1.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
2.
Recording industry
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The modern Western music industry emerged between the 1930s and 1950s, when records replaced sheet music as the most important product in the music business. In the commercial world, the recording industry–a reference to recording performances of songs and pieces, labels outside of these three major labels are referred to as independent labels. The largest portion of the music market for concerts and tours is controlled by Live Nation. Live Nation is a subsidiary of iHeartMedia Inc, which is the largest owner of radio stations in the United States. In the first decades of the 2000s, the industry underwent drastic changes with the advent of widespread digital distribution of music via the Internet. A conspicuous indicator of changes is total music sales, since 2000. In 2011, the largest recorded music retailer in the world was now a digital, Internet-based platform operated by a computer company, printed music in Europe, Music publishing using machine-printed sheet music developed during the Renaissance music era in the mid-15th century. The development of music followed the evolution of printing technologies that were first developed for printing regular books. After the mid-15th century, mechanical techniques for printing music were first developed. The earliest example, a set of chants, dates from about 1465. Prior to this time, music had to be copied out by hand, to copy music notation by hand was a very costly, labor-intensive and time-consuming process, so it was usually undertaken only by monks and priests seeking to preserve sacred music for the church. The few collections of music that are extant were commissioned and owned by wealthy aristocrats. Examples include the Squarcialupi Codex of Italian Trecento music and the Chantilly Codex of French Ars subtilior music, the use of printing enabled sheet music to reproduced much more quickly and at a much lower cost than hand-copying music notation. This helped musical styles to spread to cities and countries more quickly. With music printing, though, a composers music could be printed, as sheet music of major composers pieces and songs began to be printed and distributed in a wider area, this enabled composers and listeners to hear new styles and forms of music. A German composer could buy songs written by an Italian or English composer, and this led to more blending of musical styles from different countries and regions. The pioneer of music printing was Ottaviano Petrucci, a printer and publisher who was able to secure a twenty-year monopoly on printed music in Venice during the 16th century. Venice was one of the business and music centers during this period
3.
RIAA equalization
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RIAA equalization is a specification for the recording and playback of phonograph records, established by the Recording Industry Association of America. The purposes of the equalization are to permit greater recording times, to sound quality. The RIAA equalization curve was intended to operate as a de facto industry standard for records since 1954. However, it is almost impossible to say when the change took place. S. European, Victor-78, Associated, BBC, NAB, Orthacoustic, World, Columbia LP, FFRR-78 and microgroove, the obvious consequence was that different reproduction results were obtained if the recording and playback filtering were not matched. RIAA equalization is a form of pre-emphasis on recording and de-emphasis on playback, a recording is made with the low frequencies reduced and the high frequencies boosted, and on playback the opposite occurs. The net result is a frequency response, but with attenuation of high frequency noise such as hiss. Reducing the low frequencies also limits the excursions the cutter needs to make when cutting a groove, groove width is thus reduced, allowing more grooves to fit into a given surface area, permitting longer recording times. This also reduces physical stresses on the stylus which might otherwise cause distortion or groove damage during playback, a potential drawback of the system is that rumble from the playback turntables drive mechanism is amplified by the low frequency boost that occurs on playback. Players must therefore be designed to limit rumble, more so than if RIAA equalization did not occur, RIAA equalization is not a simple low-pass filter. It defines transition points in three places,75 µs,318 µs and 3180 µs, which correspond to 2122 Hz,500 Hz and 50 Hz, implementing this characteristic is not especially difficult, but is more involved than a simple amplifier. Add-on phono preamplifiers with the RIAA equalization curve are available, these adapt a magnetic phono cartridge to an unbalanced −10 dBv consumer line-level RCA input, some modern turntables feature built-in preamplification to the RIAA standard. Special preamplifiers are available for the various equalization curves used on pre-1954 records. However, this can add an extra step in processing a sample, equalization practice for electrical recordings dates to the beginning of the art. This meant that as frequency increased in the treble, recording amplitude decreased, conversely, in the bass as frequency decreased, recording amplitude increased. Therefore, it was necessary to attenuate the bass frequencies below about 250 Hz, otherwise, bass modulation became excessive and overcutting took place, with the cutter into the next record groove. When played back electrically with a magnetic pickup having a response in the bass region. West in 1930 and later P. G. H. Voight showed that the early Wente-style condenser microphones contributed to a 4 to 6 dB midrange brilliance or pre-emphasis in the recording chain
4.
Intellectual property
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Intellectual property refers to creations of the intellect for which a monopoly is assigned to designated owners by law. Intellectual property rights are the protections granted to the creators of IP, and include trademarks, copyright, patents, industrial design rights, and in some jurisdictions trade secrets. Artistic works including music and literature, as well as discoveries, inventions, words, phrases, symbols, the Statute of Monopolies and the British Statute of Anne are seen as the origins of patent law and copyright respectively, firmly establishing the concept of intellectual property. The first known use of the intellectual property dates to 1769. The first clear example of modern usage goes back as early as 1808, the German equivalent was used with the founding of the North German Confederation whose constitution granted legislative power over the protection of intellectual property to the confederation. According to Lemley, it was only at point that the term really began to be used in the United States. The history of patents does not begin with inventions, but rather with royal grants by Queen Elizabeth I for monopoly privileges, the evolution of patents from royal prerogative to common-law doctrine. The term can be used in an October 1845 Massachusetts Circuit Court ruling in the patent case Davoll et al. v. Brown. The statement that discoveries are. property goes back earlier, in Europe, French author A. Nion mentioned propriété intellectuelle in his Droits civils des auteurs, artistes et inventeurs, published in 1846. Until recently, the purpose of property law was to give as little protection as possible in order to encourage innovation. Historically, therefore, they were granted only when they were necessary to encourage invention, limited in time, the concepts origins can potentially be traced back further. In 500 BCE, the government of the Greek state of Sybaris offered one years patent to all who should discover any new refinement in luxury. Intellectual property rights include patents, copyright, industrial design rights, trademarks, plant variety rights, trade dress, geographical indications, a copyright gives the creator of an original work exclusive rights to it, usually for a limited time. Copyright may apply to a range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms. Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed, an industrial design right protects the visual design of objects that are not purely utilitarian. An industrial design consists of the creation of a shape, configuration or composition of pattern or color, or combination of pattern, an industrial design can be a two- or three-dimensional pattern used to produce a product, industrial commodity or handicraft. Plant breeders rights or plant variety rights are the rights to use a new variety of a plant. The variety must amongst others be novel and distinct and for registration the evaluation of propagating material of the variety is examined, a trademark is a recognizable sign, design or expression which distinguishes products or services of a particular trader from the similar products or services of other traders
5.
First Amendment to the United States Constitution
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It was adopted on December 15,1791, as one of the ten amendments that constitute the Bill of Rights. The Bill of Rights was originally proposed to assuage Anti-Federalist opposition to Constitutional ratification, initially, the First Amendment applied only to laws enacted by the Congress, and many of its provisions were interpreted more narrowly than they are today. Beginning with Gitlow v. New York, the Supreme Court applied the First Amendment to states—a process known as incorporation—through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The Supreme Court overturned English common law precedent to increase the burden of proof for defamation and libel suits, commercial speech, however, is less protected by the First Amendment than political speech, and is therefore subject to greater regulation. The Free Press Clause protects publication of information and opinions, in Near v. Minnesota and New York Times v. United States, the Supreme Court ruled that the First Amendment protected against prior restraint—pre-publication censorship—in almost all cases. The Petition Clause protects the right to all branches and agencies of government for action. In addition to the right of assembly guaranteed by this clause, eight of the other thirteen states made similar pledges. However, these declarations were generally considered mere admonitions to state legislatures, after a brief debate, Masons proposal was defeated by a unanimous vote of the state delegations. For the constitution to be ratified, however, nine of the thirteen states were required to approve it in state conventions, opposition to ratification was partly based on the Constitutions lack of adequate guarantees for civil liberties. Constitution was eventually ratified by all thirteen states and this language was greatly condensed by Congress, and passed the House and Senate with almost no recorded debate, complicating future discussion of the Amendments intent. The First Amendment, along with the rest of the Bill of Rights, was submitted to the states for ratification on September 25,1789, and adopted on December 15,1791. In Reynolds v. United States the Supreme Court used these words to declare that it may be accepted almost as a declaration of the scope. Congress was deprived of all power over mere opinion, but was left free to reach actions which were in violation of social duties or subversive of good order. In these two sentences is found the distinction between what properly belongs to the church and what to the State. Originally, the First Amendment applied only to the federal government, Massachusetts, for example, was officially Congregationalist until the 1830s. Neither can pass laws which aid one religion, aid all religions, in the words of Jefferson, the clause against establishment of religion by law was intended to erect a wall of separation between church and State. That wall must be high and impregnable. We could not approve the slightest breach, in Torcaso v. Watkins, the Supreme Court ruled that the Constitution prohibits states and the federal government from requiring any kind of religious test for public office
6.
