not uniformly saline throughout the world. Where mixing occurs with fresh water runoff from river mouths, near melting glaciers or vast amounts precipitation, the most saline open sea is the Red Sea, where high rates of evaporation, low precipitation and low river run-off, and confined circulation result in unusually salty water. The salinity in isolated bodies of water can be considerably greater still, historically, several salinity scales were used to approximate the absolute salinity of seawater. A popular scale was the Practical Salinity Scale where salinity was measured in practical salinity units, the current standard for salinity is the Reference Salinity scale with the salinity expressed in units of g/kg. The density of surface seawater ranges from about 1020 to 1029 kg/m3, depending on the temperature, at a temperature of 25 °C, salinity of 35 g/kg and 1 atm pressure, the density of seawater is 1023.6 kg/m3. Deep in the ocean, under pressure, seawater can reach a density of 1050 kg/m3 or higher. The density of seawater also changes with salinity, brines generated by seawater desalination plants can have salinities up to 120 g/kg. The density of typical seawater brine of 120 g/kg salinity at 25 °C, seawater pH is limited to the range 7.5 to 8.4. The speed of sound in seawater is about 1,500 m/s, and varies with temperature, salinity. The thermal conductivity of seawater is 0.6 W/mK at 25 °C, the thermal conductivity decreases with increasing salinity and increases with increasing temperature. Seawater contains more dissolved ions than all types of freshwater, however, the ratios of solutes differ dramatically. Bicarbonate ions also constitute 48% of river water solutes but only 0. 14% of all seawater ions, differences like these are due to the varying residence times of seawater solutes, sodium and chlorine have very long residence times, while calcium tends to precipitate much more quickly. The most abundant dissolved ions in seawater are sodium, chloride, magnesium, sulfate and its osmolarity is about 1000 mOsm/l

Seawater – Seawater in the Strait of Malacca

17. Resource curse – This is hypothesized to happen for many different reasons, and there are many academic debates about when and why it occurs. Most experts believe the curse is not universal or inevitable. The idea that resources might be more of a curse than a blessing began to emerge in debates in the 1950s and 1960s about the economic problems of low. An influential study by Jeffrey Sachs and Andrew Warner found a correlation between natural resource abundance and poor economic growth. Hundreds of studies have now evaluated the effects of wealth on a wide range of economic outcomes, and offered many explanations for how, why. The IMF classifies 51 countries as “resource-rich. ”These are countries which derive at least 20% of exports or 20% of fiscal revenue from natural resources. 29 of these countries are low- and lower-middle-income, a 2016 meta-study finds weak support for the thesis that resource richness adversely affects long-term economic growth. Dutch disease makes tradable goods less competitive in world markets, absent currency manipulation or a currency peg, appreciation of the currency can damage other sectors, leading to a compensating unfavorable balance of trade. As imports become cheaper in all sectors, internal employment suffers and with it the skill infrastructure and this problem has historically influenced the domestic economics of large empires including Rome during its transition from a Republic, and the United Kingdom during the height of its colonial empire. To compensate for the loss of employment opportunities, government resources are used to artificially create employment. Also, since productivity generally increases faster in the manufacturing sector than in the government, Dutch Disease first became apparent after the Dutch discovered a massive natural gas field in Groningen in 1959. The Netherlands sought to tap this resource in an attempt to export the gas for profit, however, when the gas began to flow out of the country so too did its ability to compete against other countries exports. With the Netherlands focus primarily on the new gas exports, the Dutch currency began to appreciate, with the growing gas market and the shrinking export economy, the Netherlands began to experience a recession. This process has been witnessed in multiple countries around the world including but not limited to Venezuela, Angola, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, all of these countries are considered resource-cursed. In the decade from 1998 to 2008, it rose from $10/bbl to $145/bbl, when government revenues are dominated by inflows from natural resources, this volatility can play havoc with government planning and debt service. Abrupt changes in economic realities that result from this often provoke widespread breaking of contracts or curtailment of social programs, eroding the rule of law, responsible use of financial hedges can mitigate this risk to some extent. Susceptibility to this volatility can be increased where governments choose to borrow heavily in foreign currency, if the resource prices fall, however, the governments capacity to meet debt repayments will be reduced. As Venezuelan oil minister and OPEC co-founder Juan Pablo Pérez Alfonzo presciently warned in 1976, Ten years from now, twenty years now, you will see