Lobbying
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Lobbying is the act of attempting to influence the actions, policies, or decisions of officials in their daily life, most often legislators or members of regulatory agencies. Lobbying is done by many types of people, associations and organized groups, including individuals in the sector, corporations, fellow legislators or government officials. Lobbyists may be among a legislators constituencies, meaning a voter or bloc of voters within their district, or not, they may engage in lobbying as a business. Professional lobbyists are people whose business is trying to influence legislation, regulation, or other government decisions, actions, individuals and nonprofit organizations can also lobby as an act of volunteering or as a small part of their normal job. Governments often define and regulate organized group lobbying that has become influential, the ethics and morality of lobbying are dual-edged. Lobbying is often spoken of with contempt, when the implication is that people with inordinate socioeconomic power are corrupting the law in order to serve their own interests. The failure of government officials to serve the public interest as a consequence of lobbying by special interests who provide benefits to the official is an example of agent misdirection. One story held that the term originated at the Willard Hotel in Washington, DC, a lobbyist is a person who tries to influence legislation on behalf of a special interest or a member of a lobby. Governments often define and regulate organized group lobbying as part of laws to prevent political corruption, Lobby groups may concentrate their efforts on the legislatures, where laws are created, but may also use the judicial branch to advance their causes. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, for example, filed suits in state and their efforts resulted in the Supreme Court declaring such laws unconstitutional. They may use a device known as amicus curiae, literally friend of the court. Briefs are written documents filed with a court, typically by parties to a lawsuit, amici curiae briefs are briefs filed by people or groups who are not parties to a suit. These briefs are entered into the records, and give additional background on the matter being decided upon. Advocacy groups use these briefs both to share their expertise and to promote their positions, over the past twenty years lobbying in Australia has grown from a small industry of a few hundred employees to a multibillion-dollar per year industry. Lobbying has become a fact of life and is now endemic in local, state. It is not just the local councillors and state and federal politicians being lobbied, in Australia, lobbyists are expected to organise a pass to obtain access to the federal parliament. The Parliamentary Pass must be signed by two parliamentarians and it is administered by the Department of Parliamentary Services and has the enforcement of the Criminal Code Act 1995. The Pass is valid for two years, however, the Parliamentary Pass is not absolutely necessary, as some lobbyists are simply signed in on the day of their visit as guests of Senators or Members
7.
Music recording sales certification
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Music recording sales certification is a system of certifying that a music recording has shipped or sold a certain number of copies. The threshold quantity varies by type and by nation or territory, almost all countries follow variations of the RIAA certification categories, which are named after precious materials. The number of sales or shipments required for these awards depends upon the population of the territory in which the recording is released, typically, they are awarded only to international releases and are awarded individually for each country in which the album is sold. Different sales levels, some perhaps 10 times lower than others, the original gold record awards were presented to artists by their own record companies to publicize their sales achievements. The first of these was awarded by RCA Victor to Glenn Miller and His Orchestra in February 1942, another example of a company award is the gold record awarded to Elvis Presley in 1956 for one million units sold of his single Dont Be Cruel. The first gold record for an LP was awarded by RCA Victor to Harry Belafonte in 1957 for the album Calypso and these sales were restricted to U. S. -based record companies and did not include exports to other countries. For albums in 1968, this would mean shipping approximately 250,000 units, the platinum certification was introduced in 1976 for the sale of one million units, album or single, with the gold certification redefined to mean sales of 500,000 units, album or single. No album was certified platinum prior to this year, for instance, the recording by Van Cliburn of the Tchaikovsky Piano Concerto from 1958 would eventually be awarded a platinum citation, but this would not happen until two decades after its release. In 1999, the certification was introduced for sales of ten million units. On 14 March 1958, the RIAA certified its first gold record, soundtrack was certified as the first gold album four months later. In 1976, RIAA introduced the platinum certification, first awarded to Johnnie Taylors single, Disco Lady, as music sales increased with the introduction of compact discs, the RIAA created the Multi-Platinum award in 1984. Diamond awards, honoring those artists whose sales of singles or albums reached 10,000,000 copies, were introduced in 1999 and this became much less common once the majority of retail sales became paid digital downloads and digital streaming. In most countries certifications no longer apply solely to physical media, in June 2006, the RIAA also certified the ringtone downloads of songs. Streaming from on-demand services such as Rhapsody and Spotify has been included into existing digital certification in the U. S since 2013, in the U. S. and Germany video streaming services like YouTube, VEVO, and Yahoo. Music also began to be counted towards the certification, in both cases using the formula of 100 streams being equivalent to one download, other countries, such as Denmark and Spain, maintain separate awards for digital download singles and streaming. The International Federation of the Phonographic Industry was founded in 1996, and grants the IFPI Platinum Europe Award for album sales over one million within Europe, multi-platinum Europe Awards are presented for sales in subsequent multiples of one million. Eligibility is unaffected by time, and is not restricted to European-based artists, IMPALA sales awards were launched in 2005 as the first sales awards recognising that success on a pan-European basis begins well before sales reach one million. The award levels are Silver, Double Silver, Gold, Double Gold, Diamond, Platinum, below are certification thresholds for the United States and United Kingdom
8.
Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers
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The Auto Alliance is a trade group of automobile manufacturers that operate in the United States. It is the advocacy group for the auto industry, representing 77% of all car. Mitch Bainwol is the CEO of the Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers, the trade group formed on January 13,1999 to replace the American Automobile Manufacturers Association, which had represented only American manufacturers. Likewise, the alliance is active in lobbying on behalf of the industry. They also have weighed in on the governments new fuel economy and emissions standards proposals calling for other industries to do their part in helping to trim pollution. The Alliance opposes the Motor Vehicle Owners Right to Repair Act, the vision of the alliance is a united industry committed to enriching society through sustainable mobility. While the goals are four and those are, Leadership to develop, public Image to be the trusted source of proactive and positive innovation and public policy benefiting society in areas of environment, energy and motor vehicle safety. Relationships to initiate and leverage consensus-oriented dialogue with industry, federal and state governments, and finally, Respected Source To be the credible resource for technical and science-based analysis enhancing motor vehicle safety, environment and energy issues with a global perspective. Top 20 motor vehicle producing companies in 2007 Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers official site
9.
Concord Bicycle Music
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Concord Bicycle Music is a wholly owned independent music company based in Beverly Hills, California, with world-wide distribution through Universal Music Group. The company was founded in 1973 in Concord, California by Carl Jefferson, Jefferson produced the first Concord Jazz recording by guitarists Herb Ellis and Joe Pass. He named the label after the Concord Jazz Festival, which he had organized some years earlier, Jefferson sold Concord to Alliance Entertainment in 1994 and died the following year. In 1999, film/television producer Norman Lear and entertainment executive Hal Gaba purchased the company, in 2002, the labels headquarters were moved to Beverly Hills, California. In 2004 Concord Records acquired Fantasy, Inc. owner of Prestige, Fantasy, Milestone, Riverside, and Specialty, Concord then combined with Fantasy to form the independent Concord Music Group. That same year, Concord first partnered with Starbucks to release Ray Charles’s Genius Loves Company – which won 8 Grammy Awards, in 2005, the company acquired the classics and jazz label Telarc International. On December 18,2006, Concord announced the re-launch of the soul label Stax, New signings included Isaac Hayes and Angie Stone. On March 12,2007, Concord Music Group and Starbucks jointly founded the Hear Music label, Hear Music’s initial release, Paul McCartney’s Memory Almost Full, was released in June of ‘07. Hear Music has since released albums by artists that include Paul McCartney, Joni Mitchell, James Taylor, John Mellencamp, in 2008, Village Roadshow Pictures Group and Concord completed their merger resulting in the creation of the new diversified entertainment group, Village Roadshow Entertainment Group. In April 2010 it was announced that Paul McCartney transferred the rights of his post-Beatles output to Concord from EMI. Concord purchased Rounder Records in 2010, distribution is mainly handled by Universal Music Group. In smaller markets, such as those in Africa and Eastern Europe, in 2012 Concord Music Group designated four distinct operating units, Fantasy Label Group, Rounder Label Group, Concord-Telarc Label Group and Prestige Group. Esperanza Spalding was honored with the Best New Artist Grammy in 2011, Concord Music Group artists won 8 Grammy Awards at the 2013 Awards ceremony, the most of any label. On March 25,2013, Wood Creek Capital Management, an affiliate of MassMutual Financial Group, purchased Concord Music Group from Village Roadshow Entertainment Group. On October 31,2013, The Bicycle Music Company acquired Wind-up Records back catalog including the recordings of 1,600 songs including albums by Creed, Evanescence. The Bicycle Music Company then cut a service agreement deal with sister company Concord Music Group to market the acquired Wind-up Records back catalog to retailers and consumers. On July 1,2014, Tom Whalleys label, Loma Vista Recordings agreed to a new multi-year, under the terms of the agreement, Concord provides funding for new talent relationships and artist development, as well as comprehensive label services for Loma Vista. On April 1,2015, Concord Music Group announced that it had acquired Vanguard Records, in May 2015, Concord Bicycle Music acquired Fearless Records and the rest of Wind-Up Records, the latters back catalogue having been acquired by The Bicycle Music Company in October 2013
10.