Resource curse – Air

18. Democratic Republic of Congo – The Democratic Republic of the Congo, also known as DR Congo, DRC, DROC, East Congo, Congo-Kinshasa, or simply the Congo is a country located in Central Africa. From 1971 to 1997 it was named, and is still called, Zaire. It is the second-largest country in Africa by area and eleventh largest in the world, the Congolese Civil Wars, which began in 1996, brought about the end of Mobutu Sese Sekos 32-year reign and devastated the country. These wars ultimately involved nine African nations, multiple groups of UN peacekeepers and twenty armed groups, besides the capital, Kinshasa, the other major cities, Lubumbashi and Mbuji-Mayi, are both mining communities. DR Congos largest export is raw minerals, with China accepting over 50% of DRCs exports in 2012, as of 2015, according to the Human Development Index, DR Congo has a low level of human development, ranking 176 out of 187 countries. The country was known officially as the Democratic Republic of the Congo from 1965 to 27 October 1971, in 1992, the Sovereign National Conference voted to change the name of the country to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, but the change was not put into practice. The countrys name was restored by former president Laurent-Désiré Kabila following the fall of longtime dictator Mobutu Sese Seko in 1997, some historians think that Bantu peoples began settling in the extreme northwest of Central Africa at the beginning of the 5th century and then gradually started to expand southward. Their propagation was accelerated by the transition from Stone Age to Iron Age techniques, the people living in the south and southwest were mostly San Bushmen and hunter-gatherer groups, whose technology involved only minimal use of metal technologies. The development of tools during this time period revolutionized agriculture. This led to the displacement of the groups in the east and southeast. The 10th century marked the expansion of the Bantu in West-Central Africa. Rising populations soon made intricate local, regional and foreign commercial networks that traded mostly in salt, iron. Belgian exploration and administration took place from the 1870s until the 1920s and it was first led by Sir Henry Morton Stanley, who undertook his explorations under the sponsorship of King Leopold II of Belgium. The eastern regions of the precolonial Congo were heavily disrupted by constant slave raiding, mainly from Arab–Swahili slave traders such as the infamous Tippu Tip, Leopold had designs on what was to become the Congo as a colony. Leopold formally acquired rights to the Congo territory at the Conference of Berlin in 1885 and he named it the Congo Free State. Leopolds rėgime began various infrastructure projects, such as construction of the railway ran from the coast to the capital of Leopoldville. Nearly all such projects were aimed at making it easier to increase the assets which Leopold. In the Free State, colonists brutalized the local population into producing rubber, for which the spread of automobiles, rubber sales made a fortune for Leopold, who built several buildings in Brussels and Ostend to honor himself and his country

Democratic Republic of Congo – Village attacked by Arab-Swahili slavers near Nyangwe, end of 19th century
Democratic Republic of Congo – Flag
Democratic Republic of Congo – View of Leopoldville Station and Port in 1884.
Democratic Republic of Congo – Force Publique soldiers in the Belgian Congo in 1918. At its peak, the Force Publique had around 19,000 African soldiers, led by 420 white officers.

19. Second Congo War – The Second Congo War began in August 1998 in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, little more than a year after the First Congo War, and involved some of the same issues. The war officially ended in July 2003, when the Transitional Government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo took power, although a peace agreement was signed in 2002, violence continued in many regions of the country, especially in the east. Hostilities have continued since in the ongoing Lords Resistance Army insurgency, named the deadliest war in modern African history, the Second Congo War has directly involved nine African countries, as well as approximately 20 separate armed groups. By 2008, the war and its aftermath had caused 5.4 million deaths, principally through disease and starvation, another 2 million are displaced from their homes or sought asylum in neighbouring countries. The war was driven by the trade in minerals, among other things. The new Tutsi-dominated RPF government of Rwanda protested this violation of Rwandan territorial integrity, the Mobutu government of Zaire vigorously denounced this intervention but possessed neither the military capability to halt it nor the political capital to attract international assistance. The bulk of Kabilas fighters were Tutsis, and many were veterans of conflicts in the Great Lakes region of Africa. Kabila had declared himself a Marxist and an admirer of Mao Zedong, Kabilas army began a slow movement westward in December 1996 near the end of the Great Lakes refugee crisis, taking control of border towns and mines and solidifying control. There were reports of massacres and of brutal repression by the rebel army, a UN human-rights investigator published statements from witnesses claiming that Kabilas ADFLC engaged in massacres, and that the advancing army killed as many as 60,000 civilians. Roberto Garreton stated that his investigation in Goma turned up allegations of disappearances, torture and he quoted Moïse Nyarugabo, an aide to Mobutu, as saying that killings and disappearances should be expected in wartime. Kabilas forces launched an offensive in March 1997 and demanded that the Kinshasa government surrender, on 27 March the rebels took Kasenga. The government denied the rebels success, starting a long pattern of false statements from the Defense Minister as to the progress, negotiations were proposed in late March, and on 2 April a new Prime Minister of Zaire, Étienne Tshisekedi—a longtime rival of Mobutu—was installed. Kabila, by point in control of roughly one-quarter of the country, dismissed this as irrelevant. Throughout April 1997 the ADFLC made consistent progress in its advance from the east, Mobutu fled Kinshasa on May 16, and the libérateurs entered the capital without serious resistance. Mobutu fled the country and died in exile in Morocco four months later, Kabila proclaimed himself president on May 17,1997, and immediately ordered a violent crackdown to restore order. Kabila began an attempt at reorganisation of the nation, when Kabila gained control of the capital in May 1997, he faced substantial obstacles to governing the country, which he renamed the Democratic Republic of Congo from Zaïre. Beyond political jostling among various groups to gain power and an external debt. The conspicuous Rwandan presence in the capital also rankled many Congolese, tensions reached new heights on 14 July 1998, when Kabila dismissed his Rwandan chief of staff, James Kabarebe, and replaced him with a native Congolese, Celestin Kifwa

Second Congo War – Rape has been used as a weapon of war in both the First and Second Congo Wars. Original caption states: "Photo: USAID/Leah Werchick; Rape victims who have been successfully reintegrated into their communities assemble in a 'peace hut' near Walungu, South Kivu in DRC."
Second Congo War – Rebel soldiers photographed in the northern town of Gbadolite in 2000
Second Congo War – A Congolese soldier with a PK machine gun photographed near the Rwandan border in 2001
Second Congo War – Meeting of victims of Sexual violence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

20. Found object – Pablo Picasso first publicly utilized the idea when he pasted a printed image of chair caning onto his painting titled Still Life with Chair Caning. The most famous example is Fountain, a standard urinal purchased from a store and displayed on a pedestal. Found objects derive their identity as art from the designation placed upon them by the artist and this may be indicated by either its anonymous wear and tear or by its recognizability as a consumer icon. The context into which it is placed is also a relevant factor. The idea of dignifying commonplace objects in this way was originally a challenge to the accepted distinction between what was considered art as opposed to not art. In this sense the artist gives the time and a stage to contemplate an object. Appreciation of found objects in this way can prompt philosophical reflection in the observer, there is usually some degree of modification of the found object, although not always to the extent that it cannot be recognized, as is the case with ready-mades. Marcel Duchamp coined the term ready-made in 1915 to describe an object that had been selected. Duchamp assembled Bicycle Wheel in 1913 by attaching a common front wheel and this was not long after his Nude Descending a Staircase was attracting the attention of critics at the International Exhibition of Modern Art. In 1917, Fountain, a urinal signed with the pseudonym R. Mutt, in the same year, Duchamp indicated in a letter to his sister, Suzanne Duchamp, that a female friend was centrally involved in the conception of this work. As he writes, One of my friends who had adopted the pseudonym Richard Mutt sent me a porcelain urinal as a sculpture. Irene Gammel argues that the piece is more in line with the aesthetics of Duchamps friend. Research by Rhonda Roland Shearer indicates that Duchamp may have fabricated his found objects, exhaustive research of mundane items like snow shovels and bottle racks in use at the time failed to reveal identical matches. The urinal, upon inspection, is non-functional. However, there are accounts of Walter Arensberg and Joseph Stella being with Duchamp when he purchased the original Fountain at J. L. Mott Iron Works. The use of objects was quickly taken up by the Dada movement, being used by Man Ray. A well-known work by Man Ray is Gift, which is an iron with nails sticking out from its flat underside, jose De Creeft began making large-scale assemblages in Paris, such as Picador, made of scrap metal, rubber and other materials. The combination of found objects is a type of ready-made sometimes known as an assemblage

Found object – Marcel Duchamp, Fountain, 1917. Photograph by Alfred Stieglitz
Found object – Junk art at Oak Street Beach
Found object – An Oak Tree by Michael Craig-Martin; 1973