Nonesuch Records
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Nonesuch Records is an American record company and label owned by Warner Music Group, distributed by Warner Bros. Records, and based in New York City, founded by Jac Holzman in 1964 as a budget classical label, Nonesuch has developed into a label that records critically acclaimed music from a wide range of genres. Robert Hurwitz has been president of the company since 1984, Nonesuch was founded in 1964 by Jac Holzman to produce fine records at the same price as a trade paperback, which would be half the price of a normal LP. To achieve this he initially licensed European recordings of music as it would be too expensive to record new material. Originally the label concentrated heavily on chamber and baroque music, often with unique repertory, upon its formation, Nonesuch operated as a subsidiary label of Elektra Records, which Holzman had launched in 1950. In 1970, Holzman sold Elektra and Nonesuch to Kinney National Company, in 2004, Warner Music Group became an independently owned, publicly traded company. Sterne oversaw several firsts for the label, including early electronic releases, under Sterne, Nonesuch helped spark a ragtime revival in the United States with the release of a series of Scott Joplin piano rags performed by Joshua Rifkin. Sterne also launched the groundbreaking Explorer Series, building the foundation for the field of world music, Sterne was replaced by the founders younger brother, Keith Holzman, a production chief who, for the next five years, operated the label from Los Angeles. Records-distributed jazz label ECM Records, to run Nonesuch Records, within the first two years under Hurwitzs leadership, Nonesuch released albums by such new music pioneers as Steve Reich, John Adams, Philip Glass, John Zorn, and Kronos Quartet. Hurwitz established a roster at the label, which included Zorn, Wayne Horvitz. In 1994, Hurwitz hired David Bither, the Senior Vice President and General Manager of Elektra Records, bithers first signing, Emmylou Harris, signaled a new direction for the label. Harris, previously signed to Warner Bros. Records and Elektra Records, though she had long been a highly regarded interpreter of other writers’ songs, her Nonesuch debut was distinguished by being her first album to primarily feature self-penned compositions. In the decade that followed, k. d, laurie Anderson has put out three discs with the label, and Nonesuch reissued her seminal Big Science album, an avant-garde project that became an unlikely pop hit in 1982. That recounting of the life and loves of former Filipino leader Imelda Marcos, was turned into an Off-Broadway musical at The Public Theater in the spring of 2013. Forward-thinking traditional groups Carolina Chocolate Drops and Punch Brothers also joined the label, the Chocolate Drops, a group exploring the African-American roots of old-time music, won a Grammy Award for Best Traditional Folk Album for its Nonesuch debut, Genuine Negro Jig. Mandolinist and composer Chris Thile of Punch Brothers was named a 2012 MacArthur Fellow, receiving one of 23 “genius” grant awards to extraordinary practitioners in a variety of creative fields. As a solo artist, he has joined the classical ranks of the label. Nonesuch has been building a catalog of Broadway cast recordings, including works by multiple Tony
11.
Disney Music Group
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Disney Music Group is the music production arm of Walt Disney Studios, a division of The Walt Disney Company. The president of the group is Ken Bunt, who reports to Alan F. Horn and it is currently headquartered in the Frank G. Wells Building at The Walt Disney Studios in Burbank. Music was key to the Disney Brother Studios success, either public domain or original music were used for their cartoons. With neither Walt Disney nor Roy O. Disney having any music industry experience, in 1928, Walt Disney produced the third animated Mickey Mouse short, Steamboat Willie, which had a soundtrack while previous efforts were silent films. Thus soundtracks are added to the two produced Mickey Mouse short films. In 1929, Walt Disney and Carl Stalling wrote Minnies Yoo-Hoo, on December 16,1929, the Disney Film Recording Company, Limited was incorporated as a subsidiary of Walt Disney Productions. Saul Bourne at Irving Berlin Music approached the studio after seeing Three Little Pigs with interest in the rights for its theme song. With Disney partnering with Bourne and Berlin, this led to the song being recorded twice by the Don Bestor Orchestra. The song was a hit and a Depression era anthem, Walt Disney Productions then began licensing out its music with the record company either selecting its own or Disneys talent to record the music. Until 1936, no one had issued a song track recording on disc. RCAs HMV label released a selection of Disney short film music in England with the US release a year later, the Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs soundtrack album released by Victor was the first feature film soundtrack. Disney had sold its rights to the Snow White music to Bourne Co, Music as they needed more funds to complete the film. In 1938, Fantasound—the first Surround sound system—was designed and tested by Walt Disney Productions for the release of Fantasia, in addition to Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, Disney also sold the music publishing rights to Pinocchio and Dumbo to Bourne. To date, all attempts to reacquire the rights to the three films have failed. The latter films contain the bulk of the commercial music which was done by recording stars thus released by their record company. In April 1947, the Walt Disney Music Company was incorporated, with Fred Raphael putting the company together in late 1949 to publish, Cinderella records appeared in stores along with other merchandise in 1949 before the 1950 release of the movie. The RCA multi-album release was number 1 on the Billboard magazine pop charts, Disney music was moving into the big business level. While WDMC did not produce the records, Raphael handled the selection, performance, james Alexander Jimmy Johnson, Jr. a fired Disney publicity staff member who wanted to stay at Disney, moved through a series of jobs there in the traffic department, and then accounting
12.
Warner Music Group
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Warner Music Group is an American multinational entertainment and record label conglomerate headquartered in New York City. With a multibillion-dollar annual turnover, WMG employs in excess of 3,500 people and has operations in more than 50 countries throughout the world, the company owns and operates some of the largest and most successful record labels in the world, including its flagship labels Warner Bros. WMG also owns Warner/Chappell Music, one of the worlds largest music publishers, the film company had no record label division at the time and one of its contracted actors, Tab Hunter, scored a hit song for Dot Records, which was a division of rival Paramount Pictures. In order to prevent any repetition of its actors recording for rival companies, in 1963, Warner purchased Reprise Records, which had been founded by Frank Sinatra three years earlier so that he could have more creative control over his recordings. With the Reprise acquisition, Warner gained the services of Mo Ostin, the Canadian unit was opened in 1967 as Warner Reprise Canada Ltd, now called Warner Music Canada Co. After Warner Bros. was sold to Seven Arts Productions in 1967, it purchased Atlantic Records, founded in 1947 and WMGs oldest label and this acquisition brought Neil Young into the company fold, initially as a member of Buffalo Springfield. The Geffen catalogue, now owned by Universal Music Group, represents Youngs only major recordings not under WMG ownership, in 1969, two years after being purchased by Seven Arts, the Warner Bros. -Seven Arts company was sold to the Kinney National Company. Kinney combined the operations of all of its labels. An earlier attempt by Warner Bros. Records to create a distribution arm in 1958 didnt materialize. So in 1969, Elektra Records boss Jac Holzman approached Atlantics Jerry Wexler with the idea of setting up a joint distribution network for Warner, Elektra, an experimental branch was established in Southern California as a possible prototype for an expanded operation. Atlantic, its subsidiary Atco Records, and its affiliate Stax Records paved the way for Warners rise to industry prominence, the purchase brought in Atlantics lucrative back-catalogue, which included classic recordings by Ray Charles, the Drifters, the Coasters, and many more. But the sale led to Stax leaving the Atlantic fold because the new Warner owners insisted on keeping the rights to Stax recordings and it was soon apparent in 1969 that Atlantic/Atco president Ahmet Ertegün viewed Warner/Reprise president Mike Maitland as godlike. Maitland believed that, as vice-president in charge of the Warner Bros, in retrospect Ertegün clearly feared that Maitland would ultimately have more power than him and so he moved rapidly to secure his own position and remove Maitland. Following the takeover, Warners music group briefly adopted the umbrella name Kinney Music, erteguns campaign against Maitland began in earnest that summer. Atlantic had agreed to help Warner Bros. in its efforts to establish its labels overseas, Mike Maitland complained bitterly to Kinney executive Ted Ashley, but to no avail – by this time Ertegun was poised to make his move against Maitland. As he had with Hyman, Ertegun urged Steve Ross to extend Mo Ostin and Joe Smiths contracts, in response, Ertegun broadly hinted that Maitlands days were numbered and that he, Ertegun, was about to take over the recording division. Unlike the Warner/Reprise executives, Atlantics execs the Ertegun brothers and Wexler owned stock in Kinney, on Sunday January 25, Ted Ashley went to Maitlands house to tell him he had been dismissed, and Maitland declined the offer of a job at the movie studio. One week later, Mo Ostin was named as the new President of Warner Bros, Records, with Joe Smith as his Executive Vice-President
13.
Warner Bros. Records
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Warner Bros. Records was established on March 19,1958, as the recorded-music division of the American film studio Warner Bros. For most of its existence it was one of a group of labels owned and operated by larger parent corporations. The sequence of companies that controlled Warner Bros. and its allied labels evolved through a series of corporate mergers. Over this period, Warner Bros. Records grew from a minor player in the music industry to become one of the top recording labels in the world. In 2003, these assets were divested by their then owner Time Warner. This independent company traded as the Warner Music Group before being bought by Access Industries in 2011, WMG is the smallest of the three major international music conglomerates and the worlds last publicly traded major music company. Cameron Strang serves as CEO of the company, artists currently signed to Warner Bros. At the end of the silent movie period, Warner Bros, pictures decided to expand into publishing and recording so that it could access low-cost music content for its films. This new group controlled valuable copyrights on standards by George and Ira Gershwin and Jerome Kern, the label signed rising radio and recording stars Bing Crosby, Mills Brothers, and Boswell Sisters. In December 1931, Warner Bros. offloaded Brunswick to the American Record Corporation for a fraction of its former value, in a lease arrangement which did not include Brunswicks pressing plants. Warner Bros. sold Brunswick a second time, this time along with the old Brunswick pressing plants Warner owned, to Decca Records in exchange for a financial interest in Decca. The studio stayed out of the business for more than 25 years. Warner Bros. reëntered the record business in 1958 with the establishment of its own recording division, by this time, the established Hollywood studios were reeling from multiple challenges to their former dominance - the most notable being the introduction of television in the late 1940s. Legal changes also had a impact on their business—lawsuits brought by major stars had effectively overthrown the old studio contract system by the late 1940s. Pictures sold off much of its library in 1948 and, beginning in 1949. Semenenko in particular had a professional interest in the entertainment business. With the record business booming - sales had topped US$500 million by 1958 - Semnenko argued that it was foolish for Warner Bros, another impetus for the labels creation was the brief music career of Warner Bros. actor Tab Hunter. In 1958, the studio signed Hunter as its first artist to its newly formed record division, to establish the label, the company hired former Columbia Records president James B
14.
Kill Rock Stars
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Kill Rock Stars is an independent record label founded in 1991 by Slim Moon and Tinuviel Sampson, and based in both Olympia, Washington and Portland, Oregon. The label has released a variety of work in different genres, however, the label initially showed a commitment towards underground punk bands and to representing artists in the Olympia area music scene. Overall, the sensibilities of the label can be said to be left-wing, feminist. Sampson and Moon initially started the label because, in Moons words, and to put out spoken word 7 records. KRS-101 was in fact a split 7 spoken-word record with Kathleen Hanna and Slim Moon, other Kill Rock Stars releases in this genre includes albums by Bratmobile, Huggy Bear, Heavens to Betsy and Excuse 17. The label continued its tradition of spoken word by releasing their first full-length spoken word LP Big Broad by Juliana Lueking in 1995 and this was also the year that Elliott Smith released his self-titled solo LP on the label. Another milestone was the 1997 release of Sleater-Kinneys third LP Dig Me Out, in 1997-98, the 5RC label was formed as a sister label to Kill Rock Stars, it released generally harsher-sounding and more challenging experimental rock than Kill Rock Stars. The 5RC roster included Xiu Xiu, Deerhoof, Need New Body, The Mae Shi, The Robot Ate Me,1998 also marked the first-ever Mailorder Freak Singles Club, featuring Quasi, Small Stars, Sta-Prest, and Rock*A*Teens, among others. Another popular band on Kill Rock Stars was The Decemberists, who released three albums on the label between 2001 and 2005. Colin Meloy, singer for The Decemberists, also released an album on the label in April 2008. In October 2006, Slim Moon, the owner, announced he would be departing Kill Rock Stars to work as an A&R representative at Nonesuch Records. Moons wife, Portia Sabin, then took ownership of Kill Rock Stars. In 2007, the label released records, including New Moon
15.
Sony Music
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Sony Music Entertainment is an American music company owned by Sony. It is incorporated as a partnership of Sony Music Holdings Inc. through Sony Entertainment. The company was first founded in 1929 as American Record Corporation and renamed Columbia Recording Corporation in 1938, in 1966, the company was reorganized to become CBS Records. Sony Corporation bought the company in 1987 and renamed it Sony Music Entertainment in 1991, the buyout led to the dissolution of BMG, which relaunched as BMG Rights Management. Sony Music Entertainment is one of the Big Three record companies, being the second largest after Universal Music Group, in 1929, ARC was founded through a merger of several record companies. In 1934, in the midst of Great Depression, the Columbia Phonograph Company, ARC was acquired in 1938 by the Columbia Broadcasting System, which, in turn, had been formed by the Columbia Phonograph Company, but then sold off. ARC was renamed Columbia Recording Corporation, RCA Victor Records executive Ted Wallerstein convinced CBS head William S. Paley to buy ARC and Paley made Wallerstein head of the newly acquired record company. The renamed company made Columbia its flagship label and Okeh its subsidiary label and this allowed ARCs leased labels Brunswick Records and Vocalion Records to revert to their former owner Warner Bros. which sold them to Decca Records. Columbia kept the Brunswick catalogue recorded from December 1931 onward on the Columbia label and he was succeeded by James Conkling as head of Columbia Records. In 1951, Columbia severed its ties with the EMI-owned record label of the same name, Okeh Records continued to be distributed by EMI on the Columbia label. Columbia founded Epic Records in 1953 and in 1956, Conkling left Columbia and he would help establish the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences before eventually becoming the first president of the newly launched Warner Bros. His successor, Goddard Lieberson began the first of two stints as head of the record company, and in 1958, Columbia founded another label, Date Records, which initially issued rockabilly music. In 1960, Columbia/CBS began negotiations with its international distributor Philips Records with the goal of starting its own global record company. Philips acquisition of US-based Mercury Records in 1961 paved the way for this, elsewhere, CBSs Mexican record company, Discos Columbia, was renamed Discos CBS by 1963. In 1964, Columbia set out acquiring record companies in countries for its CBS Records International Unit. EMI continued to distribute Epic and Okeh label material on the Columbia label in the UK until the deal with EMI expired in 1968 when CBS took over distribution. In late 1965, the Date subsidiary label was revived and this label released the first string of hits for Peaches & Herb and scored a few minor hits from various other artists. Dates biggest success was Time of the Season by the Zombies, the label was discontinued in 1970
16.
Universal Music Group
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Universal Music Group is an American-French global music corporation that is a subsidiary of the Paris-based French media conglomerate Vivendi. UMGs global corporate headquarters are in Santa Monica, California and it is considered one of the Big Three record labels, along with Warner Music Group and Sony Music Entertainment. Universal Music was once the music attached to film studio Universal Pictures and its origins go back to the formation of the American branch of Decca Records in September 1934. The Decca Record Co. Ltd. of England spun American Decca off in 1939, MCA Inc. merged with American Decca in 1962. The present organization was formed when its parent company Seagram purchased PolyGram in May 1998, however, the name had first appeared in 1996 when MCA Music Entertainment Group was renamed Universal Music Group. The PolyGram acquisition included Deutsche Grammophon which traces its ancestry to Berliner Gramophone making Deutsche Grammophon UMGs oldest unit, UMGs Canadian unit traces its ancestry to a Berliner Gramophone breakaway firm the Compo Company. With the 2004 acquisition of Universal Studios by General Electric and merging with GEs NBC and this is the second time a music company has done so, the first being the separation of Time Warner and Warner Music Group. On June 25,2007, Vivendi completed its €1.63 billion purchase of BMG Music Publishing, after receiving European Union regulatory approval, doug Morris stepped down from his position as CEO on January 1,2011. Former chairman/CEO of Universal Music International Lucian Grainge was promoted to CEO of the company, Grainge later replaced him as chairman on March 9,2011. Morris became the chairman of Sony Music Entertainment on July 1,2011. With Grainges appointment as CEO at UMG, Max Hole was promoted to COO of UMGI, starting in 2011 UMGs Interscope Geffen A&M Records will be signing contestants from American Idol/Idol series. On January 2011, UMG announced it was donating 200,000 master recordings from the 1920s to 1940s to the Library of Congress for preservation, in March 2011, Barry Weiss became chairman & CEO of The Island Def Jam Music Group & Universal Republic Records. Both companies are restructuring under Weiss, in December 2011, David Foster was named Chairman of Verve Music Group. Among the other companies that had competed for the music business was Warner Music Group which was reported to have made a $2 billion bid. However, IMPALA has said it would fight the merger, coincidentally, UMG sister company StudioCanal has owned the EMI Films library for several years. On September 21,2012, the sale of EMI to UMG was approved in Europe, UMG divested Mute Records, Parlophone, Roxy Recordings, MPS Records, Cooperative Music, Now Thats What I Call Music. Jazzland, Universal Greece, Sanctuary Records, Chrysalis Records, EMI Classics, Virgin Classics, the Beatles recorded music library was allowed to remain with UMG despite being considered part of Parlophone and is now managed by UMGs reorganized Capitol Music Group worldwide. Robbie Williams, who had recorded for Chrysalis, had his transferred to Universals Island Records
17.