21. Nest – A nest is a structure built by certain animals to hold its eggs, its offspring, or occasionally the animal itself. Although nests are most closely associated with birds, members of all classes of vertebrates and some invertebrates construct nests. They may be composed of material such as twigs, grass. Human-made materials, such as string, plastic, cloth, or paper, nests can be found in all types of habitat. Nest building is driven by a biological urge known as the instinct in birds. Generally each species has a style of nest. Nest complexity is roughly correlated with the level of care by adults. Nests of prairie dogs and several social insects can host millions of individuals, Nest building is often driven by a biological urge in pregnant animals to protect ones offspring known as the nesting instinct. Animals build nests to protect their eggs, their offspring, or themselves from danger, the simplest nests are designed to hide eggs from predators, shield them from the sun or other environmental factors, or simply keep them from being scattered in ocean currents. In some cases, nests also provide safety in numbers for egg-laying animals. Many nest builders provide parental care to their young, while others lay their eggs. In general, nest complexity increases in relation to the level of care provided. Nest building reinforces social behavior, allowing for larger populations in small spaces to the point of increasing the capacity of an environment. Insects that exhibit the most complex nest building also exhibit the greatest social structure, among mammals, the naked mole-rat displays a caste structure similar to the social insects while building extensive burrows that house hundreds of individuals. At the most basic level, there are two types of nest building, sculpting and assembly. Sculpting is the process of removing material to achieve a desired outcome, most commonly this entails burrowing into the ground or plant matter to create a nesting site. Assembly entails gathering, transporting, and arranging materials to create a novel structure, transportation has the greatest time and energy cost so animals are usually adapted to build with materials available in their immediate environment. Versatility in use of material may be an adaptive advantage or a disadvantage

Nest – A bird nest
Nest – A Night Heron building a nest.
Nest – A pair of Osprey building a nest.
Nest – Hundreds of honeybees gather on their honeycomb nest

22. Bulk cargo – Bulk cargo is commodity cargo that is transported unpackaged in large quantities. It refers to material in liquid or granular, particulate form, as a mass of relatively small solids, such as petroleum/crude oil, grain, coal. This cargo is usually dropped or poured, with a spout or shovel bucket, into a bulk carrier ships hold, railroad car/railway wagon, smaller quantities can be boxed and palletised. Bulk cargo is classified as liquid or dry, the Baltic Exchange is based in London and provides a range of indices benchmarking the cost of moving bulk commodities, dry and wet, along popular routes around the seas. Some of these indices are used to settle Freight Futures. The most famous of the Baltic indices is the Baltic Dry Indices and this is a derived function of the Baltic Capesize index, Baltic Panamax index, Baltic Supramax index and the Baltic Handysize index. The BDI has been used as a bellwether for the economy as it can be interpreted as an indicator of an increase or decrease in the amount of raw commodities countries are importing/exporting. Bauxite Bulk minerals Cements Chemicals Coals and cokes Agricultural products such as dry edibles Grains Iron, Bulk Cargoes, A Guide to Good Practice. UK, The North of England P&I Association, stability and Trim for the Ships Officer. Keever, John M. American Merchant Seamans Manual, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. New York and Geneva, United Nations, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. New York and Geneva, United Nations

Bulk cargo – A mini-bulker taking on cargo in Brest.
Bulk cargo – Modern tank cars carry all types of liquid and gaseous commodities.
Bulk cargo – This heap of iron ore pellets will be used in steel production.
Bulk cargo

23. Bulk materials – Bulk cargo is commodity cargo that is transported unpackaged in large quantities. It refers to material in liquid or granular, particulate form, as a mass of relatively small solids, such as petroleum/crude oil, grain, coal. This cargo is usually dropped or poured, with a spout or shovel bucket, into a bulk carrier ships hold, railroad car/railway wagon, smaller quantities can be boxed and palletised. Bulk cargo is classified as liquid or dry, the Baltic Exchange is based in London and provides a range of indices benchmarking the cost of moving bulk commodities, dry and wet, along popular routes around the seas. Some of these indices are used to settle Freight Futures. The most famous of the Baltic indices is the Baltic Dry Indices and this is a derived function of the Baltic Capesize index, Baltic Panamax index, Baltic Supramax index and the Baltic Handysize index. The BDI has been used as a bellwether for the economy as it can be interpreted as an indicator of an increase or decrease in the amount of raw commodities countries are importing/exporting. Bauxite Bulk minerals Cements Chemicals Coals and cokes Agricultural products such as dry edibles Grains Iron, Bulk Cargoes, A Guide to Good Practice. UK, The North of England P&I Association, stability and Trim for the Ships Officer. Keever, John M. American Merchant Seamans Manual, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. New York and Geneva, United Nations, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. New York and Geneva, United Nations