Spanish language
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Spanish —also called Castilian —is a Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain, with hundreds of millions of native speakers around the world. It is usually considered the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese and it is one of the few languages to use inverted question and exclamation marks. Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Beginning in the early 16th century, Spanish was taken to the colonies of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania, around 75% of modern Spanish is derived from Latin. Greek has also contributed substantially to Spanish vocabulary, especially through Latin, Spanish vocabulary has been in contact from an early date with Arabic, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its vocabulary being Arabic in origin, this language is the second most important influence after Latin and it has also been influenced by Basque as well as by neighboring Ibero-Romance languages. It also adopted words from languages such as Gothic language from the Visigoths in which many Spanish names and surnames have a Visigothic origin. Spanish is one of the six languages of the United Nations. It is the language in the world by the number of people who speak it as a mother tongue, after Mandarin Chinese. It is estimated more than 437 million people speak Spanish as a native language. Spanish is the official or national language in Spain, Equatorial Guinea, speakers in the Americas total some 418 million. In the European Union, Spanish is the tongue of 8% of the population. Spanish is the most popular second language learned in the United States, in 2011 it was estimated by the American Community Survey that of the 55 million Hispanic United States residents who are five years of age and over,38 million speak Spanish at home. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the language of the whole Spanish State in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas. Article III reads as follows, El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado, las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas. Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State, the other Spanish languages as well shall be official in their respective Autonomous Communities. The Spanish Royal Academy, on the hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. Two etymologies for español have been suggested, the Spanish Royal Academy Dictionary derives the term from the Provençal word espaignol, and that in turn from the Medieval Latin word Hispaniolus, from—or pertaining to—Hispania
18.
ITunes Store
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ITunes Store is a software-based online digital media store operated by Apple Inc. It opened on April 28,2003, and has been the largest music vendor in the United States since April 2008, and the largest music vendor in the world since February 2010. It offers over 35 -40 million songs,2.2 million apps,25,000 TV shows, iTunes Stores revenues in the first quarter of 2011 totaled nearly US$1.4 billion, by May 28,2014, the store had sold 35 billion songs worldwide. On January 6,2009, Apple announced that DRM had been removed from 80% of its catalog in the US. As of June 2013, iTunes Store possesses 575 million active user accounts, before iTunes Store, most of the online music was download through websites like Napster. Steve Jobs expressed concern that people were illegally obtaining music because it was the option they had. In 2002, Steve Jobs made an agreement with the five major record labels to offer their content through iTunes, iTunes Store was introduced by Steve Jobs at a Worldwide Developers Conference to give music listeners a legal alternative to peer-to-peer file sharing networks. When it opened, it was the only legal digital catalog of music to songs from all five major record labels. At first, it was available on Mac OS X. Following the introduction of iTunes Store, individual songs were all sold for the same price, Music in the store is in the Advanced Audio Coding format, which is the MPEG-4-specified successor to MP3. Originally, songs were available with DRM and were encoded at 128 kbit/s. At the January 2009 Macworld Expo, Apple announced that all music would be made available without DRM. Previously, this model, known as iTunes Plus, had available only for music from EMI. Users can sample songs by listening to previews, ninety seconds in length, some Apps cost money and some are free. Developers can decide which prices they want to charge for apps, from a pre-set list of pricing tiers, when someone downloads an App,70 percent of the purchase goes to the developer, and 30 percent goes to Apple. At the Macworld 2008 keynote, Steve Jobs, who was Apples CEO at the time, movies are available for rent in iTunes Store on the same day they are released on DVD, though iTunes Store also offers for rental some movies that are still in theaters. Movie rentals are only viewable for 24 hours or 48 hours after users begin viewing them, iTunes Store also offers one low-priced movie rental a week, in the United States, this rental costs 99 cents. Movie rentals are not yet available in all countries but it is available in the United States, Mexico, there is a weekly promotion in which one to three songs are available to download for free to logged-in users
19.
Compact disc
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Compact disc is a digital optical disc data storage format released in 1982 and co-developed by Philips and Sony. The format was developed to store and play only sound recordings but was later adapted for storage of data. The first commercially available Audio CD player, the Sony CDP-101, was released October 1982 in Japan, standard CDs have a diameter of 120 millimetres and can hold up to about 80 minutes of uncompressed audio or about 700 MiB of data. The Mini CD has various diameters ranging from 60 to 80 millimetres, they are used for CD singles, storing up to 24 minutes of audio. At the time of the introduction in 1982, a CD could store much more data than a personal computer hard drive. By 2010, hard drives commonly offered as much space as a thousand CDs. In 2004, worldwide sales of audio CDs, CD-ROMs and CD-Rs reached about 30 billion discs, by 2007,200 billion CDs had been sold worldwide. In 2014, revenues from digital music services matched those from physical format sales for the first time. American inventor James T. Russell has been credited with inventing the first system to record information on an optical transparent foil that is lit from behind by a high-power halogen lamp. Russells patent application was first filed in 1966, and he was granted a patent in 1970, following litigation, Sony and Philips licensed Russells patents in the 1980s. The compact disc is an evolution of LaserDisc technology, where a laser beam is used that enables the high information density required for high-quality digital audio signals. Prototypes were developed by Philips and Sony independently in the late 1970s, although originally dismissed by Philips Research management as a trivial pursuit, the CD became the primary focus for Philips as the LaserDisc format struggled. In 1979, Sony and Philips set up a joint task force of engineers to design a new audio disc. After a year of experimentation and discussion, the Red Book CD-DA standard was published in 1980, after their commercial release in 1982, compact discs and their players were extremely popular. Despite costing up to $1,000, over 400,000 CD players were sold in the United States between 1983 and 1984, by 1988 CD sales in the United States surpassed those of vinyl LPs, and by 1992 CD sales surpassed those of prerecorded music cassette tapes. The success of the disc has been credited to the cooperation between Philips and Sony, who came together to agree upon and develop compatible hardware. The unified design of the disc allowed consumers to purchase any disc or player from any company. In 1974, L. However, due to the performance of the analog format
20.
Digital Audio Tape
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Digital Audio Tape is a signal recording and playback medium developed by Sony and introduced in 1987. In appearance it is similar to a Compact Cassette, using 3.81 mm /0.15 magnetic tape enclosed in a protective shell, as the name suggests, the recording is digital rather than analog. DAT has the ability to record at higher, equal or lower sampling rates than a CD at 16 bits quantization, the format saw moderate success in professional markets and as a computer storage medium, which was developed into the Digital Data Storage format. As Sony has ceased production of new recorders, it become more difficult to play archived recordings in this format unless they are copied to other formats or hard drives. The technology of DAT is closely based on that of video recorders, using a rotating head and this prevents DATs from being physically edited in the cut-and-splice manner of analog tapes, or open-reel digital tapes like ProDigi or DASH. The DAT standard allows for four sampling modes,32 kHz at 12 bits, certain recorders operate outside the specification, allowing recording at 96 kHz and 24 bits. Some early machines aimed at the market did not operate at 44.1 kHz when recording so they could not be used to clone a compact disc. Included in the data are subcodes to indicate the start and end of tracks or to skip a section entirely. Two-channel stereo recording is supported under all sampling rates and bit depths, DAT tapes are between 15 and 180 minutes in length, a 120-minute tape being 60 metres in length. DAT tapes longer than 60 metres tend to be problematic in DAT recorders due to the thinner media, DAT machines running at 48 kHz and 44.1 kHz sample rates transport the tape at 8.15 mm/s. DAT machines running at 32 kHz sample rate transport the tape at 4.075 mm/s, denons development dated from its work with Japans NHK Broadcasting, NHK developed the first high-fidelity PCM audio recorder in the late 1960s. Soundstreams system was used by RCA. Starting in 1978, 3M introduced its own line and format of audio tape recorders for use in a recording studio. One of the first prototypes of 3Ms system was installed in the studios of Sound 80 in Minneapolis and this system was used in June 1978 to record Aaron Coplands Appalachian Spring by the St. Paul Chamber Orchestra conducted by Dennis Russell Davies. That record was the first Grammy-winning digital recording, the production version of the 3M Digital Mastering System was used in 1979 to record the first all-digital rock album, Ry Cooders Bop Till You Drop, made at Warner Brothers Studio in California. The first consumer-oriented PCM format used consumer video tape formats as the storage medium and these systems used the EIAJ digital format, which sampled at 44.056 kHz at 14 bits. The Sony PCM-F1 system debuted in 1981, and Sony from the offered the option of 16-bit wordlength. Other systems were marketed by Akai, JVC, Nakamichi and others, panasonic, via its Technics division, briefly sold a digital recorder that combined an EIAJ digital adapter with a VHS video transport, the SV-P100
21.