Bulk materials – A mini-bulker taking on cargo in Brest.
Bulk materials – Modern tank cars carry all types of liquid and gaseous commodities.
Bulk materials – This heap of iron ore pellets will be used in steel production.
Bulk materials

24. Bulk liquids – Bulk cargo is commodity cargo that is transported unpackaged in large quantities. It refers to material in liquid or granular, particulate form, as a mass of relatively small solids, such as petroleum/crude oil, grain, coal. This cargo is usually dropped or poured, with a spout or shovel bucket, into a bulk carrier ships hold, railroad car/railway wagon, smaller quantities can be boxed and palletised. Bulk cargo is classified as liquid or dry, the Baltic Exchange is based in London and provides a range of indices benchmarking the cost of moving bulk commodities, dry and wet, along popular routes around the seas. Some of these indices are used to settle Freight Futures. The most famous of the Baltic indices is the Baltic Dry Indices and this is a derived function of the Baltic Capesize index, Baltic Panamax index, Baltic Supramax index and the Baltic Handysize index. The BDI has been used as a bellwether for the economy as it can be interpreted as an indicator of an increase or decrease in the amount of raw commodities countries are importing/exporting. Bauxite Bulk minerals Cements Chemicals Coals and cokes Agricultural products such as dry edibles Grains Iron, Bulk Cargoes, A Guide to Good Practice. UK, The North of England P&I Association, stability and Trim for the Ships Officer. Keever, John M. American Merchant Seamans Manual, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. New York and Geneva, United Nations, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. New York and Geneva, United Nations

Bulk liquids – A mini-bulker taking on cargo in Brest.
Bulk liquids – Modern tank cars carry all types of liquid and gaseous commodities.
Bulk liquids – This heap of iron ore pellets will be used in steel production.
Bulk liquids

25. Biomaterial – A biomaterial is any substance that has been engineered to interact with biological systems for a medical purpose - either a therapeutic or a diagnostic one. As a science, biomaterials is about fifty years old, the study of biomaterials is called biomaterials science or biomaterials engineering. It has experienced steady and strong growth over its history, with many companies investing large amounts of money into the development of new products, biomaterials science encompasses elements of medicine, biology, chemistry, tissue engineering and materials science. Note that a biomaterial is different from a material, such as bone. Additionally, care should be exercised in defining a biomaterial as biocompatible, a biomaterial that is biocompatible or suitable for one application may not be biocompatible in another. Biomaterials can be derived either from nature or synthesized in the using a variety of chemical approaches utilizing metallic components, polymers. They are often used and/or adapted for an application, and thus comprises whole or part of a living structure or biomedical device which performs, augments. Such functions may be passive, like being used for a heart valve. Biomaterials are also used every day in applications, surgery. For example, a construct with impregnated pharmaceutical products can be placed into the body, a biomaterial may also be an autograft, allograft or xenograft used as a transplant material. Biomineralization is the process by which living organisms produce minerals, often to harden or stiffen existing tissues, such tissues are called mineralized tissues. It is a widespread phenomenon, all six taxonomic kingdoms contain members that are able to form minerals. Examples include silicates in algae and diatoms, carbonates in invertebrates and these minerals often form structural features such as sea shells and the bone in mammals and birds. Organisms have been producing mineralised skeletons for the past 550 million years, other examples include copper, iron and gold deposits involving bacteria. Biologically-formed minerals often have special uses such as sensors in magnetotactic bacteria, gravity sensing devices and iron storage. Self-assembly is the most common term in use in the scientific community to describe the spontaneous aggregation of particles without the influence of any external forces. The fundamental difference in structure is in the spatial scale of the unit cell in each particular case. Molecular self-assembly is found widely in biological systems and provides the basis of a variety of complex biological structures

Biomaterial – The iridescent nacre inside a nautilus shell.