MiniDisc
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MiniDisc is a magneto-optical disc-based data storage format offering a capacity of 74 minutes and, later,80 minutes, of digitized audio or 1 gigabyte of Hi-MD data. Sony brand audio players were on the market from September 1992 until March 2013, MiniDisc was announced by Sony in September 1992 and released that November of that year for sale in Japan and in December in Europe, Canada, the USA and other countries. MiniDiscs were very popular outside of the USA, Sony has ceased development of MD devices, with the last of the players sold by March 2013. It took, however, almost 10 years before their idea was commercialized, Sony had originally intended Digital Audio Tape to be the dominant home digital audio recording format, replacing the analog cassette. Due to technical delays, DAT was not launched until 1989, by the time Sony came up with MiniDisc in late 1992, Philips had introduced a competing system, DCC. This created marketing confusion very similar to the Betamax versus VHS battle of the late 1970s, Sony attempted to license MD technology to other manufacturers, with JVC, Sharp, Pioneer, Panasonic and others all producing their own MD systems. However, non-Sony machines were not widely available in North America, despite having a loyal customer base largely of musicians and audio enthusiasts, MiniDisc met with only limited success. It was relatively popular in Japan during the 1990s but did not enjoy comparable sales in other world markets, since then, recordable CDs, flash memory and HDD and solid-state-based digital audio players such as iPods have become increasingly popular as playback devices. The initial low uptake of MiniDisc was attributed to the number of pre-recorded albums available on MD as relatively few record labels embraced the format. The initial high cost of equipment and blank media was also a factor, mains-powered hi-fi MiniDisc player/recorders never got into the lower price ranges, and most consumers had to connect a portable machine to the hi-fi in order to record. This inconvenience contrasted with the common use of cassette decks as a standard part of an ordinary hi-fi set-up. The biggest competition for MiniDisc came from the emergence of MP3 players, with the Diamond Rio player in 1998 and the Apple iPod, the mass market began to eschew physical media in favor of file-based systems. This allowed the MiniDisc to better compete with HD recorders and MP3 players, on 7 July 2011, Sony announced that it would no longer ship MiniDisc Walkman products as of September 2011, effectively killing the format. On 1 February 2013, Sony issued a release on the Nikkei stock exchange that it will cease shipment of MD devices. However, it would continue to sell blank discs and offer repair services, MD Data, a version for storing computer data, was announced by Sony in 1993 but never gained significant ground. Its media were incompatible with standard audio MiniDiscs, which has been cited as one of the reasons behind the formats failure. MD Data could not write to audio-MDs, only the more expensive data blanks. In 1997, MD-Data2 blanks were introduced, which held 650 MB of data and they were only implemented in Sonys short-lived MD-based camcorder as well as a small number of multi-track recorders, Sonys MDM-X4, Tascams 564, and Yamahas MD-8, MD-4, & MD4S
22.
Spotify
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Spotify is a music, podcast, and video streaming service, officially launched on 7 October 2008. It is developed by startup Spotify AB in Stockholm, Sweden and it provides digital rights management-protected content from record labels and media companies. Spotify is available in most of Europe, most of the Americas, Australia, New Zealand and it is available for most modern devices, including Windows, macOS, and Linux computers, as well as iOS and Android smartphones and tablets. Music can be browsed or searched for via various parameters, such as artist, album, genre, playlist, users can create, edit and share playlists, share tracks on social media, and make playlists with other users. Spotify provides access to over 30 million songs, as of June 2016, it has 100 million monthly active users, and as of March 2017, it has 50 million paying subscribers. They distribute approximately 70% of total revenue to rights holders, who then pay based on their individual agreements. Spotify operates under a freemium model, Spotify makes its revenues by selling premium streaming subscriptions to users and advertising placements to third parties. In December 2013, the company launched a new website, Spotify for Artists, Spotify gets its content from major record labels as well as independent artists, and pays copyright holders royalties for streamed music. The company pays 70% of its revenue to rights holders. Spotify for Artists states that the company does not have a fixed rate, instead considers factors such as the users home country. Rights holders received an average per-play payout between $.006 and $.0084, Spotify offers an unlimited subscription package, close to the Open Music Model —estimated economic equilibrium—for the recording industry. However, the incorporation of digital rights management protection diverges from the OMM and competitors such as iTunes Store, Spotify encourages people to pay for music, with subscriptions as its main revenue source. The subscription removes advertisements and limits, and increases song bitrates to 320 kbit/s, the website also claims that a Spotify customer is 1. 6x more financially valuable than the average adult non-Spotify U. S. music consumer. Additionally, the website includes a section entitled Spotifys impact on piracy as a response to the criticisms against the company regarding the exploitation of musicians. For example, in Norway, the figure of 1.2 billion unauthorized song downloads in 2008 is compared to a figure of 210 million from 2012, BBC Music Week editor Tim Ingham wrote, Unlike buying a CD or download, streaming is not a one-off payment. Hundreds of millions of streams of tracks are happening each and every day, which quickly multiplies the potential revenues on offer – and is a constant long-term source of income for artists. As of June 2016, the three Spotify subscription types, all offering unlimited listening time, are, In 2008, just after launch, in October 2010, Wired reported that Spotify was making more money for labels in Sweden than any other retailer online or off. Years after growth and expansion, a November 2012 report suggested strong momentum for the company
23.
YouTube
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YouTube is an American video-sharing website headquartered in San Bruno, California. The service was created by three former PayPal employees—Chad Hurley, Steve Chen, and Jawed Karim—in February 2005, Google bought the site in November 2006 for US$1.65 billion, YouTube now operates as one of Googles subsidiaries. Unregistered users can watch videos on the site, while registered users are permitted to upload an unlimited number of videos. Videos deemed potentially offensive are available only to registered users affirming themselves to be at least 18 years old, YouTube earns advertising revenue from Google AdSense, a program which targets ads according to site content and audience. YouTube was founded by Chad Hurley, Steve Chen, and Jawed Karim, Hurley had studied design at Indiana University of Pennsylvania, and Chen and Karim studied computer science together at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Karim could not easily find video clips of either event online, Hurley and Chen said that the original idea for YouTube was a video version of an online dating service, and had been influenced by the website Hot or Not. YouTube began as a venture capital-funded technology startup, primarily from an $11.5 million investment by Sequoia Capital between November 2005 and April 2006, YouTubes early headquarters were situated above a pizzeria and Japanese restaurant in San Mateo, California. The domain name www. youtube. com was activated on February 14,2005, the first YouTube video, titled Me at the zoo, shows co-founder Jawed Karim at the San Diego Zoo. The video was uploaded on April 23,2005, and can still be viewed on the site, YouTube offered the public a beta test of the site in May 2005. The first video to reach one million views was a Nike advertisement featuring Ronaldinho in November 2005. Following a $3.5 million investment from Sequoia Capital in November, the site grew rapidly, and in July 2006 the company announced that more than 65,000 new videos were being uploaded every day, and that the site was receiving 100 million video views per day. The site has 800 million unique users a month and it is estimated that in 2007 YouTube consumed as much bandwidth as the entire Internet in 2000. The choice of the name www. youtube. com led to problems for a similarly named website, the sites owner, Universal Tube & Rollform Equipment, filed a lawsuit against YouTube in November 2006 after being regularly overloaded by people looking for YouTube. Universal Tube has since changed the name of its website to www. utubeonline. com, in October 2006, Google Inc. announced that it had acquired YouTube for $1.65 billion in Google stock, and the deal was finalized on November 13,2006. In March 2010, YouTube began free streaming of certain content, according to YouTube, this was the first worldwide free online broadcast of a major sporting event. On March 31,2010, the YouTube website launched a new design, with the aim of simplifying the interface, Google product manager Shiva Rajaraman commented, We really felt like we needed to step back and remove the clutter. In May 2010, YouTube videos were watched more than two times per day. This increased to three billion in May 2011, and four billion in January 2012, in February 2017, one billion hours of YouTube was watched every day
24.
IP address
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An IP address is an identifier assigned to each computer and other device connected to a TCP/IP network that is used to locate and identify the node in communications with other nodes on the network. IP addresses are written and displayed in human-readable notations, such as 172.16.254.1 in IPv4. Version 4 of the Internet Protocol defines an IP address as a 32-bit number and its deployment commenced in the mid-2000s and is ongoing. Addresses have been distributed by IANA to the RIRs in blocks of approximately 16.8 million addresses each, each ISP or private network administrator assigns an IP address to each device connected to its network. Such assignments may be on a static or dynamic basis, depending on its software, an IP address serves two principal functions, host or network interface identification and location addressing. Its role has been characterized as follows, A name indicates what we seek, an address indicates where it is. A route indicates how to get there, the header of each IP packet sent over the Internet must contain the IP address of both the destination server or website and of the sender. The Domain Name System translates domain names to the corresponding destination IP address, both the source address and the destination address may be changed in transit by a network address translation device. The senders IP address is available to the server and becomes the destination address when the server responds to a client request. A sender wanting to remain anonymous to the server may use a proxy server, when the destination server responds to the proxy server, it would forward it on to the true client—ie. Change the IP address to that of the originator of the request, a reverse DNS lookup involves the querying of DNS to determine the domain name associated with an IP address. There are two versions of the Internet Protocol, IP version 4 and IP version 6, each version defines an IP address differently. Because of its prevalence, the generic term IP address typically still refers to the addresses defined by IPv4. The gap in version sequence between IPv4 and IPv6 resulted from the assignment of number 5 to the experimental Internet Stream Protocol in 1979, an IP address in IPv4 is 32-bits in size, which limits the address space to 4294967296 IP addresses. Of this number, IPv4 reserves some addresses for special purposes such as private networks or multicast addresses. IPv4 addresses are usually represented in dot-decimal notation, consisting of four numbers, each ranging from 0 to 255, separated by dots. Each part represents a group of 8 bits of the address, in some cases of technical writing, IPv4 addresses may be presented in various hexadecimal, octal, or binary representations. In the early stages of development of the Internet Protocol, network administrators interpreted an IP address in two parts, network number portion and host number portion
25.
Electronic Frontier Foundation
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The Electronic Frontier Foundation is an international non-profit digital rights group based in San Francisco, California. In April 1990, Barlow had been visited by a U. S. Federal Bureau of Investigation agent in relation to the theft, Barlow described the visit as complicated by fairly complete unfamiliarity with computer technology. I realized right away that before I could demonstrate my innocence, Barlow felt that his experience was symptomatic of a great paroxysm of governmental confusion during which everyones liberties would become at risk. Barlow posted an account of experience to The WELL online community and was contacted by Mitch Kapor. The pair agreed that there was a need to defend civil liberties on the Internet and this generated a large amount of publicity which led to offers of financial support from John Gilmore and Steve Wozniak. This generated further reaction and support for the ideas of Barlow, in late June, Barlow held a series of dinners in San Francisco with major figures in the computer industry to develop a coherent response to these perceived threats. Barlow considered that, The actions of the FBI and Secret Service were symptoms of a social crisis. America was entering the Information Age with neither laws nor metaphors for the appropriate protection, Barlow felt that to confront this a formal organization would be needed, he hired Cathy Cook as press coordinator, and began to set up what would become the Electronic Frontier Foundation. The Electronic Frontier Foundation was formally founded on July 10,1990, by Kapor and Barlow, who soon after elected Gilmore, Wozniak. Initial funding was provided by Kapor, Wozniak, and an anonymous benefactor, in 1990, Mike Godwin joined the organization as its first staff counsel. Then in 1991, Esther Dyson and Jerry Berman joined the EFF board of directors. C, the creation of the organization was motivated by the massive search and seizure on Steve Jackson Games executed by the United States Secret Service early in 1990. Similar but officially unconnected law-enforcement raids were being conducted across the United States at about time as part of a state–federal task force called Operation Sundevil. However, the Steve Jackson Games case, which became EFFs first high-profile case, was the rallying point around which EFF began promoting computer-. In 1993, their offices moved to 1001 G Street in Washington, more recently, the organization has been involved in defending Edward Felten, Jon Lech Johansen and Dmitry Sklyarov. The organization was located at Mitch Kapors Kapor Enterprises offices in Cambridge. By the fall of 1993, the main EFF offices were consolidated into an office, in Washington. During this time, some of EFFs attention focused on influencing national policy, in 1994, Berman parted ways with EFF and formed the Center for Democracy and Technology, while Drew Taubman briefly took the reins as executive director. There, it took up residence at John Gilmores Toad Hall
26.
Public Citizen
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Public Citizen is a non-profit, liberal / progressive consumer rights advocacy group and think tank based in Washington, D. C. United States, with a branch in Austin, Texas, Public Citizen advocates before all three branches of the United States federal government. Broadly speaking, Public Citizen favors robust corporate accountability and strong government regulation, particularly in the areas of transport, healthcare, the organizations priorities range from campaign finance reform to drug and auto safety and financial reform. The unifying theme is an effort to curb the impact of power on American democracy. Public Citizens pro-regulatory stance has been criticized by the U. S. Chamber of Commerce, Public Citizens slogan is “Corporations have their lobbyists in Washington, D. C. As explained on its website, its goal is “to ensure that all citizens are represented in the halls of power. ”It is a nonprofit organization unaffiliated with any partisan political activity. It survives on donations from its 80,000 supporters and on other income, in the aftermath of Ralph Naders role in the 2000 presidential election, Public Citizen disassociated itself from its founder. Mother Jones also pointed out that Nader’s association with Public Citizen was causing fundraising problems, Public Citizen—and the other groups that Mr. Nader founded—act independently. Ralph Nader, founder Joan Claybrook, first Executive Director Representative Donna Edwards Robert Weissman, Executive Director Mark J. Green Lori Wallach, Director, Global Trade Watch Sidney M
27.
Subpoena
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A subpoena /səˈpiːnə/ is a writ issued by a government agency, most often a court, to compel testimony by a witness or production of evidence under a penalty for failure. There are two types of subpoena, subpoena ad testificandum orders a person to testify before the ordering authority or face punishment. The subpoena can also request the testimony to be given by phone or in person, subpoena duces tecum orders a person or organization to bring physical evidence before the ordering authority or face punishment. This is often used for requests to mail copies of documents to the party or directly to court. The term subpoena is from the Middle English suppena and the Latin phrase sub poena meaning under penalty, the subpoena has its source in English common law and it is now used almost with universal application throughout the English common law world. John Waltham, Bishop of Salisbury, is said to have created the writ of subpoena in the reign of Richard II. However, for civil proceedings in England and Wales, it is now described as a witness summons, Subpoenas are usually issued by the clerk of the court in the name of the judge presiding over the case. Additionally, court rules may permit lawyers to issue subpoenas themselves in their capacity as officers of the court, if a witness is reluctant to testify, then the personal service of subpoena is usually required with proof of service by non-party server. The subpoena will usually be on the letterhead of the court where the case is filed, name the parties to the case, and be addressed by name to the person whose testimony is being sought. It will contain the language You are hereby commanded to report in person to the clerk of court or similar, describing the specific location, scheduled date. In some situations the person having to testify or produce documents is paid, any documents that have not been subpoenaed to court or verified by a witness may be dismissed by the opposite party as hearsay, unless excepted by hearsay rules or permitted by the judge. If the witness is called via long-distance phone call, then the party is responsible for initiating the call. Most states have restrictions on subpoena use in criminal cases. In New South Wales, a court may set aside the whole, or part of and it was also held that it was not the role of the Court to redraft the subpoena and narrow its scope to those issues in dispute. Administrative subpoena Summons Indictment The Press and Subpoenas, An Overview, by Marlena Telvick and Amy Rubin, PBS Frontline, February 20,2010. PBS. org
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San Francisco