26. Commodity – In economics, a commodity is a marketable item produced to satisfy wants or needs. Economic commodities comprise goods and services, the word commodity came into use in English in the 15th century, from the French commodité, amenity, convenience. Going further back, the French word derives from the Latin commoditas, meaning suitability, convenience, the Latin word commodus meant variously appropriate, proper measure, time, or condition, and advantage, benefit. The term commodity is specifically used for a good or service when the demand for it has no qualitative differentiation across a market. In other words, a commodity good or service has full or partial but substantial fungibility, that is, the market treats its instances as equivalent or nearly so with no regard to who produced them. As the saying goes, From the taste of wheat, it is not possible to tell who produced it, a Russian serf, petroleum and copper are other examples of such commodities, their supply and demand being a part of one universal market. Items such as systems, on the other hand, have many aspects of product differentiation, such as the brand, the user interface. The demand for one type of stereo may be larger than demand for another. In contrast, one of the characteristics of a commodity good is that its price is determined as a function of its market as a whole, well-established physical commodities have actively traded spot and derivative markets. Generally, these are basic resources and agricultural products such as ore, sugar. Soft commodities are goods that are grown, while hard commodities are ones that are extracted through mining, there is another important class of energy commodities which includes electricity, gas, coal and oil. Electricity has the characteristic that it is usually uneconomical to store, hence. Commoditization occurs as a goods or services market loses differentiation across its supply base, as such, goods that formerly carried premium margins for market participants have become commodities, such as generic pharmaceuticals and DRAM chips. Following this trend, nanomaterials are emerging from carrying premium profit margins for market participants to a status of commodification, there is a spectrum of commoditization, rather than a binary distinction of commodity versus differentiable product. Many products degree of commoditization depends on the mentality and means. For example, milk, eggs, and notebook paper are not differentiated by many customers, for them, other customers take into consideration other factors besides price, such as environmental sustainability and animal welfare. This is a list of companies trading globally in commodities, descending by size as of October 28,2011, on a commodity exchange, it is the underlying standard stated in the contract that defines the commodity, not any quality inherent in a specific producers product. Commodities exchanges include, Bourse Africa Bursa Malaysia Derivatives Chicago Board of Trade Chicago Mercantile Exchange Dalian Commodity Exchange Euronext and these markets will quickly respond to changes in supply and demand to find an equilibrium price and quantity

Commodity – Yerba mate (left), coffee bean (middle) and tea (right), all used for caffeinated infusions, are commodity cash crops.
Commodity
Commodity

27. Conflict resource – Conflict resources are natural resources extracted in a conflict zone and sold to perpetuate the fighting. There is both anecdotal and statistical evidence that belligerent accessibility to precious commodities can prolong conflicts and these minerals are essential in the manufacture of a variety of devices, including consumer electronics such as mobile phones, laptops, and MP3 players. The extraction and sale of diamonds, also known as conflict diamonds, is a better-known phenomenon which occurs under virtually identical conditions. Even petroleum can be a resource, ISIL uses oil revenue to finance its military. International efforts to trade in conflict resources, tried to reduce incentives to extract. For example, in the United States, the 2010 Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act required manufacturers to audit their supply chains and report use of conflict minerals. In 2015 a US federal appeals court struck down aspects of the reporting requirements as a violation of corporations’ freedom of speech. The concept of resource, or conflict commodity emerged in the late 1990s, initially in relation to the conflict diamonds that were financing rebellions in Angola. Then conflict timber financed hostilities in Cambodia and Liberia, the concept was first officially discussed by the UN General Assembly in the context of conflict diamonds, The UN Security Council has since referred to conflict resources in several resolutions. Since 1996 the Bonn International Center for Conversion has tracked resource governance, aside from fossil fuels, metals, diamonds, and timber it tracks the governance of other primary goods that might fund conflicts, including, poppy seeds, rubber, cotton, and cocoa. The four most prominent conflict minerals, for example codified in the U. S, Conflict Minerals Law, are, Columbite-tantalite is the metal ore from which the element tantalum is extracted. In its carbide form, tantalum possesses significant hardness and wear resistance properties, as a result, it is used in jet engine/turbine blades, drill bits, end mills and other tools. Cassiterite is the ore needed to produce tin, essential for the production of tin cans. Tin is also commonly a component of biocides, fungicides and as tetrabutyl tin/tetraoctyl tin, wolframite is an important source of the element tungsten. Tungsten is a dense metal and is frequently used for this property, such as in fishing weights, dart tips. Like tantalum carbide, tungsten carbide possesses hardness and wear properties and is frequently used in applications like metalworking tools, drill bits. Smaller amounts are used to lead in green ammunition. Minimal amounts are used in devices, including the vibration mechanism of cell phones

Conflict resource – Four common conflict minerals, clockwise from top left: coltan, cassiterite, gold ore, and wolframite.