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San Francisco, officially the City and County of San Francisco, is the cultural, commercial, and financial center of Northern California. It is the birthplace of the United Nations, the California Gold Rush of 1849 brought rapid growth, making it the largest city on the West Coast at the time. San Francisco became a consolidated city-county in 1856, after three-quarters of the city was destroyed by the 1906 earthquake and fire, San Francisco was quickly rebuilt, hosting the Panama-Pacific International Exposition nine years later. In World War II, San Francisco was a port of embarkation for service members shipping out to the Pacific Theater. Politically, the city votes strongly along liberal Democratic Party lines, San Francisco is also the headquarters of five major banking institutions and various other companies such as Levi Strauss & Co. Dolby, Airbnb, Weebly, Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Yelp, Pinterest, Twitter, Uber, Lyft, Mozilla, Wikimedia Foundation, as of 2016, San Francisco is ranked high on world liveability rankings. The earliest archaeological evidence of habitation of the territory of the city of San Francisco dates to 3000 BC. Upon independence from Spain in 1821, the became part of Mexico. Under Mexican rule, the system gradually ended, and its lands became privatized. In 1835, Englishman William Richardson erected the first independent homestead, together with Alcalde Francisco de Haro, he laid out a street plan for the expanded settlement, and the town, named Yerba Buena, began to attract American settlers. Commodore John D. Sloat claimed California for the United States on July 7,1846, during the Mexican–American War, montgomery arrived to claim Yerba Buena two days later. Yerba Buena was renamed San Francisco on January 30 of the next year, despite its attractive location as a port and naval base, San Francisco was still a small settlement with inhospitable geography. The California Gold Rush brought a flood of treasure seekers, with their sourdough bread in tow, prospectors accumulated in San Francisco over rival Benicia, raising the population from 1,000 in 1848 to 25,000 by December 1849. The promise of fabulous riches was so strong that crews on arriving vessels deserted and rushed off to the gold fields, leaving behind a forest of masts in San Francisco harbor. Some of these approximately 500 abandoned ships were used at times as storeships, saloons and hotels, many were left to rot, by 1851 the harbor was extended out into the bay by wharves while buildings were erected on piles among the ships. By 1870 Yerba Buena Cove had been filled to create new land, buried ships are occasionally exposed when foundations are dug for new buildings. California was quickly granted statehood in 1850 and the U. S. military built Fort Point at the Golden Gate, silver discoveries, including the Comstock Lode in Nevada in 1859, further drove rapid population growth. With hordes of fortune seekers streaming through the city, lawlessness was common, and the Barbary Coast section of town gained notoriety as a haven for criminals, prostitution, entrepreneurs sought to capitalize on the wealth generated by the Gold Rush
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Diamond Multimedia
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Diamond Multimedia is an American company that specializes in many forms of multimedia technology. They were one of the players in the 2D and early 3D graphics card competition throughout the 1990s. The company was founded by Chong Moon Lee and H. H. Huh, however, the first major product after the merger, branded as the S3 Savage 2000, was a commercial failure. With these market failures, the new combined Diamond/S3 company decided to change direction, Diamond Multimedia resurfaced in 2003 after the brand and assets had been purchased by Best Data. Diamond Multimedia is a subsidiary of Tul Corporation, Diamonds earliest line, now defunct, was the SpeedStar series, initially based on the Tseng Labs ET4000 and ET4000AX chipsets, and expanded further in additional releases. The SpeedStar line was launched as a series of high-performance ISA graphics cards that excelled in MS-DOS applications up through the early 1990s, the line later included chipsets with combined 2D and 3D capabilities. Initially the Stealth line was Diamonds high-end brand but transitioned to midrange after the Viper line was introduced, notable members of the Stealth family have been the Diamond Stealth 3D2000, by far the most popular S3 Virge-based board. The Diamond Stealth32, using the Tseng Labs ET4000/W32p chipset, was capable of impressive price/performance, the Diamond Stealth64 Graphics 2001, with the ARK 2000PV/MT chipset, was known for excellent DOS performance at the time. The Diamond Stealth II S220, using the Rendition Verite V2100 2D/3D accelerator, was popular with enthusiasts for its excellent price/performance for both 2D and 3D gaming, in the middle of the Stealth line-up, Diamond chose to implement a numbering scheme to differentiate their cards. For example, the Diamond Stealth Video VRAM was rechristened the Diamond Stealth Video 3xxx, the numbers had more than a random meaning. Specifically, they tell the buyer the cards memory amount and type, the Stealth Video 3240 uses VRAM, is equipped with 2MB initially, and is upgradeable to 4MB. If the first digit was, then the card used standard DRAM, the numbering scheme confused many people since Diamond just renamed current cards with new names. The Stealth Video 3240 was simply the old Stealth Video VRAM, new cards did also use the scheme, however, such as the S3 Trio64V+ cards. The architecture of the NV1 predates the Microsoft Direct3D philosophy and, as such, limited and slow Direct3D-supporting drivers did eventually show up, but performance was inadequate and buggy. The audio engine further received poor reviews regarding MIDI quality, which was a standard for multimedia music playback at the time. When the 3D engine was called into use, the 3dfx-based card would disconnect the 2D pass-through signal, both Voodoo and Voodoo2 based offerings were in production until the STB-3dfx merger. A critically acclaimed feature of the Monster 3D II was the capability to connect two boards in a SLI configuration. In SLI, a pair of Voodoo2 boards splits the effort of rendering the 3D scene between alternating raster lines, allowing performance to be nearly doubled, initially it consisted of a graphics accelerator board for VLB or PCI that was a combination of two graphics chips
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Rio PMP300
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The Rio PMP300 is one of the first portable consumer MP3 digital audio players, and the first commercially successful one. Produced by Diamond Multimedia, it was introduced September 15,1998 as the first in the Rio series of audio players. Roughly the dimensions of a deck of cards, the Rio is black, and features an LCD screen, the device has controls for skipping tracks forwards or backwards, repeat, random play and four preset equalizer settings. The LCD displays the filename of the track being played and it can play MP2 and MP3 format audio files, and has support for a variety of bitrates, including MP3 variable-bitrate support. It shipped with 32 MB of internal memory and has a SmartMedia slot and it is powered by a single AA battery, which provides between 8 and 12 hours of playback time. Connection to a computer is through the computers parallel port. The Rio retailed for US $200 with the ability to hold around 30 minutes of music at a bitrate of 128 kbit/s, an upgraded version was later released, which is colored translucent green and equipped with a larger 64 MB internal memory, at a cost of $250. The Rio also spawned one of the first Digital Music service providers, RioPort was the first digital music service to license secure, single-track commercial downloads from major record labels. The Rio PMP300 was supplied with a copy of the Music Match software for managing the users MP3 library, a selection of folk/country/blues MP3s were also provided, the metadata for which was in a Music Match specific format rather than as ID3 tags. The Rio PMP300 suffers from a few design flaws. The battery compartment door flap is notorious for breaking, the battery cover is difficult to repair due to the stress caused by the spring-loaded battery compartment and the fragile plastic used for the door clips. The metal hinge used to hold the compartment to the base of the unit would also put strain on the casing, causing cracks around the SmartMedia slot. Furthermore, the coating applied to the main central control button in the original 32 MB unit would often peel. The control disc would commonly fall off, Diamond then announced that it would temporarily delay shipment of the Rio. On October 26, Judge Collins denied the RIAAs application, on appeal, the Ninth Circuit held that the Rios space shifting was fair use and not a copyright infringement. After the lawsuit ended, Diamond sold 200,000 players, Diamond no longer provides support for the Rio, and the last version of Microsoft Windows to work with Diamonds Rio software was Windows 98. Independently produced freeware programs such as Dreaming of Brazil or RIOsitude can still be used to upload files to the player. Similarly, limited Linux command-line based support for the Rio is provided by the rioutils package
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Audio Home Recording Act
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The Audio Home Recording Act of 1992 amended the United States copyright law by adding Chapter 10, Digital Audio Recording Devices and Media. The act enabled the release of digital formats such as Sony. The AHRA establishes a number of important precedents in US copyright law that defined the debate between device makers and the content industry for the two decades. The first anti-circumvention provisions in law, later applied on a much broader scale by the Digital Millennium Copyright Act. The first government-imposed royalties on devices and media, a portion of which is paid to the industry directly. By the late 1980s, several manufacturers were prepared to introduce read/write digital audio formats to the United States, most prominent among these formats was Digital Audio Tape, followed in the early 1990s by Philips Digital Compact Cassette and Sonys Minidisc. DAT was available as early as 1987 in Japan and Europe, second, device makers feared a lawsuit for contributory copyright infringement. Despite their strong playing hand, the industry failed to convince consumer electronics companies to voluntarily adopt copy restriction technology. Device manufacturers agreed to include SCMS in all consumer DAT recorders in order to prevent serial copying, the recording industry would independently pursue legislation requiring royalties on digital audio recording devices and media. The plaintiffs sought declaratory and injunctive relief that would have prevented the manufacture, the suit brought Sony to heel. In July 1991, Sony, as part of agreement between the recording industry and consumer electronics makers, agreed to support legislation creating a royalty scheme for digital media. In exchange, Cahn and the agreed to drop the suit. With all the major stakeholders satisfied, the bill passed both houses of Congress. President George H. W. Bush signed the AHRA into law in 1992 proclaiming S.1623 will ensure that American consumers have access to equipment embodying the new digital recording technology. It also protects the rights of our songwriters, performers, and recording companies to be fairly rewarded for their tremendous talent, expertise. This will be accomplished by fairly compensating these artists for the copying of their works, the AHRAs statutory definitions of digital audio recording device and digital audio recording media are crucial to understanding the implications of the Act. The distinction between covered and non-covered devices or media dictates whether or not royalties are paid and whether the SCMS copy control technologies are included. The language of the act protects all noncommercial copying by consumers of digital, a CD-R recorder included as part of a personal computer would not be a digital audio recording device under the Act, since the personal computer was not marketed primarily for making copies of music