28. Downcycling – Downcycling, also referred to as cascading, describes the recycling of waste in cases where the recycled material is of lower quality and functionality than the original material. An important example of downcycling is the accumulation of tramp elements in secondary metals, steel scrap from end-of-life vehicles, for example, is often contaminated with copper from wires and tin from coating. This contaminated scrap yields a secondary steel that does not meet the specifications for automotive steel and therefore, the term downcycling was used by Reiner Pilz in an interview by Thornton Kay of Salvo in 1994. We talked about the impending EU Demolition Waste Streams directive, recycling, he said, I call it downcycling. They smash bricks, they smash everything, what we need is upcycling where old products are given more value not less. It was a pinky looking aggregate with pieces of brick, old tiles. Is this the future for Europe, the term downcycling was also used by William McDonough and Michael Braungart in their 2002 book Cradle to Cradle, Remaking the Way We Make Things. As we have noted, most recycling is actually downcycling, it reduces the quality of a material over time, aluminum is another valuable but constantly downcycled material. In conventional recycling these materials are melted together, resulting in a weaker—and less useful—product, downcycling is related to but different from open-loop recycling. A detailed discussion on the relation between downcycling, open loop recycling and their impact is provided by Geyer et al. They write that Poor product design and EOL management can lead to recycled materials of poor quality and they also argue that closed-loop recycling neither intrinsically displaces more primary material owing to multiple loops nor per se generates higher environmental benefits on a unit basis. Industrial ecology Backward compatibility Forward compatibility Planned obsolescence Repurposing

Downcycling – Major types

29. Materials science – The interdisciplinary field of materials science, also commonly termed materials science and engineering, involves the discovery and design of new materials, with an emphasis on solids. Materials science still incorporates elements of physics, chemistry, and engineering, as such, the field was long considered by academic institutions as a sub-field of these related fields. Materials science is a syncretic discipline hybridizing metallurgy, ceramics, solid-state physics and it is the first example of a new academic discipline emerging by fusion rather than fission. Many of the most pressing scientific problems humans currently face are due to the limits of the materials that are available, thus, breakthroughs in materials science are likely to affect the future of technology significantly. Materials scientists emphasize understanding how the history of a material influences its structure, the understanding of processing-structure-properties relationships is called the § materials paradigm. This paradigm is used to advance understanding in a variety of areas, including nanotechnology, biomaterials. Such investigations are key to understanding, for example, the causes of various accidents and incidents. The material of choice of a given era is often a defining point, phrases such as Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age, and Steel Age are great examples. Originally deriving from the manufacture of ceramics and its putative derivative metallurgy, materials science is one of the oldest forms of engineering, modern materials science evolved directly from metallurgy, which itself evolved from mining and ceramics and the use of fire. Materials science has driven, and been driven by, the development of technologies such as rubbers, plastics, semiconductors. Before the 1960s, many materials science departments were named metallurgy departments, reflecting the 19th, a material is defined as a substance that is intended to be used for certain applications. There are a myriad of materials around us—they can be found in anything from buildings to spacecraft, Materials can generally be divided into two classes, crystalline and non-crystalline. The traditional examples of materials are metals, semiconductors, ceramics, New and advanced materials that are being developed include nanomaterials and biomaterials, etc. The basis of science involves studying the structure of materials. Once a materials scientist knows about this structure-property correlation, they can go on to study the relative performance of a material in a given application. The major determinants of the structure of a material and thus of its properties are its constituent chemical elements and these characteristics, taken together and related through the laws of thermodynamics and kinetics, govern a materials microstructure, and thus its properties. As mentioned above, structure is one of the most important components of the field of materials science, Materials science examines the structure of materials from the atomic scale, all the way up to the macro scale. Characterization is the way materials scientists examine the structure of a material, structure is studied at various levels, as detailed below

Materials science – A diamond cuboctahedron showing a number of crystallographic planes, imaged with scanning electron microscopy.
Materials science – A late Bronze Age sword or dagger blade.
Materials science – Microstructure of pearlite.
Materials science – Crystal structure of a perovskite with a chemical formula ABX 3.

Raw material

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